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795:, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Utah, Georgia and Vermont. Georgia has a "two strikes" law, also known as the "seven deadly sins" law, which mandates a sentence of life imprisonment without parole for two or more convictions of murder, rape, armed robbery, kidnapping, aggravated sexual battery, aggravated sodomy, or aggravated child molestation or any combination of those offenses. In 1995, Montana also enacted a two strikes law during this period and has since mandated life imprisonment without parole for any person convicted a second time of deliberate homicide, aggravated kidnapping, sexual intercourse without consent, sexual abuse of a child or ritual abuse of a minor. A three strikes law in the state also exists for lesser crimes, such as aggravated assault, mitigated kidnapping and robbery. This means that a third conviction of any such crimes also mandates life without parole.
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refuse to convict, if they want to keep a defendant from receiving a life sentence; this can introduce disparities in punishments, defeating the goal of treating third-time offenders uniformly. Sometimes a non-violent felony also counts as a third strike, which thus would result in a disproportionate penalty. Three-strikes laws have thus also been criticized for imposing disproportionate penalties and focusing too much on street crime rather than
824:
offenders. This took effect on
October 1, 2012. While it is commonly referred to as the three strikes law, that name is misleading. The law actually applies to an individual convicted of a fourth felony. The new law exposes the individual who is convicted of a fourth felony offense to a mandatory minimum prison sentence of at least 25 years. The law also allows for extending the maximum sentence.
746:(1980), the US Supreme Court upheld Texas's statute, which arose from a case involving a refusal to repay $ 120.75 paid for air conditioning repair that was, depending on the source cited, either considered unsatisfactory or not performed at all, where the defendant had been convicted of two prior felony convictions, and where the total amount involved from all three felonies was around $ 230.
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crimes like burglary, robbery, arson, etc. and even serious nonviolent crimes like insurance fraud, forgery, counterfeit, etc. Two convictions or three convictions under these provisions or any combination of these will automatically result in a sentence of life in prison without the possibility of parole. The South
Carolina "two strikes" law is similar to Georgia's
773:, Louisiana, Wisconsin, and Tennessee. Tennessee is one of the few states, together with Georgia, Florida, Montana and South Carolina, that mandates life without parole for two or more convictions for the most serious violent crimes, including murder, rape, aggravated cases of robbery, sexual abuse or child sexual abuse, etc.
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author argues that this is so because under such laws, felons realize that they could face a long jail sentence for their next crime regardless of type, and therefore they have little to lose by committing serious crimes rather than minor offenses. Through these findings, the study weighs both the pros and cons for the law.
928:, a professional criminal who had served 43 years in prison for murder and armed robbery was the first person in the United States to be convicted under the federal three-strikes law when he was sentenced to life in prison for an attempted robbery at an eastern Iowa convenience store. He was prosecuted by
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attempted to rob $ 153 in videotapes from two San
Bernardino K-Mart stores. He was charged under California's three-strikes law because of his criminal history concerning drugs and other burglaries. Because of his past criminal records, he was sentenced to 50 years in prison with no parole after this
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has had a habitual felon statute for serious and violent felons since 1977, providing for up to life imprisonment, and includes a mandatory life sentence without parole for three or more felony convictions for any crime and one of those convictions were for any offense classified as a Class A Felony
828:
Georgia, South
Carolina, Montana and Tennessee are the only states in the United States to date that have "two strikes" laws for the most serious violent crimes, such as murder, rape, serious cases of robbery, etc. and they all mandate a sentence of life imprisonment without parole for a conviction
633:
The concept swiftly spread to other states, but none of them chose to adopt a law as sweeping as
California's. By 2004, twenty-six states and the federal government had laws that satisfy the general criteria for designation as "three-strikes" statutes—namely, that a third felony conviction brings a
1004:
A study written by Robert Parker, director of the
Presley Center for Crime and Justice Studies at UC Riverside, states that violent crime began falling almost two years before California's three-strikes law was enacted in 1994. The study argues that the decrease in crime is linked to lower alcohol
823:
In 2012, Michigan’s legislature passed Senate Bill 1109, enacting Public Act 319 amending
Section 769.12 of the Code of Criminal Procedure. More commonly referred to as the three strikes law, the change updated sentencing guidelines to crack down on habitual offenders, specifically habitual felony
806:
Florida passed HB 1371, the
Prisoner Release Reoffender Act, in May 1997, which in of itself is a "two-strikes" law. The Florida "two strikes law" dictates that individuals convicted of certain categories of crime who reoffend within three years is subject to life in prison without parole, even if
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while waiting for these trials because the likelihood of a life sentence makes them a flight risk. Life imprisonment is also an expensive correctional option, and potentially inefficient given that many prisoners serving these sentences are elderly and therefore both costly to provide health care
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Another study found that three-strikes laws discourage criminals from committing misdemeanors for fear of a life prison sentence. Although this deters crime and contributes to lower crime rates, the laws may possibly push previously convicted criminals to commit more serious offenses. The study's
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of punishment, in which the focus of criminological and penological interest has shifted away from retribution and treatment tailored to the individual offender and toward the control of high-risk groups based on aggregations and statistical averages. A three-strikes system achieves uniformity in
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Some states include additional, lesser offenses that one would not normally see as violent. For example, the list of crimes that count as serious or violent in the state of
California is much longer than that of other states, and consists of many lesser offenses that include: firearm violations,
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Prosecutors have also sometimes evaded the three-strikes laws by processing arrests as parole violations rather than new offenses, or by bringing misdemeanor charges when a felony charge would have been legally justified. There is also potential for witnesses to refuse to testify, and juries to
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Another study found that arrest rates in
California were up to 20% lower for the group of offenders convicted of two-strike eligible offenses, compared to those convicted of one-strike eligible offenses. The study concluded that the three-strikes policy was deterring recidivists from committing
798:
In 1996: South Carolina. South Carolina also has a "two strikes" law for crimes known as a "most serious offense", which are crimes like murder, rape, attempted murder, armed robbery, etc. whereas, the "three strikes" law applies to "serious offenses" which are many drug offenses, other violent
574:
The practice of imposing longer prison sentences on repeat offenders (versus first-time offenders who commit the same crime) is present throughout most of American history, as judges often take into consideration prior offenses when sentencing. However, there is a more recent history of
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Most states require one or more of the three felony convictions to be for violent crimes in order for the mandatory sentence to be pronounced. Crimes that fall under the category of "violent" include: murder, kidnapping, sexual abuse, rape, aggravated robbery, and aggravated assault.
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who, in 1992 at age 24, was sentenced to life in prison without parole when his third conviction (a federal offense) triggered the federal three-strikes law, even though his two prior convictions were not considered violent, and neither conviction resulted in any prison time served.
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The three-strikes law significantly increases the prison sentences of persons convicted of a felony who have been previously convicted of two or more violent crimes or serious felonies, and limits the ability of these offenders to receive a punishment other than a life sentence.
1104:, which repealed the Sentencing and Parole Reform Act. The repeal legislation was supported by the Labour, Green, and Māori parties but was opposed by the National and ACT parties, who moved to reinstate three-strikes legislation in April 2024 after being re-elected in
547:". In most jurisdictions, only crimes at the felony level qualify as serious offenses. And it may turn on which felonies are defined as being serious, which may vary depending on the jurisdiction, in particular, whether a subject felony must include violence or not.
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has had a law dealing with habitual felons since 1967, but the law was amended in 1994 and now means that a third conviction for any violent felony (which includes any Class A, B, C, D or E Felony) will result in a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment without
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enacted one of the harshest laws against bootlegging in the nation. The law required a life sentence for those violating liquor laws for the fourth time. In late 1928 Etta Mae Miller, a mother of four was found guilty under this law, sparking outrage.
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under all forms of sentencing. The study estimated that if US incarceration rates were increased by 10 percent, the crime rate would decrease by at least 2 percent. However, this action would be extremely costly to implement.
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crimes. California has seen a reduction in criminal activity, and "Stolzenberg and D’Alessio found that serious crime in California’s 10 largest cities collectively had dropped 15% during the 3-year post-intervention period".
1519:
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1269:, 385 U.S. 554 (1967) ("Article 63 provides: "Whoever shall have been three times convicted of a felony less than capital shall on such third conviction be imprisoned for life in the penitentiary."").
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has had a three-strikes law providing up to life imprisonment for serious felonies since 1973, when the Delaware Criminal Code, contained under Part I, Title 11 of the Delaware Code, became effective.
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901:. As another example, Texas does not require any of the three felony convictions to be violent, but specifically excludes certain "state jail felonies" from being counted for enhancement purposes.
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Some criticisms of three-strikes laws are that they clog the court system with defendants taking cases to trial in an attempt to avoid life sentences, and clog jails with defendants who must be
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The exact application of the three-strikes laws varies considerably from state to state, but the laws call for life sentences for at least 25 years on their third strike. In the state of
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passed its own in 1994, when their voters passed Proposition 184 by an overwhelming majority, with 72% in favor and 28% against. The initiative proposed to the voters had the title of
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has had a habitual felon statute for violent offenders since 1975. The law was amended in 1994, meaning that a fourth conviction for a crime of violence mandates a sentence of
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Rummel was released a few months later, after successfully challenging his sentence for ineffective assistance of counsel and pleading guilty in a subsequent plea bargain.
932:, a US Attorney appointed by Clinton. The sentencing was considered so significant that President Bill Clinton interrupted a vacation to make a press statement about it.
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2159:
993:, a 2004 study found that the Three-Strikes Law did not have a very significant effect on deterrence of crime, but also that this ineffectiveness may be due to the
2276:
Stolzenberg, Lisa; Stewart J. D' Alessio (1997). ""Three Strikes and You're Out": The Impact of California's New Mandatory Sentencing Law on Serious Crime Rates".
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announced that the Government was introducing legislation to repeal the Sentencing and Parole Reform Act. On 9 August 2022, the New Zealand Parliament passed the
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shortly after). But such sentences were not compulsory in each case, and judges had much more discretion as to what term of incarceration should be imposed.
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services to and statistically at low risk of recidivism. Dependants of prisoners serving long sentences may also become burdensome on welfare services.
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Texas would later amend its Penal Code to remove the mandatory life requirement for a habitual offender, changing the sentence to 25–99 years or life
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1684:
Shichor, David (October 1997). "Three Strikes as a Public Policy: The Convergence of the New Penology and the McDonaldization of Punishment".
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877:, any person who receives their fourth strike for any crime of violence will automatically be sentenced to life imprisonment without parole.
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A 2015 study found that three-strikes laws were associated with a 33% increase in the risk of fatal assaults on law enforcement officers.
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life imprisonment after being convicted of three violent or serious felonies which are listed under California Penal Code section 1192.7.
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and the opposition National and ACT parties. NZ First had indicated its opposition to overturning the three-strikes bill, prompting
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require a person who is convicted of an offense and who has one or two other previous serious convictions to serve a mandatory
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2182:"In for Life: The Three-Strikes Law -- A special report.; First Federal 3-Strikes Conviction Ends a Criminal's 25-Year Career"
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2220:"In for Life: The Three-Strikes Law – A special report; First Federal 3-Strikes Conviction Ends a Criminal's 25-Year Career"
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has three chances to either hit a pitched ball or earn an error called a "strike." After three "strikes" the batter
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2014:
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have some form of a "three-strikes" law. A person accused under such laws is referred to in a few states (notably
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this is only a second offense, gaining the distinction of, "one of the strictest sentencing laws in the U.S.".
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512:, with or without parole depending on the jurisdiction. The purpose of the laws is to drastically increase the
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punishment of criminals in a certain class (viz., three-time offenders) in a way that is analogous to how a
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226:
1591:"TERM IN MICHIGAN; Fouth [sic] Liquor Law Violation Gets Conviction by Jury--Counsel Plans Appeal"
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One application of a three-strikes law was the Leonardo Andrade case in California in 2009. In this case,
1238:"The Juridical Structure of Habitual Offender Laws and the Jurisprudence of Authoritarian Social Control"
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2443:"Effects of state-level policy changes on homicide and nonfatal shootings of law enforcement officers"
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1516:"Second Circuit: New York's Persistent Felony Offender Statute Held Constitutional in En Banc Ruling"
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law dating back to the early 20th century (partially ruled unconstitutional in 2010, but reaffirmed
2414:"I'd rather be Hanged for a Sheep than a Lamb: The Unintended Consequences of 'Three-Strikes' Laws"
2249:
Worrall, John L. (2004). "The Effect of Three-Strikes Legislation on Serious Crime in California".
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1934:"Florida's 'two-strikes' law: History, impact of one of the strictest sentencing laws in the US"
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2801:"Three strikes law gone: Labour fulfils 2017 campaign promise, Nats and Act rail against move"
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The substantive provisions of Proposition 184 are codified in California Penal Code Sections
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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This article is about the criminal justice law. For Internet disconnection policy, see
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sentence of 20 to life where 20 years must be served before becoming parole eligible.
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of those who continue to commit offenses after being convicted of one or two serious
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1335:"1032. Sentencing Enhancement – "Three Strikes" Law | USAM | Department of Justice"
1309:"1032. Sentencing Enhancement – "Three Strikes" Law – USAM – Department of Justice"
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Analyzing the effect of the Three-Strikes legislation as a means of deterrence and
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to overturn the Sentencing and Parole Act was blocked by Labour's support partner
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1960:"Deval Patrick signs repeat offender crime bill in private State House ceremony"
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Crifasi, Cassandra K.; Pollack, Keshia M.; Webster, Daniel W. (2015-12-30).
1878:"Three Strikes and You're Out: The Implementation and Impart of Strike Laws"
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2704:"National would reinstate three strikes, retrospectively punish offenders"
2088:"Striking Out: The Failure of California's "Three-Strikes You're Out" Law"
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has had a three-strikes with mandatory life sentence since at least 1952.
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293:
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Helland, Eric; Tabarrok, Alexander (2007). "Does Three Strikes Deter?".
1621:"California Proposition 184, Three Strikes Sentencing Initiative (1994)"
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913:, who represented Andrade, as cruel and unusual punishment under the
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1909:"Montana Governor Signs '2 Strikes' Law | the Spokesman-Review"
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Punishment and Democracy: Three Strikes and You're Out in California
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Meese, Edwin (1994-01-01). "Three-Strikes Laws Punish and Protect".
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In 2010, New Zealand enacted a similar three-strikes law called the
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associated with having pre-existing repeat offender laws in place.
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last burglary of K-Mart. Although this sentencing was disputed by
2671:"No support from New Zealand First to repeal 'three strikes' law"
721:
589:
496:) have been implemented since at least 1952, and are part of the
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2377:"Reconsidering Incarceration: New Directions for Reducing Crime"
2347:"Evidence does not support three-strikes law as crime deterrent"
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1820:"A Primer: Three Strikes – The Impact After More Than a Decade"
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The expression "Three strikes and you are out" is derived from
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107:
917:, the Supreme Court ruled in support for the life sentencing.
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2731:"Three strikes law - you're out: Justice Minister to repeal"
1036:. The bill was sponsored by Police and Corrections Minister
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California's original Proposition 184 was later modified by
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The first true "three-strikes" law was passed in 1993, when
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1957:
102:
1418:
Zimring, Franklin E.; Hawkins, Gordon; Kamin, Sam (2001).
1747:"FindLaw's United States Supreme Court case and opinions"
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637:
Three-strikes laws have been cited as an example of the
16:
Law providing more severe penalties for repeat offenders
1992:
Michigan's Justice System: Three Strikes and You're Out
1280:"Anti-Violence Strategy | USAO | Department of Justice"
2644:"Government's three strikes repeal killed by NZ First"
765:, Connecticut, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland, New Mexico,
2440:
2609:""Three Strikes" sentencing: Another blow for Māori"
2152:"Cases Show Disparity Of California's 3 Strikes Law"
1417:
1168:, a comparison of similar laws in several countries
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1679:
1677:
1562:
1504:, 601 F.3d 163 (2nd Cir 2010).
935:Another example of the three-strikes law involves
780:. In 2003, a sentence under the law was upheld in
23:. For other uses of the term "Three Strikes", see
1851:"States That Have Some Form of Three-Strikes Law"
1387:
701:has employed a habitual felon statute since 1797.
2829:
1958:Glen Johnson; Brian R. Ballou (August 2, 2012).
2310:
1674:
2037:"The Lethal Effects of the Three Strikes Laws"
2035:Marvell, Thomas B.; Carlisle E. Moody (2001).
2007:"Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation"
1818:Brown, Brian; Jolivette, Greg (October 2005).
1817:
2764:"Parliament votes to scrap three strikes law"
1426:. New York: Oxford University Press. p.
1056:parties, and National's support partner, the
1044:. It was passed into law by the National and
1005:consumption and lower rates of unemployment.
465:
1260:
1258:
2641:
2542:"Controversial 'three strikes' bill passes"
2374:
2217:
2179:
1565:Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition
1453:"Habitual Offender Laws: A Reconsideration"
1450:
1217:United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines
1212:Stanford Law School Criminal Defense Clinic
1048:parties but was opposed by the opposition
1012:in New York examined the effectiveness of
472:
458:
2642:Walters, Laura; Moir, Jo (11 June 2018).
2425:
1255:
1064:, critics attacked the law for promoting
829:of any such crimes a second time around.
1988:
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2701:
2606:
2411:
2248:
1857:from the original on September 11, 2024
1824:California Legislative Analyst's Office
1739:
1722:Encyclopedia of Criminal Justice Ethics
1683:
1395:"Three Strikes Law – A General Summary"
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2558:from the original on 11 September 2024
2522:from the original on 11 September 2024
2230:from the original on 11 September 2024
2218:Butterfield, Fox (11 September 1995).
2004:
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1830:from the original on 11 September 2024
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1631:from the original on 11 September 2024
1601:from the original on 11 September 2024
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1513:
1075:In early June 2018, an attempt by the
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1102:Three Strikes Legislation Repeal Bill
1068:and disproportionately targeting the
1034:Sentencing and Parole Reform Act 2010
29:Sentencing and Parole Reform Act 2010
2743:from the original on 3 December 2021
2122:"Penal Code Chapter 12. Punishments"
1848:
1757:from the original on 19 October 2012
952:
836:
653:
646:achieves uniformity of its product.
2086:Males, Mike; Dan Macallair (1999).
579:for repeat offenders. For example,
566:and their chance to score is over.
13:
2799:Neilson, Michael (9 August 2022).
2762:Huang, Christina (9 August 2022).
27:. For the law in New Zealand, see
14:
2859:
2683:from the original on 22 June 2018
2588:from the original on 22 June 2018
1799:Texas Penal Code Section 12.42(d)
694:have enacted three-strikes laws:
500:'s Anti-Violence Strategy. These
2508:"Sentencing and Parole Act 2010"
2412:Iyengar, Radha (February 2008).
2132:from the original on 14 May 2013
2102:from the original on May 9, 2015
2067:from the original on May 9, 2015
957:
948:
841:
658:
498:United States Justice Department
385:
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2500:
2489:from the original on 2024-09-11
2434:
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2357:from the original on 2024-09-11
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2304:
2242:
2211:
2200:from the original on 2019-07-05
2180:Butterfield, Fox (1995-09-11).
2173:
2162:from the original on 2024-09-11
2144:
2114:
2079:
2028:
1998:
1982:
1951:
1940:from the original on 2024-09-11
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1915:from the original on 2024-09-11
1901:
1890:from the original on 2016-03-04
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1522:from the original on 2015-09-27
1507:
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1290:from the original on 2017-03-24
1077:Labour-led coalition government
44:Criminal trials and convictions
2702:Walters, Laura (1 June 2018).
2459:10.1136/injuryprev-2015-041825
2263:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.04.001
2126:www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us
2092:Stanford Law and Policy Review
1569:. Scribner. loc 6011(Kindle).
1444:
1411:
1352:
1327:
1301:
1272:
1229:
1027:
832:
778:2012 California Proposition 36
334:Sexually violent predator laws
25:Three Strikes (disambiguation)
1:
2552:New Zealand Press Association
2453:(4): injuryprev–2015–041825.
1223:
545:prior and persistent offender
2619:(2): 108–116. Archived from
2516:Parliamentary Counsel Office
2418:NBER Working Paper No. 13784
2375:Stemen, Don (January 2007).
2041:The Journal of Legal Studies
1451:Katkin, Daniel (1971–1972).
1111:
995:diminishing marginal returns
622:Three Strikes and You're Out
227:Cruel and unusual punishment
7:
2386:. p. 2. Archived from
2290:10.1177/0011128797043004004
2251:Journal of Criminal Justice
1698:10.1177/0011128797043004005
1514:Clarke, Matt (2015-03-15).
1361:Federal Sentencing Reporter
1132:
10:
2864:
2313:Journal of Human Resources
1187:Indefinite prison sentence
943:
585:Persistent Felony Offender
577:mandatory prison sentences
569:
429: English/Welsh courts
18:
2582:Sensible Sentencing Trust
2384:Vera Institute of Justice
1719:Arrigo, Bruce A. (2014).
1490: (E.D.N.Y. 2007).
1202:Prison-industrial complex
1182:Incapacitation (penology)
1145:Armed Career Criminal Act
1093:On 11 November 2021, the
1090:to abandon the attempt.
1062:Sensible Sentencing Trust
1010:Vera Institute of Justice
966:This section needs to be
850:This section needs to be
667:This section needs to be
492:(commonly referred to as
1488:478 F.Supp.2d 69
83:Presumption of innocence
2838:U.S. state criminal law
2512:New Zealand Legislation
2278:Crime & Delinquency
1686:Crime & Delinquency
1548: (2d Cir 2010).
245:Indefinite imprisonment
2806:The New Zealand Herald
2613:Waikato Journal of Law
2325:10.3368/jhr.XLII.2.309
2005:California, State of.
1876:Austin, James (2000).
1399:www.sandiegocounty.gov
1197:One strike, you're out
1172:Habitual Criminals Act
1166:Habitual offender laws
1152:, 1926 four strike law
1008:A 2007 study from the
725:(10–99 years or life).
543:uses the unique term "
490:habitual offender laws
304:Miscarriage of justice
1725:. SAGE Publications.
1518:. Prison Legal News.
1236:White, Ahmed (2006).
801:seven-deadly-sins law
329:Sex offender registry
49:Rights of the accused
2739:. 11 November 2021.
2607:Rumbles, W. (2011).
1970:on December 16, 2017
1662:1170.12(c)(2)(A)(ii)
1597:. 12 December 1928.
1541:Portalatin v. Graham
1483:Portalatin v. Graham
1192:Mandatory sentencing
644:fast food restaurant
583:had a long-standing
415:English/Welsh courts
343:Related areas of law
1546:624 F.3d 69
1095:Minister of Justice
791:In 1995: Arkansas,
783:Ewing v. California
650:Enactment by states
537:persistent offender
324:Restorative justice
2676:New Zealand Herald
2547:New Zealand Herald
2224:The New York Times
2186:The New York Times
1804:2013-05-14 at the
1667:2011-09-08 at the
1656:2009-07-01 at the
1457:Buffalo Law Review
1127:white-collar crime
889:, simple robbery,
494:three-strikes laws
214:Capital punishment
206:Dangerous offender
93:Self-incrimination
38:Criminal procedure
21:Graduated response
2780:on 10 August 2022
2736:Radio New Zealand
2447:Injury Prevention
1437:978-0-19-513686-9
1081:New Zealand First
987:
986:
911:Erwin Chemerinsky
871:
870:
743:Rummel v. Estelle
716:life imprisonment
688:
687:
482:
481:
357:Criminal defenses
299:Habitual offender
250:Three-strikes law
240:Life imprisonment
219:Execution warrant
88:Exclusionary rule
2855:
2843:Sentencing (law)
2823:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2813:on 9 August 2022
2809:. Archived from
2796:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2785:
2776:. Archived from
2759:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2699:
2693:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2679:. 12 June 2018.
2667:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2494:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2409:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2398:
2392:
2381:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2363:
2362:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2246:
2240:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2013:. Archived from
2002:
1996:
1995:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1966:. Archived from
1964:The Boston Globe
1955:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1945:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1889:
1882:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1849:Reynolds, Mike.
1846:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1815:
1809:
1795:
1789:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1743:
1737:
1736:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1681:
1672:
1651:667(e)(2)(A)(ii)
1647:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1568:
1555:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1511:
1505:
1503:
1501:Bessler v. Walsh
1497:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1425:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1405:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1373:10.2307/20639746
1356:
1350:
1349:
1347:
1346:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1296:
1295:
1276:
1270:
1268:
1266:Spencer v. Texas
1262:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1249:
1240:. Archived from
1233:
1085:Justice Minister
1040:from the ruling
982:
979:
973:
961:
960:
953:
937:Timothy L. Tyler
926:Tommy Lee Farmer
922:Sioux City, Iowa
897:to a minor, and
893:, and providing
866:
863:
857:
845:
844:
837:
810:In 2006: Arizona
683:
680:
674:
662:
661:
654:
612:voters approved
474:
467:
460:
446:
438:
430:
425:
417:
409:
390:
389:
289:Criminal justice
143:Directed verdict
34:
33:
2863:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2852:
2828:
2827:
2826:
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2797:
2793:
2783:
2781:
2760:
2756:
2746:
2744:
2729:
2728:
2724:
2714:
2712:
2700:
2696:
2686:
2684:
2669:
2668:
2664:
2654:
2652:
2640:
2636:
2626:
2624:
2623:on 22 June 2018
2605:
2601:
2591:
2589:
2578:"Three Strikes"
2576:
2575:
2571:
2561:
2559:
2554:. 25 May 2010.
2540:
2539:
2535:
2525:
2523:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2492:
2490:
2439:
2435:
2410:
2406:
2396:
2394:
2393:on 11 June 2016
2390:
2379:
2373:
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2360:
2358:
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2201:
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2174:
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2150:
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2145:
2135:
2133:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2105:
2103:
2084:
2080:
2070:
2068:
2033:
2029:
2020:
2018:
2011:www.cdcr.ca.gov
2003:
1999:
1987:
1983:
1973:
1971:
1956:
1952:
1943:
1941:
1932:
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1887:
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1847:
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1833:
1831:
1816:
1812:
1806:Wayback Machine
1796:
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1774:
1770:
1760:
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1745:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1717:
1713:
1682:
1675:
1669:Wayback Machine
1658:Wayback Machine
1648:
1644:
1634:
1632:
1625:ballotpedia.org
1619:
1618:
1614:
1604:
1602:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1561:(11 May 2010).
1556:
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1401:
1393:
1392:
1388:
1357:
1353:
1344:
1342:
1339:www.justice.gov
1333:
1332:
1328:
1318:
1316:
1313:www.justice.gov
1307:
1306:
1302:
1293:
1291:
1284:www.justice.gov
1278:
1277:
1273:
1264:
1263:
1256:
1247:
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1234:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1135:
1114:
1070:Māori community
1030:
983:
977:
974:
971:
962:
958:
951:
946:
930:Stephen J. Rapp
906:Leandro Andrade
899:drug possession
867:
861:
858:
855:
846:
842:
835:
718:without parole.
684:
678:
675:
672:
663:
659:
652:
639:McDonaldization
624:, referring to
572:
478:
449:
441:
436:Canadian courts
433:
428:
423:Scottish courts
420:
412:
404:
396:
384:
371:
352:Civil procedure
338:
259:Post-sentencing
254:
223:
197:
147:
112:
98:Double jeopardy
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2861:
2851:
2850:
2848:California law
2845:
2840:
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2824:
2791:
2754:
2722:
2694:
2662:
2634:
2599:
2569:
2533:
2499:
2433:
2427:10.3386/w13784
2404:
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2303:
2268:
2241:
2210:
2172:
2143:
2113:
2078:
2053:10.1086/468112
2027:
1997:
1989:Jhon Freeman,
1981:
1950:
1925:
1900:
1868:
1841:
1810:
1790:
1787:, 28 June 1983
1768:
1738:
1731:
1711:
1692:(4): 470–492.
1673:
1642:
1612:
1595:New York Times
1582:
1576:978-0743277020
1575:
1559:Okrent, Daniel
1550:
1532:
1506:
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1443:
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1199:
1194:
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1179:
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1169:
1163:
1161:First Step Act
1158:
1153:
1147:
1142:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1113:
1110:
1066:penal populism
1042:National Party
1038:Judith Collins
1029:
1026:
1014:incapacitation
991:incapacitation
985:
984:
965:
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950:
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789:
788:
787:
767:North Carolina
755:
749:
748:
747:
732:
726:
719:
709:
705:North Carolina
702:
690:The following
686:
685:
666:
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648:
614:Initiative 593
581:New York State
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392:Law portal
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2326:
2322:
2319:(2): 309–30.
2318:
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2284:(4): 457–69.
2283:
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2257:(4): 283–96.
2256:
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2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2031:
2017:on 2017-06-02
2016:
2012:
2008:
2001:
1994:
1993:
1985:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1939:
1935:
1929:
1914:
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1814:
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1800:
1794:
1788:
1786:
1783:463 U.S. 277
1781:
1779:
1778:Solem v. Helm
1772:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1734:
1732:9781483346588
1728:
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1259:
1244:on 2019-11-27
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2815:. Retrieved
2811:the original
2804:
2794:
2782:. Retrieved
2778:the original
2767:
2757:
2745:. Retrieved
2734:
2725:
2713:. Retrieved
2707:
2697:
2685:. Retrieved
2674:
2665:
2653:. Retrieved
2647:
2637:
2625:. Retrieved
2621:the original
2616:
2612:
2602:
2590:. Retrieved
2572:
2560:. Retrieved
2545:
2536:
2524:. Retrieved
2511:
2502:
2491:. Retrieved
2450:
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