4130:) reduce the power demand to within the range of a single universal thermocouple heated by a pilot (25 mV open circuit falling by half with the coil connected to a 10–12 mV, 0.2–0.25 A source, typically) by sizing the coil to be able to hold the valve open against a light spring, but only after the initial turning-on force is provided by the user pressing and holding a knob to compress the spring during lighting of the pilot. These systems are identifiable by the "press and hold for x minutes" in the pilot lighting instructions. (The holding current requirement of such a valve is much less than a bigger solenoid designed for pulling the valve in from a closed position would require.) Special test sets are made to confirm the valve let-go and holding currents, because an ordinary milliammeter cannot be used as it introduces more resistance than the gas valve coil. Apart from testing the open circuit voltage of the thermocouple, and the near short-circuit DC continuity through the thermocouple gas valve coil, the easiest non-specialist test is substitution of a known good gas valve.
1600:
2431:
268:
2637:
2794:
3385:
3325:
3127:
3067:
3007:
4119:
44:
260:
thermo-electric current. In practical use, the voltage generated at a single junction of two different types of wire is what is of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at very high and low temperatures. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the types of wire being used. Generally, the voltage is in the microvolt range and care must be taken to obtain a usable measurement. Although very little current flows, power can be generated by a single thermocouple junction. Power generation using multiple thermocouples, as in a
4056:
2357:
measurement voltage accordingly drops. The simple relationship between the temperature difference of the junctions and the measurement voltage is only correct if each wire is homogeneous (uniform in composition). As thermocouples age in a process, their conductors can lose homogeneity due to chemical and metallurgical changes caused by extreme or prolonged exposure to high temperatures. If the aged section of the thermocouple circuit is exposed to a temperature gradient, the measured voltage will differ, resulting in error.
2361:
observed when an aged thermocouple is pulled partly out of a furnace—as the sensor is pulled back, aged sections may see exposure to increased temperature gradients from hot to cold as the aged section now passes through the cooler refractory area, contributing significant error to the measurement. Likewise, an aged thermocouple that is pushed deeper into the furnace might sometimes provide a more accurate reading if being pushed further into the furnace causes the temperature gradient to occur only in a fresh section.
3367:
3307:
3109:
3049:
2989:
4067:
3376:
3316:
3227:
3179:
3170:
3118:
3058:
2998:
3429:
3492:
20:
1771:"): The reference junction block is allowed to vary in temperature, but the temperature is measured at this block using a separate temperature sensor. This secondary measurement is used to compensate for temperature variation at the junction block. The thermocouple junction is often exposed to extreme environments, while the reference junction is often mounted near the instrument's location.
2671:
and non-metallic vapors. Type R is not suitable for direct insertion into metallic protecting tubes. Long term high temperature exposure causes grain growth which can lead to mechanical failure and a negative calibration drift caused by
Rhodium diffusion to pure platinum leg as well as from Rhodium volatilization. This type has the same uses as type S, but is not interchangeable with it.
2081:, an error will appear in the temperature measurement. For the simplest measurements, thermocouple wires are connected to copper far away from the hot or cold point whose temperature is measured; this reference junction is then assumed to be at room temperature, but that temperature can vary. Because of the nonlinearity in the thermocouple voltage curve, the errors in
2729:, which volatilizes away, and hydrogen. Hydrogen then reacts with tungsten oxide, after which water is formed again. Such a "water cycle" can lead to erosion of the thermocouple and eventual failure. In high temperature vacuum applications, it is therefore desirable to avoid the presence of traces of water.
4107:
circuit to sense when the pilot light is burning. The tip of the thermocouple is placed in the pilot flame, generating a voltage which operates the supply valve which feeds gas to the pilot. So long as the pilot flame remains lit, the thermocouple remains hot, and the pilot gas valve is held open. If
2814:
alloy), the negative wire is gold with a small fraction (0.03–0.15 atom percent) of iron. The impure gold wire gives the thermocouple a high sensitivity at low temperatures (compared to other thermocouples at that temperature), whereas the chromel wire maintains the sensitivity near room temperature.
2751:
at 1000 K to 200 ohms at 2200 K. At high temperatures, the materials undergo chemical reaction. At 2700 K beryllium oxide slightly reacts with tungsten, tungsten-rhenium alloy, and tantalum; at 2600 K molybdenum reacts with BeO, tungsten does not react. BeO begins melting at about
2670:
Type R (87%Pt/13%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples are used 0 to 1600 °C. Type R Thermocouples are quite stable and capable of long operating life when used in clean, favorable conditions. When used above 1100 °C ( 2000 °F), these thermocouples must be protected from exposure to metallic
2661:
Type B (70%Pt/30%Rh–94%Pt/6%Rh, by weight) thermocouples are suited for use at up to 1800 °C. Type-B thermocouples produce the same output at 0 °C and 42 °C, limiting their use below about 50 °C. The emf function has a minimum around 21 °C (for 21.020262 °C emf=-2.584972
2360:
Aged thermocouples are only partly modified; for example, being unaffected in the parts outside the furnace. For this reason, aged thermocouples cannot be taken out of their installed location and recalibrated in a bath or test furnace to determine error. This also explains why error can sometimes be
4340:
range. At higher (viscous flow) and lower (molecular flow) pressures, the thermal conductivity of air or any other gas is essentially independent of pressure. The thermocouple was first used as a vacuum gauge by Voege in 1906. The mathematical model for the thermocouple as a vacuum gauge is quite
4278:
Chemical production and petroleum refineries will usually employ computers for logging and for limit testing the many temperatures associated with a process, typically numbering in the hundreds. For such cases, a number of thermocouple leads will be brought to a common reference block (a large block
2598:
The
Nicrosil and Nisil thermocouple alloys show greatly enhanced thermoelectric stability relative to the other standard base-metal thermocouple alloys because their compositions substantially reduce the thermoelectric instabilities described above. This is achieved primarily by increasing component
2369:
Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry standards. Selection of the combination is driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties, stability, and output. Different types are best suited for different applications. They are usually selected on the
2868:
Thermocouples made from two different, high-purity noble metals can show high accuracy even when uncalibrated, as well as low levels of drift. Two combinations in use are gold–platinum and platinum–palladium. Their main limitations are the low melting points of the metals involved (1064 °C for
2347:
curve but for various reasons they are not designed to be used in extreme environments and so they cannot be used at the sensing junction in some applications. For example, an extension wire may be in a different form, such as highly flexible with stranded construction and plastic insulation, or be
2508:
They operate very well in oxidizing atmospheres. If, however, a mostly reducing atmosphere (such as hydrogen with a small amount of oxygen) comes into contact with the wires, the chromium in the chromel alloy oxidizes. This reduces the emf output, and the thermocouple reads low. This phenomenon is
2312:
Impurities affect each batch of metal differently, producing variable
Seebeck coefficients. To match the standard behaviour, thermocouple wire manufacturers will deliberately mix in additional impurities to "dope" the alloy, compensating for uncontrolled variations in source material. As a result,
2599:
solute concentrations (chromium and silicon) in a base of nickel above those required to cause a transition from internal to external modes of oxidation, and by selecting solutes (silicon and magnesium) that preferentially oxidize to form a diffusion-barrier, and hence oxidation-inhibiting films.
2356:
Thermocouples are often used at high temperatures and in reactive furnace atmospheres. In this case, the practical lifetime is limited by thermocouple aging. The thermoelectric coefficients of the wires in a thermocouple that is used to measure very high temperatures may change with time, and the
2256:
One common myth regarding thermocouples is that junctions must be made cleanly without involving a third metal, to avoid unwanted added EMFs. This may result from another common misunderstanding that the voltage is generated at the junction. In fact, the junctions should in principle have uniform
4154:
Out of concern about energy wasted by the standing pilot flame, designers of many newer appliances have switched to an electronically controlled pilot-less ignition, also called intermittent ignition. With no standing pilot flame, there is no risk of gas buildup should the flame go out, so these
2520:
Green rot does not occur in atmospheres sufficiently rich in oxygen, or oxygen-free. A sealed thermowell can be filled with inert gas, or an oxygen scavenger (e.g. a sacrificial titanium wire) can be added. Alternatively, additional oxygen can be introduced into the thermowell. Another option is
2652:
alloy for each conductor. These are among the most stable thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity than other types, approximately 10 μV/°C. Type B, R, and S thermocouples are usually used only for high-temperature measurements due to their high cost and low sensitivity. For type R and S
2881:
HTIR-TC offers a breakthrough in measuring high-temperature processes. Its characteristics are: durable and reliable at high temperatures, up to at least 1700 °C; resistant to irradiation; moderately priced; available in a variety of configurations - adaptable to each application; easily
388:
The standard configuration of a thermocouple is shown in the figure. The dissimilar conductors contact at the measuring (aka hot) junction and at the reference (aka cold) junction. The thermocouple is connected to the electrical system at its reference junction. The figure shows the measuring
2832:/31%Pt/14%Au–65%Au/35%Pd, by weight) thermocouples give a thermoelectric voltage that mimics the type K over the range 500 °C to 1400 °C, however they are constructed purely of noble metals and so shows enhanced corrosion resistance. This combination is also known as Platinel II.
259:
discovered that a magnetic needle held near a circuit made up of two dissimilar metals got deflected when one of the dissimilar metal junctions was heated. At the time, Seebeck referred to this consequence as thermo-magnetism. The magnetic field he observed was later shown to be due to
2589:
A short-term cyclic change in thermal EMF on heating in the temperature range about 250–650 °C, which occurs in thermocouples of types K, J, T, and E. This kind of EMF instability is associated with structural changes such as magnetic short-range order in the metallurgical
2513:, due to the color of the affected alloy. Although not always distinctively green, the chromel wire will develop a mottled silvery skin and become magnetic. An easy way to check for this problem is to see whether the two wires are magnetic (normally, chromel is non-magnetic).
2493:) is the most common general-purpose thermocouple with a sensitivity of approximately 41 μV/°C. It is inexpensive, and a wide variety of probes are available in its −200 °C to +1350 °C (−330 °F to +2460 °F) range. Type K was specified at a time when
216:, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are self-powered and require no external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy; system errors of less than one degree
2313:
there are standard and specialized grades of thermocouple wire, depending on the level of precision demanded in the thermocouple behaviour. Precision grades may only be available in matched pairs, where one wire is modified to compensate for deficiencies in the other wire.
2264:
and with care taken to avoid thermal EMFs from self-heating within the voltmeter itself. If the thermocouple wire has a high resistance for some reason (poor contact at junctions, or very thin wires used for fast thermal response), the measuring instrument should have high
2602:
Type N thermocouples are suitable alternative to type K for low-oxygen conditions where type K is prone to green rot. They are suitable for use in vacuum, inert atmospheres, oxidizing atmospheres, or dry reducing atmospheres. They do not tolerate the presence of sulfur.
4155:
appliances do not need thermocouple-based pilot safety switches. As these designs lose the benefit of operation without a continuous source of electricity, standing pilots are still used in some appliances. The exception is later model instantaneous (aka "tankless")
2898:
would have a tolerance of ±2.5 °C at 1000 °C. Each cell in the Color Code columns depicts the end of a thermocouple cable, showing the jacket color and the color of the individual leads. The background color represents the color of the connector body.
2476:
of the iron (770 °C) causes a smooth change in the characteristic, which determines the upper-temperature limit. Note, the
European/German Type L is a variant of the type J, with a different specification for the EMF output (reference DIN 43712:1985-01).
2819:
applications (1.2–300 K and even up to 600 K). Both the sensitivity and the temperature range depend on the iron concentration. The sensitivity is typically around 15 μV/K at low temperatures, and the lowest usable temperature varies between 1.2 and 4.2 K.
2627:
than the alloys generally used in thermocouple constructions, and so it is necessary to exercise extra care with thermally anchoring type-T thermocouples. A similar composition is found in the obsolete Type U in the German specification DIN 43712:1985-01.
2348:
part of a multi-wire cable for carrying many thermocouple circuits. With expensive noble metal thermocouples, the extension wires may even be made of a completely different, cheaper material that mimics the standard type over a reduced temperature range.
4321:. In this configuration, the thermocouple junction is attached to the centre of a short heating wire, which is usually energised by a constant current of about 5 mA, and the heat is removed at a rate related to the thermal conductivity of the gas.
4142:
is used rather than a single thermocouple. Such a system requires no external source of electricity for its operation and thus can operate during a power failure, provided that all the other related system components allow for this. This excludes common
4133:
Some systems, known as millivolt control systems, extend the thermocouple concept to both open and close the main gas valve as well. Not only does the voltage created by the pilot thermocouple activate the pilot gas valve, it is also routed through a
2593:
A time-independent perturbation in thermal EMF in specific temperature ranges. This is due to composition-dependent magnetic transformations that perturb the thermal EMFs in type-K thermocouples in the range about 25–225 °C, and in type J above
4230:
which must be supplied to the hot side to maintain the electric potential. A continuous transfer of heat is necessary because the current flowing through the thermocouple tends to cause the hot side to cool down and the cold side to heat up (the
2434:
Characteristic functions for thermocouples that reach intermediate temperatures, as covered by nickel-alloy thermocouple types E, J, K, M, N, T. Also shown are the noble-metal alloy type P and the pure noble-metal combinations gold–platinum and
1153:
2516:
Hydrogen in the atmosphere is the usual cause of green rot. At high temperatures, it can diffuse through solid metals or an intact metal thermowell. Even a sheath of magnesium oxide insulating the thermocouple will not keep the hydrogen out.
3453:
Plastics are suitable insulators for low temperatures parts of a thermocouple, whereas ceramic insulation can be used up to around 1000 °C. Other concerns (abrasion and chemical resistance) also affect the suitability of materials.
2585:
environments. In the case of type-K thermocouples, manganese and aluminium atoms from the KN (negative) wire migrate to the KP (positive) wire, resulting in a down-scale drift due to chemical contamination. This effect is cumulative and
4242:, where all the hot junctions are exposed to a higher temperature and all the cold junctions to a lower temperature. The output is the sum of the voltages across the individual junctions, giving larger voltage and power output. In a
4457:, which operates in a similar way, over approximately the same pressure range, but is only a 2-terminal device, sensing the change in resistance with temperature of a thin electrically heated wire, rather than using a thermocouple.
4221:
A thermocouple can produce current to drive some processes directly, without the need for extra circuitry and power sources. For example, the power from a thermocouple can activate a valve when a temperature difference arises. The
4265:
receivers in isolated areas. There are commercially produced lanterns that use the heat from a candle to run several light-emitting diodes, and thermoelectrically powered fans to improve air circulation and heat distribution in
3449:
from each other everywhere, except at the sensing junction. Any additional electrical contact between the wires, or contact of a wire to other conductive objects, can modify the voltage and give a false reading of temperature.
1482:
4151:. A similar gas shut-off safety mechanism using a thermocouple is sometimes employed to ensure that the main burner ignites within a certain time period, shutting off the main burner gas supply valve should that not happen.
4159:
that use the flow of water to generate the current required to ignite the gas burner; these designs also use a thermocouple as a safety cut-off device in the event the gas fails to ignite, or if the flame is extinguished.
2882:
installed. Originally developed for use in nuclear test reactors, HTIR-TC may enhance the safety of operations in future reactors. This thermocouple was developed by researchers at the Idaho
National Laboratory (INL).
2619:) thermocouples are suited for measurements in the −200 to 350 °C range. Often used as a differential measurement, since only copper wire touches the probes. Since both conductors are non-magnetic, there is no
589:
3457:
When wire insulation disintegrates, it can result in an unintended electrical contact at a different location from the desired sensing point. If such a damaged thermocouple is used in the closed loop control of a
2236:
Junctions should be made in a reliable manner, but there are many possible approaches to accomplish this. For low temperatures, junctions can be brazed or soldered; however, it may be difficult to find a suitable
2553:) thermocouples are suitable for use between −270 °C and +1300 °C, owing to its stability and oxidation resistance. Sensitivity is about 39 μV/°C at 900 °C, slightly lower compared to type K.
2564:
A gradual and generally cumulative drift in thermal EMF on long exposure at elevated temperatures. This is observed in all base-metal thermoelement materials and is mainly due to compositional changes caused by
4171:
are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation, typically visible or infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold junctions are on a heat sink. It is possible to measure radiative
4102:
to ignite the main gas burner when required. If the pilot flame goes out, unburned gas may be released, which is an explosion risk and a health hazard. To prevent this, some appliances use a thermocouple in a
3466:, this can lead to a runaway overheating event and possibly severe damage, as the false temperature reading will typically be lower than the sensing junction temperature. Failed insulation will also typically
2269:
to prevent an offset in the measured voltage. A useful feature in thermocouple instrumentation will simultaneously measure resistance and detect faulty connections in the wiring or at thermocouple junctions.
1717:"Ice bath": The reference junction block is maintained at a known temperature as it is immersed in a semi-frozen bath of distilled water at atmospheric pressure. The precise temperature of the melting point
1352:
2653:
thermocouples, HTX platinum wire can be used in place of the pure platinum leg to strengthen the thermocouple and prevent failures from grain growth that can occur in high temperature and harsh conditions.
1996:
4015:. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C accuracy. For such applications
2560:(DSTO) of Australia, by Noel A. Burley, type-N thermocouples overcome the three principal characteristic types and causes of thermoelectric instability in the standard base-metal thermoelement materials:
4206:
under test for its current carrying capacity may have thermocouples installed and monitored during a heat run test, to confirm that the temperature rise at rated current does not exceed designed limits.
2797:
Thermocouple characteristics at low temperatures. The AuFe-based thermocouple shows a steady sensitivity down to low temperatures, whereas conventional types soon flatten out and lose sensitivity at low
4426:
1547:
2370:
basis of the temperature range and sensitivity needed. Thermocouples with low sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly lower resolutions. Other selection criteria include the chemical
476:
across two points of an electrically conducting material when there is a temperature difference between those two points. Under open-circuit conditions where there is no internal current flow, the
532:
505:
2038:
curve, independent of any other details. In reality, thermocouples are affected by issues such as alloy manufacturing uncertainties, aging effects, and circuit design mistakes/misunderstandings.
1829:
2683:(ITS-90), precision type-S thermocouples were used as the practical standard thermometers for the range of 630 °C to 1064 °C, based on an interpolation between the freezing points of
2420:
3999:
Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, from −270 up to 3000 °C (for a short time, in inert atmosphere). Applications include temperature measurement for
1907:
1652:
1012:
965:
845:
799:
679:
345:
1760:
1711:
922:
882:
756:
716:
382:
4647:
2869:
gold and 1555 °C for palladium). These thermocouples tend to be more accurate than type S, and due to their economy and simplicity are even regarded as competitive alternatives to the
4607:
4047:
process to accurately measure the temperature of steel before tapping. The cooling curve of a small steel sample can be analyzed and used to estimate the carbon content of molten steel.
2537:, by weight) are used in vacuum furnaces for the same reasons as with type C (described below). Upper temperature is limited to 1400 °C. It is less commonly used than other types.
2747:, a popular material for high temperature applications, tends to gain conductivity with temperature; a particular configuration of sensor had the insulation resistance dropping from a
3470:, which can lead to process contamination. For parts of thermocouples used at very high temperatures or in contamination-sensitive applications, the only suitable insulation may be
2157:
are generally unequal values. Some thermocouples, such as Type B, have a relatively flat voltage curve near room temperature, meaning that a large uncertainty in a room-temperature
2231:
2155:
2190:
2114:
2079:
1214:
1185:
2345:
2307:
2036:
1860:
1585:
1260:
2640:
Characteristic functions for high-temperature thermocouple types, showing Pt/Rh, W/Re, Pt/Mo, and Ir/Rh-alloy thermocouples. Also shown is the Pt–Pd pure-metal thermocouple.
1674:
302:
1023:
2316:
A special case of thermocouple wire is known as "extension grade", designed to carry the thermoelectric circuit over a longer distance. Extension wires follow the stated
2662:μV), meaning that cold-junction compensation is easily performed, since the compensation voltage is essentially a constant for a reference at typical room temperatures.
2241:
and this may not be suitable at the sensing junction due to the solder's low melting point. Reference and extension junctions are therefore usually made with screw
621:
4043:
industries to monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process. Disposable, immersible, type S thermocouples are regularly used in the
2840:
Thermocouples of platinum/molybdenum-alloy (95%Pt/5%Mo–99.9%Pt/0.1%Mo, by weight) are sometimes used in nuclear reactors, since they show a low drift from
971:
The first and fourth contributions cancel out exactly, because these regions involve the same temperature change and an identical material. As a result,
4554:
4902:
2278:
While a thermocouple wire type is often described by its chemical composition, the actual aim is to produce a pair of wires that follow a standardized
4928:
2501:, is magnetic; a characteristic of thermocouples made with magnetic material is that they undergo a deviation in output when the material reaches its
5117:
4644:
2623:
and thus no abrupt change in characteristics. Type-T thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 43 μV/°C. Note that copper has a much higher
168:
4702:
5008:
4115:
may often be used instead. With part ceramic construction, they may also be known as flame rods, flame sensors or flame detection electrodes.
2722:
at high temperatures undergoes recrystallization and becomes brittle. Therefore, types C and D are preferred over type G in some applications.
2521:
using a different thermocouple type for the low-oxygen atmospheres where green rot can occur; a type N thermocouple is a suitable alternative.
2715:. A typical range is 0 to 2315 °C, which can be extended to 2760 °C in inert atmosphere and to 3000 °C for brief measurements.
540:
389:
junction on the left, the reference junction in the middle and represents the rest of the electrical system as a voltage meter on the right.
2257:
internal temperature; therefore, no voltage is generated at the junction. The voltage is generated in the thermal gradient, along the wire.
4932:
2707:
These thermocouples are well-suited for measuring extremely high temperatures. Typical uses are hydrogen and inert atmospheres, as well as
2497:
was less advanced than it is today, and consequently characteristics may vary considerably between samples. One of the constituent metals,
1363:
4108:
the pilot light goes out, the thermocouple temperature falls, causing the voltage across the thermocouple to drop and the valve to close.
2557:
2260:
A thermocouple produces small signals, often microvolts in magnitude. Precise measurements of this signal require an amplifier with low
5039:
1268:
1915:
1220:
of the conductors attached to the positive and negative terminals of the voltmeter, respectively (chromel and alumel in the figure).
2456:
use. Additionally, it is non-magnetic. Wide range is −270 °C to +740 °C and narrow range is −110 °C to +140 °C.
5134:
1599:
5159:
5098:
4849:
4496:
4138:
to power the main gas valve as well. Here, a larger voltage is needed than in a pilot flame safety system described above, and a
3436:). While the wires can survive and function at high temperatures, the plastic insulation will start to break down at 300 °C.
2680:
2679:
Type S (90%Pt/10%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples, similar to type R, are used up to 1600 °C. Before the introduction of the
4347:
4147:
because external electrical power is required to operate the blower motor, but this feature is especially useful for un-powered
1014:
does not influence the measured voltage. The second and third contributions do not cancel, as they involve different materials.
2046:
A common error in thermocouple construction is related to cold junction compensation. If an error is made on the estimation of
1498:
634:
The standard measurement configuration shown in the figure shows four temperature regions and thus four voltage contributions:
4766:
4992:
4821:
4776:
4712:
4663:
4243:
235:, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses as the temperature sensors in
135:
2894:
represents the temperature of the hot junction, in degrees
Celsius. For example, a thermocouple with a tolerance of ±0.0025×
2472:) has a more restricted range (−40 °C to +1200 °C) than type K but higher sensitivity of about 50 μV/°C. The
510:
483:
1782:
4078:. The thermocouple line consists of copper wire, insulator and outer metal (usually copper) sheath which is also used as
161:
140:
5305:
2385:
4020:
3991:
Note: T300 is a new high-temperature material that was recently approved by UL for 300 °C operating temperatures.
1869:
1772:
1614:
974:
927:
807:
761:
641:
307:
5260:
4736:
4279:
of copper) containing the second thermocouple of each circuit. The temperature of the block is in turn measured by a
3531:
1728:
1679:
890:
850:
724:
684:
350:
3988:
Temperature ratings for insulations may vary based on what the overall thermocouple construction cable consists of.
4688:
5379:
4521:
4202:
Thermocouples can generally be used in the testing of prototype electrical and mechanical apparatus. For example,
4112:
4803:
4439:
is a constant that depends on the thermocouple temperature, the gas composition and the vacuum-chamber geometry,
2870:
2696:
2007:
Thermocouples ideally should be very simple measurement devices, with each type being characterized by a precise
4292:
5315:
3513:
2764:(95%W/5%Re–74%W/26%Re, by weight) maximum temperature will be measured by type-c thermocouple is 2329 °C.
154:
1587:
that have been measured and interpolated over a range of temperatures, for particular thermocouple types (see
5359:
4562:
3509:
2430:
267:
4906:
2890:
The table below describes properties of several different thermocouple types. Within the tolerance columns,
5394:
4936:
2195:
2119:
4314:
206:
5114:
4254:
as a heat source has been used to power spacecraft on missions too far from the Sun to use solar power.
2160:
2084:
2049:
1190:
1161:
223:
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry. Applications include temperature measurement for
5409:
4079:
2319:
2281:
2010:
1834:
1559:
1234:
185:, also known as a "thermoelectrical thermometer", is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar
5354:
5351:
5348:
5345:
5342:
5339:
5336:
5333:
1148:{\displaystyle V=\int _{T_{\mathrm {ref} }}^{T_{\mathrm {sense} }}\left(S_{+}(T)-S_{-}(T)\right)\,dT,}
451:. Sometimes these details are hidden inside a device that packages the reference junction block (with
4608:"How to Prevent Temperature Measurement Errors When Installing Thermocouple Sensors and Transmitters"
2636:
5015:
4070:
Thermocouple connection in gas appliances. The end ball (contact) on the left is insulated from the
2793:
1657:
285:
5369:
4216:
130:
110:
2860:
alloys can provide a thermocouple that can be used up to about 2000 °C in inert atmospheres.
1603:
Reference junction block inside a Fluke CNX t3000 temperature meter. Two white wires connect to a
4878:
4675:
4476:
4184:
3502:
3446:
1488:
4865:
5414:
4024:
1863:
125:
5192:
4982:
5399:
5310:
5219:
4156:
2841:
2578:
256:
58:
16:
Electrical device for measuring temperature via two dissimilar metals connected at two points
4325:
4251:
4044:
3433:
2624:
2261:
240:
213:
186:
87:
3384:
3324:
3126:
3066:
3006:
597:
8:
4173:
4071:
3463:
2574:
1492:
1217:
628:
473:
190:
79:
5138:
5053:
4332:
of the gas. The potential difference measured by a thermocouple is proportional to the
2740:, but the voltage–temperature response is weaker and has minimum at around 1000 K.
5373:
5363:
4283:. Simple computations are used to determine the temperature at each measured location.
4144:
2726:
5095:
4846:
4176:
of only a few μW/cm with commercially available thermopile sensors. For example, some
4118:
212:
Commercial thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard
43:
5256:
5227:
5033:
4988:
4772:
4752:
4732:
4708:
4659:
4262:
4247:
4223:
4148:
4075:
2502:
2238:
1607:(embedded in white thermal compound) to measure the reference junctions' temperature.
624:
5073:
5054:"Design of Thermocouple Probes for Measurement of Rocket Exhaust Plume Temperatures"
4055:
3478:; the mechanical rigidity of the thermocouple wires is used to keep them separated.
5419:
5404:
4782:
4466:
2371:
2250:
1718:
4965:
2743:
The thermocouple temperature is limited also by other materials used. For example
5121:
5102:
4853:
4651:
4491:
4180:
2876:
2753:
2744:
2582:
2266:
5194:
Flammable Vapor
Ignition Resistant Water Heaters: Service Manual (238-44943-00D)
5135:"CORE-Materials • High Temperature Irradiation Resistant Thermocouple (HTIR-TC)"
4866:
Type N Thermocouple Versus Type K Thermocouple in A Brick
Manufacturing Facility
1357:
In terms of the
Seebeck coefficients, the characteristic function is defined by
4310:
4306:
4232:
2708:
2242:
467:
282:) in the standard thermocouple measurement configuration. The measured voltage
198:
2844:
induced by neutron irradiation, compared to the platinum/rhodium-alloy types.
2711:. They are not used in oxidizing environments at high temperatures because of
5388:
5231:
5160:"high-temperature irradiation-resistant thermocouples: Topics by Science.gov"
5086:
Thermoelectricity: Theory, Thermometry, Tool, Issue 852 by Daniel D. Pollock.
4333:
4258:
4190:
The principle of operation of a thermopile sensor is distinct from that of a
4095:
4060:
4008:
2712:
2570:
232:
92:
4454:
4341:
complicated, as explained in detail by Van Atta, but can be simplified to:
4337:
4318:
4298:
1866:
for a matching value. The argument where this match occurs is the value of
4583:
4066:
3366:
3306:
3108:
3048:
2988:
4486:
4099:
4087:
4012:
4004:
3375:
3315:
3226:
3178:
3169:
3117:
3057:
2997:
2620:
2473:
1552:
Thermocouple manufacturers and metrology standards organizations such as
228:
202:
5069:
2823:
2725:
In presence of water vapor at high temperature, tungsten reacts to form
4768:
Manual on the Use of
Thermocouples in Temperature Measurement (4th Ed.)
4529:
4481:
4280:
4267:
4239:
4203:
4168:
4139:
4135:
4016:
3516: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3459:
2816:
2737:
2616:
2530:
2494:
2469:
2449:
2378:
or not. Standard thermocouple types are listed below with the positive
1722:
1604:
584:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}V=-S(T){\boldsymbol {\nabla }}T,}
407:) for the type of thermocouple which requires inputs: measured voltage
261:
236:
120:
24:
5224:
New Scientist Careers Guide: The Employer Contacts Book for Scientists
5326:
4471:
4324:
The temperature detected at the thermocouple junction depends on the
4191:
4127:
4104:
4059:
A thermocouple (the right most tube) inside the burner assembly of a
3475:
3428:
2829:
2566:
2453:
2379:
2246:
1477:{\displaystyle E(T)=\int ^{T}S_{+}(T')-S_{-}(T')dT'+\mathrm {const} }
3491:
4329:
2719:
2684:
2645:
2546:
2452:) has a high output (68 μV/°C), which makes it well suited to
2375:
477:
19:
4183:
meters are based on such sensors; these are specifically known as
4618:
4501:
2857:
2853:
2803:
2748:
2733:
2649:
2486:
2445:
275:
252:
217:
194:
28:
2505:, which occurs for type K thermocouples at around 185 °C.
1347:{\displaystyle V=E(T_{\mathrm {sense} })-E(T_{\mathrm {ref} }).}
5375:
Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples, RTD and IC Sensors.
3471:
3467:
2688:
2612:
2534:
2498:
2490:
1991:{\displaystyle E(T_{\mathrm {sense} })=V+E(T_{\mathrm {ref} })}
279:
2877:
HTIR-TC (High Temperature Irradiation Resistant) thermocouples
2863:
4446:
is the thermocouple voltage at zero pressure (absolute), and
4177:
4036:
4035:
Type B, S, R and K thermocouples are used extensively in the
2550:
5366:
containing characteristic curves of many thermocouple types.
4822:"Green Rot in Type K Thermocouples, and What to Do About It"
1495:
has no significance, but is conventionally chosen such that
4302:
4227:
4091:
4040:
4000:
3432:
Typical low cost type K thermocouple (with standard type K
2811:
2807:
2692:
2465:
1553:
507:) is directly proportional to the gradient in temperature (
224:
5306:
Thermocouple Operating Principle – University Of Cambridge
4421:{\displaystyle P={\frac {B(V^{2}-V_{0}^{2})}{V_{0}^{2}}},}
4126:
Some combined main burner and pilot gas valves (mainly by
2835:
1775:
devices are often used in modern thermocouple instruments.
4700:
2245:. For high temperatures, the most common approach is the
1542:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(0\,{}^{\circ }{\rm {C}})=0}
4111:
Where the probe may be easily placed above the flame, a
2788:
1713:
must also be known. Two strategies are often used here:
4879:"Thermocouple sensor and thermocouple types - WIKA USA"
2702:
2631:
5255:, Marcel Dekker Inc., pp. 19–22, 45–47 & 438–443,
4966:
Tungsten-Rhenium Thermocouples Calibration Equivalents
2847:
2323:
2285:
2014:
1873:
1838:
1786:
1732:
1683:
1661:
1618:
1563:
1502:
1238:
1194:
1165:
978:
931:
894:
854:
811:
765:
728:
688:
645:
514:
487:
354:
311:
289:
5253:
High-Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Second Ed.
4350:
2699:
have taken over this range as standard thermometers.
2388:
2322:
2284:
2198:
2163:
2122:
2087:
2052:
2013:
1918:
1872:
1837:
1785:
1731:
1682:
1660:
1617:
1562:
1501:
1366:
1271:
1262:, which needs only to be consulted at two arguments:
1237:
1193:
1164:
1026:
977:
930:
893:
853:
810:
764:
727:
687:
644:
600:
543:
527:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}T}
513:
500:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}V}
486:
353:
310:
288:
1824:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle V+E(T_{\mathrm {ref} })}
5316:
Two Ways to Measure Temperature Using Thermocouples
5226:. Reed Business Information: 67–. 10 January 1974.
4238:Thermocouples can be connected in series to form a
472:The Seebeck effect refers to the development of an
4980:
4420:
4309:of the gas is comparable to the dimensions of the
4226:generated by a thermocouple is converted from the
4194:, as the latter relies on a change in resistance.
2415:{\displaystyle T_{\text{sense}}>T_{\text{ref}}}
2414:
2339:
2301:
2225:
2184:
2149:
2108:
2073:
2030:
1990:
1901:
1854:
1823:
1754:
1705:
1668:
1646:
1579:
1541:
1476:
1346:
1254:
1208:
1179:
1147:
1006:
959:
916:
876:
839:
793:
750:
710:
673:
615:
583:
526:
499:
376:
339:
296:
193:. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent
4729:Encyclopedia of materials: science and technology
4707:. Research Triangle Park: ISA. pp. 110–112.
2873:that are normally used as standard thermometers.
1902:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
1647:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
1007:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {meter} }}
960:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {meter} }}
840:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
794:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
674:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {meter} }}
340:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
201:, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure
5386:
5115:BIPM – "Techniques for Approximating the ITS-90"
4804:"Helping thermocouples do the job... - Transcat"
4753:"Standard [WITHDRAWN] DIN 43710:1985-12"
4305:absolute pressure. In this pressure range, the
4293:Pressure measurement § Thermal conductivity
3481:
3445:The wires that make up the thermocouple must be
4286:
4163:
2374:of the thermocouple material and whether it is
1755:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
1706:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
917:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
877:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
751:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
711:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
377:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
4976:
4974:
4450:is the voltage indicated by the thermocouple.
1228:The thermocouple's behaviour is captured by a
458:thermometer), voltmeter, and equation solver.
4548:
4546:
4328:of the surrounding gas, which depends on the
2425:
2422:) first, followed by the negative electrode.
1676:. The temperature at the reference junctions
162:
5311:Thermocouple Drift – University Of Cambridge
4933:International Bureau of Weights and Measures
4704:Practical Thermocouple Thermometry (2nd Ed.)
4971:
4960:
4958:
4956:
4954:
4747:
4745:
4576:
4552:
4301:over the range of approximately 0.001 to 1
2864:Pure noble-metal thermocouples Au–Pt, Pt–Pd
2824:Type P (noble-metal alloy) or "Platinel II"
2558:Defence Science and Technology Organisation
399:is obtained via a characteristic function
5082:
5080:
4929:"Supplementary Information for the ITS-90"
4543:
3423:
3411:Each sensor needs individual calibration.
1223:
169:
155:
42:
4701:Kerlin, T.W. & Johnson, M.P. (2012).
4689:"Thermocouples: Simple but misunderstood"
3532:Learn how and when to remove this message
1512:
1135:
246:
4951:
4742:
4584:"Technical Notes: Thermocouple Accuracy"
4313:, and the flow regime is neither purely
4117:
4065:
4054:
4011:engines, other industrial processes and
3427:
2792:
2635:
2429:
1598:
266:
18:
5077:
4514:
4497:International Temperature Scale of 1990
4050:
2836:Platinum/molybdenum-alloy thermocouples
2681:International Temperature Scale of 1990
2273:
2041:
1654:, it is not sufficient to just measure
5387:
5038:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
4759:
4639:
4637:
4635:
2885:
4895:
4244:radioisotope thermoelectric generator
3552:
3549:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2789:Chromel–gold/iron-alloy thermocouples
2002:
1765:Reference junction sensor (known as "
1611:To obtain the desired measurement of
1594:
1591:section for access to these tables).
1017:The measured voltage turns out to be
304:can be used to calculate temperature
136:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
4984:Thermocouples: Theory and Properties
3514:adding citations to reliable sources
3485:
3409:Reproducibility 0.2% of the voltage.
2936:
2933:
2930:
2703:Tungsten/rhenium-alloy thermocouples
2644:Types B, R, and S thermocouples use
2632:Platinum/rhodium-alloy thermocouples
2226:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
2192:translates to only a small error in
2150:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}
4847:Nicrosil/Nisil Type N Thermocouples
4632:
4210:
4122:Flame-igniter(top)-and-flame-sensor
4021:silicon bandgap temperature sensors
3440:
2848:Iridium/rhodium alloy thermocouples
411:and reference junction temperature
205:. Thermocouples are widely used as
141:Automotive thermoelectric generator
13:
5124:Chapter 9: Platinum Thermocouples.
4522:"Thermocouple temperature sensors"
3383:
3374:
3365:
3323:
3314:
3305:
3225:
3177:
3168:
3125:
3116:
3107:
3065:
3056:
3047:
3005:
2996:
2987:
2772:(97%W/3%Re–75%W/25%Re, by weight)
2217:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2185:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
2176:
2173:
2170:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2109:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
2100:
2097:
2094:
2074:{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}
2065:
2062:
2059:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1943:
1940:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1524:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1209:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{-}}
1180:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{+}}
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1050:
1047:
1044:
997:
994:
991:
988:
985:
950:
947:
944:
941:
938:
907:
904:
901:
867:
864:
861:
830:
827:
824:
821:
818:
784:
781:
778:
775:
772:
741:
738:
735:
701:
698:
695:
664:
661:
658:
655:
652:
367:
364:
361:
330:
327:
324:
321:
318:
220:(°C) can be difficult to achieve.
14:
5431:
5327:NIST ITS-90 Thermocouple Database
5299:
5293:, McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp. 78–90.
4553:Ramsden, Ed (September 1, 2000).
4273:
4030:
2340:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
2302:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
2031:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
1855:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
1831:is calculated, then the function
1580:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
1255:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}
461:
5200:. Bradford White. pp. 11–16
4297:A thermocouple can be used as a
4197:
4090:-fed heating appliances such as
3707:Skive TFE tape, TFE–glass braid
3490:
3405:
3402:
2871:platinum resistance thermometers
2697:platinum resistance thermometers
571:
545:
516:
489:
5283:
5266:
5245:
5212:
5185:
5176:
5152:
5127:
5108:
5096:5629 Gold Platinum Thermocouple
5089:
5063:
5046:
5001:
4921:
4871:
4859:
4839:
4814:
4796:
3994:
3501:needs additional citations for
1556:provide tables of the function
418:. The solution to the equation
239:, and also as flame sensors in
27:displaying room temperature in
5291:Vacuum Science and Engineering
4771:. ASTM. 1993. pp. 48–51.
4721:
4694:
4681:
4668:
4600:
4394:
4363:
2333:
2327:
2295:
2289:
2024:
2018:
1985:
1964:
1949:
1922:
1848:
1842:
1817:
1796:
1669:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle V}
1573:
1567:
1529:
1506:
1440:
1429:
1413:
1402:
1376:
1370:
1338:
1317:
1308:
1281:
1248:
1242:
1127:
1121:
1105:
1099:
610:
604:
567:
561:
297:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle V}
1:
4508:
3482:Table of insulation materials
5070:Other Types of Thermocouples
4987:. CRC Press. pp. 249–.
4287:Thermocouple as vacuum gauge
4164:Thermopile radiation sensors
3687:Non-impregnated glass braid
3550:Max. continuous temperature
347:, provided that temperature
243:for gas-powered appliances.
23:Thermocouple connected to a
7:
4981:Pollock, Daniel D. (1991).
4460:
2732:An alternative to tungsten/
967:, in the upper copper wire.
718:, in the lower copper wire.
623:is a temperature-dependent
271:
10:
5436:
5321:Thermocouple data tables:
4290:
4214:
3773:1427 °C/2600 °F
3770:1204 °C/2200 °F
3613:1093 °C/2000 °F
2780:(W–74%W/26%Re, by weight)
2426:Nickel-alloy thermocouples
2253:using a durable material.
1768:cold junction compensation
465:
4555:"Temperature measurement"
3753:871 °C/1600 °F
3750:704 °C/1300 °F
3713:538 °C/1000 °F
3653:538 °C/1000 °F
3650:482 °C /900 °F
3633:538 °C/1000 °F
3610:871 °C/1600 °F
3593:705 °C/1300 °F
3590:649 °C/1200 °F
3587:TFE tape, TFE–glass tape
3573:705 °C/1300 °F
3570:649 °C/1200 °F
3408:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2918:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2783:
2775:
2767:
2759:
2674:
2665:
2656:
2606:
2540:
2524:
2480:
2459:
2439:
1773:Semiconductor thermometer
5329:(B, E, J, K, N, R, S, T)
5251:Hablanian, M. H. (1997)
4964:OMEGA Engineering Inc. "
4645:"Thermocouple Materials"
4588:IEC 584-2(1982)+A1(1989)
4217:Thermoelectric generator
3953:290 °C/550 °F
3950:260 °C/500 °F
3933:200 °C/392 °F
3930:150 °C/302 °F
3913:427 °C/800 °F
3910:316 °C/600 °F
3893:316 °C/600 °F
3890:260 °C/500 °F
3873:260 °C/500 °F
3870:204 °C/400 °F
3853:105 °C/221 °F
3850:105 °C/221 °F
3833:130 °C/266 °F
3830:150 °C/302 °F
3813:105 °C/221 °F
3810:105 °C/221 °F
3793:120 °C/248 °F
3790:105 °C/221 °F
3733:120 °C/248 °F
3710:482 °C/900 °F
3693:427 °C/800 °F
3690:482 °C/900 °F
3673:427 °C/800 °F
3670:482 °C/900 °F
3630:482 °C/900 °F
2852:The use of two wires of
2802:In these thermocouples (
2695:. Starting with ITS-90,
2364:
2351:
1779:In both cases the value
131:Thermoelectric generator
111:Thermoelectric materials
5380:Thermocouple wire sizes
5364:thermocouples_reference
5289:Van Atta, C. M. (1965)
4905:. Capgo. Archived from
4477:Giuseppe Domenico Botto
4453:The alternative is the
4185:thermopile laser sensor
4025:resistance thermometers
3730:88 °C/190 °F
3424:Thermocouple insulation
2908:Temperature range (°C)
1489:constant of integration
1230:characteristic function
1224:Characteristic function
4422:
4257:Thermopiles heated by
4123:
4083:
4063:
3887:Wrapped and fused TFE
3747:"S" glass with binder
3607:Vitreous-silica braid
3464:temperature controller
3437:
3388:
3379:
3370:
3328:
3319:
3310:
3230:
3182:
3173:
3130:
3121:
3112:
3070:
3061:
3052:
3010:
3001:
2992:
2799:
2756:at about 3020 K.
2641:
2436:
2416:
2341:
2303:
2227:
2186:
2151:
2110:
2075:
2032:
1992:
1903:
1856:
1825:
1756:
1707:
1670:
1648:
1608:
1581:
1543:
1478:
1348:
1256:
1210:
1181:
1149:
1008:
961:
918:
884:, in the chromel wire.
878:
841:
795:
752:
712:
675:
617:
585:
528:
501:
385:
378:
341:
298:
247:Principle of operation
126:Thermoelectric cooling
31:
4903:"Thermocouple Theory"
4687:Rowe, Martin (2013).
4676:"Thermocouple theory"
4435:is the gas pressure,
4423:
4338:low- to medium-vacuum
4336:of pressure over the
4121:
4069:
4058:
3767:Nextel ceramic fiber
3431:
3387:
3378:
3369:
3327:
3318:
3309:
3229:
3208:1100 – 1600: ±0.003×(
3181:
3172:
3153:1100 – 1600: ±0.003×(
3129:
3120:
3111:
3069:
3060:
3051:
3009:
3000:
2991:
2911:Tolerance class (°C)
2842:nuclear transmutation
2796:
2639:
2433:
2417:
2342:
2304:
2228:
2187:
2152:
2111:
2076:
2033:
1993:
1904:
1857:
1826:
1757:
1708:
1671:
1649:
1602:
1582:
1544:
1479:
1349:
1257:
1211:
1182:
1150:
1009:
962:
919:
879:
842:
801:, in the alumel wire.
796:
753:
713:
676:
618:
586:
529:
502:
379:
342:
299:
270:
257:Thomas Johann Seebeck
187:electrical conductors
59:Thermoelectric effect
37:Thermoelectric effect
22:
4487:Thermoelectric power
4348:
4326:thermal conductivity
4252:transuranic elements
4051:Gas appliance safety
4045:electric arc furnace
3727:Double cotton braid
3562:Chemical resistance
3559:Moisture resistance
3556:Abrasion resistance
3553:Max. single reading
3510:improve this article
3257:600 – 1700: ±0.0025×
3217:600 – 1600: ±0.0025×
3162:600 – 1600: ±0.0025×
3101:333 – 1200: ±0.0075×
2981:333 – 1200: ±0.0075×
2625:thermal conductivity
2386:
2320:
2282:
2274:Metallurgical grades
2262:input offset voltage
2196:
2161:
2120:
2085:
2050:
2042:Circuit construction
2011:
1916:
1870:
1835:
1783:
1729:
1680:
1658:
1615:
1560:
1499:
1364:
1269:
1235:
1218:Seebeck coefficients
1191:
1162:
1024:
975:
928:
891:
851:
808:
762:
725:
685:
642:
616:{\displaystyle S(T)}
598:
541:
511:
484:
351:
308:
286:
88:Ettingshausen effect
5395:Temperature control
4909:on 14 December 2004
4739:, p. 5021, table 1.
4643:Wang, T. P. (1990)
4412:
4393:
4145:forced air furnaces
4027:are more suitable.
3647:Enamel–glass braid
3627:Double glass braid
3547:Type of Insulation
3359:333 – 900: ±0.0075×
3299:133 – 350: ±0.0075×
3093:375 – 1000: ±0.004×
3041:333 – 750: ±0.0075×
2973:375 – 1000: ±0.004×
2886:Comparison of types
2815:It can be used for
2575:neutron irradiation
2435:platinum–palladium.
1493:indefinite integral
1083:
629:Seebeck coefficient
474:electromotive force
207:temperature sensors
197:as a result of the
191:electrical junction
80:Seebeck coefficient
5120:2014-02-01 at the
5101:2014-01-05 at the
5072:. maniadsanat.com.
4852:2006-10-15 at the
4727:Buschow, K. H. J.
4650:2014-08-19 at the
4418:
4398:
4379:
4149:convection heaters
4124:
4084:
4064:
3667:Double glass wrap
3438:
3389:
3380:
3371:
3351:375 – 800: ±0.004×
3329:
3320:
3311:
3291:125 – 350: ±0.004×
3231:
3183:
3174:
3131:
3122:
3113:
3071:
3062:
3053:
3033:375 – 750: ±0.004×
3011:
3002:
2993:
2800:
2727:tungsten(VI) oxide
2642:
2437:
2412:
2337:
2336:
2299:
2298:
2223:
2182:
2147:
2106:
2071:
2028:
2027:
2003:Practical concerns
1988:
1899:
1898:
1852:
1851:
1821:
1820:
1752:
1751:
1721:acts as a natural
1703:
1702:
1666:
1665:
1644:
1643:
1609:
1595:Reference junction
1577:
1576:
1539:
1538:
1474:
1344:
1252:
1251:
1206:
1205:
1177:
1176:
1145:
1033:
1004:
1003:
957:
956:
914:
913:
874:
873:
837:
836:
791:
790:
748:
747:
708:
707:
671:
670:
613:
581:
524:
523:
497:
496:
386:
374:
373:
337:
336:
294:
293:
32:
5410:Thermoelectricity
5272:Voege, W. (1906)
4994:978-0-8493-4243-1
4778:978-0-8031-1466-1
4731:, Elsevier, 2001
4714:978-1-937560-27-0
4674:Pyromation, Inc.
4664:978-0-87170-378-1
4413:
4263:batteryless radio
4261:were used to run
4248:radioactive decay
4224:electrical energy
4113:rectifying sensor
4074:by an insulating
3986:
3985:
3542:
3541:
3534:
3421:
3420:
2577:that can produce
2529:Type M (82%Ni/18%
2409:
2396:
625:material property
179:
178:
5427:
5294:
5287:
5281:
5270:
5264:
5249:
5243:
5242:
5240:
5238:
5216:
5210:
5209:
5207:
5205:
5199:
5189:
5183:
5182:IEC 60584-3:2007
5180:
5174:
5173:
5171:
5170:
5156:
5150:
5149:
5147:
5146:
5137:. Archived from
5131:
5125:
5112:
5106:
5093:
5087:
5084:
5075:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5058:
5050:
5044:
5043:
5037:
5029:
5027:
5026:
5020:
5014:. Archived from
5013:
5005:
4999:
4998:
4978:
4969:
4962:
4949:
4948:
4946:
4944:
4935:. Archived from
4925:
4919:
4918:
4916:
4914:
4899:
4893:
4892:
4890:
4889:
4875:
4869:
4863:
4857:
4856:. www.omega.com.
4845:Burley, Noel A.
4843:
4837:
4836:
4834:
4833:
4818:
4812:
4811:
4808:www.transcat.com
4800:
4794:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4781:. Archived from
4763:
4757:
4756:
4749:
4740:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4698:
4692:
4685:
4679:
4672:
4666:
4641:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4625:
4612:
4604:
4598:
4597:
4595:
4594:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4571:
4570:
4561:. Archived from
4550:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4537:
4528:. Archived from
4526:Temperatures.com
4518:
4467:Heat flux sensor
4427:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4411:
4406:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4375:
4374:
4358:
4211:Power production
3787:Polyvinyl/nylon
3567:Mica–glass tape
3544:
3543:
3537:
3530:
3526:
3523:
3517:
3494:
3486:
3441:Wires insulation
2902:
2901:
2556:Designed at the
2421:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2407:
2398:
2397:
2394:
2346:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2308:
2306:
2305:
2300:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2224:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2191:
2189:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2080:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2029:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1982:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1900:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1830:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1770:
1769:
1761:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1719:phase transition
1712:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1699:
1675:
1673:
1672:
1667:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1640:
1586:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1548:
1546:
1545:
1540:
1528:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1515:
1483:
1481:
1480:
1475:
1473:
1453:
1439:
1428:
1427:
1412:
1401:
1400:
1391:
1390:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1261:
1259:
1258:
1253:
1215:
1213:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1186:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1154:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1134:
1130:
1120:
1119:
1098:
1097:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1013:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1002:
1001:
1000:
966:
964:
963:
958:
955:
954:
953:
923:
921:
920:
915:
912:
911:
910:
883:
881:
880:
875:
872:
871:
870:
846:
844:
843:
838:
835:
834:
833:
800:
798:
797:
792:
789:
788:
787:
757:
755:
754:
749:
746:
745:
744:
717:
715:
714:
709:
706:
705:
704:
680:
678:
677:
672:
669:
668:
667:
622:
620:
619:
614:
590:
588:
587:
582:
574:
548:
533:
531:
530:
525:
519:
506:
504:
503:
498:
492:
392:The temperature
383:
381:
380:
375:
372:
371:
370:
346:
344:
343:
338:
335:
334:
333:
303:
301:
300:
295:
171:
164:
157:
82:
75:
70:
65:
46:
34:
33:
5435:
5434:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5425:
5424:
5385:
5384:
5302:
5297:
5288:
5284:
5271:
5267:
5250:
5246:
5236:
5234:
5220:"New Scientist"
5218:
5217:
5213:
5203:
5201:
5197:
5191:
5190:
5186:
5181:
5177:
5168:
5166:
5164:www.science.gov
5158:
5157:
5153:
5144:
5142:
5133:
5132:
5128:
5122:Wayback Machine
5113:
5109:
5103:Wayback Machine
5094:
5090:
5085:
5078:
5068:
5064:
5056:
5052:
5051:
5047:
5031:
5030:
5024:
5022:
5018:
5011:
5009:"Archived copy"
5007:
5006:
5002:
4995:
4979:
4972:
4963:
4952:
4942:
4940:
4927:
4926:
4922:
4912:
4910:
4901:
4900:
4896:
4887:
4885:
4877:
4876:
4872:
4864:
4860:
4854:Wayback Machine
4844:
4840:
4831:
4829:
4820:
4819:
4815:
4802:
4801:
4797:
4788:
4786:
4779:
4765:
4764:
4760:
4751:
4750:
4743:
4726:
4722:
4715:
4699:
4695:
4686:
4682:
4673:
4669:
4652:Wayback Machine
4642:
4633:
4623:
4621:
4610:
4606:
4605:
4601:
4592:
4590:
4582:
4581:
4577:
4568:
4566:
4551:
4544:
4535:
4533:
4520:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4492:List of sensors
4463:
4445:
4407:
4402:
4388:
4383:
4370:
4366:
4359:
4357:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4295:
4289:
4276:
4219:
4213:
4200:
4166:
4053:
4033:
3997:
3538:
3527:
3521:
3518:
3507:
3495:
3484:
3443:
3426:
3410:
3358:
3357:−40 – 333: ±2.5
3350:
3349:−40 – 375: ±1.5
3298:
3297:−40 – 133: ±1.0
3290:
3289:−40 – 125: ±0.5
3216:
3207:
3161:
3152:
3100:
3099:−40 – 333: ±2.5
3092:
3091:−40 – 375: ±1.5
3040:
3039:−40 – 333: ±2.5
3032:
3031:−40 – 375: ±1.5
2980:
2979:−40 – 333: ±2.5
2972:
2971:−40 – 375: ±1.5
2888:
2879:
2866:
2850:
2838:
2826:
2791:
2786:
2778:
2770:
2762:
2754:magnesium oxide
2745:beryllium oxide
2709:vacuum furnaces
2705:
2677:
2668:
2659:
2634:
2609:
2583:nuclear reactor
2543:
2527:
2483:
2462:
2442:
2428:
2406:
2402:
2393:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2367:
2354:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2276:
2267:input impedance
2243:terminal blocks
2204:
2203:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2169:
2168:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2128:
2127:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2005:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1767:
1766:
1738:
1737:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1677:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1597:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1523:
1522:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1457:
1446:
1432:
1423:
1419:
1405:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1382:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1289:
1288:
1284:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1226:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1115:
1111:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1084:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1057:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1025:
1022:
1021:
984:
983:
979:
976:
973:
972:
937:
936:
932:
929:
926:
925:
900:
899:
895:
892:
889:
888:
860:
859:
855:
852:
849:
848:
817:
816:
812:
809:
806:
805:
771:
770:
766:
763:
760:
759:
734:
733:
729:
726:
723:
722:
694:
693:
689:
686:
683:
682:
651:
650:
646:
643:
640:
639:
599:
596:
595:
570:
544:
542:
539:
538:
515:
512:
509:
508:
488:
485:
482:
481:
470:
464:
457:
450:
443:
428:
417:
398:
360:
359:
355:
352:
349:
348:
317:
316:
312:
309:
306:
305:
287:
284:
283:
249:
175:
146:
145:
106:
98:
97:
78:
73:
68:
63:
54:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5433:
5423:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5383:
5382:
5376:
5367:
5357:
5330:
5319:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5301:
5300:External links
5298:
5296:
5295:
5282:
5265:
5244:
5211:
5184:
5175:
5151:
5126:
5107:
5088:
5076:
5062:
5045:
5000:
4993:
4970:
4950:
4920:
4894:
4870:
4858:
4838:
4813:
4795:
4777:
4758:
4741:
4720:
4713:
4693:
4691:, EDN Network.
4680:
4667:
4631:
4599:
4575:
4542:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4506:
4505:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4462:
4459:
4443:
4429:
4428:
4417:
4410:
4405:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4382:
4378:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4362:
4356:
4353:
4311:vacuum chamber
4307:mean free path
4288:
4285:
4275:
4274:Process plants
4272:
4259:kerosene lamps
4233:Peltier effect
4215:Main article:
4212:
4209:
4199:
4196:
4165:
4162:
4098:make use of a
4052:
4049:
4032:
4031:Steel industry
4029:
3996:
3993:
3984:
3983:
3980:
3977:
3974:
3971:
3968:
3964:
3963:
3960:
3957:
3954:
3951:
3948:
3944:
3943:
3940:
3937:
3934:
3931:
3928:
3924:
3923:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3911:
3908:
3904:
3903:
3900:
3897:
3894:
3891:
3888:
3884:
3883:
3880:
3877:
3874:
3871:
3868:
3864:
3863:
3860:
3857:
3854:
3851:
3848:
3844:
3843:
3840:
3837:
3834:
3831:
3828:
3824:
3823:
3820:
3817:
3814:
3811:
3808:
3804:
3803:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3791:
3788:
3784:
3783:
3780:
3777:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3764:
3763:
3760:
3757:
3754:
3751:
3748:
3744:
3743:
3740:
3737:
3734:
3731:
3728:
3724:
3723:
3720:
3717:
3714:
3711:
3708:
3704:
3703:
3700:
3697:
3694:
3691:
3688:
3684:
3683:
3680:
3677:
3674:
3671:
3668:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3657:
3654:
3651:
3648:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3634:
3631:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3620:
3617:
3614:
3611:
3608:
3604:
3603:
3600:
3597:
3594:
3591:
3588:
3584:
3583:
3580:
3577:
3574:
3571:
3568:
3564:
3563:
3560:
3557:
3554:
3551:
3548:
3540:
3539:
3498:
3496:
3489:
3483:
3480:
3442:
3439:
3425:
3422:
3419:
3418:
3416:
3414:
3412:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3391:
3390:
3381:
3372:
3363:
3355:
3347:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3331:
3330:
3321:
3312:
3303:
3295:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3271:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3261:
3255:
3254:Not available
3252:
3249:
3246:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3235:
3232:
3223:
3221:
3213:
3206:0 – 1100: ±1.0
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3188:
3187:
3184:
3175:
3166:
3158:
3151:0 – 1100: ±1.0
3149:
3146:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3133:
3132:
3123:
3114:
3105:
3097:
3089:
3086:
3083:
3080:
3077:
3073:
3072:
3063:
3054:
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3017:
3013:
3012:
3003:
2994:
2985:
2977:
2969:
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2960:
2957:
2953:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2943:
2939:
2938:
2935:
2932:
2929:
2926:
2923:
2920:
2916:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2887:
2884:
2878:
2875:
2865:
2862:
2849:
2846:
2837:
2834:
2825:
2822:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2777:
2774:
2769:
2766:
2761:
2758:
2704:
2701:
2676:
2673:
2667:
2664:
2658:
2655:
2648:or a platinum/
2633:
2630:
2608:
2605:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2542:
2539:
2526:
2523:
2482:
2479:
2461:
2458:
2441:
2438:
2427:
2424:
2405:
2401:
2392:
2366:
2363:
2353:
2350:
2335:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2275:
2272:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2202:
2178:
2175:
2172:
2167:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2126:
2102:
2099:
2096:
2091:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2056:
2043:
2040:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1954:
1951:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1877:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1777:
1776:
1763:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1736:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1687:
1664:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1622:
1596:
1593:
1589:External links
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
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1534:
1531:
1526:
1519:
1511:
1508:
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1485:
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999:
996:
993:
990:
987:
982:
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903:
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869:
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832:
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815:
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786:
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743:
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660:
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654:
649:
612:
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606:
603:
592:
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580:
577:
573:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
554:
551:
547:
522:
518:
495:
491:
468:Seebeck effect
466:Main article:
463:
462:Seebeck effect
460:
455:
448:
441:
426:
415:
396:
369:
366:
363:
358:
332:
329:
326:
323:
320:
315:
292:
274:thermocouple (
248:
245:
241:safety devices
233:diesel engines
199:Seebeck effect
177:
176:
174:
173:
166:
159:
151:
148:
147:
144:
143:
138:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
107:
104:
103:
100:
99:
96:
95:
90:
85:
84:
83:
76:
74:Thomson effect
71:
69:Peltier effect
66:
64:Seebeck effect
55:
52:
51:
48:
47:
39:
38:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5432:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5415:Thermocouples
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5392:
5390:
5381:
5377:
5374:
5371:
5368:
5365:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5350:
5347:
5344:
5341:
5338:
5335:
5331:
5328:
5325:Text tables:
5324:
5323:
5322:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5303:
5292:
5286:
5279:
5275:
5269:
5262:
5261:0-8247-9834-1
5258:
5254:
5248:
5233:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5215:
5196:
5195:
5188:
5179:
5165:
5161:
5155:
5141:on 2017-06-27
5140:
5136:
5130:
5123:
5119:
5116:
5111:
5104:
5100:
5097:
5092:
5083:
5081:
5074:
5071:
5066:
5055:
5049:
5041:
5035:
5021:on 2020-12-08
5017:
5010:
5004:
4996:
4990:
4986:
4985:
4977:
4975:
4967:
4961:
4959:
4957:
4955:
4939:on 2012-09-10
4938:
4934:
4930:
4924:
4908:
4904:
4898:
4884:
4880:
4874:
4868:. jms-se.com.
4867:
4862:
4855:
4851:
4848:
4842:
4827:
4823:
4817:
4809:
4805:
4799:
4785:on 2013-08-14
4784:
4780:
4774:
4770:
4769:
4762:
4754:
4748:
4746:
4738:
4737:0-08-043152-6
4734:
4730:
4724:
4716:
4710:
4706:
4705:
4697:
4690:
4684:
4677:
4671:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4646:
4640:
4638:
4636:
4620:
4616:
4609:
4603:
4589:
4585:
4579:
4565:on 2010-03-22
4564:
4560:
4556:
4549:
4547:
4532:on 2008-02-16
4531:
4527:
4523:
4517:
4513:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4464:
4458:
4456:
4451:
4449:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4415:
4408:
4403:
4399:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4371:
4367:
4360:
4354:
4351:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4322:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4294:
4284:
4282:
4271:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4255:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4236:
4234:
4229:
4225:
4218:
4208:
4205:
4198:Manufacturing
4195:
4193:
4188:
4186:
4182:
4179:
4175:
4170:
4161:
4158:
4157:water heaters
4152:
4150:
4146:
4141:
4137:
4131:
4129:
4120:
4116:
4114:
4109:
4106:
4101:
4097:
4096:water heaters
4093:
4089:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4068:
4062:
4057:
4048:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4028:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3992:
3989:
3981:
3978:
3975:
3972:
3969:
3966:
3965:
3961:
3958:
3955:
3952:
3949:
3946:
3945:
3941:
3938:
3935:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3925:
3921:
3918:
3915:
3912:
3909:
3906:
3905:
3901:
3898:
3895:
3892:
3889:
3886:
3885:
3881:
3878:
3875:
3872:
3869:
3866:
3865:
3861:
3858:
3855:
3852:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3841:
3838:
3835:
3832:
3829:
3826:
3825:
3821:
3818:
3815:
3812:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3801:
3798:
3795:
3792:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3775:
3772:
3769:
3766:
3765:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3752:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3741:
3738:
3735:
3732:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3721:
3718:
3715:
3712:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3701:
3698:
3695:
3692:
3689:
3686:
3685:
3681:
3678:
3675:
3672:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3661:
3658:
3655:
3652:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3641:
3638:
3635:
3632:
3629:
3626:
3625:
3621:
3618:
3615:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3601:
3598:
3595:
3592:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3581:
3578:
3575:
3572:
3569:
3566:
3565:
3561:
3558:
3555:
3546:
3545:
3536:
3533:
3525:
3515:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3499:This section
3497:
3493:
3488:
3487:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3435:
3430:
3417:
3415:
3413:
3399:
3396:
3394:Chromel/AuFe
3393:
3392:
3386:
3382:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3364:
3362:
3356:
3354:
3348:
3345:
3342:
3339:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3326:
3322:
3317:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3302:
3296:
3294:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3268:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3233:
3228:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3215:0 – 600: ±1.5
3214:
3211:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3185:
3180:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3165:
3160:0 – 600: ±1.5
3159:
3156:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3128:
3124:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3106:
3104:
3098:
3096:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3044:
3038:
3036:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3021:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3008:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2990:
2986:
2984:
2978:
2976:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2954:
2940:
2917:
2903:
2900:
2897:
2893:
2883:
2874:
2872:
2861:
2859:
2855:
2845:
2843:
2833:
2831:
2821:
2818:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2795:
2781:
2773:
2765:
2757:
2755:
2752:2820 K,
2750:
2746:
2741:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2728:
2723:
2721:
2716:
2714:
2713:embrittlement
2710:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2672:
2663:
2654:
2651:
2647:
2638:
2629:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2604:
2600:
2592:
2588:
2586:irreversible.
2584:
2580:
2579:transmutation
2576:
2572:
2571:carburization
2568:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2538:
2536:
2533:–99.2%Ni/0.8%
2532:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2512:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2432:
2423:
2403:
2399:
2390:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2362:
2358:
2349:
2330:
2324:
2314:
2310:
2292:
2286:
2271:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2234:
2200:
2165:
2124:
2089:
2054:
2039:
2021:
2015:
1968:
1961:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1926:
1919:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1875:
1865:
1845:
1839:
1800:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1774:
1764:
1762:to 0 °C.
1734:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1685:
1662:
1620:
1606:
1601:
1592:
1590:
1570:
1564:
1555:
1550:
1535:
1532:
1517:
1509:
1503:
1494:
1490:
1454:
1450:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1433:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1409:
1406:
1397:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1341:
1321:
1314:
1311:
1285:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1245:
1239:
1231:
1221:
1219:
1200:
1196:
1171:
1167:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1131:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1059:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1015:
980:
933:
896:
886:
856:
813:
803:
767:
730:
720:
690:
647:
637:
636:
635:
632:
630:
627:known as the
626:
607:
601:
578:
575:
564:
558:
555:
552:
549:
537:
536:
535:
520:
493:
479:
475:
469:
459:
454:
447:
440:
436:
432:
425:
421:
414:
410:
406:
402:
395:
390:
356:
313:
290:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
264:, is common.
263:
258:
254:
251:In 1821, the
244:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
221:
219:
215:
210:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
172:
167:
165:
160:
158:
153:
152:
150:
149:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
108:
102:
101:
94:
93:Nernst effect
91:
89:
86:
81:
77:
72:
67:
62:
61:
60:
57:
56:
50:
49:
45:
41:
40:
36:
35:
30:
26:
21:
5400:Thermometers
5378:Data table:
5332:PDF tables:
5320:
5290:
5285:
5277:
5274:Physik Zeit.
5273:
5268:
5252:
5247:
5235:. Retrieved
5223:
5214:
5202:. Retrieved
5193:
5187:
5178:
5167:. Retrieved
5163:
5154:
5143:. Retrieved
5139:the original
5129:
5110:
5105:. fluke.com.
5091:
5065:
5048:
5023:. Retrieved
5016:the original
5003:
4983:
4941:. Retrieved
4937:the original
4923:
4911:. Retrieved
4907:the original
4897:
4886:. Retrieved
4882:
4873:
4861:
4841:
4830:. Retrieved
4828:. 2018-05-29
4825:
4816:
4807:
4798:
4787:. Retrieved
4783:the original
4767:
4761:
4728:
4723:
4703:
4696:
4683:
4670:
4656:ASM Handbook
4655:
4622:. Retrieved
4614:
4602:
4591:. Retrieved
4587:
4578:
4567:. Retrieved
4563:the original
4558:
4534:. Retrieved
4530:the original
4525:
4516:
4504:(mechanical)
4455:Pirani gauge
4452:
4447:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4430:
4323:
4299:vacuum gauge
4296:
4277:
4256:
4237:
4220:
4201:
4189:
4167:
4153:
4132:
4125:
4110:
4085:
4061:water heater
4034:
4013:fog machines
3998:
3995:Applications
3990:
3987:
3970:300 °C
3528:
3519:
3508:Please help
3503:verification
3500:
3456:
3452:
3444:
3360:
3352:
3300:
3292:
3269:Not defined
3266:No standard
3263:No standard
3258:
3234:Not defined
3218:
3209:
3186:Not defined
3163:
3154:
3102:
3094:
3042:
3034:
2982:
2974:
2895:
2891:
2889:
2880:
2867:
2851:
2839:
2827:
2801:
2798:temperature.
2779:
2771:
2763:
2742:
2736:is tungsten/
2731:
2724:
2717:
2706:
2678:
2669:
2660:
2643:
2610:
2601:
2597:
2594:730 °C.
2590:composition.
2555:
2544:
2528:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2507:
2484:
2463:
2443:
2368:
2359:
2355:
2315:
2311:
2277:
2259:
2255:
2235:
2045:
2006:
1778:
1610:
1588:
1551:
1486:
1356:
1229:
1227:
1157:
1016:
970:
887:Change from
804:Change from
721:Change from
638:Change from
633:
593:
480:of voltage (
471:
452:
445:
438:
434:
430:
423:
419:
412:
408:
404:
400:
393:
391:
387:
250:
222:
211:
183:thermocouple
182:
180:
116:Thermocouple
115:
105:Applications
4913:17 December
4883:www.wika.us
4615:acromag.com
4317:nor purely
4268:wood stoves
4174:intensities
4169:Thermopiles
4100:pilot flame
4017:thermistors
4005:gas turbine
2922:Short-term
2919:Continuous
2914:Color code
2828:Type P (55%
2621:Curie point
2503:Curie point
2474:Curie point
237:thermostats
229:gas turbine
203:temperature
189:forming an
5389:Categories
5169:2020-12-02
5145:2019-05-29
5025:2020-02-22
4943:2 February
4888:2020-12-01
4832:2020-12-01
4789:2012-09-04
4658:, Vol. 2.
4624:3 February
4593:2010-04-28
4569:2010-02-19
4536:2007-11-04
4509:References
4482:Thermistor
4291:See also:
4281:thermistor
4240:thermopile
4204:switchgear
4140:thermopile
4136:thermostat
3982:Excellent
3979:Excellent
3962:Excellent
3959:Excellent
3956:Excellent
3942:Excellent
3939:Excellent
3936:Excellent
3922:Excellent
3919:Excellent
3916:Excellent
3902:Excellent
3899:Excellent
3882:Excellent
3879:Excellent
3876:Excellent
3859:Excellent
3836:Excellent
3819:Excellent
3807:Polyvinyl
3799:Excellent
3796:Excellent
3722:Excellent
3719:Excellent
3460:thermostat
2738:molybdenum
2617:constantan
2495:metallurgy
2470:constantan
2450:constantan
2382:(assuming
1723:thermostat
1605:thermistor
262:thermopile
255:physicist
214:connectors
121:Thermopile
53:Principles
25:multimeter
5232:0262-4079
4826:WIKA blog
4472:Bolometer
4377:−
4319:molecular
4192:bolometer
4128:Honeywell
4105:fail-safe
4007:exhaust,
3522:June 2014
3476:inert gas
3462:or other
3447:insulated
3434:connector
2817:cryogenic
2567:oxidation
2511:green rot
2509:known as
2454:cryogenic
2380:electrode
2372:inertness
2247:spot weld
1725:, fixing
1518:∘
1425:−
1417:−
1384:∫
1312:−
1201:−
1117:−
1109:−
1035:∫
572:∇
556:−
546:∇
517:∇
490:∇
444:) yields
384:is known.
231:exhaust,
5372:package
5362:package
5118:Archived
5099:Archived
5034:cite web
4850:Archived
4648:Archived
4461:See also
4330:pressure
2720:tungsten
2685:antimony
2646:platinum
2611:Type T (
2547:Nicrosil
2545:Type N (
2485:Type K (
2464:Type J (
2444:Type E (
2376:magnetic
1864:searched
1491:in this
1451:′
1437:′
1410:′
1216:are the
478:gradient
5420:Bimetal
5405:Sensors
5204:11 June
4678:(2009).
4619:Acromag
4559:Sensors
4502:Bimetal
4315:viscous
4072:fitting
3927:Tefzel
3907:Kapton
3212:− 767)
3157:− 767)
2858:rhodium
2854:iridium
2804:chromel
2749:megaohm
2734:rhenium
2650:rhodium
2487:chromel
2446:chromel
2309:curve.
276:chromel
218:Celsius
195:voltage
5360:Python
5280:: 498.
5259:
5237:28 May
5230:
4991:
4775:
4735:
4711:
4662:
4431:where
4334:square
4246:, the
4080:ground
4076:washer
4009:diesel
3967:T300*
3827:Nylon
3472:vacuum
3468:outgas
3251:+1820
3245:+1700
3203:+1750
3197:+1600
3148:+1700
3142:+1600
3088:+1300
3082:+1100
2968:+1370
2962:+1100
2784:Others
2776:Type G
2768:Type D
2760:Type C
2691:, and
2689:silver
2675:Type S
2666:Type R
2657:Type B
2613:copper
2607:Type T
2541:Type N
2525:Type M
2499:nickel
2491:alumel
2481:Type K
2460:Type J
2440:Type E
1158:where
594:where
280:alumel
272:K-type
253:German
5198:(PDF)
5057:(PDF)
5019:(PDF)
5012:(PDF)
4611:(PDF)
4181:power
4178:laser
4092:ovens
4086:Many
4037:steel
4001:kilns
3976:Good
3896:Good
3862:Good
3856:Good
3842:Good
3839:Good
3822:Good
3816:Good
3802:Good
3782:Fair
3779:Fair
3776:Fair
3762:Good
3759:Fair
3756:Fair
3742:Poor
3739:Good
3736:Good
3716:Good
3702:Fair
3699:Poor
3696:Poor
3682:Good
3679:Good
3676:Fair
3662:Good
3659:Good
3656:Fair
3642:Good
3639:Good
3636:Good
3622:Poor
3619:Poor
3616:Fair
3602:Good
3599:Fair
3596:Good
3582:Good
3579:Fair
3576:Good
3400:+300
3397:−272
3346:+900
3340:+800
3286:+400
3283:−250
3280:+300
3277:−185
3242:+200
3085:−270
3028:+800
3025:−180
3022:+750
2965:−180
2951:High
2945:High
2937:ANSI
2905:Type
2718:Pure
2573:, or
2551:Nisil
2395:sense
2365:Types
2352:Aging
2251:crimp
449:sense
427:sense
397:sense
225:kilns
5257:ISBN
5239:2012
5228:ISSN
5206:2014
5040:link
4989:ISBN
4945:2018
4915:2013
4773:ISBN
4733:ISBN
4709:ISBN
4660:ISBN
4626:2017
4303:torr
4228:heat
4094:and
4041:iron
4039:and
4023:and
3947:PFA
3867:FEP
3847:PVC
3343:−40
3200:−50
3145:−50
2948:Low
2942:Low
2931:IEC
2928:Two
2925:One
2812:iron
2808:gold
2693:gold
2466:iron
2400:>
2239:flux
2116:and
1554:NIST
1487:The
1187:and
429:) =
4654:in
4250:of
4235:).
4088:gas
3512:by
3474:or
2934:BS
2581:in
2408:ref
2249:or
1862:is
924:to
847:to
758:to
681:to
534:):
456:ref
442:ref
416:ref
5391::
5276:,
5222:.
5162:.
5079:^
5036:}}
5032:{{
4973:^
4968:".
4953:^
4931:.
4881:.
4824:.
4806:.
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4634:^
4617:.
4613:.
4586:.
4557:.
4545:^
4524:.
4270:.
4187:.
4019:,
4003:,
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3406:—
3403:—
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3334:E
3274:T
3248:0
3239:B
3194:0
3191:S
3139:0
3136:R
3079:0
3076:N
3019:0
3016:J
2959:0
2956:K
2830:Pd
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2569:,
2535:Co
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1909::
1549:.
631:.
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227:,
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181:A
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5263:.
5241:.
5208:.
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5059:.
5042:)
5028:.
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4947:.
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4755:.
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4390:2
4385:0
4381:V
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4368:V
4364:(
4361:B
4355:=
4352:P
4082:.
3535:)
3529:(
3524:)
3520:(
3506:.
3361:T
3353:T
3301:T
3293:T
3259:T
3219:T
3210:T
3164:T
3155:T
3103:T
3095:T
3043:T
3035:T
2983:T
2975:T
2896:T
2892:T
2856:/
2810:/
2806:–
2615:–
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2468:–
2448:–
2404:T
2391:T
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2331:T
2328:(
2325:E
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2290:(
2287:E
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2212:n
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2201:T
2177:f
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2171:r
2166:T
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2136:n
2133:e
2130:s
2125:T
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2095:r
2090:T
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2063:e
2060:r
2055:T
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2022:T
2019:(
2016:E
1998:.
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1980:f
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1969:T
1965:(
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1956:V
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1938:n
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1881:s
1876:T
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1843:(
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1812:f
1809:e
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1525:C
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1273:V
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