Varieties of Chinese

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intelligibility between 15 Chinese provinces. In each province, 15 university students were recruited as speakers and 15 older rural inhabitants recruited as listeners. The listeners were then tested on their comprehension of isolated words and of particular words in the context of sentences spoken by speakers from all 15 of the provinces surveyed. The results demonstrated significant levels of unintelligibility between areas, even within the Mandarin group. In a few cases, listeners understood fewer than 70% of words spoken by speakers from the same province, indicating significant differences between urban and rural varieties. As expected from the wide use of

2424: 2562: 5428: 1537: 16390: 268: 6421: 11142: 13161: 1312:, and form the only branch of Chinese that cannot be directly derived from Middle Chinese. It is also the most diverse, with many of the varieties used in neighbouring counties—and, in the mountains of western Fujian, even in adjacent villages—being mutually unintelligible. Early classifications divided Min into Northern and Southern subgroups, but a survey in the early 1960s found that the primary split was between inland and coastal groups. Varieties from the coastal region around 6742:, improve communication between them, and create a Mandarin-speaking environment conducive to the successful implementation of the bilingual education program. The initial goal of the campaign was for all young Chinese to stop speaking dialects in five years, and to establish Mandarin as the language of choice in public places within 10 years. According to the government, for the bilingual policy to be effective, Mandarin should be spoken at home and should serve as the 6664: 6379:

speakers of the local dialect. The choice of dialect varies based on the social situation. Standard Chinese is usually considered more formal and is required when speaking to a person who does not understand the local dialect. The local dialect (be it non-Standard Chinese or non-Mandarin altogether) is generally considered more intimate and is used among close family members and friends and in everyday conversation within the local area. Chinese speakers will frequently

6330: 1689: 16378: 6443: 6273: 13811: 6232: 1662:, and has had a range of meanings in the millennia since. It is used for any regional subdivision of Chinese, from the speech of a village to major branches such as Mandarin and Wu. Linguists writing in Chinese often qualify the term to distinguish different levels of classification. All these terms have customarily been translated into English as 5439:, with other orders used for emphasis or contrast. Modifiers usually precede the word they modify, so that adjectives precede nouns. Instances in which the modifier follows the head are mainly found in the south, and are attributed to substrate influences from languages formerly dominant in the area, especially 6567:. One consequence of this is that China does not have a well-developed tradition of spoken political rhetoric, and most Chinese political works are intended primarily as written works rather than spoken works. Another factor that limits the political implications of dialect is that it is very common within an 6620:

in 1949, they brought a substantial influx of speakers of Northern Chinese (and other dialects from across China), and viewed the use of Mandarin as part of their claim to be a legitimate government of the whole of China. Education policy promoted the use of Mandarin over the local languages, and was

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In southern China (not including Hong Kong and Macau), where the difference between Standard Chinese and local dialects is particularly pronounced, well-educated Chinese are generally fluent in Standard Chinese, and most people have at least a good passive knowledge of it, in addition to being native

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may be used to move the object before the verb (the "disposal" construction). Similar structures using several different prepositions are used in the south, but tend to be avoided in more colloquial speech. Comparative constructions are expressed with a prepositional phrase before the stative verb in

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People generally are tied to the hometown and therefore the hometown dialect, instead of a broad linguistic classification. For example, a person from Wuxi may claim that he speaks Wuxi dialect, even though it is similar to Shanghainese (another Wu dialect). Likewise, a person from Xiaogan may claim

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However, the rate of change in mutual intelligibility varies immensely depending on region. For example, the varieties of Mandarin spoken in all three northeastern Chinese provinces are mutually intelligible, but in the province of Fujian, where Min varieties predominate, the speech of neighbouring

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using markers following the main verb. The markers, usually derived from verbs, vary widely in both their forms and their degree of grammaticalization, from independent verbs, through complements to bound suffixes. Southern varieties tend to have richer aspect systems making more distinctions than

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From the 1970s, the government promoted adult education in Mandarin, required Mandarin for official purposes, and encouraged its increased use in broadcasting. Over a 40-year period, these policies succeeded in spreading the use and prestige of Mandarin through society at the expense of the other

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a third tone changes to a second tone when followed by another third tone. Particularly complex sandhi patterns are found in Wu dialects and coastal Min dialects. In Shanghainese, the tone of all syllables in a word is determined by the tone of the first, so that Shanghainese has word rather than

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In Wu, voiced obstruents were retained, and the tone split never became phonemic: the higher-pitched allophones occur with initial voiceless consonants, and the lower-pitched allophones occur with initial voiced consonants. (Traditional Chinese classification nonetheless counts these as different

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among Chinese Singaporeans. They also argued that Mandarin was more economically valuable, and speaking Mandarin would help Chinese Singaporeans retain their heritage, as Mandarin contains a cultural repository of values and traditions that are identifiable to all Chinese, regardless of dialect

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However, most Chinese varieties have reduced the number of tonal distinctions. For example, in Mandarin, the tones resulting from the split of Middle Chinese rising and departing tones merged, leaving four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such

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Classifications of Chinese varieties in the late 19th century and early 20th century were based on impressionistic criteria. They often followed river systems, which were historically the main routes of migration and communication in southern China. The first scientific classifications, based

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is not used in formal documents, and within the PRC a character set closer to Mandarin tends to be used. At the national level, differences in dialect generally do not correspond to political divisions or categories, and this has for the most part prevented dialect from becoming the basis of

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Most assessments of mutual intelligibility of varieties of Chinese in the literature are impressionistic. Functional intelligibility testing is time-consuming in any language family, and usually not done when more than 10 varieties are to be compared. However, one 2009 study aimed to measure

999:, a unity that has persisted with relatively brief interludes until the present day. Meanwhile, Europe remained politically decentralized, and developed numerous independent states. Vernacular writing using the Latin alphabet supplanted Latin itself, and states eventually developed their own 6411:

Due to the variety in Chinese speech, Mandarin speakers from each area of China are very often prone to fuse or "translate" words from their local language into their Mandarin conversations. In addition, each area of China has its recognizable accents while speaking Mandarin. Generally, the

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The forms of demonstratives vary greatly, with few cognates between different areas. A two-way distinction between proximal and distal is most common, but some varieties have a single neutral demonstrative, while others distinguish three or more on the basis of distance, visibility or other

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provided few barriers to migration, which resulted in relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area. Contrastingly, the mountains and rivers of southern China contain all six of the other major Chinese dialect groups, with each in turn featuring great internal diversity, particularly in

1621:, and have a common cultural heritage with long periods of political unity, the varieties are popularly perceived among native speakers as variants of a single Chinese language, and this is also the official position. Conventional English-language usage in Chinese linguistics is to use 804:

valley and the hills of south China. Chinese eventually replaced many of the languages previously dominant in these areas, and forms of the language spoken in different regions began to diverge. During periods of political unity there was a tendency for states to promote the use of a

6728:, Cantonese, and Hakka. Hence, the government decided to rectify problems facing implementation of the bilingual education policy, by launching a campaign to promote Mandarin as a common language among the Chinese population, and to discourage use of other Chinese varieties. 1408:

southwest of Guangzhou, was historically the most common Yue variety among overseas communities in the West until the late 20th century. Not all Yue varieties are mutually intelligible. Most Yue varieties retain the full complement of Middle Chinese word-final consonants

1588:, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined. Several east-west isoglosses run along the Huai and Yangtze Rivers. A north-south barrier is formed by the 1548:

classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three zones: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang) and Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min). He argued that the dialects of the Southern zone are derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the

2666:, though cognate tonal categories in different dialects are often realized as quite different pitch contours. Middle Chinese had a three-way tonal contrast in syllables with vocalic or nasal endings. The traditional names of the tonal categories are 'level'/'even' ( 6159:. In Mandarin varieties this word is also used for 'not yet', whereas in Wu and other groups a different form is typically used. In Southern varieties, negators tend to come from the second family. The ordinary negators in these varieties are all derived from a 939:

Standard Chinese is much more widely studied than any other variety of Chinese, and its use is now dominant in public life on the mainland. Outside of China and Taiwan, the only varieties of Chinese commonly taught in university courses are Standard Chinese and

6050:, but many southern varieties distinguish between manner and extent complements using different markers. Standard Chinese does not allow an object to co-occur with a verbal complement, but other varieties permit an object between the marker and the complement. 1557:

proposed a refined model, dividing Norman's Northern zone into Northern and Southwestern areas, and his Southern zone into Southeastern (Min) and Far Southern (Yue and Hakka) areas, with Pinghua transitional between Southwestern and Far Southern areas.

6103:+ V, repeating the same verb. When the verb takes an object, some northwestern Mandarin varieties tend to place it after the first occurrence of the verb, while other Mandarin varieties and most southern varieties place it after the second occurrence. 1003:. In China, Literary Chinese was predominantly used in formal writing until the early 20th century. Written Chinese, read with different local pronunciations, continued to serve as a source of vocabulary for the local varieties. The new standard 5945:

in the north or a classifier in the south. The latter pattern is also common in the languages of Southeast Asia. A few varieties in the Jiang–Huai, Wu, southern Min and Yue areas feature the old southern pattern of a zero attributive marker.

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assign language codes to each of the top-level groups listed above except Min and Pinghua, whose subdivisions are assigned five and two codes respectively. Some linguists refer to the local varieties as languages, numbering in the hundreds.

2786:). When voicing was lost in all dialects except in the Wu and Old Xiang groups, this distinction became phonemic, yielding eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables. 1523:

appears to be related to Chinese words, though many are clearly loans from the last few centuries. Some scholars have suggested that it represents a very early branching from Chinese, while others argue that it is a more distantly related

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First- and second-person pronouns are cognate across all varieties. For third-person pronouns, Jin, Mandarin, and Xiang varieties have cognate forms, but other varieties generally use forms that originally had a velar or glottal initial:

6404:. Generally the differences are more pronounced lexically than grammatically. Typically, a speaker of one dialect of Chinese will need about a year of immersion to understand the local dialect and about three to five years to become 6395:

Knowing the local dialect is of considerable social benefit, and most Chinese who permanently move to a new area will attempt to pick up the local dialect. Learning a new dialect is usually done informally through a process of

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In northern varieties, many particles or suffixes are weakly stressed or atonic syllables. These are much rarer in southern varieties. Such syllables have a reduced pitch range that is determined by the preceding syllable.

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verbs. Varieties differ in the set of prepositions used, with northern varieties tending to use a substantially larger inventory, including disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions. In northern varieties, the preposition

2529:, are best preserved in southern dialects, particularly Yue dialects such as Cantonese. In some Min dialects, nasals and stops following open vowels have shifted to nasalization and glottal stops respectively. In Jin, 6412:

nationalized standard form of Mandarin pronunciation is only heard on news and radio broadcasts. Even in the streets of Beijing, the flavor of Mandarin varies in pronunciation from the Mandarin heard on the media.

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most northern and central varieties, as well as Northern Min and Hakka, while other southern varieties retain the older form in which the prepositional phrase follows the stative verb. The preposition is usually

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languages. They also aggravated social divisions, as Mandarin speakers found it difficult to find jobs in private companies but were favored for government positions. From the 1990s, Taiwanese native languages (

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Map of the spread of 16 features identified by Norman as characteristic of northern dialects. Areas with all these features are shown in darkest blue; those with none in darkest red. The central dialects lie in

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drive; for instance, the education system is entirely Mandarin-medium from the second year onward. However, usage of local dialect is tolerated and socially preferred in many informal situations. In Hong Kong,

1609:, speakers from Beijing were understood more than speakers from elsewhere. The scores supported a primary division between northern groups (Mandarin and Jin) and all others, with Min as an identifiable branch. 1704:. In general, southern varieties have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. Some varieties, such as Cantonese, Hokkien and 1553:(206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central zone was a transitional area of dialects that were originally of southern type, but overlain with centuries of Northern influence. 6383:

between Standard Chinese and the local dialect. Parents will generally speak to their children in the local variety, and the relationship between dialect and Mandarin appears to be mostly stable, even a

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published in 601, noted wide variations in pronunciation between regions, and was created with the goal of defining a standard system of pronunciation for reading the classics. This standard is known as

2651:, in which the pitch contour of a syllable is affected by the tones of adjacent syllables in a compound word or phrase. This process is so extensive in Shanghainese that the tone system is reduced to a 924:

was adopted, but with vocabulary drawn from a range of Mandarin varieties, and grammar based on literature in the modern written vernacular. Standard Chinese is the official spoken language of the

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is common in the north, but several different suffixes are use elsewhere. In some varieties, especially in the Wu area, different suffixes are used for first, second and third person pronouns.

1456:, share different features with Wu, Gan and Mandarin, making them difficult to classify. Earlier scholars had assigned to them one or other of these groups, or to a group of their own. 11554: 11545: 722:. Southern varieties tend to have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. All have phonemic 6392:

that he speaks Xiaogan dialect. Linguistically, Xiaogan dialect is a dialect of Mandarin, but the pronunciation and diction are quite different from spoken Standard Chinese.

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and Chinese. The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain, but the term "Sinitic" is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family.

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by placing a conjunction between the alternatives, though some also use particles to mark the disjuncts. Standard Chinese is unusual in allowing a form with no conjunction.

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living in the hills of northeastern Guangdong, southwestern Fujian and many other parts of southern China, as well as Taiwan and parts of Southeast Asia such as Singapore,

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maintains these eight tonal categories and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables. (The latter distinction has disappeared again in many varieties.)

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in two languages. It was later determined that the learning of Mandarin among Singaporean Chinese was hindered by home use of other Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien,

10646:, Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Series IV: Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, vol. 271, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 233–254, 5950:

of verb phrases or predicates is achieved by following them with a marker, usually the same as the attributive marker, though some varieties use a different marker.

2647:'to scold'). The number of tonal contrasts varies between dialects, with Northern dialects tending to have fewer distinctions than Southern ones. Many dialects have 2581:. Each syllable may be pronounced with between three and seven distinct pitch contours, denoting different morphemes. For example, the Beijing dialect distinguishes 12546: 6859: 1268:

because of the way Middle Chinese voiced initials became voiceless aspirated initials as in Hakka, and were hence called by the umbrella term "Hakka–Gan dialects".

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in 1937, with minor modifications by other linguists since. The conventionally accepted set of seven dialect groups first appeared in the second edition (1980) of

9729:——— (2015b), "Linguistic areas in China for differential object marking, passive, and comparative constructions", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.), 6039:+ VP2, with a verbal complement VP2 containing a stative verb describing the manner or extent of the main verb. In northern varieties, the marker is a cognate of 2400: 2381: 1172:

This is the group spoken in northern and southwestern China and has by far the most speakers. This group includes the Beijing dialect, which forms the basis for

2275:, which is often merged with the zero initial, the initials of this dialect are present in all Chinese varieties, although several varieties do not distinguish 13286: 12068: 5510:

or numeral. The inventory of classifiers tends to be larger in the south than in the north, where some varieties use only the general classifier cognate with

2331:(as in Suzhou), or both. In many places, including Beijing, palatalized dental affricates and palatalized velars have merged to form a new palatal series. 13093: 13083: 10033: 667:. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast part of mainland China. The varieties are typically classified into several groups: 5419:. There are major differences between northern and southern varieties, but often some northern areas share features found in the south, and vice versa. 13088: 12847: 12395: 2365: 13002: 10939: 6547:, and this is reflected in their conventional English names reflecting Cantonese pronunciations for their given names, and differing from their 2341: 1629:. Other linguists choose to refer to the major groups as languages. However, each of these groups contains mutually unintelligible varieties. 995:

However, a major difference between China and Western Europe is the historical reestablishment of political unity in 6th century China by the

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sentences vary, with northern varieties placing the indirect object before the direct object and southern varieties using the reverse order.

10824: (archived 18 October 2005), compiled by William Wang and Chin-Chuan Cheng (archived from the originals at City University of Hong Kong) 6621:

implemented especially rigidly in elementary schools, with punishments and public humiliation for children using other languages at school.

16134: 13845: 2353: 2283:. However, most varieties have additional initials, due to a combination of innovations and retention of distinctions from Middle Chinese: 6524:

were from southern China and did not natively speak Mandarin, and even leaders from northern China rarely spoke with the standard accent.

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Handel, Zev (2015), "The Classification of Chinese: Sinitic (The Chinese Language Family)", in Wang, William S. Y.; Sun, Chaofen (eds.),

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Compounds consisting of an attributive following a noun are less common, but some are found in the south as well as a few northern areas.

1722: 1029:, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, although there are also some sharp boundaries. 11796: 10586:"Language or Dialect – or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese" 10837: 984:

remained the standard for scholarly and administrative writing in Western Europe for centuries, influencing local varieties much like

9414: 905:'officer speech'). While never formally defined, knowledge of this language was essential for a career in the imperial bureaucracy. 12371: 12359: 10390:

Ben Hamed, Mahé (2005), "Neighbour-nets portray the Chinese dialect continuum and the linguistic legacy of China's demic history",

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varieties have an unrelated series of voiced initials resulting from devoicing of nasal initials in syllables without nasal finals.

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The long history of migration of peoples and interaction between speakers of different dialects makes it difficult to apply the

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in speaking it. Because of the variety of dialects spoken, there are usually few formal methods for learning a local dialect.

12706: 10827: 10785: 10740: 10713: 10694: 10651: 10632: 10613: 10549: 10497: 10471: 10327: 10308: 10286: 10267: 10239: 10159: 10140: 10118: 10091: 10027: 9978: 9959: 9936: 9847: 9819: 9797: 9778: 9757: 9738: 9719: 9697: 9671: 9645: 9614: 9592: 9523: 9451: 6464: 6290: 6245: 1512:. She Chinese, Xiangnan Tuhua, Shaozhou Tuhua and unclassified varieties of southwest Jiangxi appear to be related to Hakka. 1468:, predating the later influx of Yue and Southwest Mandarin speakers. Some linguists treat them as a mixture of Yue and Xiang. 744:

takes its phonology from the Beijing dialect, with vocabulary from the Mandarin group and grammar based on literature in the

2320:

initials are retained in many Mandarin dialects, including Beijing but not southwestern and southeastern Mandarin varieties.

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conditioned by syllabic onsets. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late

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Map of the variation in the placement of animal gender markers in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area

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Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people spoke only their local language. As a practical measure, officials of the

820:

royal domain was no longer politically powerful, its speech still represented a model for communication across China. The

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Li, Ying-Che (2001), "Aspects of historical-comparative syntax: functions of prepositions in Taiwanese and Mandarin", in

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Chen, Yujie (2015), "The semantic differentiation of demonstratives in Sinitic languages", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.),

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tones.) Most Wu dialects retain the tone categories of Middle Chinese, but in Shanghainese several of these have merged.

1368:, though there is a tendency for Middle Chinese velar codas -ŋ and -k to yield dental codas -n and -t after front vowels. 952:

Local varieties from different areas of China are often mutually unintelligible, differing at least as much as different

1440:

and adjacent areas, were formerly included in Mandarin. They are distinguished by their retention of the Middle Chinese

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education, where Singaporean students learn both English and their designated native language, which was Mandarin for

6166:, though it has a level tone in Hakka and Yue and a rising tone in Min. Existential negators derive from a proto-form 5486:) 'rooster', but most southern varieties use the reverse order, while others use different orders for different words. 988:

did in China. In both cases, local forms of speech diverged from both the literary standard and each other, producing

6490: 6365: 6312: 6259: 6142:, as the ordinary negator. A word from the second family is used as an existential negator 'have not', as in Beijing 909: 10367:

Baron, Stephen P. (1983), "Chain shifts in Chinese historical phonology: problems of motivation and functionality",

6472: 16127: 13838: 11141: 6021:, which can also be used as a transitive verb indicating possession. Most varieties use a locative verb cognate to 920:, which was based on northern dialects. In the 1930s, a standard national language with pronunciation based on the 10482: 6794:

The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese.

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across the territory they controlled, in order to facilitate communication between people from different regions.

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Tang, Chaoju; van Heuven, Vincent J. (2009), "Mutual intelligibility of Chinese dialects experimentally tested",

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Map of the variation in the number of tone categories in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area

2288: 1625:

for the speech of a particular place (regardless of status), with regional groupings like Mandarin and Wu called

1007:, the counterpart of spoken Standard Chinese, is similarly used as a literary form by speakers of all varieties. 10303:, Paris: École des hautes études en sciences sociales, Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l'Asie orientale, 1726:, the number of initials (including a zero initial) ranges from 15 in some southern dialects to a high of 35 in 16330: 16300: 16285: 12146: 11789: 10925: 10058: 6468: 6294: 1232:

features several atypical innovations. Wu varieties are distinguished by their retention of voiced or murmured

534: 321: 9839: 9814:, Language and linguistics Monograph Series, vol. 63, Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, 6131:, respectively. Northern and Central varieties tend to use a word from the first family, cognate with Beijing 703:

nor individual languages defined by mutual intelligibility, but reflect common phonological developments from

16415: 16410: 13755: 13209: 9911: 5962:, which can function as predicates but differ from intransitive verbs in being modifiable by degree adverbs. 2324: 925: 454: 305: 2794:

syllables were distributed amongst the four remaining tones in a manner that is only partially predictable.

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estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a

16120: 13885: 13831: 13730: 13602: 13527: 13184: 11717: 11372: 11294: 11010: 9870:

Exploring teachers' views about native language instruction and education in Taiwanese elementary schools

6732: 5436: 784:

At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, a form of Chinese was spoken in a compact area along the lower

410: 9710:(2015a), "Introduction: Ways of tackling diversity in Sinitic languages", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.), 5894:

Plural personal pronouns may be marked with a suffix, noun or phrase in different varieties. The suffix

5447:

Adverbs generally precede verbs, but in some southern varieties certain kinds of adverb follow the verb.

2478:. Many dialects, particularly in northern and central China, have apical or retroflex vowels, which are 2423: 16368: 16320: 13772: 13745: 13622: 13534: 13281: 13261: 10687:

Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn, and Common Northern Wu

9748:———; Li, Lan (2016), "Mandarin and other Sinitic languages", in Chan, Sin-wai (ed.), 2561: 1618: 1004: 917: 745: 492: 10318:

Yue, Anne O. (2017), "The Sinitic languages: grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),

3266:, in which the realization of a tone varies depending on the context of the syllable. For example, in 826:(early 1st century AD) is devoted to differences in vocabulary between regions. Commentaries from the 16240: 14879: 13324: 12022: 11782: 11617: 11064: 10985: 10079: 6251: 1545: 1022: 513: 15360: 14899: 14864: 13965: 13698: 13683: 13673: 13387: 11698: 11301: 11114: 9602: 6453: 5958:

All varieties have transitive and intransitive verbs. Instead of adjectives, Chinese varieties use

5427: 813: 240: 17: 9925:

Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"

768:, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between the three forms. It is also one of the 16061: 15755: 15013: 14924: 14806: 14801: 13710: 11949: 11692: 11478: 11362: 10250: 10229: 6457: 6283: 5408: 5396: 5392: 2744:

The tones of Middle Chinese, as well as similar systems in neighbouring languages, experienced a

2662:

The tonal categories of modern varieties can be related by considering their derivation from the

2427:

Map of the distribution of stop codas in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area

1419: 957: 274: 13703: 13552: 5934:+ NP, where the last noun phrase is the head and the attributive marker is usually a cognate of 2752:, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as "upper" ( 16260: 15784: 15601: 15283: 14108: 14103: 14074: 14062: 13644: 13487: 12085: 11738: 11731: 11511: 11445: 10948: 9992: 6654: 6504: 2718:) had no tonal contrasts but were traditionally treated as a fourth tone category, 'entering' ( 2530: 1696:

The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, traditionally analysed as consisting of an initial

1581:

valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.

1574: 1536: 1388:, and have been carried by immigrants to Southeast Asia and many other parts of the world. The 929: 757: 664: 660: 562: 88: 9887:

Iwata, Ray (1995), "Linguistic geography of Chinese dialects: Project on Han dialects (PHD)",

9415:

A Critical Evaluation of Singapore's Language Policy and its Implications for English Teaching

9400: 1565:

to Chinese. Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of

849:, based on a compromise between the reading traditions of the northern and southern capitals. 16143: 16073: 16049: 15772: 15735: 14233: 13639: 13562: 13276: 13254: 12009: 11842: 11681: 11631: 11187: 9993:"What Is a Chinese 'Dialect/Topolect'? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" 6721: 5440: 5388: 1525: 933: 765: 31: 16270: 15947: 10508: 2490:, producing a rich inventory of vowels in open syllables. Reduction of medials is common in 16180: 15581: 15400: 15380: 15365: 15101: 15066: 14874: 13407: 13375: 13204: 12329: 11493: 11339: 11285: 10128: 6739: 6699: 6638: 6602: 6107: 6007: 5970: 5412: 726:, with northern varieties tending to have fewer distinctions than southern ones. Many have 16305: 9514:: Language ideological debates and the imagining of the nation". In Blommaert, Jan (ed.). 9497: 6720:, showed that less than 40% of the student population managed to attain minimum levels of 1320:(named from a dialectical pronunciation of "Fujian"), and Taiwan, where they are known as 1184:

in Chinese, and often also translated as "Mandarin" or simply "Chinese". In addition, the

8: 16295: 16225: 16220: 16160: 16033: 16013: 15777: 15704: 15405: 15355: 15350: 14761: 14328: 13912: 13651: 13617: 13452: 13419: 13266: 13194: 13111: 12952: 12947: 12701: 12511: 12017: 11676: 11266: 11093: 11024: 10585: 9807: 6703: 6580: 6521: 6340: with: Info on Taiwan, e.g. for Hakka-Mandarin and Hokkien-Mandarin. You can help by 6071: 2336:

Maps of the distributions of various initial consonants in the core Chinese-speaking area

2317: 2008: 1792: 1245: 1241: 120: 15390: 15375: 13990: 6095:

in the north, but varies between other varieties. Other question forms are also common:

5482: 5464: 1650: 1360:

is the prestige form. Most Hakka varieties retain the full complement of nasal endings,

16345: 16290: 16275: 16195: 16175: 16165: 15978: 15750: 15684: 15633: 15586: 15530: 15260: 15203: 14929: 14085: 13854: 13767: 13634: 13597: 13482: 13380: 13314: 13309: 13199: 13189: 12815: 12793: 12686: 12494: 12489: 12412: 12400: 12388: 12376: 12364: 11888: 11517: 11126: 10992: 10673: 10528: 10420: 10407: 10225: 10067: 10020:

Breaking Down the Barriers: Interdisciplinary Studies in Chinese Linguistics and Beyond

6758: 6634: 6606: 6425: 6397: 6209: 6178: 6065: 5503: 5498:

Nouns in Chinese varieties are generally not marked for number. As in languages of the

3388: 2787: 2578: 2479: 1701: 1585: 1424: 1297: 1152: 965: 749: 723: 584: 576: 38: 15385: 13995: 5977:+ NP2, though the copula varies. Most Yue and Hakka varieties use a form cognate with 604: 267: 258: 16310: 16265: 16250: 16230: 16170: 16155: 15957: 15617: 15491: 15436: 15328: 15236: 15231: 15188: 15110: 14841: 14821: 14746: 14723: 14496: 14378: 14348: 14190: 14181: 14133: 14123: 13970: 13902: 13678: 13668: 13547: 13512: 13367: 13319: 13271: 13038: 12891: 12825: 12681: 12666: 12337: 12314: 12268: 12193: 12119: 11999: 11967: 11921: 11860: 11850: 11815: 11625: 11585: 11563: 11528: 11522: 11487: 11425: 11419: 11399: 11193: 11181: 11164: 11072: 11018: 10998: 10781: 10761: 10736: 10709: 10690: 10647: 10628: 10609: 10545: 10542:

Creole and Dialect Continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC)

10532: 10493: 10467: 10425: 10359: 10323: 10304: 10282: 10263: 10235: 10155: 10136: 10114: 10087: 10023: 9974: 9955: 9932: 9928: 9843: 9815: 9793: 9774: 9768: 9753: 9734: 9715: 9693: 9667: 9641: 9610: 9588: 9552: 9519: 9447: 9441: 6804: 6626: 6617: 6594: 6514: 6509: 2538: 2301:

The voiced initials of Middle Chinese are retained in Wu dialects such as Suzhou and

1727: 1329: 1321: 1026: 1000: 953: 853: 806: 793: 628: 476: 468: 93: 10018:, in Cao, Guangshun; Djamouri, Redouane; Chappell, Hilary; Wiebusch, Thekla (eds.), 6420: 6173:

Chinese varieties generally indicate the roles of nouns with respect to verbs using

2549:, while some central dialects have a single nasal coda, in some cases realized as a 2309:

dialects and a few Gan dialects, but have merged with voiceless initials elsewhere.

830:(25–220 AD) provide significant evidence of local differences in pronunciation. The 16355: 16350: 16340: 16335: 16325: 16315: 16200: 16190: 16028: 16023: 15993: 15952: 15932: 15821: 15816: 15760: 15730: 15679: 15568: 15441: 15421: 15370: 15337: 15298: 15293: 15288: 15246: 15241: 15223: 15071: 15061: 14965: 14914: 14909: 14884: 14811: 14504: 14481: 14476: 14406: 14401: 14396: 14358: 14298: 14223: 14166: 14161: 14146: 13917: 13868: 13784: 13304: 13179: 13043: 13033: 13018: 12964: 12886: 12837: 12798: 12747: 12661: 12613: 12597: 12477: 12437: 12432: 12319: 12273: 12219: 12214: 12204: 12198: 12027: 11972: 11957: 11833: 11805: 11646: 11606: 11576: 11550: 11500: 11458: 11367: 11344: 11237: 11217: 11174: 11099: 10962: 10861: 10728: 10644:

The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology

10572: 10520: 10483:"Synchrony and diachrony of Sinitic languages: A brief history of Chinese dialects" 10464:

Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology – the Classification of Miin and Hakka

10450: 10415: 10399: 10376: 10355: 10209: 10186: 10178: 9896: 9873: 9548: 6814: 5912: 5547: 3395: 3381: 3353: 3308: 3267: 2715: 2302: 1779: 1731: 1606: 1389: 1289: 1261: 1173: 1167: 1051: 989: 985: 913: 870: 741: 668: 656: 375: 142: 15576: 11224: 10911: 10642:

Norman, Jerry (2006), "Common Dialectal Chinese", in Branner, David Prager (ed.),

1464:

These varieties are descended from the speech of the earliest Chinese migrants to

16382: 16280: 16255: 16235: 16210: 16185: 16008: 15998: 15988: 15937: 15927: 15801: 15674: 15669: 15664: 15553: 15543: 15538: 15506: 15496: 15481: 15471: 15461: 15431: 15395: 15345: 15308: 15273: 15213: 15193: 15173: 15138: 15123: 15118: 15041: 14980: 14960: 14955: 14950: 14894: 14786: 14756: 14705: 14680: 14665: 14639: 14634: 14614: 14599: 14544: 14486: 14471: 14466: 14451: 14446: 14391: 14323: 14303: 14238: 14213: 14141: 14118: 14020: 13985: 13980: 13955: 13927: 13922: 13735: 13715: 13612: 13572: 13557: 13296: 13146: 13136: 13116: 13073: 13068: 12934: 12898: 12881: 12871: 12810: 12628: 12564: 12506: 12454: 12449: 12351: 12247: 12242: 12151: 12098: 12093: 12073: 12058: 12053: 11994: 11989: 11979: 11962: 11934: 11906: 11883: 11638: 11592: 11451: 11333: 11272: 11106: 11053: 11044: 11030: 10831: 10821: 10751: 10296: 10182: 10102: 9971:

Language Attitudes and Identities in Multilingual China: A Linguistic Ethnography

9947: 9707: 6725: 6630: 6586: 6554: 6536: 3430: 3409: 3367: 3360: 3346: 2656: 2328: 2188: 1775: 1589: 1554: 1485: 1473: 1447: 1357: 1197: 1185: 1131: 921: 837: 440: 197: 192: 157: 83: 9426:

Bokhorst-Heng, W.D. (1998). "Unpacking the Nation". In Allison D. et al. (Ed.),

6424:

A school in Guangdong with writing "Please speak Standard Chinese. Please write

1569:. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the 328: 312: 16215: 16018: 15962: 15942: 15745: 15710: 15699: 15694: 15689: 15596: 15548: 15486: 15456: 15451: 15313: 15303: 15268: 15178: 15143: 15128: 15076: 15036: 15031: 15026: 14975: 14919: 14889: 14869: 14859: 14854: 14831: 14751: 14736: 14731: 14700: 14675: 14660: 14655: 14624: 14619: 14609: 14604: 14594: 14589: 14584: 14579: 14534: 14509: 14456: 14368: 14353: 14318: 14288: 14283: 14263: 14253: 14248: 14243: 14171: 14156: 14098: 14093: 14000: 13960: 13945: 13789: 13779: 13750: 13740: 13457: 13429: 13141: 13126: 13028: 12979: 12974: 12959: 12903: 12842: 12724: 12696: 12676: 12623: 12592: 12569: 12559: 12554: 12516: 12499: 12444: 12309: 12291: 12209: 12183: 12124: 12044: 12032: 11984: 11939: 11929: 11855: 11708: 11686: 11600: 11569: 11505: 11465: 11439: 11413: 11390: 11313: 11259: 11231: 11200: 11078: 11004: 10661: 9988: 9829: 8609: 6902:

The colloquial layers of southern Wu and coastal Min varieties use cognates of

6830: 6674: with: How did dialect speakers react to Mandarinization?. You can help by 6380: 6160: 5947: 5924: 3423: 3416: 3402: 2700: 2268: 1787: 1763: 1751: 1709: 1655: 1593: 1497: 1493: 1237: 1225: 1151:

primarily on the evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials, were produced by

981: 961: 842: 822: 773: 704: 625: 424: 212: 207: 125: 13975: 13160: 10346:

Ao, Benjamin (1991), "Comparative reconstruction of proto-Chinese revisited",

6904: 6201: 6189: 6149: 6138: 6091: 6046: 6028: 6017: 5995: 5984: 5941: 5907: 5523: 1264:

is taken as representative. In the past, Gan was viewed as closely related to

16404: 16003: 15877: 15853: 15796: 15625: 15558: 15516: 15501: 15426: 15278: 15183: 15056: 15051: 14904: 14816: 14796: 14791: 14781: 14771: 14766: 14741: 14695: 14690: 14685: 14670: 14629: 14574: 14569: 14564: 14559: 14554: 14549: 14539: 14529: 14524: 14514: 14461: 14441: 14436: 14431: 14426: 14421: 14416: 14411: 14363: 14343: 14338: 14333: 14313: 14293: 14278: 14273: 14268: 14228: 14218: 14203: 14198: 14151: 14113: 14015: 14005: 13590: 13402: 13397: 12969: 12913: 12908: 12876: 12863: 12739: 12691: 12618: 12574: 12464: 12301: 12224: 12063: 11911: 11898: 11432: 11354: 11120: 11085: 11037: 10106: 7701: 6744: 6717: 6708: 6598: 6534:

in speaking, rendering much of what he said incomprehensible to many Chinese.

6000: 5572: 5552: 5507: 3333: 3313: 2570: 2295: 1578: 1441: 1335: 1271: 1265: 1121: 1111: 801: 692: 680: 506: 177: 167: 11767:

indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.

10765: 10524: 5450:

In the north, animal gender markers are prefixed to the noun, as in Beijing

5391:

of vocabulary of non-Chinese origin. Some of these words may have come from

1308:

These varieties originated in the mountainous terrain of Fujian and eastern

936:, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between the three forms. 16394: 15983: 15848: 15811: 15511: 15476: 15466: 15446: 15318: 15198: 15163: 15153: 15148: 15133: 15021: 14945: 14849: 14826: 14519: 14386: 14308: 14258: 14208: 14010: 13950: 13462: 13412: 12788: 12671: 12644: 12188: 12178: 11406: 11322: 11278: 11207: 10865: 10454: 10429: 10403: 10381: 10221: 10213: 9901: 6818: 6809: 6735: 6401: 6003:

in Classical Chinese but began to be used as a copula from the Han period.

5963: 5959: 2749: 2652: 2534: 2491: 2439: 2310: 1705: 1516: 1341: 1229: 1156: 977: 880: 876: 817: 789: 594: 382: 341: 10732: 10576: 10466:, Trends in Linguistics series, vol. 123, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 9605:(1992), "Chinese as a Pluricentric Language", in Clyne, Michael G. (ed.), 232: 37:"Spoken Chinese" redirects here. For other languages spoken in China, see 16112: 15894: 15870: 15843: 15833: 15806: 15791: 15767: 15591: 15168: 15091: 15086: 15046: 14776: 13607: 13581: 13477: 13447: 13424: 13392: 13131: 13121: 12925: 12820: 12805: 12768: 12716: 12537: 12528: 12424: 12263: 12138: 11865: 11752: 10967: 10778:

Summary of Local Chinese Dialects in Southeast Asian Overseas Communities

9539:

Wee, Lionel (2006). "The semiotics of language ideologies in Singapore".

6872:

Some words of literary origin with voiced initials shifted to category 6.

6844: 6590: 6568: 6562: 6544: 6540: 6174: 6120: 6061: 5577: 5567: 5557: 5542: 5416: 3338: 3328: 3318: 3303: 3288: 3263: 2799: 2648: 2550: 2487: 2483: 2263:

Map of the extent of the palatal merger in the core Chinese-speaking area

1755: 1659: 1550: 1509: 1505: 1481: 1431: 1371: 1345: 1303: 1251: 1160: 1101: 1091: 1081: 1061: 996: 973: 969: 827: 727: 696: 688: 684: 676: 618: 358: 217: 202: 182: 172: 162: 147: 115: 10917: 10677: 10411: 10071: 9640:] (in Chinese), vol. 1 (Phonetics), Beijing: Commercial Press, 7575: 7539: 6663: 6329: 5411:

and instead express grammatical categories using analytic means such as

1688: 15922: 15860: 15838: 15208: 15081: 13023: 12997: 12763: 12729: 12234: 12161: 10022:, Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, pp. 735–754, 9912:"Chinese Geolinguistics: History, Current Trend and Theoretical Issues" 9624: 6610: 6527: 6297: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 5562: 3323: 2745: 1767: 1635: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1501: 1401: 1203: 1193: 1189: 1071: 812:

The first evidence of dialectal variation is found in the texts of the

715: 672: 485: 152: 10560: 10191: 9857:

Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2024),

9692:] (in Chinese), vol. 3 (Grammar), Beijing: Commercial Press, 9666:] (in Chinese), vol. 2 (Lexicon), Beijing: Commercial Press, 7713: 5308: 5230: 5152: 5074: 4996: 4918: 4840: 4762: 4684: 4606: 4528: 4450: 4372: 4294: 4216: 4138: 4060: 3982: 3904: 3826: 3748: 3670: 3592: 3514: 3445: 699:, though some varieties remain unclassified. These groups are neither 15899: 15887: 15882: 15826: 15158: 13897: 13823: 13472: 13223: 13214: 12942: 12832: 12484: 12472: 12283: 12114: 11745: 11386: 11151: 10958: 10898: 10706:

Studies in Colloquial Chinese and Its History : Dialect and Text

9878: 8141: 6695: 6385: 3437: 2475: 2432: 2306: 1697: 1630: 1577:

area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the

1397: 1393: 1381: 1353: 1309: 1293: 1285: 1233: 941: 846: 785: 761: 735: 711: 527: 252: 226: 72: 10101:——— (2003), "The Chinese dialects: phonology", in 6442: 6272: 1292:, have been significantly influenced by Southwest Mandarin, whereas 992:

with mutually unintelligible varieties separated by long distances.

16377: 15865: 13762: 13348: 12989: 12170: 11774: 10438: 9176: 3374: 3284: 2135: 1735: 1666:, a practice that has been criticized as confusing. The neologisms 1405: 1349: 1213: 1209: 797: 731: 548: 396: 283: 76: 13794: 10914:, by Dylan W.H. Sung (Phonology and Official Romanization Schemes) 10878: 10262:] (in Chinese) (2nd ed.), Beijing: The Commercial Press, 10200:

Wang, Feng (2005), "On the genetic position of the Bai language",

9248: 8587: 8585: 8449: 8447: 7689: 7327: 15904: 13661: 13341: 13228: 13057: 12653: 11247: 10301:

Comparative Chinese Dialectal Grammar: Handbook for Investigators

9065: 9053: 8933: 7848: 7836: 7824: 7800: 6950: 6405: 1465: 1459: 1377: 1317: 1257: 1217: 1141: 601: 187: 9164: 8357: 7896: 6817:

proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising

13720: 13522: 11160: 10975: 9128: 9106: 9104: 9029: 8582: 8570: 8444: 8309: 8105: 6548: 5923:

properties. An extreme example is found in a variety spoken in

2271:

of northern Fujian is a minimal example. With the exception of

1520: 1477: 1437: 1325: 1313: 964:, the ancestral language was spread by imperial expansion over 883:

dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a

858: 832: 719: 279: 68: 8732: 8621: 8093: 6738:, the campaign aimed to simplify the language environment for 2482:

derived from high vowels following sibilant initials. In many

633: 13233: 11156: 10971: 10013:"The Classification of Sinitic Languages: What Is 'Chinese'?" 9587:(in Chinese) (2nd ed.), Beijing: Wenzi gaige chubanshe, 9272: 8957: 8720: 8708: 8696: 7812: 7788: 7363: 6531: 6388:. Local dialects are valued as symbols of regional cultures. 6099:

Most varieties have neutral questions employing the form V +

6032:, but Min, Wu and Yue varieties use several different forms. 2537:, while in most northern varieties they have disappeared. In 2466:-like vowel. In other dialects, including Mandarin dialects, 1500:(northern Guangdong), and the forms of Chinese spoken by the 1489: 1453: 1385: 1281: 1277: 1221: 753: 700: 609: 64: 9858: 9607:

Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations

9299: 9116: 9101: 9017: 8969: 8459: 7730: 7728: 7491: 7279: 7254: 7252: 6694:

In 1966, the Singaporean government implemented a policy of

6589:-speaking population, most of the population of Taiwan were 5927:, Jiangxi, where five grades of distance are distinguished. 10439:"Stuck in the forest: Trees, networks and Chinese dialects" 9417:", Karen's Linguistics Issues. Retrieved on 4 November 2010 8759: 8684: 8558: 8321: 8249: 8021: 7679: 7677: 6119:

A sentence is negated by placing a marker before the verb.

10664:(1998), "On distinguishing Hakka and non-Hakka dialects", 9581:

Dictionary of Dialect Pronunciations of Chinese Characters

9200: 9077: 8921: 8672: 8546: 8510: 8498: 8432: 8420: 8285: 8273: 8225: 8117: 8081: 8045: 8033: 7963: 7961: 7959: 7740: 7121: 7109: 7013: 6637:) were offered in elementary and middle schools, first in 5988:'to connect'. All other varieties use a form cognate with 5930:

Attributive constructions typically have the form NP/VP +

1033:

counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible.

730:, with the most complex patterns in the coastal area from 10507:———; Li, Ming; Peyraube, Alain (2007), 9443:

From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000

8488: 8486: 7997: 7985: 7725: 7623: 7611: 7563: 7503: 7426: 7387: 7351: 7303: 7291: 7249: 7061: 7037: 6571:

for different people to know and use different dialects.

6170:, though again the tonal category varies between groups. 960:

as a whole. As with the Romance languages descended from

710:

Chinese varieties have the greatest differences in their

581: 567: 553: 539: 10834: (archived 27 June 2015) compiled by Dylan W.H. Sung 10509:"Chinese linguistics and typology: the state of the art" 9152: 8396: 8384: 8374: 8372: 8213: 7776: 7764: 7674: 7664: 7662: 7635: 7457: 7455: 7453: 7416: 7414: 7269: 7267: 7162: 7160: 6926: 6860:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

6154: 6064:

are formed by replacing the desired information with an

497: 10818:

DOC (Dialects of China or Dictionary on Computer) files

10490:

Sinitic grammar: synchronic and diachronic perspectives

10392:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

9952:

Sinitic grammar: synchronic and diachronic perspectives

9377: 9367: 9365: 9350: 9340: 9338: 9323: 9260: 9236: 9140: 9089: 9041: 8648: 8597: 8471: 8237: 8201: 8189: 8177: 8165: 8153: 7956: 7239: 7237: 7235: 7220: 7049: 7003: 7001: 6938: 1316:

have spread to Southeast Asia, where they are known as

9289: 9287: 9224: 9188: 9005: 8981: 8911: 8909: 8860: 8858: 8843: 8831: 8819: 8807: 8795: 8783: 8771: 8749: 8747: 8638: 8636: 8534: 8483: 8333: 8297: 8261: 8129: 8057: 7944: 7908: 7527: 7399: 7097: 6645:(DPP) politicians, and finally throughout the island. 5435:

The usual unmarked word order in Chinese varieties is

3287:

in Chinese varieties are monosyllables descended from

16366: 10760:] (in Japanese), Yokohama shiritsu daigaku kiyō, 9430:(pp. 202–204). Singapore: Singapore University Press. 9212: 8408: 8369: 8009: 7932: 7860: 7659: 7599: 7467: 7450: 7438: 7411: 7315: 7264: 7208: 7157: 7145: 7133: 7085: 7025: 6852: 6843:

when referring to mutually unintelligible divisions.

6838: 6560: 6552: 6195: 6183: 6143: 6132: 6079: 6040: 6035:

All varieties allow sentences of the form NP + VP1 +

6022: 6011: 5989: 5978: 5935: 5895: 5511: 5469: 5451: 2781: 2764: 2724: 2694: 2683: 2672: 2630: 2612: 2600: 2582: 2431:

Chinese finals may be analysed as an optional medial

1675: 1644: 1332:, with smaller communities throughout southern China. 888: 792:. Use of this language expanded eastwards across the 473: 459: 445: 429: 415: 401: 387: 9856: 9362: 9335: 8894: 8345: 7902: 7752: 7515: 7479: 7232: 7073: 6998: 10840:: search interface to the DOC database, at StarLing 10758:

Compilation of Chinese dialects in local chronicles

10135:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 9311: 9284: 8993: 8945: 8906: 8882: 8870: 8855: 8744: 8660: 8633: 8522: 7920: 7872: 7196: 7172: 6888:

are used to facilitate comparison between dialects.

6716:, an evaluation of Singapore's education system by 6503:Within mainland China, there has been a persistent 6123:had two families of negation markers starting with 6074:

are formed by appending a particle to the sentence.

518: 10492:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3–28, 9750:The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese Language 9569: 8591: 8069: 7551: 7375: 6974: 6962: 6221: 2533:and Wu dialects, the stops have merged as a final 2474:, leaving a single mid vowel with a wide range of 1472:Some varieties remain unclassified, including the 10780:] (in Chinese), Guangzhou: World Publishing, 10052:Nakanishi, Hiroki (2010), "Lùn Shēhuà de guīshǔ" 7973: 7587: 7339: 6053:A characteristic feature of Chinese varieties is 1654:, literally 'place speech', was the title of the 16402: 10912:Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects 10220: 10056:[On the genetic affiliation of Shehua], 7884: 7647: 7497: 7184: 6986: 6956: 6880: 6878: 6068:, though the words vary between different areas. 2323:In many northern and central varieties there is 1674:have been proposed as alternative renderings of 10249:Xiong, Zhenghui; Zhang, Zhenxing, eds. (2012), 10133:Middle Chinese: A Study in Historical Phonology 9863:(27th ed.), Dallas, TX: SIL International. 6205:in the north, with other forms used elsewhere. 3295:Colloquial pronunciations of cognate morphemes 2729:), corresponding to syllables ending in nasals 2497:The Middle Chinese codas, consisting of glides 11616: 11063: 10894:(revised ed.), Beijing: Commercial Press. 10168: 9812:Common Neo-Hakka: A Comparative Reconstruction 7854: 7842: 7830: 7818: 7806: 6520:Historically, many of the people who promoted 16128: 13839: 11790: 10933: 10322:(2nd ed.), Routledge, pp. 114–163, 10295: 9954:, Oxford University Press, pp. 340–368, 9872:(PhD thesis), University of Texas at Austin, 9509: 9305: 9278: 9254: 9134: 9122: 9110: 9071: 9059: 9035: 9023: 8975: 8963: 8939: 8726: 8714: 8702: 8690: 6875: 6084: 5900: 5516: 5475: 5457: 2776: 2770: 2759: 2753: 2719: 2689: 2678: 2667: 2642: 2636: 2624: 2618: 2606: 2594: 2588: 2454:, which also function as medials, mid vowels 2438:Conservative vowel systems, such as those of 900: 894: 326: 310: 272:Primary branches of Chinese according to the 30:For the varieties of Han Chinese people, see 13589: 11477: 10811:Dictionary of Chinese dialect pronunciations 10772:Chen Xiaojin (陈晓锦) Gan Yu'en (甘于恩) (2010), 9792:, Oxford University Press, pp. 81–109, 9770:Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics 5387:Southern varieties also include distinctive 1344:(literally "guest families") are a group of 1228:is usually taken as representative, because 10725:Dialect and Nationalism in China, 1860–1960 10608:, Oxford University Press, pp. 34–44, 10127: 9733:, Oxford University Press, pp. 13–52, 9467:Lim, Siew Yeen; Yak, Jessie (4 July 2013). 6944: 6471:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 6260:Learn how and when to remove these messages 5502:, Chinese varieties require an intervening 3291:words, and have cognates in all varieties: 1723:Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects 1392:and by far most commonly spoken variety is 885:common language based on Mandarin varieties 16142: 16135: 16121: 14061: 13846: 13832: 13810: 13580: 11797: 11783: 10940: 10926: 10606:The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics 10437:———; Wang, Feng (2006), 10252:Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí: Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn 10248: 9747: 9714:, Oxford University Press, pp. 3–12, 9510:Bokhorst-Heng, Wendy (1999). "Singapore's 9206: 9083: 8927: 8738: 8678: 8627: 7581: 7285: 6898: 6896: 6894: 6641:, then in other areas governed by elected 5915:is not marked, except in varieties in the 1599: 1300:, retain features such as voiced initials. 947: 10947: 10419: 10380: 10260:Language Atlas of China: Chinese dialects 10190: 10051: 9900: 9877: 9828: 9728: 9706: 7967: 7914: 7746: 7605: 6491:Learn how and when to remove this message 6366:Learn how and when to remove this message 6313:Learn how and when to remove this message 6100: 1376:These varieties are spoken in Guangdong, 10901:– linguistic maps and commentaries from 9922: 9889:Cahiers de linguistique – Asie orientale 9773:, New York: Cambridge University Press, 8618:, pp. 17–19, 213–214, 219, 231–232. 8027: 7950: 7938: 7569: 7545: 7509: 7405: 7369: 7333: 7309: 7297: 6419: 5426: 2560: 2422: 2258: 1687: 1535: 916:was replaced as the written standard by 13505: 9609:, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 305–324, 9601: 9518:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 235–265. 7127: 7115: 6891: 5953: 5500:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area 2575:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area 1427:, distinguishing three further groups: 1044:Proportions of first-language speakers 14: 16403: 13853: 10749: 10369:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 10202:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 10149: 10100: 10078: 9835:The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy 9806: 9466: 9218: 9194: 9182: 9170: 9158: 9011: 8987: 8849: 8837: 8825: 8813: 8801: 8789: 8777: 8765: 8615: 8576: 8564: 8552: 8540: 8516: 8504: 8492: 8453: 8438: 8426: 8414: 8402: 8390: 8378: 8363: 8351: 8327: 8315: 8303: 8291: 8279: 8267: 8255: 8231: 8147: 8135: 8123: 8099: 8087: 8051: 8015: 8003: 7991: 7866: 7758: 7734: 7683: 7668: 7641: 7629: 7617: 7485: 7473: 7461: 7444: 7432: 7420: 7393: 7357: 7321: 7273: 7258: 7243: 7226: 7214: 7202: 7178: 7166: 7151: 7103: 7091: 7079: 7067: 7055: 7043: 7031: 7019: 7007: 6932: 6776:Protection of the Varieties of Chinese 2294:, which developed from Middle Chinese 1692:Traditional Chinese syllable structure 1528:overlaid with two millennia of loans. 1324:. Other offshoots of Min are found in 583: 475: 16116: 15001: 14060: 13827: 11778: 10921: 10905:Interpretive maps of Chinese dialects 10860:CLDF dataset (Version v4.0). Zenodo. 10228:; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987), 9968: 9909: 9886: 9867: 9383: 9371: 9356: 9344: 9329: 7878: 7794: 7782: 7770: 2806: 2435:, a main vowel and an optional coda. 1452:The Hui dialects, spoken in southern 1413:) and have rich inventories of tones. 1196:is a Mandarin variety written in the 11804: 10279:Introduction to Chinese Dialectology 10199: 10010: 9987: 9787: 9766: 9690:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 9681:———, ed. (2008c), 9680: 9664:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 9655:———, ed. (2008b), 9654: 9638:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 9623: 9317: 8900: 8888: 8654: 8603: 8339: 8219: 8207: 8195: 8183: 8171: 8159: 8063: 7979: 7926: 7903:Eberhard, Simons & Fennig (2024) 7890: 7719: 7707: 7695: 7653: 7593: 7139: 6992: 6980: 6968: 6770:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects 6658: 6469:adding citations to reliable sources 6436: 6324: 6295:adding citations to reliable sources 6266: 6225: 5422: 1720:In the 42 varieties surveyed in the 1531: 15002: 10704:———, ed. (2022), 10317: 10276: 9538: 9475:. National Library Board, Singapore 9439: 9293: 9266: 9242: 9146: 9095: 9047: 8999: 8951: 8915: 8876: 8864: 8753: 8666: 8642: 8528: 8477: 8465: 8243: 8111: 8075: 8039: 7557: 7533: 7521: 7381: 7345: 7190: 6216: 6208:Chinese varieties tend to indicate 6036: 5931: 1423:(1987) follows a classification of 864: 24: 10875:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 10338: 9945: 9860:Ethnologue: Languages of the World 9230: 6415: 1656:first work of Chinese dialectology 1276:The Xiang varieties are spoken in 659:varieties forming a branch of the 27:Family of local language varieties 25: 16427: 10796: 10685:Simmons, Richard VanNess (1999), 6851:as a translation for all uses of 6432: 6241:This section has multiple issues. 5407:Chinese varieties generally lack 1036: 1010: 278:. The Mandarin area extends into 16388: 16376: 13809: 13287:Literary and colloquial readings 13159: 11140: 10856:], Beijing University, 1964. 10813:], Beijing University, 1962. 9553:10.1111/j.1360-6441.2006.00331.x 9532: 9503: 9500:", Hua Sheng Bao, 17 March 2009. 9487: 9460: 9433: 9420: 9407: 9389: 7710:, Maps 5, 52, 79, 109, 134, 138. 7548:, pp. 43–44, 48, 69, 75–76. 6866: 6662: 6585:Before 1945, other than a small 6530:often emphasized his origins in 6441: 6328: 6271: 6230: 2809:Middle Chinese tone and initial 2399: 2380: 2364: 2352: 2340: 816:(771–476 BC). Although the 266: 10627:, University of Hawaiʻi Press, 10561:"Language and dialect in China" 9752:, Routledge, pp. 606–628, 6824: 6282:needs additional citations for 6249:or discuss these issues on the 6222:Bilingualism and code-switching 6114: 3262:Many Chinese varieties exhibit 2486:, vowels and final glides have 1742:Initials of selected varieties 800:, and then southwards into the 634: 610: 582: 568: 554: 540: 519: 498: 10888:Dialect survey character table 10727:, Cambridge University Press, 10708:, Hong Kong University Press, 10666:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 10565:Chinese Language and Discourse 10462:Branner, David Prager (2000), 10154:, Princeton University Press, 10086:, Cambridge University Press, 10059:Journal of Chinese Linguistics 10011:——— (2013), 9910:——— (2010), 9790:Diversity in Sinitic Languages 9731:Diversity in Sinitic Languages 9712:Diversity in Sinitic Languages 9562: 8150:, pp. 182, 193, 200, 205. 7584:, pp. 161, 188, 189, 195. 6837:to serve as a translation for 6797: 6788: 6085: 6078:This particle is a cognate of 5974: 5901: 5517: 2777: 2771: 2760: 2754: 2720: 2690: 2679: 2668: 2643: 2637: 2625: 2619: 2607: 2595: 2589: 2287:Most non-Min varieties have a 1612: 1515:Most of the vocabulary of the 1296:varieties, represented by the 1288:varieties, represented by the 1256:These varieties are spoken in 1208:These varieties are spoken in 932:of Singapore. It has become a 928:and Taiwan, and is one of the 901: 895: 474: 460: 446: 430: 416: 402: 388: 327: 311: 13: 1: 10488:, in Chappell, Hilary (ed.), 10113:, Routledge, pp. 72–83, 9428:Text in Education and Society 6915: 6857:. The latter term appears in 5506:when a noun is preceded by a 3278: 13815:List of varieties of Chinese 10854:Chinese dialect vocabularies 10750:Hatano Tarō (波多野太郎) (1966), 10360:10.1016/0388-0001(91)90022-S 10183:10.1016/j.lingua.2008.10.001 9516:Language Ideological Debates 9185:, pp. 196–197, 203–204. 8114:, pp. 91, 108–109, 152. 7855:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 7843:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 7831:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 7819:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 7807:Tang & van Heuven (2009) 6920: 6764:List of varieties of Chinese 6648: 6643:Democratic Progressive Party 6155: 5973:sentences of the form NP1 + 2664:four tones of Middle Chinese 1683: 1260:and neighbouring areas. The 1017:List of varieties of Chinese 956:and perhaps even as much as 714:, and to a lesser extent in 661:Sino-Tibetan language family 655:There are hundreds of local 7: 10625:Asia's Orthographic Dilemma 10623:Hannas, William C. (1997), 10277:Yan, Margaret Mian (2006), 9840:University of Hawaiʻi Press 9570:Beijing University (1989), 9541:Journal of Sociolinguistics 6853: 6839: 6752: 6561: 6553: 6196: 6184: 6144: 6133: 6080: 6041: 6023: 6012: 5990: 5979: 5936: 5896: 5512: 5493: 5470: 5452: 2782: 2765: 2725: 2695: 2688:) and 'departing'/'going' ( 2684: 2673: 2631: 2613: 2601: 2583: 2571:like neighbouring languages 1715: 1676: 1645: 1436:These varieties, spoken in 1404:, from the coastal area of 889: 10: 16432: 13773:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols 10907:, Tokyo: Hakuteisha Press. 10873:Institute of Linguistics, 10540:Escure, Geneviève (1997), 10320:The Sino-Tibetan Languages 10150:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), 10111:The Sino-Tibetan languages 9918:, Special issue I: 97–121. 7336:, pp. 53–55, 61, 215. 6885: 6813:, "the Chinese". In 1982, 6706:had previously been their 6652: 6578: 5402: 2808: 2569:All varieties of Chinese, 2267:The initial system of the 1712:as independent syllables. 1216:and the southern parts of 1163:'s dialectology handbook: 1014: 1005:written vernacular Chinese 976:empires in China, and the 926:People's Republic of China 918:written vernacular Chinese 908:In the early years of the 868: 845:, and is believed to be a 779: 36: 29: 16151: 16084: 16057:Southern (Shanghai) Sign 16042: 15971: 15915: 15719: 15657: 15610: 15567: 15529: 15414: 15336: 15327: 15259: 15222: 15109: 15100: 15012: 15008: 14997: 14938: 14840: 14722: 14648: 14495: 14377: 14189: 14180: 14132: 14084: 14073: 14069: 14056: 14049: 14029: 13936: 13884: 13877: 13861: 13807: 13691: 13660: 13571: 13496: 13438: 13358: 13333: 13295: 13242: 13168: 13157: 13104: 13056: 13011: 12988: 12933: 12924: 12862: 12781: 12756: 12738: 12715: 12652: 12643: 12606: 12583: 12545: 12536: 12527: 12463: 12423: 12350: 12328: 12300: 12282: 12256: 12233: 12169: 12160: 12137: 12107: 12084: 12008: 11948: 11920: 11897: 11874: 11841: 11832: 11823: 11812: 11762: 11707: 11659: 11544: 11385: 11353: 11311: 11246: 11149: 11138: 10956: 10899:Chinese Dialect Geography 10584:Groves, Julie M. (2008), 10559:Francis, Norbert (2016), 10481:Chappell, Hilary (2001), 10129:Pulleyblank, Edwin George 9469:"Speak Mandarin Campaign" 9173:, pp. 196, 200, 204. 8592:Beijing University (1989) 8366:, pp. 147, 202, 239. 7722:, Maps 3, 28, 38, 41, 76. 6903: 6731:Launched in 1979 by then 6574: 6200: 6188: 6148: 6137: 6090: 6045: 6027: 6016: 6010:with a verb cognate with 5994: 5983: 5940: 5906: 5566: 5561: 5551: 5546: 5539: 5522: 5481: 5476: 5463: 5458: 3327: 3322: 3312: 3307: 3299: 3251: 3242: 3236: 3230: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3198: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3169: 3166: 3152: 3149: 3146: 3140: 3134: 3123: 3120: 3117: 3108: 3105: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3079: 3076: 3067: 3062: 3059: 3056: 3047: 3044: 3030: 3027: 3018: 3015: 3004: 3001: 2992: 2989: 2980: 2975: 2972: 2969: 2966: 2955: 2952: 2949: 2946: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2888: 2880: 2877: 2874: 2871: 2854: 2822: 2819: 2816: 2813: 2699:). Syllables ending in a 2418: 2347:voiced obstruent initials 2187: 2134: 2130: 2121: 2119: 2093: 2007: 2003: 1977: 1786: 1774: 1772: 1762: 1760: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1649: 1617:Because speakers share a 1411:/p/,/t/,/k/,/m/,/n/and/ŋ/ 746:modern written vernacular 649: 645: 624: 617: 600: 593: 575: 561: 547: 533: 526: 512: 505: 491: 484: 467: 453: 439: 423: 409: 395: 381: 374: 369: 365: 354: 350: 340: 336: 320: 304: 299: 295: 291: 265: 251: 239: 225: 136: 108: 84:Linguistic classification 82: 58: 53: 48: 10903:Iwata, Ray, ed. (2009), 10882: 10849: 10806: 10773: 10752: 10254: 10053: 9923:Kurpaska, Maria (2010), 9868:Hsieh, Hsiu-Mei (2007), 9685: 9659: 9632: 9575: 9207:Chappell & Li (2016) 9084:Chappell & Li (2016) 8928:Chappell & Li (2016) 8739:Chappell & Li (2016) 8679:Chappell & Li (2016) 8628:Chappell & Li (2016) 8579:, pp. 148–149, 195. 8468:, pp. 108, 116–117. 8456:, pp. 195–196, 272. 8318:, pp. 193, 201–202. 8102:, pp. 199–200, 207. 7797:, pp. 215–216, 218. 7582:Xiong & Zhang (2012) 7286:Xiong & Zhang (2012) 6781: 5917:Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund 2556: 2298:in certain environments. 814:Spring and Autumn period 663:, many of which are not 322:Traditional Chinese 16054:Northern (Beijing) Sign 10723:Tam, Gina Anne (2020), 10525:10.1515/LINGTY.2007.014 10231:Language Atlas of China 9512:Speak Mandarin Campaign 9413:Manfred Whoa Man-Fat, " 8042:, pp. 69, 90, 127. 6833:proposed the neologism 6614:retreated to the island 5409:inflectional morphology 1600:Intelligibility testing 1420:Language Atlas of China 968:2000 years ago, by the 958:Indo-European languages 948:Comparison with Romance 758:four official languages 306:Simplified Chinese 275:Language Atlas of China 14063:Sino-Tibetan languages 10880:Fāngyán diàochá zìbiǎo 10866:10.5281/zenodo.3534942 10455:10.1075/dia.23.1.04ham 10404:10.1098/rspb.2004.3015 10382:10.3406/clao.1983.1125 10214:10.3406/clao.2005.1728 10152:The Languages of China 9902:10.3406/clao.1995.1475 9440:Lee, Kuan Yew (2000). 6655:Languages of Singapore 6505:Promotion of Putonghua 6429: 5432: 2566: 2531:Lower Yangtze Mandarin 2428: 2327:of dental affricates, 2264: 1693: 1575:Lower Yangtze Mandarin 1542: 770:six official languages 11667:Central Tibeto-Burman 10733:10.1017/9781108776400 10577:10.1075/cld.7.1.05fra 10222:Wurm, Stephen Adolphe 9969:Liang, Sihua (2014), 9683:Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí 9657:Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí 9630:Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí 7698:, Maps 4, 52, 66, 73. 7372:, pp. 46, 49–50. 6653:Further information: 6601:, with a minority of 6579:Further information: 6423: 6108:disjunctive questions 6008:existential sentences 5430: 2802:in colloquial layers 2798:Tonal categories and 2564: 2426: 2371:velar nasal initial ( 2289:labiodental fricative 2262: 1886:voiceless unaspirated 1691: 1619:standard written form 1539: 1526:Sino-Tibetan language 1015:Further information: 934:pluricentric language 766:pluricentric language 665:mutually intelligible 32:Han Chinese subgroups 16416:Dialects by language 16411:Varieties of Chinese 10593:Sino-Platonic Papers 10000:Sino-Platonic Papers 9306:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9279:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9257:, pp. 143, 146. 9255:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9135:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9123:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9111:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9072:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9060:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9036:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 9024:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8976:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8964:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8940:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8768:, pp. 182, 214. 8727:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8715:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8703:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8691:Yue-Hashimoto (1993) 8567:, pp. 202, 239. 8330:, pp. 193, 201. 8258:, pp. 141, 198. 8090:, pp. 211, 233. 8054:, pp. 139, 236. 7022:, pp. 183, 185. 6884:The tone numbers of 6740:Chinese Singaporeans 6700:Chinese Singaporeans 6603:Taiwanese aborigines 6465:improve this section 6291:improve this article 6106:Most varieties form 5954:Major sentence types 585:[hɔ̄ːn.jy̬ː] 16097:NM = Inner Mongolia 11725:Proto-Tibeto-Burman 10847:Hànyǔ Fāngyīn Cíhuì 10804:Hànyǔ Fāngyīn Zìhuì 10513:Linguistic Typology 10398:(1567): 1015–1022, 10297:Yue-Hashimoto, Anne 9948:Chappell, Hilary M. 9767:Chen, Ping (1999), 9708:Chappell, Hilary M. 9573:Hànyǔ fāngyīn zìhuì 9473:Singapore Infopedia 9269:, pp. 147–148. 9245:, pp. 141–142. 9233:, pp. 341–343. 9149:, pp. 136–137. 9098:, pp. 135–136. 9074:, pp. 173–174. 9062:, pp. 173–178. 9050:, pp. 153–154. 8942:, pp. 227–232. 8741:, pp. 607–608. 8630:, pp. 606–607. 8555:, pp. 146–147. 8519:, pp. 225–226. 8507:, pp. 238–239. 8480:, pp. 162–163. 8441:, pp. 194–195. 8429:, pp. 217–218. 8294:, pp. 216–217. 8282:, pp. 200–201. 8246:, pp. 150–151. 8234:, pp. 28, 141. 8126:, pp. 235–236. 8030:, pp. 186–188. 8006:, pp. 212–213. 7994:, pp. 138–139. 7857:, pp. 721–722. 7845:, pp. 718–722. 7833:, pp. 715–717. 7809:, pp. 713–714. 7785:, pp. 211–212. 7773:, pp. 102–108. 7737:, pp. 182–183. 7632:, pp. 290–291. 7536:, pp. 222–223. 7435:, pp. 232–233. 7396:, pp. 207–209. 7360:, pp. 199–200. 7261:, pp. 189–190. 7130:, pp. 313–318. 7118:, pp. 309–312. 7070:, pp. 183–190. 7046:, pp. 116–117. 6935:, pp. 211–214. 6704:Singaporean Hokkien 6581:Languages of Taiwan 6522:Chinese nationalism 6426:standard characters 6006:All varieties form 5969:All varieties have 5536: 5437:subject–verb–object 3296: 2803: 2480:syllabic fricatives 2442:, have high vowels 2316:The Middle Chinese 1798:voiceless aspirated 1743: 1484:(southern Hainan), 1396:, from the city of 966:substrate languages 748:. It is one of the 563:Canton Romanization 121:Eastern Han Chinese 15634:Formosan languages 13855:Languages of China 13768:Cantonese Bopomofo 13635:Chinese characters 13563:Written Sichuanese 12147:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot 11718:Proto-Sino-Tibetan 11660:Proposed groupings 10689:, John Benjamins, 10544:, John Benjamins, 9403:on 2 October 2013. 7686:, pp. 73, 76. 7644:, pp. 73, 75. 7620:, p. 438–443. 7498:Wurm et al. (1987) 7288:, pp. 3, 125. 6957:Wurm et al. (1987) 6945:Pulleyblank (1984) 6807:, from Late Latin 6803:Also known as the 6759:Languages of China 6635:Formosan languages 6607:Formosan languages 6430: 6066:interrogative word 5535:Personal pronouns 5534: 5433: 3294: 2797: 2567: 2429: 2410:where Beijing has 2391:where Beijing has 2359:retroflex initials 2265: 1741: 1694: 1586:dialect boundaries 1543: 1496:(southern Hunan), 1298:Shuangfeng dialect 1001:standard languages 930:official languages 764:. It has become a 750:official languages 39:Languages of China 16364: 16363: 16110: 16109: 15653: 15652: 15649: 15648: 15645: 15644: 15638: 15630: 15622: 15525: 15524: 15255: 15254: 14993: 14992: 14989: 14988: 14718: 14717: 14714: 14713: 14045: 14044: 13821: 13820: 13803: 13802: 13630: 13629: 13548:Written Cantonese 13543: 13542: 13325:Classical grammar 13320:Cantonese grammar 13155: 13154: 13052: 13051: 12858: 12857: 12777: 12776: 12639: 12638: 12346: 12345: 12133: 12132: 12023:Chengdu–Chongqing 11816:Sinitic languages 11772: 11771: 11655: 11654: 11540: 11539: 11381: 11380: 11136: 11135: 10787:978-7-510-08769-1 10742:978-1-108-77640-0 10715:978-988-8754-09-0 10696:978-90-272-8433-4 10653:978-90-272-4785-8 10634:978-0-8248-1892-0 10615:978-0-19-985633-6 10551:978-90-272-5240-1 10499:978-0-19-829977-6 10473:978-3-11-015831-1 10348:Language Sciences 10329:978-1-138-78332-4 10310:978-2-910216-00-9 10288:978-3-89586-629-6 10281:, LINCOM Europa, 10269:978-7-10-007054-6 10241:978-962-359-085-3 10161:978-0-691-01468-5 10142:978-0-7748-0192-8 10120:978-0-7007-1129-1 10107:LaPolla, Randy J. 10093:978-0-521-29653-3 10029:978-986-03-7678-4 9980:978-3-319-12618-0 9961:978-0-19-829977-6 9938:978-3-11-021914-2 9929:Walter de Gruyter 9849:978-0-8248-1068-9 9821:978-986-54-3228-7 9799:978-0-19-872379-0 9780:978-0-521-64572-0 9759:978-0-415-53970-8 9740:978-0-19-872379-0 9721:978-0-19-872379-0 9699:978-7-100-05785-1 9673:978-7-100-05784-4 9647:978-7-100-05774-5 9616:978-3-11-012855-0 9594:978-7-80029-000-8 9525:978-3-11-016350-6 9498:讲华语运动30年对象随大环境改变 9453:978-0-06-019776-6 9446:. HarperCollins. 9386:, pp. 20–21. 9359:, pp. 16–17. 9332:, pp. 12–13. 9161:, pp. 97–98. 9137:, pp. 44–47. 9038:, pp. 32–33. 8405:, pp. 53–54. 8393:, pp. 34–36. 7749:, pp. 45–51. 7572:, pp. 72–73. 7524:, pp. 60–61. 7512:, pp. 55–56. 7312:, pp. 41–53. 7300:, pp. 36–41. 7229:, pp. 16–18. 7142:, pp. 46–49. 7058:, pp. 24–25. 6805:Sinitic languages 6692: 6691: 6627:Taiwanese Hokkien 6618:Chinese Civil War 6616:after losing the 6595:Taiwanese Hokkien 6515:identity politics 6510:written Cantonese 6501: 6500: 6493: 6376: 6375: 6368: 6358: 6357: 6323: 6322: 6315: 6264: 5892: 5891: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5441:Kra–Dai languages 5423:Constituent order 5385: 5384: 3440: 3433: 3426: 3419: 3412: 3405: 3398: 3391: 3384: 3377: 3370: 3363: 3356: 3349: 3256: 3255: 2716:checked syllables 2655:system much like 2539:Mandarin dialects 2257: 2256: 2091: 2015: 1975: 1887: 1799: 1728:Chongming dialect 1643:The Chinese term 1532:Dialect geography 1364:and stop endings 1330:Leizhou Peninsula 1027:dialect continuum 954:Romance languages 910:Republic of China 854:North China Plain 807:standard language 794:North China Plain 653: 652: 641: 640: 535:Yale Romanization 455:Yale Romanization 376:Standard Mandarin 16:(Redirected from 16423: 16393: 16392: 16391: 16381: 16380: 16372: 16137: 16130: 16123: 16114: 16113: 16066: 15636: 15628: 15620: 15334: 15333: 15107: 15106: 15010: 15009: 14999: 14998: 14187: 14186: 14082: 14081: 14071: 14070: 14058: 14057: 14054: 14053: 13882: 13881: 13869:Standard Chinese 13848: 13841: 13834: 13825: 13824: 13813: 13812: 13785:Taiwanese Hangul 13674:Mainland Chinese 13587: 13586: 13578: 13577: 13503: 13502: 13180:Standard Chinese 13163: 12931: 12930: 12650: 12649: 12543: 12542: 12534: 12533: 12416: 12404: 12392: 12380: 12368: 12167: 12166: 11839: 11838: 11830: 11829: 11806:Chinese language 11799: 11792: 11785: 11776: 11775: 11614: 11613: 11475: 11474: 11309: 11308: 11144: 11061: 11060: 10942: 10935: 10928: 10919: 10918: 10908: 10895: 10893: 10857: 10838:Chinese Dialects 10814: 10791: 10768: 10746: 10719: 10700: 10681: 10657: 10638: 10619: 10600: 10590: 10580: 10555: 10536: 10503: 10487: 10477: 10458: 10433: 10423: 10386: 10384: 10363: 10354:(3/4): 335–379, 10333: 10314: 10292: 10273: 10245: 10217: 10196: 10194: 10165: 10146: 10124: 10103:Thurgood, Graham 10097: 10075: 10048: 10046: 10044: 10039:on 16 April 2018 10038: 10032:, archived from 10017: 10007: 9997: 9984: 9965: 9942: 9919: 9906: 9904: 9883: 9881: 9864: 9853: 9825: 9808:Coblin, W. South 9803: 9784: 9763: 9744: 9725: 9703: 9677: 9651: 9620: 9598: 9586: 9557: 9556: 9536: 9530: 9529: 9507: 9501: 9495: 9491: 9485: 9484: 9482: 9480: 9464: 9458: 9457: 9437: 9431: 9424: 9418: 9411: 9405: 9404: 9399:. Archived from 9397:"The Goh Report" 9393: 9387: 9381: 9375: 9369: 9360: 9354: 9348: 9342: 9333: 9327: 9321: 9315: 9309: 9303: 9297: 9291: 9282: 9276: 9270: 9264: 9258: 9252: 9246: 9240: 9234: 9228: 9222: 9216: 9210: 9204: 9198: 9192: 9186: 9180: 9174: 9168: 9162: 9156: 9150: 9144: 9138: 9132: 9126: 9120: 9114: 9108: 9099: 9093: 9087: 9081: 9075: 9069: 9063: 9057: 9051: 9045: 9039: 9033: 9027: 9021: 9015: 9009: 9003: 8997: 8991: 8985: 8979: 8973: 8967: 8961: 8955: 8949: 8943: 8937: 8931: 8925: 8919: 8913: 8904: 8898: 8892: 8886: 8880: 8874: 8868: 8862: 8853: 8847: 8841: 8835: 8829: 8823: 8817: 8811: 8805: 8799: 8793: 8787: 8781: 8775: 8769: 8763: 8757: 8751: 8742: 8736: 8730: 8724: 8718: 8712: 8706: 8700: 8694: 8688: 8682: 8676: 8670: 8664: 8658: 8652: 8646: 8640: 8631: 8625: 8619: 8613: 8607: 8601: 8595: 8589: 8580: 8574: 8568: 8562: 8556: 8550: 8544: 8538: 8532: 8526: 8520: 8514: 8508: 8502: 8496: 8490: 8481: 8475: 8469: 8463: 8457: 8451: 8442: 8436: 8430: 8424: 8418: 8412: 8406: 8400: 8394: 8388: 8382: 8376: 8367: 8361: 8355: 8349: 8343: 8337: 8331: 8325: 8319: 8313: 8307: 8301: 8295: 8289: 8283: 8277: 8271: 8265: 8259: 8253: 8247: 8241: 8235: 8229: 8223: 8217: 8211: 8205: 8199: 8193: 8187: 8181: 8175: 8169: 8163: 8157: 8151: 8145: 8139: 8133: 8127: 8121: 8115: 8109: 8103: 8097: 8091: 8085: 8079: 8073: 8067: 8061: 8055: 8049: 8043: 8037: 8031: 8025: 8019: 8013: 8007: 8001: 7995: 7989: 7983: 7977: 7971: 7968:DeFrancis (1984) 7965: 7954: 7948: 7942: 7936: 7930: 7924: 7918: 7915:Chappell (2015a) 7912: 7906: 7900: 7894: 7888: 7882: 7876: 7870: 7864: 7858: 7852: 7846: 7840: 7834: 7828: 7822: 7816: 7810: 7804: 7798: 7792: 7786: 7780: 7774: 7768: 7762: 7756: 7750: 7747:Chappell (2015b) 7744: 7738: 7732: 7723: 7717: 7711: 7705: 7699: 7693: 7687: 7681: 7672: 7666: 7657: 7651: 7645: 7639: 7633: 7627: 7621: 7615: 7609: 7606:Nakanishi (2010) 7603: 7597: 7591: 7585: 7579: 7573: 7567: 7561: 7555: 7549: 7543: 7537: 7531: 7525: 7519: 7513: 7507: 7501: 7495: 7489: 7483: 7477: 7471: 7465: 7459: 7448: 7442: 7436: 7430: 7424: 7418: 7409: 7403: 7397: 7391: 7385: 7379: 7373: 7367: 7361: 7355: 7349: 7343: 7337: 7331: 7325: 7319: 7313: 7307: 7301: 7295: 7289: 7283: 7277: 7271: 7262: 7256: 7247: 7241: 7230: 7224: 7218: 7212: 7206: 7200: 7194: 7188: 7182: 7176: 7170: 7164: 7155: 7149: 7143: 7137: 7131: 7125: 7119: 7113: 7107: 7106:, pp. 3–15. 7101: 7095: 7089: 7083: 7077: 7071: 7065: 7059: 7053: 7047: 7041: 7035: 7029: 7023: 7017: 7011: 7005: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6942: 6936: 6930: 6909: 6907: 6900: 6889: 6882: 6873: 6870: 6864: 6856: 6847:coined the term 6842: 6828: 6822: 6815:Paul K. Benedict 6801: 6795: 6792: 6687: 6684: 6666: 6659: 6566: 6558: 6535: 6496: 6489: 6485: 6482: 6476: 6445: 6437: 6400:and recognizing 6371: 6364: 6353: 6350: 6332: 6325: 6318: 6311: 6307: 6304: 6298: 6275: 6267: 6256: 6234: 6233: 6226: 6217:Sociolinguistics 6204: 6199: 6192: 6187: 6169: 6165: 6158: 6152: 6147: 6141: 6136: 6130: 6126: 6102: 6094: 6088: 6087: 6083: 6072:Yes–no questions 6049: 6044: 6038: 6031: 6026: 6020: 6015: 5998: 5993: 5987: 5982: 5976: 5944: 5939: 5933: 5910: 5904: 5903: 5899: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5813: 5808: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5537: 5533: 5526: 5520: 5519: 5515: 5485: 5479: 5478: 5473: 5467: 5461: 5460: 5455: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3527: 3522: 3509: 3504: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3436: 3429: 3422: 3415: 3408: 3401: 3394: 3387: 3380: 3373: 3366: 3359: 3352: 3345: 3297: 3293: 3268:Standard Chinese 2804: 2796: 2785: 2780: 2779: 2774: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2762: 2757: 2756: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2722: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2698: 2693: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2670: 2646: 2645: 2640: 2639: 2634: 2628: 2627: 2622: 2621: 2616: 2610: 2609: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2592: 2591: 2586: 2577:, have phonemic 2548: 2545:has merged with 2544: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2473: 2470:has merged with 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2403: 2384: 2374: 2368: 2356: 2344: 2293: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2243: 2238: 2231: 2226: 2219: 2214: 2207: 2200: 2195: 2174: 2158: 2144: 2128: 2124: 2117: 2110: 2105: 2098: 2089: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2067: 2060: 2055: 2048: 2043: 2036: 2029: 2024: 2013: 1999: 1994: 1987: 1982: 1973: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1941: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1885: 1878: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1804: 1797: 1744: 1740: 1732:Chongming Island 1700:, a final and a 1679: 1653: 1648: 1607:Standard Chinese 1412: 1390:prestige variety 1367: 1363: 1290:Changsha dialect 1262:Nanchang dialect 1174:Standard Chinese 1139: 1129: 1119: 1109: 1099: 1089: 1079: 1069: 1059: 1049: 990:dialect continua 986:Literary Chinese 914:Literary Chinese 904: 903: 898: 897: 892: 871:Standard Chinese 865:Standard Chinese 742:Standard Chinese 657:Chinese language 637: 636: 613: 612: 589: 588: 587: 571: 570: 557: 556: 543: 542: 522: 521: 501: 500: 480: 479: 478: 463: 462: 449: 448: 435: 434: 433: 419: 418: 405: 404: 391: 390: 367: 366: 332: 331: 316: 315: 270: 261: 247: 235: 46: 45: 21: 16431: 16430: 16426: 16425: 16424: 16422: 16421: 16420: 16401: 16400: 16399: 16389: 16387: 16375: 16367: 16365: 16360: 16147: 16141: 16111: 16106: 16080: 16060: 16038: 15967: 15911: 15722: 15715: 15641: 15621:(Indo-European) 15606: 15563: 15521: 15410: 15323: 15251: 15218: 15096: 15004: 15003:Other languages 14985: 14934: 14865:Central Tibetan 14836: 14710: 14644: 14491: 14373: 14176: 14128: 14076: 14065: 14041: 14025: 13932: 13873: 13857: 13852: 13822: 13817: 13799: 13736:Tongyong Pinyin 13716:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 13704:Dungan Cyrillic 13687: 13656: 13626: 13567: 13558:Written Hokkien 13539: 13498: 13492: 13468:Middle Mandarin 13434: 13354: 13329: 13291: 13238: 13171: 13164: 13151: 13100: 13048: 13007: 12984: 12920: 12854: 12773: 12752: 12734: 12711: 12635: 12602: 12579: 12523: 12459: 12419: 12410: 12398: 12386: 12374: 12362: 12342: 12324: 12296: 12278: 12252: 12229: 12156: 12129: 12103: 12080: 12004: 11944: 11916: 11893: 11870: 11819: 11808: 11803: 11773: 11768: 11758: 11709:Proto-languages 11703: 11651: 11618:Greater Siangic 11612: 11549: 11536: 11473: 11377: 11349: 11307: 11251: 11242: 11154: 11145: 11132: 11065:Greater Magaric 11059: 10986:West Himalayish 10966: 10952: 10946: 10902: 10891: 10884: 10872: 10851: 10845: 10832:Wayback Machine 10822:Wayback Machine 10808: 10802: 10799: 10794: 10788: 10775: 10771: 10754: 10743: 10722: 10716: 10703: 10697: 10684: 10662:Sagart, Laurent 10660: 10654: 10641: 10635: 10622: 10616: 10603: 10588: 10583: 10558: 10552: 10539: 10506: 10500: 10485: 10480: 10474: 10461: 10436: 10389: 10366: 10345: 10341: 10339:Further reading 10336: 10330: 10311: 10289: 10270: 10256: 10242: 10162: 10143: 10121: 10094: 10055: 10042: 10040: 10036: 10030: 10015: 9995: 9989:Mair, Victor H. 9981: 9962: 9939: 9850: 9830:DeFrancis, John 9822: 9800: 9781: 9760: 9741: 9722: 9700: 9687: 9674: 9661: 9648: 9634: 9627:, ed. (2008a), 9617: 9595: 9584: 9577: 9565: 9560: 9537: 9533: 9526: 9508: 9504: 9493: 9492: 9488: 9478: 9476: 9465: 9461: 9454: 9438: 9434: 9425: 9421: 9412: 9408: 9395: 9394: 9390: 9382: 9378: 9370: 9363: 9355: 9351: 9343: 9336: 9328: 9324: 9316: 9312: 9304: 9300: 9292: 9285: 9277: 9273: 9265: 9261: 9253: 9249: 9241: 9237: 9229: 9225: 9217: 9213: 9205: 9201: 9193: 9189: 9181: 9177: 9169: 9165: 9157: 9153: 9145: 9141: 9133: 9129: 9121: 9117: 9109: 9102: 9094: 9090: 9082: 9078: 9070: 9066: 9058: 9054: 9046: 9042: 9034: 9030: 9022: 9018: 9010: 9006: 8998: 8994: 8986: 8982: 8974: 8970: 8962: 8958: 8950: 8946: 8938: 8934: 8926: 8922: 8914: 8907: 8899: 8895: 8887: 8883: 8875: 8871: 8863: 8856: 8848: 8844: 8836: 8832: 8824: 8820: 8812: 8808: 8800: 8796: 8788: 8784: 8776: 8772: 8764: 8760: 8752: 8745: 8737: 8733: 8729:, pp. 4–5. 8725: 8721: 8717:, pp. 2–4. 8713: 8709: 8705:, pp. 1–2. 8701: 8697: 8689: 8685: 8677: 8673: 8665: 8661: 8653: 8649: 8641: 8634: 8626: 8622: 8614: 8610: 8602: 8598: 8590: 8583: 8575: 8571: 8563: 8559: 8551: 8547: 8539: 8535: 8527: 8523: 8515: 8511: 8503: 8499: 8491: 8484: 8476: 8472: 8464: 8460: 8452: 8445: 8437: 8433: 8425: 8421: 8413: 8409: 8401: 8397: 8389: 8385: 8377: 8370: 8362: 8358: 8350: 8346: 8338: 8334: 8326: 8322: 8314: 8310: 8302: 8298: 8290: 8286: 8278: 8274: 8266: 8262: 8254: 8250: 8242: 8238: 8230: 8226: 8218: 8214: 8206: 8202: 8194: 8190: 8182: 8178: 8170: 8166: 8158: 8154: 8146: 8142: 8134: 8130: 8122: 8118: 8110: 8106: 8098: 8094: 8086: 8082: 8074: 8070: 8062: 8058: 8050: 8046: 8038: 8034: 8028:Kurpaska (2010) 8026: 8022: 8014: 8010: 8002: 7998: 7990: 7986: 7978: 7974: 7966: 7957: 7951:Kurpaska (2010) 7949: 7945: 7939:Kurpaska (2010) 7937: 7933: 7929:, pp. 3–6. 7925: 7921: 7913: 7909: 7901: 7897: 7889: 7885: 7877: 7873: 7869:, pp. 1–2. 7865: 7861: 7853: 7849: 7841: 7837: 7829: 7825: 7817: 7813: 7805: 7801: 7793: 7789: 7781: 7777: 7769: 7765: 7757: 7753: 7745: 7741: 7733: 7726: 7718: 7714: 7706: 7702: 7694: 7690: 7682: 7675: 7667: 7660: 7652: 7648: 7640: 7636: 7628: 7624: 7616: 7612: 7604: 7600: 7592: 7588: 7580: 7576: 7570:Kurpaska (2010) 7568: 7564: 7556: 7552: 7546:Kurpaska (2010) 7544: 7540: 7532: 7528: 7520: 7516: 7510:Kurpaska (2010) 7508: 7504: 7496: 7492: 7484: 7480: 7472: 7468: 7460: 7451: 7443: 7439: 7431: 7427: 7419: 7412: 7406:Kurpaska (2010) 7404: 7400: 7392: 7388: 7380: 7376: 7370:Kurpaska (2010) 7368: 7364: 7356: 7352: 7344: 7340: 7334:Kurpaska (2010) 7332: 7328: 7320: 7316: 7310:Kurpaska (2010) 7308: 7304: 7298:Kurpaska (2010) 7296: 7292: 7284: 7280: 7272: 7265: 7257: 7250: 7242: 7233: 7225: 7221: 7217:, pp. 2–3. 7213: 7209: 7201: 7197: 7189: 7185: 7177: 7173: 7165: 7158: 7150: 7146: 7138: 7134: 7126: 7122: 7114: 7110: 7102: 7098: 7090: 7086: 7078: 7074: 7066: 7062: 7054: 7050: 7042: 7038: 7030: 7026: 7018: 7014: 7006: 6999: 6991: 6987: 6979: 6975: 6967: 6963: 6955: 6951: 6943: 6939: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6912: 6901: 6892: 6883: 6876: 6871: 6867: 6829: 6825: 6802: 6798: 6793: 6789: 6784: 6755: 6688: 6682: 6679: 6672:needs expansion 6657: 6651: 6631:Taiwanese Hakka 6583: 6577: 6569:extended family 6543:were also from 6537:Chiang Kai-shek 6525: 6497: 6486: 6480: 6477: 6462: 6446: 6435: 6418: 6416:Language policy 6372: 6361: 6360: 6359: 6354: 6348: 6345: 6338:needs expansion 6319: 6308: 6302: 6299: 6288: 6276: 6235: 6231: 6224: 6219: 6213:northern ones. 6179:grammaticalized 6117: 5956: 5496: 5425: 5405: 4297:"moon", 'month' 3281: 3271:syllable tone. 2769:) and "lower" ( 2657:modern Japanese 2559: 2488:monophthongized 2421: 2414: 2404: 2395: 2385: 2376: 2369: 2360: 2357: 2348: 2345: 1791: 1718: 1710:syllabic nasals 1686: 1615: 1602: 1555:Hilary Chappell 1534: 1474:Danzhou dialect 1358:Meixian dialect 1198:Cyrillic script 1186:Dungan language 1148: 1147: 1146: 1145: 1144:, others (0.6%) 1137: 1135: 1127: 1125: 1117: 1115: 1107: 1105: 1097: 1095: 1087: 1085: 1077: 1075: 1067: 1065: 1057: 1055: 1047: 1039: 1021:Dialectologist 1019: 1013: 950: 922:Beijing dialect 873: 867: 838:rime dictionary 782: 756:and one of the 441:Tongyong Pinyin 431: 411:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 355:Literal meaning 287: 257: 245: 231: 132: 111: 60: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 16429: 16419: 16418: 16413: 16398: 16397: 16385: 16362: 16361: 16359: 16358: 16353: 16348: 16343: 16338: 16333: 16328: 16323: 16321:Serbo-Croatian 16318: 16313: 16308: 16303: 16298: 16293: 16288: 16283: 16278: 16273: 16268: 16263: 16258: 16253: 16248: 16243: 16238: 16233: 16228: 16223: 16218: 16213: 16208: 16203: 16198: 16193: 16188: 16183: 16178: 16173: 16168: 16163: 16158: 16152: 16149: 16148: 16140: 16139: 16132: 16125: 16117: 16108: 16107: 16105: 16104: 16101: 16098: 16095: 16092: 16091:HK = Hong Kong 16089: 16085: 16082: 16081: 16079: 16078: 16071: 16070: 16069: 16068: 16067: 16062:Hong Kong Sign 16055: 16046: 16044: 16040: 16039: 16037: 16036: 16031: 16026: 16021: 16016: 16011: 16006: 16001: 15996: 15991: 15986: 15981: 15975: 15973: 15969: 15968: 15966: 15965: 15960: 15955: 15950: 15945: 15940: 15935: 15930: 15925: 15919: 15917: 15913: 15912: 15910: 15909: 15908: 15907: 15902: 15892: 15891: 15890: 15885: 15875: 15874: 15873: 15868: 15858: 15857: 15856: 15851: 15846: 15841: 15836: 15831: 15830: 15829: 15824: 15819: 15804: 15799: 15794: 15789: 15788: 15787: 15782: 15781: 15780: 15770: 15765: 15764: 15763: 15753: 15748: 15743: 15738: 15727: 15725: 15717: 15716: 15714: 15713: 15708: 15702: 15697: 15692: 15687: 15682: 15677: 15672: 15667: 15661: 15659: 15655: 15654: 15651: 15650: 15647: 15646: 15643: 15642: 15640: 15639: 15637:(Austronesian) 15631: 15629:(Austronesian) 15623: 15614: 15612: 15608: 15607: 15605: 15604: 15599: 15594: 15589: 15584: 15579: 15573: 15571: 15565: 15564: 15562: 15561: 15556: 15551: 15546: 15541: 15535: 15533: 15527: 15526: 15523: 15522: 15520: 15519: 15514: 15509: 15504: 15499: 15494: 15489: 15484: 15479: 15474: 15469: 15464: 15459: 15454: 15449: 15444: 15439: 15434: 15429: 15424: 15418: 15416: 15412: 15411: 15409: 15408: 15403: 15398: 15393: 15388: 15383: 15378: 15373: 15368: 15363: 15358: 15353: 15348: 15342: 15340: 15331: 15325: 15324: 15322: 15321: 15316: 15311: 15306: 15301: 15296: 15291: 15286: 15281: 15276: 15271: 15265: 15263: 15257: 15256: 15253: 15252: 15250: 15249: 15244: 15239: 15234: 15228: 15226: 15220: 15219: 15217: 15216: 15211: 15206: 15201: 15196: 15191: 15186: 15181: 15176: 15171: 15166: 15161: 15156: 15151: 15146: 15141: 15136: 15131: 15126: 15121: 15115: 15113: 15104: 15098: 15097: 15095: 15094: 15089: 15084: 15079: 15074: 15069: 15064: 15059: 15054: 15049: 15044: 15039: 15034: 15029: 15024: 15018: 15016: 15006: 15005: 14995: 14994: 14991: 14990: 14987: 14986: 14984: 14983: 14978: 14973: 14968: 14963: 14958: 14953: 14948: 14942: 14940: 14936: 14935: 14933: 14932: 14927: 14922: 14917: 14912: 14907: 14902: 14897: 14892: 14887: 14882: 14877: 14872: 14867: 14862: 14857: 14852: 14846: 14844: 14838: 14837: 14835: 14834: 14829: 14824: 14819: 14814: 14809: 14807:Southern Qiang 14804: 14802:Northern Qiang 14799: 14794: 14789: 14784: 14779: 14774: 14769: 14764: 14759: 14754: 14749: 14744: 14739: 14734: 14728: 14726: 14720: 14719: 14716: 14715: 14712: 14711: 14709: 14708: 14703: 14698: 14693: 14688: 14683: 14678: 14673: 14668: 14663: 14658: 14652: 14650: 14646: 14645: 14643: 14642: 14637: 14632: 14627: 14622: 14617: 14612: 14607: 14602: 14597: 14592: 14587: 14582: 14577: 14572: 14567: 14562: 14557: 14552: 14547: 14542: 14537: 14532: 14527: 14522: 14517: 14512: 14507: 14501: 14499: 14493: 14492: 14490: 14489: 14484: 14479: 14474: 14469: 14464: 14459: 14454: 14449: 14444: 14439: 14434: 14429: 14424: 14419: 14414: 14409: 14404: 14399: 14394: 14389: 14383: 14381: 14375: 14374: 14372: 14371: 14366: 14361: 14356: 14351: 14346: 14341: 14336: 14331: 14326: 14321: 14316: 14311: 14306: 14301: 14296: 14291: 14286: 14281: 14276: 14271: 14266: 14261: 14256: 14251: 14246: 14241: 14236: 14231: 14226: 14221: 14216: 14211: 14206: 14201: 14195: 14193: 14184: 14178: 14177: 14175: 14174: 14169: 14164: 14159: 14154: 14149: 14144: 14138: 14136: 14130: 14129: 14127: 14126: 14121: 14116: 14111: 14106: 14101: 14096: 14090: 14088: 14079: 14067: 14066: 14051: 14047: 14046: 14043: 14042: 14039: 14037: 14027: 14026: 14024: 14023: 14018: 14013: 14008: 14003: 13998: 13993: 13988: 13983: 13978: 13973: 13968: 13963: 13958: 13953: 13948: 13942: 13940: 13934: 13933: 13931: 13930: 13925: 13920: 13915: 13910: 13905: 13900: 13894: 13892: 13879: 13875: 13874: 13872: 13871: 13865: 13863: 13859: 13858: 13851: 13850: 13843: 13836: 13828: 13819: 13818: 13808: 13805: 13804: 13801: 13800: 13798: 13797: 13792: 13787: 13782: 13780:Taiwanese kana 13777: 13776: 13775: 13770: 13760: 13759: 13758: 13753: 13751:Lessing-Othmer 13748: 13743: 13738: 13733: 13728: 13723: 13718: 13708: 13707: 13706: 13695: 13693: 13689: 13688: 13686: 13681: 13676: 13671: 13666: 13664: 13658: 13657: 13655: 13654: 13649: 13648: 13647: 13642: 13631: 13628: 13627: 13625: 13620: 13615: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13595: 13593: 13584: 13575: 13569: 13568: 13566: 13565: 13560: 13555: 13553:Written Dungan 13550: 13544: 13541: 13540: 13538: 13537: 13532: 13531: 13530: 13525: 13520: 13509: 13507: 13500: 13494: 13493: 13491: 13490: 13485: 13480: 13475: 13470: 13465: 13460: 13458:Middle Chinese 13455: 13450: 13444: 13442: 13436: 13435: 13433: 13432: 13427: 13425:Wubi (Wang Ma) 13422: 13417: 13416: 13415: 13410: 13405: 13395: 13390: 13385: 13384: 13383: 13373: 13370: 13364: 13362: 13356: 13355: 13353: 13352: 13345: 13337: 13335: 13331: 13330: 13328: 13327: 13322: 13317: 13312: 13307: 13301: 13299: 13293: 13292: 13290: 13289: 13284: 13279: 13274: 13269: 13264: 13259: 13258: 13257: 13246: 13244: 13240: 13239: 13237: 13236: 13231: 13226: 13221: 13220: 13219: 13218: 13217: 13212: 13202: 13197: 13192: 13187: 13176: 13174: 13166: 13165: 13158: 13156: 13153: 13152: 13150: 13149: 13144: 13142:Xiangnan Tuhua 13139: 13134: 13129: 13127:Shaozhou Tuhua 13124: 13119: 13114: 13108: 13106: 13102: 13101: 13099: 13098: 13097: 13096: 13091: 13086: 13078: 13077: 13076: 13071: 13062: 13060: 13054: 13053: 13050: 13049: 13047: 13046: 13041: 13036: 13031: 13026: 13021: 13015: 13013: 13009: 13008: 13006: 13005: 13000: 12994: 12992: 12986: 12985: 12983: 12982: 12977: 12972: 12967: 12962: 12957: 12956: 12955: 12950: 12939: 12937: 12928: 12922: 12921: 12919: 12918: 12917: 12916: 12911: 12906: 12896: 12895: 12894: 12884: 12879: 12874: 12868: 12866: 12860: 12859: 12856: 12855: 12853: 12852: 12851: 12850: 12845: 12840: 12830: 12829: 12828: 12818: 12813: 12808: 12803: 12802: 12801: 12796: 12785: 12783: 12779: 12778: 12775: 12774: 12772: 12771: 12766: 12760: 12758: 12754: 12753: 12751: 12750: 12744: 12742: 12736: 12735: 12733: 12732: 12727: 12721: 12719: 12713: 12712: 12710: 12709: 12704: 12699: 12694: 12689: 12684: 12679: 12674: 12669: 12664: 12658: 12656: 12647: 12641: 12640: 12637: 12636: 12634: 12633: 12632: 12631: 12626: 12616: 12610: 12608: 12604: 12603: 12601: 12600: 12595: 12589: 12587: 12581: 12580: 12578: 12577: 12572: 12567: 12562: 12557: 12551: 12549: 12540: 12531: 12525: 12524: 12522: 12521: 12520: 12519: 12509: 12504: 12503: 12502: 12497: 12492: 12482: 12481: 12480: 12469: 12467: 12461: 12460: 12458: 12457: 12452: 12447: 12442: 12441: 12440: 12429: 12427: 12421: 12420: 12418: 12417: 12405: 12393: 12381: 12369: 12356: 12354: 12348: 12347: 12344: 12343: 12341: 12340: 12334: 12332: 12326: 12325: 12323: 12322: 12317: 12312: 12306: 12304: 12298: 12297: 12295: 12294: 12288: 12286: 12280: 12279: 12277: 12276: 12271: 12266: 12260: 12258: 12254: 12253: 12251: 12250: 12245: 12239: 12237: 12231: 12230: 12228: 12227: 12222: 12217: 12212: 12207: 12202: 12196: 12191: 12186: 12181: 12175: 12173: 12164: 12158: 12157: 12155: 12154: 12149: 12143: 12141: 12135: 12134: 12131: 12130: 12128: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12111: 12109: 12105: 12104: 12102: 12101: 12096: 12090: 12088: 12082: 12081: 12079: 12078: 12077: 12076: 12066: 12061: 12056: 12051: 12050: 12049: 12048: 12047: 12040:Renshou–Fushun 12037: 12036: 12035: 12025: 12014: 12012: 12006: 12005: 12003: 12002: 11997: 11992: 11987: 11982: 11977: 11976: 11975: 11965: 11960: 11954: 11952: 11950:Central Plains 11946: 11945: 11943: 11942: 11937: 11932: 11926: 11924: 11918: 11917: 11915: 11914: 11909: 11903: 11901: 11895: 11894: 11892: 11891: 11886: 11880: 11878: 11872: 11871: 11869: 11868: 11863: 11858: 11853: 11847: 11845: 11836: 11827: 11821: 11820: 11813: 11810: 11809: 11802: 11801: 11794: 11787: 11779: 11770: 11769: 11763: 11760: 11759: 11757: 11756: 11749: 11742: 11735: 11728: 11721: 11713: 11711: 11705: 11704: 11702: 11701: 11699:Tibeto-Kanauri 11696: 11689: 11684: 11679: 11674: 11672:Kuki-Chin–Naga 11669: 11663: 11661: 11657: 11656: 11653: 11652: 11650: 11649: 11644: 11643: 11642: 11635: 11622: 11620: 11611: 11610: 11603: 11598: 11597: 11596: 11582: 11581: 11580: 11573: 11560: 11558: 11542: 11541: 11538: 11537: 11535: 11534: 11533: 11532: 11525: 11520: 11508: 11503: 11498: 11497: 11496: 11483: 11481: 11472: 11471: 11470: 11469: 11462: 11455: 11443: 11436: 11429: 11422: 11417: 11410: 11403: 11395: 11393: 11391:Southeast Asia 11383: 11382: 11379: 11378: 11376: 11375: 11370: 11365: 11359: 11357: 11351: 11350: 11348: 11347: 11342: 11337: 11330: 11328:Angami–Pochuri 11325: 11319: 11317: 11306: 11305: 11298: 11291: 11290: 11289: 11282: 11270: 11263: 11255: 11253: 11252:Burmese border 11244: 11243: 11241: 11240: 11235: 11228: 11221: 11214: 11213: 11212: 11204: 11197: 11190: 11185: 11170: 11168: 11147: 11146: 11139: 11137: 11134: 11133: 11131: 11130: 11117: 11112: 11111: 11110: 11103: 11091: 11090: 11089: 11082: 11069: 11067: 11058: 11057: 11050: 11049: 11048: 11041: 11034: 11022: 11015: 11014: 11013: 11008: 10996: 10989: 10981: 10979: 10954: 10953: 10945: 10944: 10937: 10930: 10922: 10916: 10915: 10909: 10896: 10870: 10869: 10868: 10843: 10842: 10841: 10835: 10825: 10798: 10797:External links 10795: 10793: 10792: 10786: 10769: 10747: 10741: 10720: 10714: 10701: 10695: 10682: 10672:(2): 281–302, 10658: 10652: 10639: 10633: 10620: 10614: 10601: 10581: 10571:(1): 136–149, 10556: 10550: 10537: 10519:(1): 187–211, 10504: 10498: 10478: 10472: 10459: 10434: 10387: 10364: 10342: 10340: 10337: 10335: 10334: 10328: 10315: 10309: 10293: 10287: 10274: 10268: 10246: 10240: 10218: 10208:(1): 101–127, 10197: 10177:(5): 709–732, 10166: 10160: 10147: 10141: 10125: 10119: 10098: 10092: 10076: 10062:(in Chinese), 10049: 10028: 10008: 9985: 9979: 9966: 9960: 9943: 9937: 9920: 9907: 9895:(2): 195–227, 9884: 9865: 9854: 9848: 9826: 9820: 9804: 9798: 9785: 9779: 9764: 9758: 9745: 9739: 9726: 9720: 9704: 9698: 9678: 9672: 9652: 9646: 9621: 9615: 9603:Bradley, David 9599: 9593: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9558: 9547:(3): 344–361. 9531: 9524: 9502: 9486: 9459: 9452: 9432: 9419: 9406: 9388: 9376: 9361: 9349: 9334: 9322: 9310: 9298: 9296:, p. 124. 9283: 9281:, p. 159. 9271: 9259: 9247: 9235: 9223: 9211: 9209:, p. 607. 9199: 9197:, p. 213. 9187: 9175: 9163: 9151: 9139: 9127: 9115: 9100: 9088: 9086:, p. 608. 9076: 9064: 9052: 9040: 9028: 9016: 9014:, p. 125. 9004: 9002:, p. 131. 8992: 8990:, p. 223. 8980: 8968: 8966:, p. 111. 8956: 8954:, p. 121. 8944: 8932: 8930:, p. 623. 8920: 8918:, p. 150. 8905: 8903:, p. 106. 8893: 8881: 8879:, p. 117. 8869: 8867:, p. 116. 8854: 8852:, p. 220. 8842: 8840:, p. 227. 8830: 8828:, p. 234. 8818: 8816:, p. 203. 8806: 8804:, p. 205. 8794: 8792:, p. 208. 8782: 8780:, p. 196. 8770: 8758: 8756:, p. 115. 8743: 8731: 8719: 8707: 8695: 8683: 8681:, p. 606. 8671: 8669:, p. 130. 8659: 8647: 8645:, p. 114. 8632: 8620: 8608: 8596: 8581: 8569: 8557: 8545: 8543:, p. 218. 8533: 8531:, p. 198. 8521: 8509: 8497: 8495:, p. 202. 8482: 8470: 8458: 8443: 8431: 8419: 8407: 8395: 8383: 8368: 8356: 8344: 8332: 8320: 8308: 8306:, p. 237. 8296: 8284: 8272: 8270:, p. 194. 8260: 8248: 8236: 8224: 8212: 8200: 8188: 8176: 8164: 8152: 8140: 8138:, p. 193. 8128: 8116: 8104: 8092: 8080: 8078:, p. 127. 8068: 8056: 8044: 8032: 8020: 8018:, p. 101. 8008: 7996: 7984: 7972: 7955: 7943: 7931: 7919: 7907: 7895: 7883: 7871: 7859: 7847: 7835: 7823: 7821:, p. 712. 7811: 7799: 7787: 7775: 7763: 7751: 7739: 7724: 7712: 7700: 7688: 7673: 7671:, p. 182. 7658: 7646: 7634: 7622: 7610: 7598: 7586: 7574: 7562: 7560:, p. 235. 7550: 7538: 7526: 7514: 7502: 7490: 7478: 7476:, p. 215. 7466: 7464:, p. 217. 7449: 7447:, p. 224. 7437: 7425: 7423:, p. 233. 7410: 7398: 7386: 7384:, p. 148. 7374: 7362: 7350: 7338: 7326: 7324:, p. 181. 7314: 7302: 7290: 7278: 7276:, p. 188. 7263: 7248: 7231: 7219: 7207: 7195: 7183: 7171: 7169:, p. 187. 7156: 7154:, p. 247. 7144: 7132: 7128:Bradley (1992) 7120: 7116:Bradley (1992) 7108: 7096: 7094:, p. 136. 7084: 7072: 7060: 7048: 7036: 7034:, p. 185. 7024: 7012: 7010:, p. 183. 6997: 6985: 6983:, p. 122. 6973: 6971:, p. 107. 6961: 6949: 6937: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6911: 6910: 6890: 6874: 6865: 6831:John DeFrancis 6823: 6796: 6786: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6778: 6773: 6766: 6761: 6754: 6751: 6733:Prime Minister 6690: 6689: 6669: 6667: 6650: 6647: 6576: 6573: 6545:southern China 6499: 6498: 6449: 6447: 6440: 6434: 6433:Mainland China 6431: 6428:" on the wall. 6417: 6414: 6374: 6373: 6356: 6355: 6335: 6333: 6321: 6320: 6303:September 2023 6279: 6277: 6270: 6265: 6239: 6238: 6236: 6229: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6161:syllabic nasal 6116: 6113: 6112: 6111: 6104: 6076: 6075: 6069: 6062:Open questions 5999:, which was a 5955: 5952: 5948:Nominalization 5925:Yongxin County 5890: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5815: 5814: 5809: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5771: 5766: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5728: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5653: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5581: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5495: 5492: 5491: 5490: 5487: 5448: 5424: 5421: 5404: 5401: 5383: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5305: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5149: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5071: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4993: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4837: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4759: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4681: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4603: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4447: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4369: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4291: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4213: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4057: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3979: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3901: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3823: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3745: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3667: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3589: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3511: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3442: 3441: 3434: 3427: 3420: 3413: 3406: 3399: 3392: 3385: 3378: 3371: 3364: 3357: 3350: 3342: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3301: 3280: 3277: 3254: 3253: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3241: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3223: 3219: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3206: 3203: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3187: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3174: 3171: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3155: 3154: 3151: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3130: 3126: 3125: 3122: 3119: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3104: 3101: 3097: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3087: 3084: 3081: 3078: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3065: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3055: 3052: 3049: 3046: 3043: 3040: 3037: 3033: 3032: 3029: 3026: 3023: 3020: 3017: 3014: 3011: 3007: 3006: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2994: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2982: 2978: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2958: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2948: 2945: 2942: 2938: 2937: 2934: 2931: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2916: 2912: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2893: 2890: 2886: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2863: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2835: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2824: 2821: 2818: 2815: 2811: 2810: 2807: 2800:pitch contours 2701:stop consonant 2558: 2555: 2553:of the vowel. 2420: 2417: 2416: 2415: 2405: 2398: 2396: 2386: 2379: 2377: 2370: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2351: 2349: 2346: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2332: 2325:palatalization 2321: 2314: 2299: 2296:bilabial stops 2269:Fuzhou dialect 2255: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2239: 2234: 2232: 2227: 2222: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2208: 2203: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2140: 2138: 2132: 2131: 2129: 2120: 2118: 2113: 2111: 2106: 2101: 2099: 2094: 2092: 2086: 2085: 2083: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2032: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2011: 2005: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1976: 1970: 1969: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1942: 1937: 1935: 1930: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1910: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1893: 1888: 1882: 1881: 1879: 1874: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1854: 1849: 1847: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1827: 1822: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1784: 1783: 1773: 1771: 1761: 1759: 1749: 1747: 1717: 1714: 1685: 1682: 1627:dialect groups 1614: 1611: 1601: 1598: 1594:Wuyi Mountains 1533: 1530: 1498:Shaozhou Tuhua 1494:Xiangnan Tuhua 1488:(northwestern 1476:(northwestern 1470: 1469: 1462: 1457: 1450: 1445: 1434: 1415: 1414: 1374: 1369: 1338: 1333: 1306: 1301: 1274: 1269: 1254: 1249: 1226:Suzhou dialect 1206: 1201: 1170: 1136: 1126: 1116: 1106: 1096: 1086: 1076: 1066: 1056: 1046: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1038: 1037:Dialect groups 1035: 1012: 1011:Classification 1009: 982:Medieval Latin 949: 946: 869:Main article: 866: 863: 843:Middle Chinese 781: 778: 774:United Nations 705:Middle Chinese 651: 650: 647: 646: 643: 642: 639: 638: 631: 622: 621: 615: 614: 611:Hàn-gí, Hàn-gú 607: 598: 597: 591: 590: 579: 573: 572: 565: 559: 558: 551: 545: 544: 537: 531: 530: 528:Yue: Cantonese 524: 523: 516: 510: 509: 503: 502: 495: 489: 488: 482: 481: 471: 465: 464: 457: 451: 450: 443: 437: 436: 427: 421: 420: 413: 407: 406: 399: 393: 392: 385: 379: 378: 372: 371: 370:Transcriptions 363: 362: 356: 352: 351: 348: 347: 344: 338: 337: 334: 333: 324: 318: 317: 308: 302: 301: 297: 296: 293: 292: 289: 288: 271: 263: 262: 255: 249: 248: 243: 237: 236: 229: 223: 222: 221: 220: 215: 213:Shaozhou Tuhua 210: 208:Xiangnan Tuhua 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 138: 134: 133: 131: 130: 129: 128: 126:Middle Chinese 114: 112: 109: 106: 105: 104: 103: 102: 101: 86: 80: 79: 62: 56: 55: 51: 50: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16428: 16417: 16414: 16412: 16409: 16408: 16406: 16396: 16386: 16384: 16379: 16374: 16373: 16370: 16357: 16354: 16352: 16349: 16347: 16344: 16342: 16339: 16337: 16334: 16332: 16329: 16327: 16324: 16322: 16319: 16317: 16314: 16312: 16309: 16307: 16304: 16302: 16299: 16297: 16294: 16292: 16289: 16287: 16284: 16282: 16279: 16277: 16274: 16272: 16269: 16267: 16264: 16262: 16259: 16257: 16254: 16252: 16249: 16247: 16244: 16242: 16239: 16237: 16234: 16232: 16229: 16227: 16224: 16222: 16219: 16217: 16214: 16212: 16209: 16207: 16204: 16202: 16199: 16197: 16194: 16192: 16189: 16187: 16184: 16182: 16179: 16177: 16174: 16172: 16169: 16167: 16164: 16162: 16159: 16157: 16154: 16153: 16150: 16145: 16138: 16133: 16131: 16126: 16124: 16119: 16118: 16115: 16102: 16100:XJ = Xinjiang 16099: 16096: 16093: 16090: 16087: 16086: 16083: 16077: 16075: 16072: 16065: 16063: 16059: 16058: 16056: 16053: 16052: 16051: 16048: 16047: 16045: 16041: 16035: 16032: 16030: 16027: 16025: 16022: 16020: 16017: 16015: 16012: 16010: 16007: 16005: 16002: 16000: 15997: 15995: 15992: 15990: 15987: 15985: 15982: 15980: 15977: 15976: 15974: 15970: 15964: 15961: 15959: 15956: 15954: 15951: 15949: 15946: 15944: 15941: 15939: 15936: 15934: 15931: 15929: 15926: 15924: 15921: 15920: 15918: 15914: 15906: 15903: 15901: 15898: 15897: 15896: 15893: 15889: 15886: 15884: 15881: 15880: 15879: 15876: 15872: 15869: 15867: 15864: 15863: 15862: 15859: 15855: 15852: 15850: 15847: 15845: 15842: 15840: 15837: 15835: 15832: 15828: 15825: 15823: 15820: 15818: 15815: 15814: 15813: 15810: 15809: 15808: 15805: 15803: 15800: 15798: 15795: 15793: 15790: 15786: 15783: 15779: 15776: 15775: 15774: 15771: 15769: 15766: 15762: 15759: 15758: 15757: 15754: 15752: 15749: 15747: 15744: 15742: 15739: 15737: 15734: 15733: 15732: 15729: 15728: 15726: 15724: 15718: 15712: 15709: 15706: 15703: 15701: 15698: 15696: 15693: 15691: 15688: 15686: 15683: 15681: 15678: 15676: 15673: 15671: 15668: 15666: 15663: 15662: 15660: 15656: 15635: 15632: 15627: 15624: 15619: 15616: 15615: 15613: 15609: 15603: 15602:Western Yugur 15600: 15598: 15595: 15593: 15590: 15588: 15585: 15583: 15580: 15578: 15575: 15574: 15572: 15570: 15566: 15560: 15557: 15555: 15552: 15550: 15547: 15545: 15542: 15540: 15537: 15536: 15534: 15532: 15528: 15518: 15515: 15513: 15510: 15508: 15505: 15503: 15500: 15498: 15495: 15493: 15490: 15488: 15485: 15483: 15480: 15478: 15475: 15473: 15470: 15468: 15465: 15463: 15460: 15458: 15455: 15453: 15450: 15448: 15445: 15443: 15440: 15438: 15435: 15433: 15430: 15428: 15425: 15423: 15420: 15419: 15417: 15413: 15407: 15404: 15402: 15399: 15397: 15394: 15392: 15389: 15387: 15384: 15382: 15379: 15377: 15374: 15372: 15369: 15367: 15364: 15362: 15359: 15357: 15354: 15352: 15349: 15347: 15344: 15343: 15341: 15339: 15335: 15332: 15330: 15326: 15320: 15317: 15315: 15312: 15310: 15307: 15305: 15302: 15300: 15297: 15295: 15292: 15290: 15287: 15285: 15284:Eastern Yugur 15282: 15280: 15277: 15275: 15272: 15270: 15267: 15266: 15264: 15262: 15258: 15248: 15245: 15243: 15240: 15238: 15235: 15233: 15230: 15229: 15227: 15225: 15221: 15215: 15212: 15210: 15207: 15205: 15204:Small Flowery 15202: 15200: 15197: 15195: 15192: 15190: 15187: 15185: 15182: 15180: 15177: 15175: 15172: 15170: 15167: 15165: 15162: 15160: 15157: 15155: 15152: 15150: 15147: 15145: 15142: 15140: 15137: 15135: 15132: 15130: 15127: 15125: 15122: 15120: 15117: 15116: 15114: 15112: 15108: 15105: 15103: 15099: 15093: 15090: 15088: 15085: 15083: 15080: 15078: 15075: 15073: 15070: 15068: 15065: 15063: 15060: 15058: 15055: 15053: 15050: 15048: 15045: 15043: 15040: 15038: 15035: 15033: 15030: 15028: 15025: 15023: 15020: 15019: 15017: 15015: 15014:Austroasiatic 15011: 15007: 15000: 14996: 14982: 14979: 14977: 14974: 14972: 14969: 14967: 14964: 14962: 14959: 14957: 14954: 14952: 14949: 14947: 14944: 14943: 14941: 14937: 14931: 14928: 14926: 14923: 14921: 14918: 14916: 14913: 14911: 14908: 14906: 14903: 14901: 14898: 14896: 14893: 14891: 14888: 14886: 14883: 14881: 14878: 14876: 14873: 14871: 14868: 14866: 14863: 14861: 14858: 14856: 14853: 14851: 14848: 14847: 14845: 14843: 14839: 14833: 14830: 14828: 14825: 14823: 14820: 14818: 14815: 14813: 14810: 14808: 14805: 14803: 14800: 14798: 14795: 14793: 14790: 14788: 14785: 14783: 14780: 14778: 14775: 14773: 14770: 14768: 14765: 14763: 14760: 14758: 14755: 14753: 14750: 14748: 14745: 14743: 14740: 14738: 14735: 14733: 14730: 14729: 14727: 14725: 14721: 14707: 14704: 14702: 14699: 14697: 14694: 14692: 14689: 14687: 14684: 14682: 14679: 14677: 14674: 14672: 14669: 14667: 14664: 14662: 14659: 14657: 14654: 14653: 14651: 14647: 14641: 14638: 14636: 14633: 14631: 14628: 14626: 14623: 14621: 14618: 14616: 14613: 14611: 14608: 14606: 14603: 14601: 14598: 14596: 14593: 14591: 14588: 14586: 14583: 14581: 14578: 14576: 14573: 14571: 14568: 14566: 14563: 14561: 14558: 14556: 14553: 14551: 14548: 14546: 14543: 14541: 14538: 14536: 14533: 14531: 14528: 14526: 14523: 14521: 14518: 14516: 14513: 14511: 14508: 14506: 14503: 14502: 14500: 14498: 14494: 14488: 14485: 14483: 14480: 14478: 14475: 14473: 14470: 14468: 14465: 14463: 14460: 14458: 14455: 14453: 14450: 14448: 14445: 14443: 14440: 14438: 14435: 14433: 14430: 14428: 14425: 14423: 14420: 14418: 14415: 14413: 14410: 14408: 14405: 14403: 14400: 14398: 14395: 14393: 14390: 14388: 14385: 14384: 14382: 14380: 14376: 14370: 14367: 14365: 14362: 14360: 14357: 14355: 14352: 14350: 14347: 14345: 14342: 14340: 14337: 14335: 14332: 14330: 14327: 14325: 14322: 14320: 14317: 14315: 14312: 14310: 14307: 14305: 14302: 14300: 14297: 14295: 14292: 14290: 14287: 14285: 14282: 14280: 14277: 14275: 14272: 14270: 14267: 14265: 14262: 14260: 14257: 14255: 14252: 14250: 14247: 14245: 14242: 14240: 14237: 14235: 14232: 14230: 14227: 14225: 14222: 14220: 14217: 14215: 14212: 14210: 14207: 14205: 14202: 14200: 14197: 14196: 14194: 14192: 14188: 14185: 14183: 14179: 14173: 14170: 14168: 14165: 14163: 14160: 14158: 14155: 14153: 14150: 14148: 14145: 14143: 14140: 14139: 14137: 14135: 14131: 14125: 14122: 14120: 14117: 14115: 14112: 14110: 14107: 14105: 14102: 14100: 14097: 14095: 14092: 14091: 14089: 14087: 14083: 14080: 14078: 14072: 14068: 14064: 14059: 14055: 14052: 14048: 14038: 14036: 14032: 14028: 14022: 14019: 14017: 14014: 14012: 14009: 14007: 14004: 14002: 13999: 13997: 13994: 13992: 13989: 13987: 13984: 13982: 13979: 13977: 13974: 13972: 13969: 13967: 13964: 13962: 13959: 13957: 13954: 13952: 13949: 13947: 13944: 13943: 13941: 13939: 13935: 13929: 13926: 13924: 13921: 13919: 13916: 13914: 13911: 13909: 13906: 13904: 13901: 13899: 13896: 13895: 13893: 13891: 13887: 13883: 13880: 13876: 13870: 13867: 13866: 13864: 13860: 13856: 13849: 13844: 13842: 13837: 13835: 13830: 13829: 13826: 13816: 13806: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13788: 13786: 13783: 13781: 13778: 13774: 13771: 13769: 13766: 13765: 13764: 13761: 13757: 13754: 13752: 13749: 13747: 13744: 13742: 13739: 13737: 13734: 13732: 13729: 13727: 13724: 13722: 13719: 13717: 13714: 13713: 13712: 13709: 13705: 13702: 13701: 13700: 13699:Cyrillization 13697: 13696: 13694: 13690: 13685: 13682: 13680: 13677: 13675: 13672: 13670: 13667: 13665: 13663: 13659: 13653: 13650: 13646: 13643: 13641: 13638: 13637: 13636: 13633: 13632: 13624: 13621: 13619: 13616: 13614: 13611: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13594: 13592: 13591:Script styles 13588: 13585: 13583: 13579: 13576: 13574: 13570: 13564: 13561: 13559: 13556: 13554: 13551: 13549: 13546: 13545: 13536: 13533: 13529: 13526: 13524: 13521: 13519: 13516: 13515: 13514: 13511: 13510: 13508: 13504: 13501: 13495: 13489: 13486: 13484: 13481: 13479: 13476: 13474: 13471: 13469: 13466: 13464: 13461: 13459: 13456: 13454: 13451: 13449: 13446: 13445: 13443: 13441: 13437: 13431: 13428: 13426: 13423: 13421: 13418: 13414: 13411: 13409: 13406: 13404: 13401: 13400: 13399: 13396: 13394: 13391: 13389: 13386: 13382: 13379: 13378: 13377: 13374: 13371: 13369: 13366: 13365: 13363: 13361: 13357: 13351: 13350: 13346: 13344: 13343: 13339: 13338: 13336: 13332: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13311: 13308: 13306: 13303: 13302: 13300: 13298: 13294: 13288: 13285: 13283: 13280: 13278: 13275: 13273: 13270: 13268: 13265: 13263: 13260: 13256: 13253: 13252: 13251: 13248: 13247: 13245: 13241: 13235: 13232: 13230: 13227: 13225: 13222: 13216: 13213: 13211: 13208: 13207: 13206: 13203: 13201: 13198: 13196: 13193: 13191: 13188: 13186: 13183: 13182: 13181: 13178: 13177: 13175: 13173: 13167: 13162: 13148: 13145: 13143: 13140: 13138: 13135: 13133: 13130: 13128: 13125: 13123: 13120: 13118: 13115: 13113: 13110: 13109: 13107: 13103: 13095: 13092: 13090: 13087: 13085: 13082: 13081: 13079: 13075: 13072: 13070: 13067: 13066: 13064: 13063: 13061: 13059: 13055: 13045: 13042: 13040: 13037: 13035: 13032: 13030: 13027: 13025: 13022: 13020: 13017: 13016: 13014: 13010: 13004: 13001: 12999: 12996: 12995: 12993: 12991: 12987: 12981: 12978: 12976: 12973: 12971: 12968: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12958: 12954: 12951: 12949: 12946: 12945: 12944: 12941: 12940: 12938: 12936: 12932: 12929: 12927: 12923: 12915: 12912: 12910: 12907: 12905: 12902: 12901: 12900: 12897: 12893: 12890: 12889: 12888: 12885: 12883: 12880: 12878: 12875: 12873: 12870: 12869: 12867: 12865: 12861: 12849: 12846: 12844: 12841: 12839: 12836: 12835: 12834: 12831: 12827: 12824: 12823: 12822: 12819: 12817: 12814: 12812: 12809: 12807: 12804: 12800: 12797: 12795: 12792: 12791: 12790: 12787: 12786: 12784: 12780: 12770: 12767: 12765: 12762: 12761: 12759: 12755: 12749: 12746: 12745: 12743: 12741: 12737: 12731: 12728: 12726: 12723: 12722: 12720: 12718: 12714: 12708: 12705: 12703: 12700: 12698: 12695: 12693: 12690: 12688: 12685: 12683: 12680: 12678: 12675: 12673: 12670: 12668: 12665: 12663: 12660: 12659: 12657: 12655: 12651: 12648: 12646: 12642: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12621: 12620: 12617: 12615: 12612: 12611: 12609: 12605: 12599: 12596: 12594: 12591: 12590: 12588: 12586: 12582: 12576: 12573: 12571: 12568: 12566: 12563: 12561: 12558: 12556: 12553: 12552: 12550: 12548: 12544: 12541: 12539: 12535: 12532: 12530: 12526: 12518: 12515: 12514: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12491: 12488: 12487: 12486: 12483: 12479: 12476: 12475: 12474: 12471: 12470: 12468: 12466: 12462: 12456: 12453: 12451: 12448: 12446: 12443: 12439: 12436: 12435: 12434: 12431: 12430: 12428: 12426: 12422: 12414: 12409: 12406: 12402: 12397: 12394: 12390: 12385: 12382: 12378: 12373: 12370: 12366: 12361: 12358: 12357: 12355: 12353: 12349: 12339: 12336: 12335: 12333: 12331: 12327: 12321: 12318: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12307: 12305: 12303: 12299: 12293: 12290: 12289: 12287: 12285: 12281: 12275: 12272: 12270: 12267: 12265: 12262: 12261: 12259: 12255: 12249: 12246: 12244: 12241: 12240: 12238: 12236: 12232: 12226: 12223: 12221: 12218: 12216: 12213: 12211: 12208: 12206: 12203: 12200: 12197: 12195: 12192: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12180: 12177: 12176: 12174: 12172: 12168: 12165: 12163: 12159: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12144: 12142: 12140: 12136: 12126: 12123: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12112: 12110: 12106: 12100: 12097: 12095: 12092: 12091: 12089: 12087: 12083: 12075: 12072: 12071: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12060: 12057: 12055: 12052: 12046: 12043: 12042: 12041: 12038: 12034: 12031: 12030: 12029: 12026: 12024: 12021: 12020: 12019: 12016: 12015: 12013: 12011: 12007: 12001: 11998: 11996: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11986: 11983: 11981: 11978: 11974: 11971: 11970: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11959: 11956: 11955: 11953: 11951: 11947: 11941: 11938: 11936: 11933: 11931: 11928: 11927: 11925: 11923: 11919: 11913: 11910: 11908: 11905: 11904: 11902: 11900: 11896: 11890: 11887: 11885: 11882: 11881: 11879: 11877: 11873: 11867: 11864: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11848: 11846: 11844: 11840: 11837: 11835: 11831: 11828: 11826: 11822: 11818: 11817: 11811: 11807: 11800: 11795: 11793: 11788: 11786: 11781: 11780: 11777: 11766: 11761: 11755: 11754: 11750: 11748: 11747: 11743: 11741: 11740: 11739:Proto-Karenic 11736: 11734: 11733: 11732:Proto-Loloish 11729: 11727: 11726: 11722: 11720: 11719: 11715: 11714: 11712: 11710: 11706: 11700: 11697: 11695: 11694: 11693:Tibeto-Burman 11690: 11688: 11685: 11683: 11680: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11664: 11662: 11658: 11648: 11645: 11641: 11640: 11636: 11634: 11633: 11629: 11628: 11627: 11624: 11623: 11621: 11619: 11615: 11609: 11608: 11604: 11602: 11599: 11595: 11594: 11590: 11589: 11588: 11587: 11583: 11579: 11578: 11574: 11572: 11571: 11567: 11566: 11565: 11562: 11561: 11559: 11556: 11552: 11547: 11543: 11531: 11530: 11526: 11524: 11521: 11519: 11516: 11515: 11514: 11513: 11509: 11507: 11504: 11502: 11499: 11495: 11492: 11491: 11490: 11489: 11485: 11484: 11482: 11480: 11479:Burmo-Qiangic 11476: 11468: 11467: 11463: 11461: 11460: 11456: 11454: 11453: 11449: 11448: 11447: 11444: 11442: 11441: 11437: 11435: 11434: 11430: 11428: 11427: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11415: 11411: 11409: 11408: 11404: 11402: 11401: 11397: 11396: 11394: 11392: 11388: 11384: 11374: 11373:Jingpho–Luish 11371: 11369: 11366: 11364: 11361: 11360: 11358: 11356: 11352: 11346: 11343: 11341: 11338: 11336: 11335: 11331: 11329: 11326: 11324: 11321: 11320: 11318: 11315: 11310: 11304: 11303: 11299: 11297: 11296: 11292: 11288: 11287: 11283: 11281: 11280: 11276: 11275: 11274: 11271: 11269: 11268: 11264: 11262: 11261: 11257: 11256: 11254: 11249: 11245: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11233: 11229: 11227: 11226: 11222: 11220: 11219: 11215: 11210: 11209: 11205: 11203: 11202: 11198: 11196: 11195: 11191: 11189: 11186: 11184: 11183: 11179: 11178: 11177: 11176: 11172: 11171: 11169: 11166: 11162: 11158: 11153: 11148: 11143: 11129: 11128: 11123: 11122: 11118: 11116: 11113: 11109: 11108: 11104: 11102: 11101: 11097: 11096: 11095: 11092: 11088: 11087: 11083: 11081: 11080: 11076: 11075: 11074: 11071: 11070: 11068: 11066: 11062: 11056: 11055: 11051: 11047: 11046: 11042: 11040: 11039: 11035: 11033: 11032: 11028: 11027: 11026: 11023: 11021: 11020: 11016: 11012: 11011:Baram–Thangmi 11009: 11007: 11006: 11002: 11001: 11000: 10997: 10995: 10994: 10990: 10988: 10987: 10983: 10982: 10980: 10977: 10973: 10969: 10964: 10960: 10955: 10950: 10943: 10938: 10936: 10931: 10929: 10924: 10923: 10920: 10913: 10910: 10906: 10900: 10897: 10889: 10885: 10881: 10876: 10871: 10867: 10863: 10859: 10858: 10855: 10848: 10844: 10839: 10836: 10833: 10829: 10826: 10823: 10819: 10816: 10815: 10812: 10805: 10801: 10800: 10789: 10783: 10779: 10774:东南亚华人社区汉语方言概要 10770: 10767: 10763: 10759: 10755: 10748: 10744: 10738: 10734: 10730: 10726: 10721: 10717: 10711: 10707: 10702: 10698: 10692: 10688: 10683: 10679: 10675: 10671: 10667: 10663: 10659: 10655: 10649: 10645: 10640: 10636: 10630: 10626: 10621: 10617: 10611: 10607: 10602: 10598: 10594: 10587: 10582: 10578: 10574: 10570: 10566: 10562: 10557: 10553: 10547: 10543: 10538: 10534: 10530: 10526: 10522: 10518: 10514: 10510: 10505: 10501: 10495: 10491: 10484: 10479: 10475: 10469: 10465: 10460: 10456: 10452: 10448: 10444: 10440: 10435: 10431: 10427: 10422: 10417: 10413: 10409: 10405: 10401: 10397: 10393: 10388: 10383: 10378: 10374: 10370: 10365: 10361: 10357: 10353: 10349: 10344: 10343: 10331: 10325: 10321: 10316: 10312: 10306: 10302: 10298: 10294: 10290: 10284: 10280: 10275: 10271: 10265: 10261: 10257: 10255:中国语言地图集:汉语方言卷 10253: 10247: 10243: 10237: 10233: 10232: 10227: 10223: 10219: 10215: 10211: 10207: 10203: 10198: 10193: 10188: 10184: 10180: 10176: 10172: 10167: 10163: 10157: 10153: 10148: 10144: 10138: 10134: 10130: 10126: 10122: 10116: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10099: 10095: 10089: 10085: 10081: 10080:Norman, Jerry 10077: 10073: 10069: 10065: 10061: 10060: 10050: 10035: 10031: 10025: 10021: 10014: 10009: 10005: 10001: 9994: 9990: 9986: 9982: 9976: 9972: 9967: 9963: 9957: 9953: 9949: 9944: 9940: 9934: 9930: 9926: 9921: 9917: 9916:Dialectologia 9913: 9908: 9903: 9898: 9894: 9890: 9885: 9880: 9875: 9871: 9866: 9862: 9861: 9855: 9851: 9845: 9841: 9837: 9836: 9831: 9827: 9823: 9817: 9813: 9809: 9805: 9801: 9795: 9791: 9786: 9782: 9776: 9772: 9771: 9765: 9761: 9755: 9751: 9746: 9742: 9736: 9732: 9727: 9723: 9717: 9713: 9709: 9705: 9701: 9695: 9691: 9684: 9679: 9675: 9669: 9665: 9658: 9653: 9649: 9643: 9639: 9635: 9631: 9626: 9622: 9618: 9612: 9608: 9604: 9600: 9596: 9590: 9582: 9578: 9574: 9568: 9567: 9554: 9550: 9546: 9542: 9535: 9527: 9521: 9517: 9513: 9506: 9499: 9490: 9474: 9470: 9463: 9455: 9449: 9445: 9444: 9436: 9429: 9423: 9416: 9410: 9402: 9398: 9392: 9385: 9380: 9374:, p. 17. 9373: 9368: 9366: 9358: 9353: 9347:, p. 15. 9346: 9341: 9339: 9331: 9326: 9320:, p. 57. 9319: 9314: 9308:, p. 69. 9307: 9302: 9295: 9290: 9288: 9280: 9275: 9268: 9263: 9256: 9251: 9244: 9239: 9232: 9227: 9221:, p. 92. 9220: 9219:Norman (1988) 9215: 9208: 9203: 9196: 9195:Norman (1988) 9191: 9184: 9183:Norman (1988) 9179: 9172: 9171:Norman (1988) 9167: 9160: 9159:Norman (1988) 9155: 9148: 9143: 9136: 9131: 9125:, p. 42. 9124: 9119: 9113:, p. 49. 9112: 9107: 9105: 9097: 9092: 9085: 9080: 9073: 9068: 9061: 9056: 9049: 9044: 9037: 9032: 9026:, p. 31. 9025: 9020: 9013: 9012:Norman (1988) 9008: 9001: 8996: 8989: 8988:Norman (1988) 8984: 8978:, p. 23. 8977: 8972: 8965: 8960: 8953: 8948: 8941: 8936: 8929: 8924: 8917: 8912: 8910: 8902: 8897: 8891:, p. 81. 8890: 8885: 8878: 8873: 8866: 8861: 8859: 8851: 8850:Norman (1988) 8846: 8839: 8838:Norman (1988) 8834: 8827: 8826:Norman (1988) 8822: 8815: 8814:Norman (1988) 8810: 8803: 8802:Norman (1988) 8798: 8791: 8790:Norman (1988) 8786: 8779: 8778:Norman (1988) 8774: 8767: 8766:Norman (1988) 8762: 8755: 8750: 8748: 8740: 8735: 8728: 8723: 8716: 8711: 8704: 8699: 8692: 8687: 8680: 8675: 8668: 8663: 8656: 8651: 8644: 8639: 8637: 8629: 8624: 8617: 8616:Norman (1988) 8612: 8605: 8600: 8593: 8588: 8586: 8578: 8577:Norman (1988) 8573: 8566: 8565:Norman (1988) 8561: 8554: 8553:Norman (1988) 8549: 8542: 8541:Norman (1988) 8537: 8530: 8525: 8518: 8517:Norman (1988) 8513: 8506: 8505:Norman (1988) 8501: 8494: 8493:Norman (1988) 8489: 8487: 8479: 8474: 8467: 8462: 8455: 8454:Norman (1988) 8450: 8448: 8440: 8439:Norman (1988) 8435: 8428: 8427:Norman (1988) 8423: 8417:, p. 53. 8416: 8415:Norman (1988) 8411: 8404: 8403:Norman (1988) 8399: 8392: 8391:Norman (1988) 8387: 8381:, p. 54. 8380: 8379:Norman (1988) 8375: 8373: 8365: 8364:Norman (1988) 8360: 8353: 8352:Norman (1988) 8348: 8341: 8336: 8329: 8328:Norman (1988) 8324: 8317: 8316:Norman (1988) 8312: 8305: 8304:Norman (1988) 8300: 8293: 8292:Norman (1988) 8288: 8281: 8280:Norman (1988) 8276: 8269: 8268:Norman (1988) 8264: 8257: 8256:Norman (1988) 8252: 8245: 8240: 8233: 8232:Norman (1988) 8228: 8221: 8216: 8209: 8204: 8197: 8192: 8185: 8180: 8173: 8168: 8161: 8156: 8149: 8148:Norman (1988) 8144: 8137: 8136:Norman (1988) 8132: 8125: 8124:Norman (1988) 8120: 8113: 8108: 8101: 8100:Norman (1988) 8096: 8089: 8088:Norman (1988) 8084: 8077: 8072: 8065: 8060: 8053: 8052:Norman (1988) 8048: 8041: 8036: 8029: 8024: 8017: 8016:Ramsey (1987) 8012: 8005: 8004:Norman (1988) 8000: 7993: 7992:Norman (1988) 7988: 7981: 7976: 7970:, p. 57. 7969: 7964: 7962: 7960: 7953:, p. 63. 7952: 7947: 7940: 7935: 7928: 7923: 7916: 7911: 7904: 7899: 7892: 7887: 7881:, p. 14. 7880: 7875: 7868: 7867:Norman (1988) 7863: 7856: 7851: 7844: 7839: 7832: 7827: 7820: 7815: 7808: 7803: 7796: 7791: 7784: 7779: 7772: 7767: 7761:, p. 76. 7760: 7759:Norman (2003) 7755: 7748: 7743: 7736: 7735:Norman (1988) 7731: 7729: 7721: 7716: 7709: 7704: 7697: 7692: 7685: 7684:Norman (2003) 7680: 7678: 7670: 7669:Norman (1988) 7665: 7663: 7655: 7650: 7643: 7642:Norman (2003) 7638: 7631: 7630:Ramsey (1987) 7626: 7619: 7618:Coblin (2019) 7614: 7607: 7602: 7595: 7590: 7583: 7578: 7571: 7566: 7559: 7554: 7547: 7542: 7535: 7530: 7523: 7518: 7511: 7506: 7499: 7494: 7488:, p. 98. 7487: 7486:Ramsey (1987) 7482: 7475: 7474:Norman (1988) 7470: 7463: 7462:Norman (1988) 7458: 7456: 7454: 7446: 7445:Norman (1988) 7441: 7434: 7433:Norman (1988) 7429: 7422: 7421:Norman (1988) 7417: 7415: 7408:, p. 49. 7407: 7402: 7395: 7394:Norman (1988) 7390: 7383: 7378: 7371: 7366: 7359: 7358:Norman (1988) 7354: 7348:, p. 90. 7347: 7342: 7335: 7330: 7323: 7322:Norman (1988) 7318: 7311: 7306: 7299: 7294: 7287: 7282: 7275: 7274:Norman (1988) 7270: 7268: 7260: 7259:Norman (1988) 7255: 7253: 7246:, p. 72. 7245: 7244:Norman (2003) 7240: 7238: 7236: 7228: 7227:Ramsey (1987) 7223: 7216: 7215:Norman (1988) 7211: 7204: 7203:Ramsey (1987) 7199: 7192: 7187: 7180: 7179:Norman (1988) 7175: 7168: 7167:Norman (1988) 7163: 7161: 7153: 7152:Norman (1988) 7148: 7141: 7136: 7129: 7124: 7117: 7112: 7105: 7104:Ramsey (1987) 7100: 7093: 7092:Norman (1988) 7088: 7082:, p. 22. 7081: 7080:Ramsey (1987) 7076: 7069: 7068:Norman (1988) 7064: 7057: 7056:Norman (1988) 7052: 7045: 7044:Ramsey (1987) 7040: 7033: 7032:Norman (1988) 7028: 7021: 7020:Norman (1988) 7016: 7009: 7008:Norman (1988) 7004: 7002: 6994: 6989: 6982: 6977: 6970: 6965: 6958: 6953: 6946: 6941: 6934: 6933:Norman (1988) 6929: 6925: 6908:for 'person'. 6906: 6899: 6897: 6895: 6887: 6881: 6879: 6869: 6862: 6861: 6855: 6850: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6832: 6827: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6811: 6806: 6800: 6791: 6787: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6771: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6756: 6750: 6747: 6746: 6745:lingua franca 6741: 6737: 6734: 6729: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6718:Goh Keng Swee 6715: 6711: 6710: 6709:lingua franca 6705: 6702:(even though 6701: 6697: 6686: 6683:December 2018 6677: 6673: 6670:This section 6668: 6665: 6661: 6660: 6656: 6646: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6622: 6619: 6615: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6582: 6572: 6570: 6565: 6564: 6557: 6556: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6533: 6529: 6526:For example, 6523: 6518: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6495: 6492: 6484: 6481:November 2008 6474: 6470: 6466: 6460: 6459: 6455: 6450:This section 6448: 6444: 6439: 6438: 6427: 6422: 6413: 6409: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6393: 6389: 6387: 6382: 6370: 6367: 6352: 6349:December 2018 6343: 6339: 6336:This section 6334: 6331: 6327: 6326: 6317: 6314: 6306: 6296: 6292: 6286: 6285: 6280:This section 6278: 6274: 6269: 6268: 6263: 6261: 6254: 6253: 6248: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6228: 6227: 6214: 6211: 6206: 6203: 6198: 6191: 6186: 6180: 6177:derived from 6176: 6171: 6162: 6157: 6153:and Shanghai 6151: 6146: 6140: 6135: 6122: 6109: 6105: 6098: 6097: 6096: 6093: 6082: 6073: 6070: 6067: 6063: 6060: 6059: 6058: 6056: 6051: 6048: 6043: 6033: 6030: 6025: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 6002: 6001:demonstrative 5997: 5992: 5986: 5981: 5972: 5967: 5965: 5961: 5960:stative verbs 5951: 5949: 5943: 5938: 5928: 5926: 5920: 5918: 5914: 5909: 5898: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5810: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5772: 5767: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5730: 5729: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5582: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5541: 5538: 5532: 5528: 5525: 5514: 5509: 5508:demonstrative 5505: 5501: 5488: 5484: 5472: 5466: 5454: 5449: 5446: 5445: 5444: 5442: 5438: 5429: 5420: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5400: 5398: 5397:Austroasiatic 5394: 5390: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5310: 5307: 5306: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5235: 5232: 5229: 5228: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5154: 5151: 5150: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5076: 5073: 5072: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4842: 4839: 4838: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4760: 4754: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4686: 4683: 4682: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4608: 4605: 4604: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4530: 4527: 4526: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4452: 4449: 4448: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4374: 4371: 4370: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4296: 4293: 4292: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4218: 4215: 4214: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4140: 4137: 4136: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3984: 3981: 3980: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3906: 3903: 3902: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3828: 3825: 3824: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3750: 3747: 3746: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3695: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3672: 3669: 3668: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3594: 3591: 3590: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3516: 3513: 3512: 3506: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3447: 3444: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3432: 3428: 3425: 3421: 3418: 3414: 3411: 3407: 3404: 3400: 3397: 3393: 3390: 3386: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3372: 3369: 3365: 3362: 3358: 3355: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3343: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3317: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3302: 3298: 3292: 3290: 3286: 3276: 3272: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3248: 3245: 3239: 3233: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3220: 3207: 3204: 3201: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3188: 3175: 3172: 3163: 3160: 3157: 3156: 3143: 3137: 3131: 3128: 3127: 3114: 3111: 3102: 3099: 3098: 3085: 3082: 3073: 3070: 3066: 3053: 3050: 3041: 3038: 3035: 3034: 3024: 3021: 3012: 3009: 3008: 2998: 2995: 2986: 2983: 2979: 2963: 2960: 2959: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2932: 2917: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2894: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2868: 2865: 2864: 2860: 2857: 2851: 2848: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2833: 2830: 2827: 2826: 2812: 2805: 2801: 2795: 2791: 2789: 2784: 2767: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2727: 2717: 2702: 2697: 2686: 2677:), 'rising' ( 2675: 2665: 2660: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2633: 2615: 2603: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2563: 2554: 2552: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2441: 2436: 2434: 2425: 2413: 2409: 2402: 2397: 2394: 2390: 2383: 2378: 2367: 2362: 2355: 2350: 2343: 2338: 2335: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2319: 2315: 2312: 2308: 2305:, as well as 2304: 2300: 2297: 2290: 2286: 2285: 2284: 2270: 2261: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2221: 2216: 2211: 2209: 2204: 2202: 2197: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2171: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2114: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2100: 2095: 2088: 2087: 2084: 2079: 2074: 2069: 2064: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2050: 2045: 2040: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2026: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1972: 1971: 1968: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1948: 1943: 1938: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1909: 1904: 1899: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1883: 1880: 1875: 1870: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1821: 1816: 1811: 1806: 1801: 1796: 1794: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1769: 1765: 1757: 1753: 1745: 1739: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1724: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1690: 1681: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1647: 1641: 1638: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1610: 1608: 1597: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1582: 1580: 1579:Yangtze River 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1559: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1538: 1529: 1527: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1467: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1455: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1443: 1442:entering tone 1439: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1421: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1280:and southern 1279: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1143: 1133: 1123: 1113: 1103: 1093: 1083: 1073: 1063: 1053: 1045: 1034: 1030: 1028: 1024: 1018: 1008: 1006: 1002: 998: 993: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 945: 943: 937: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 906: 891: 886: 882: 878: 872: 862: 860: 855: 850: 848: 844: 839: 835: 834: 829: 825: 824: 819: 815: 810: 808: 803: 802:Yangtze River 799: 795: 791: 787: 777: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 708: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 648: 644: 632: 630: 627: 623: 620: 616: 608: 606: 603: 599: 596: 592: 586: 580: 578: 574: 566: 564: 560: 552: 550: 546: 538: 536: 532: 529: 525: 517: 515: 511: 508: 504: 496: 494: 490: 487: 483: 477: 472: 470: 466: 458: 456: 452: 444: 442: 438: 428: 426: 422: 414: 412: 408: 400: 398: 394: 386: 384: 380: 377: 373: 368: 364: 360: 357: 353: 349: 345: 343: 339: 335: 330: 325: 323: 319: 314: 309: 307: 303: 298: 294: 290: 285: 281: 277: 276: 269: 264: 260: 256: 254: 250: 244: 242: 238: 234: 230: 228: 224: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 140: 139: 135: 127: 124: 123: 122: 119: 118: 117: 113: 107: 100: 97: 96: 95: 92: 91: 90: 87: 85: 81: 78: 74: 70: 66: 63: 57: 52: 47: 44: 40: 33: 19: 16205: 16146:of languages 16088:GX = Guangxi 16076: 16074:Tibetan Sign 16064: 16050:Chinese Sign 15916:Creole/Mixed 15785:Southeastern 15773:Southwestern 15736:Northeastern 15721:Varieties of 15720: 13721:Hanyu Pinyin 13711:Romanization 13618:Semi-cursive 13463:Old Mandarin 13420:Stroke count 13347: 13340: 13262:Old National 13105:Unclassified 12010:Southwestern 11843:Northeastern 11825:Major groups 11824: 11814: 11764: 11751: 11744: 11737: 11730: 11723: 11716: 11691: 11637: 11630: 11605: 11591: 11584: 11575: 11568: 11527: 11512:Lolo-Burmese 11510: 11486: 11464: 11457: 11450: 11438: 11431: 11424: 11412: 11405: 11398: 11332: 11300: 11293: 11284: 11277: 11265: 11258: 11230: 11223: 11216: 11206: 11199: 11192: 11180: 11173: 11125: 11119: 11105: 11098: 11084: 11077: 11052: 11043: 11036: 11029: 11017: 11003: 10991: 10984: 10949:Sino-Tibetan 10904: 10887: 10879: 10853: 10846: 10828:HTML version 10810: 10803: 10777: 10757: 10724: 10705: 10686: 10669: 10665: 10643: 10624: 10605: 10596: 10592: 10568: 10564: 10541: 10516: 10512: 10489: 10463: 10449:(1): 29–60, 10446: 10442: 10395: 10391: 10375:(1): 43–63, 10372: 10368: 10351: 10347: 10319: 10300: 10278: 10259: 10251: 10230: 10205: 10201: 10174: 10170: 10151: 10132: 10110: 10083: 10063: 10057: 10041:, retrieved 10034:the original 10019: 10003: 9999: 9973:, Springer, 9970: 9951: 9924: 9915: 9892: 9888: 9869: 9859: 9838:, Honolulu: 9834: 9811: 9789: 9769: 9749: 9730: 9711: 9689: 9682: 9663: 9656: 9637: 9629: 9606: 9580: 9572: 9544: 9540: 9534: 9515: 9511: 9505: 9494:(in Chinese) 9489: 9477:. Retrieved 9472: 9462: 9442: 9435: 9427: 9422: 9409: 9401:the original 9391: 9384:Hsieh (2007) 9379: 9372:Hsieh (2007) 9357:Hsieh (2007) 9352: 9345:Hsieh (2007) 9330:Hsieh (2007) 9325: 9313: 9301: 9274: 9262: 9250: 9238: 9226: 9214: 9202: 9190: 9178: 9166: 9154: 9142: 9130: 9118: 9091: 9079: 9067: 9055: 9043: 9031: 9019: 9007: 8995: 8983: 8971: 8959: 8947: 8935: 8923: 8896: 8884: 8872: 8845: 8833: 8821: 8809: 8797: 8785: 8773: 8761: 8734: 8722: 8710: 8698: 8693:, p. 1. 8686: 8674: 8662: 8650: 8623: 8611: 8599: 8572: 8560: 8548: 8536: 8524: 8512: 8500: 8473: 8461: 8434: 8422: 8410: 8398: 8386: 8359: 8354:, p. 9. 8347: 8335: 8323: 8311: 8299: 8287: 8275: 8263: 8251: 8239: 8227: 8215: 8203: 8191: 8179: 8167: 8155: 8143: 8131: 8119: 8107: 8095: 8083: 8071: 8059: 8047: 8035: 8023: 8011: 7999: 7987: 7982:, p. 7. 7975: 7946: 7941:, p. 2. 7934: 7922: 7917:, p. 8. 7910: 7898: 7886: 7879:Liang (2014) 7874: 7862: 7850: 7838: 7826: 7814: 7802: 7795:Iwata (1995) 7790: 7783:Iwata (1995) 7778: 7771:Iwata (2010) 7766: 7754: 7742: 7715: 7703: 7691: 7649: 7637: 7625: 7613: 7601: 7596:, p. 9. 7589: 7577: 7565: 7553: 7541: 7529: 7517: 7505: 7493: 7481: 7469: 7440: 7428: 7401: 7389: 7377: 7365: 7353: 7341: 7329: 7317: 7305: 7293: 7281: 7222: 7210: 7205:, p. 7. 7198: 7193:, p. 2. 7186: 7181:, p. 1. 7174: 7147: 7135: 7123: 7111: 7099: 7087: 7075: 7063: 7051: 7039: 7027: 7015: 6995:, p. 3. 6988: 6976: 6964: 6952: 6947:, p. 3. 6940: 6928: 6886:§ Tones 6868: 6858: 6848: 6834: 6826: 6808: 6799: 6790: 6768: 6743: 6736:Lee Kuan Yew 6730: 6713: 6707: 6693: 6680: 6676:adding to it 6671: 6639:Yilan county 6623: 6605:, who spoke 6593:, who spoke 6584: 6555:Jiǎng Jièshí 6519: 6502: 6487: 6478: 6463:Please help 6451: 6410: 6402:sound shifts 6394: 6390: 6377: 6362: 6346: 6342:adding to it 6337: 6309: 6300: 6289:Please help 6284:verification 6281: 6257: 6250: 6244: 6243:Please help 6240: 6207: 6175:prepositions 6172: 6118: 6115:Verb phrases 6077: 6054: 6052: 6034: 6005: 5968: 5964:Ditransitive 5957: 5929: 5921: 5893: 5529: 5497: 5468:) 'hen' and 5434: 5417:prepositions 5406: 5386: 4219:"sun", 'day' 3282: 3273: 3261: 3257: 2792: 2750:Tang dynasty 2743: 2661: 2653:pitch accent 2629:'horse) and 2568: 2551:nasalization 2535:glottal stop 2517:, and stops 2496: 2492:Yue dialects 2462:, and a low 2440:Gan dialects 2437: 2430: 2411: 2407: 2392: 2388: 2311:Southern Min 2266: 1730:, spoken in 1721: 1719: 1706:Shanghainese 1695: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1642: 1634: 1626: 1622: 1616: 1603: 1583: 1560: 1546:Jerry Norman 1544: 1517:Bai language 1514: 1471: 1418: 1416: 1230:Shanghainese 1181: 1177: 1157:Li Fang-Kuei 1155:in 1936 and 1149: 1043: 1031: 1023:Jerry Norman 1020: 994: 978:Roman Empire 951: 938: 907: 874: 851: 831: 821: 811: 790:Yellow River 783: 740: 709: 654: 595:Southern Min 514:Romanization 493:Romanization 383:Hanyu Pinyin 342:Hanyu Pinyin 300:Chinese name 286:(not shown). 273: 241:Linguasphere 137:Subdivisions 98: 89:Sino-Tibetan 61:distribution 43: 16181:Azerbaijani 15582:Fuyu Kyrgyz 15381:Tai Hongjin 15067:Muak Sa-aak 13790:Xiao'erjing 13652:Punctuation 13645:Traditional 13598:Oracle bone 13582:Logographic 13478:Proto-Hakka 13453:Eastern Han 13448:Old Chinese 13310:Classifiers 13277:Northern Wu 13205:Singaporean 12411: [ 12399: [ 12387: [ 12375: [ 12363: [ 11753:Proto-Hakka 11682:Mahakiranti 11188:East Bodish 10968:Uttarakhand 10443:Diachronica 10234:, Longman, 10066:: 247–267, 9625:Cao, Zhiyun 9563:Works cited 9318:Chen (1999) 8901:Chen (2015) 8889:Chen (2015) 8655:Cao (2008c) 8604:Cao (2008b) 8340:Cao (2008a) 8220:Cao (2008a) 8208:Cao (2008a) 8196:Cao (2008a) 8184:Cao (2008a) 8172:Cao (2008a) 8160:Cao (2008a) 8064:Cao (2008a) 7980:Mair (1991) 7927:Mair (1991) 7891:Mair (2013) 7720:Cao (2008c) 7708:Cao (2008b) 7696:Cao (2008a) 7654:Wang (2005) 7594:Cao (2008a) 7140:Chen (1999) 6993:Mair (1991) 6981:Wang (2005) 6969:Wang (2005) 6845:Victor Mair 6835:regionalect 6609:. When the 6591:Han Chinese 6541:Sun Yat-sen 6381:code switch 6121:Old Chinese 6057:questions: 5399:languages. 3289:Old Chinese 3264:tone sandhi 3010:Shuangfeng 2649:tone sandhi 2599:'mother'), 2484:Wu dialects 1668:regionalect 1660:Han dynasty 1613:Terminology 1567:wave models 1551:Han dynasty 1510:Miao people 1506:She Chinese 1346:Han Chinese 1161:Yuan Jiahua 997:Sui dynasty 980:in Europe. 887:, known as 828:Eastern Han 788:and middle 734:to eastern 728:tone sandhi 619:Eastern Min 116:Old Chinese 110:Early forms 16405:Categories 16296:Portuguese 16261:Macedonian 16103:XZ = Tibet 16094:MC = Macau 16034:Zhangzhung 15778:Sichuanese 15705:Vietnamese 15102:Hmong-Mien 14981:Waxianghua 14762:Khroskyabs 14050:Indigenous 13938:Prefecture 13913:Portuguese 13741:Wade–Giles 13640:Simplified 13535:Vernacular 13528:in Vietnam 13381:Simplified 13368:Biaoxingma 13315:Honorifics 13250:Historical 13195:Philippine 13185:Sichuanese 13112:Badong Yao 12816:Shao–Jiang 12687:Philippine 12495:Xiangxiang 12490:Shuangfeng 12235:Taizhou Wu 12018:Sichuanese 11647:Idu–Taraon 11601:Miju–Meyor 11494:Gyalrongic 11340:Tangkhulic 11115:Raji–Raute 10753:中国方志所錄方言滙編 10192:1887/14919 9294:Yue (2017) 9267:Yue (2017) 9243:Yue (2017) 9147:Yue (2017) 9096:Yue (2017) 9048:Yue (2017) 9000:Yue (2017) 8952:Yue (2017) 8916:Yue (2017) 8877:Yue (2017) 8865:Yue (2017) 8754:Yue (2017) 8667:Yue (2017) 8643:Yue (2017) 8529:Yan (2006) 8478:Yan (2006) 8466:Yan (2006) 8244:Yan (2006) 8222:, Map 124. 8112:Yan (2006) 8076:Yan (2006) 8040:Yan (2006) 7558:Yan (2006) 7534:Yan (2006) 7522:Yan (2006) 7382:Yan (2006) 7346:Yan (2006) 7191:Yan (2006) 6916:References 6722:competency 6714:Goh Report 6611:Kuomintang 6563:Sūn Yìxiān 6551:spellings 6528:Mao Zedong 6246:improve it 5615:Shuangfeng 5504:classifier 4453:'mountain' 3389:Shuangfeng 3279:Vocabulary 3225:Guangzhou 2820:departing 2746:tone split 2476:allophones 2009:Fricatives 1793:affricates 1708:, include 1636:Ethnologue 1571:Huai River 1563:tree model 1508:) and the 1502:She people 1402:Taishanese 1246:fricatives 1242:affricates 1236:initials ( 1212:, most of 1194:Kazakhstan 1190:Kyrgyzstan 716:vocabulary 499:hoe3 nyiu2 425:Wade–Giles 59:Geographic 16346:Ukrainian 16276:Norwegian 16196:Bulgarian 16176:Aromanian 16166:Aragonese 16144:Varieties 16014:Tocharian 15948:Qoqmončaq 15900:Cantonese 15854:Shaojiang 15827:Hainanese 15756:Zhongyuan 15751:Jiao-Liao 15685:Esperanto 15587:Ili Turki 15294:Khamnigan 15159:Kiong Nai 14930:Zitsadegu 13908:Mongolian 13898:Cantonese 13679:Taiwanese 13669:Cantonese 13513:Classical 13473:Proto-Min 13408:Microsoft 13267:Cantonese 13243:Phonology 13224:Cantonese 13215:Singdarin 13200:Malaysian 13190:Taiwanese 13094:Rongjiang 13084:Yongjiang 13080:Southern 13065:Northern 13039:Luo–Guang 12948:Hong Kong 12943:Guangzhou 12899:Taiwanese 12892:Changting 12826:Zhanjiang 12740:Zhongshan 12707:Malaysian 12702:Singapore 12667:Zhangzhou 12619:Zhongshan 12512:Yong–Quan 12408:Jing-Zhan 12338:Xuancheng 12315:Jiangshan 12194:Changzhou 12115:Junjiahua 11968:Guanzhong 11851:Changchun 11746:Proto-Min 11677:Macro-Bai 11555:Arunachal 11548:(possible 11363:Boro–Garo 11267:Kuki-Chin 11250:and Indo- 11165:Arunachal 11152:Himalayas 11127:Tandrange 11094:Chepangic 11025:Dhimalish 10959:Himalayas 10533:123103670 9879:2152/3598 9231:Li (2001) 8657:, Map 76. 8606:, Map 39. 8210:, Map 73. 8198:, Map 52. 8186:, Map 43. 8174:, Map 45. 8162:, Map 40. 8066:, Map 66. 6959:, Map A2. 6921:Citations 6696:bilingual 6649:Singapore 6452:does not 6398:immersion 6386:diglossia 6252:talk page 5650:Guangzhou 5413:particles 5393:Tai–Kadai 5389:substrata 3438:Guangzhou 3285:morphemes 3100:Shanghai 3039:Nanchang 2984:Changsha 2961:Yangzhou 2889:Mandarin 2823:entering 2788:Cantonese 2611:'hemp'), 2505:, nasals 2406:retained 2387:retained 2318:retroflex 2307:Old Xiang 2136:Sonorants 2014:voiceless 1698:consonant 1684:Phonology 1631:ISO 639-3 1444:category. 1398:Guangzhou 1394:Cantonese 1382:Hong Kong 1354:Indonesia 1322:Taiwanese 1310:Guangdong 1294:Old Xiang 1286:New Xiang 1234:obstruent 1178:Putonghua 1176:, called 942:Cantonese 847:diasystem 786:Wei River 762:Singapore 736:Guangdong 712:phonology 635:Háng-ngṳ̄ 555:hon3 jyu5 253:Glottolog 227:ISO 639-5 73:Singapore 16383:Language 16311:Romanian 16251:Japanese 16231:Georgian 16171:Armenian 16156:Albanian 15958:Tangwang 15938:Macanese 15933:Lingling 15866:Northern 15849:Northern 15812:Southern 15731:Mandarin 15658:Minority 15618:Sarikoli 15531:Tungusic 15492:Naxi Yao 15437:Cao Miao 15361:Ningming 15261:Mongolic 15237:Dzao Min 15232:Biao Min 15189:Qo Xiong 15184:Pingtang 14880:Dongwang 14822:Tshobdun 14747:Guiqiong 14349:Sangkong 14124:Muangphe 14086:Mondzish 14040:numerous 14031:Counties 13878:Regional 13862:Official 13763:Bopomofo 13692:Phonetic 13684:Two-cell 13613:Clerical 13523:in Japan 13518:Adoption 13506:Official 13497:Literary 13372:Boshiamy 13349:Xiehouyu 13305:Numerals 13282:Mandarin 13210:Standard 13170:Standard 13044:Qin–Lian 13034:Yong–Xun 13019:Gao–Yang 12965:Jiujiang 12953:Malaysia 12887:Tingzhou 12838:Wenchang 12799:Jianyang 12789:Northern 12748:Sanxiang 12662:Quanzhou 12645:Southern 12614:Manjiang 12478:Changsha 12438:Nanchang 12433:Chang–Du 12330:Xuanzhou 12320:Qingtian 12274:Wencheng 12220:Jiangyin 12215:Jinxiang 12205:Shaoxing 12199:Hangzhou 12179:Shanghai 12120:Qinjiang 12028:Minjiang 12000:Xinjiang 11958:Dongping 11922:Jiaoliao 11861:Shenyang 11834:Mandarin 11551:isolates 11518:Mondzish 11446:Cai–Long 11194:Tshangla 11150:Eastern 10993:Tamangic 10963:Himachal 10957:Western 10951:branches 10877:(1981), 10766:50634504 10678:23756757 10599:: 1–103. 10430:16024359 10412:30047639 10299:(1993), 10226:Li, Rong 10131:(1984), 10109:(eds.), 10082:(1988), 10072:23825447 10043:15 April 9991:(1991), 9832:(1984), 9810:(2019), 9479:16 March 8342:, Map 1. 6849:topolect 6753:See also 6633:and the 6587:Japanese 5818:'he/she' 5620:Nanchang 5610:Changsha 5605:Yangzhou 5548:Mandarin 5494:Nominals 5155:'middle' 4765:'yellow' 3448:'person' 3396:Nanchang 3382:Changsha 3375:Yangzhou 3309:Mandarin 3193:Meixian 3129:Wenzhou 2941:Chengdu 2915:Beijing 2869:Taiyuan 2303:Shanghai 1780:Mandarin 1736:Shanghai 1716:Initials 1672:topolect 1633:and the 1541:between. 1406:Jiangmen 1350:Malaysia 1328:and the 1214:Zhejiang 1210:Shanghai 1168:Mandarin 1052:Mandarin 798:Shandong 732:Zhejiang 669:Mandarin 549:Jyutping 397:Bopomofo 361:language 284:Xinjiang 259:sini1245 143:Mandarin 77:Malaysia 18:Topolect 16369:Portals 16356:Yiddish 16341:Turkish 16336:Swedish 16331:Spanish 16326:Slovene 16316:Russian 16301:Punjabi 16286:Persian 16271:Maltese 16221:English 16206:Chinese 16201:Catalan 16191:Bengali 16029:Xianbei 16024:Tuyuhun 15994:Old Yue 15972:Extinct 15953:Sanqiao 15844:Central 15834:Eastern 15817:Hokkien 15761:Lan-Yin 15741:Beijing 15723:Chinese 15680:Russian 15442:Chadong 15422:Ai-Cham 15391:Tai Nüa 15376:Tai Dón 15371:Tai Dam 15329:Kra-Dai 15299:Monguor 15289:Kangjia 15247:Kim Mun 15242:Iu Mien 15164:Luobohe 15154:Huishui 15134:Guiyang 15111:Hmongic 15072:Palaung 15062:Man Met 14966:Longjia 14915:Ladakhi 14910:Kyirong 14900:Khalong 14885:Drugchu 14842:Tibetic 14812:Shixing 14724:Qiangic 14505:Alingpo 14497:Nisoish 14482:Yangliu 14477:Xuzhang 14407:Laizisi 14402:Kuamasi 14397:Kua-nsi 14379:Lisoish 14359:Tsukong 14299:Laomian 14224:Baihong 14191:Hanoish 14182:Loloish 14167:Lhao Vo 14162:Chashan 14147:Xiandao 14134:Burmish 14077:Burmese 14035:Banners 13991:Tai Nüa 13918:Tibetan 13903:English 13662:Braille 13623:Cursive 13573:Scripts 13440:History 13430:ZhengMa 13376:Cangjie 13342:Chengyu 13297:Grammar 13272:Hokkien 13229:Hokkien 13137:Waxiang 13117:Danzhou 13089:Guandao 13074:Younian 13069:Tongdao 13058:Pinghua 12998:Taishan 12914:Raoping 12882:Huizhou 12872:Meixian 12848:Banqiao 12821:Leizhou 12811:Pu–Xian 12806:Central 12794:Jian'ou 12769:Longyan 12717:Teochew 12654:Hokkien 12629:Nanlang 12585:Fu–Ning 12565:Changle 12547:Houguan 12538:Eastern 12485:Loushao 12473:Changyi 12455:Da–Tong 12450:Ying–Yi 12396:Yanzhou 12264:Wenzhou 12257:Oujiang 12248:Tiantai 12243:Taizhou 12152:Zhi–Yan 12099:Nantong 12094:Nanjing 12069:Gui–Liu 12059:Nanping 12054:Kunming 11980:Luoyang 11935:Qingdao 11907:Tianjin 11884:Beijing 11876:Beijing 11765:Italics 11626:Siangic 11607:Songlin 11586:Kho-Bwa 11564:Hrusish 11546:Dubious 11529:Loloish 11523:Burmish 11488:Qiangic 11459:Longjia 11426:Karenic 11420:Nungish 11400:Sinitic 11286:Hkongso 11248:Myanmar 11218:Gongduk 11182:Tibetic 11100:Chepang 11073:Magaric 11019:Kiranti 10999:Newaric 10830:at the 10820:at the 10421:1599877 10084:Chinese 10006:: 1–31. 9950:(ed.), 9686:汉语方言地图集 9660:汉语方言地图集 9633:汉语方言地图集 6854:fāngyán 6840:fāngyán 6749:group. 6726:Teochew 6712:). The 6473:removed 6458:sources 6055:in situ 5971:copular 5645:Meixian 5630:Wenzhou 5600:Chengdu 5595:Beijing 5585:Taiyuan 5403:Grammar 5311:'small' 5077:'below' 4999:'above' 4921:'black' 4843:'white' 4687:'green' 4531:'water' 3751:'snake' 3595:'woman' 3431:Meixian 3410:Wenzhou 3368:Chengdu 3361:Beijing 3347:Taiyuan 3228:1 ˥˧,˥ 3161:Xiamen 3071:Suzhou 2930:1,2,3,5 2817:rising 2573:in the 1776:Beijing 1677:fāngyán 1664:dialect 1658:in the 1646:fāngyán 1623:dialect 1573:to the 1486:Waxiang 1466:Guangxi 1460:Pinghua 1448:Huizhou 1425:Li Rong 1378:Guangxi 1318:Hokkien 1258:Jiangxi 1218:Jiangsu 1153:Wang Li 1142:Pinghua 1132:Huizhou 1054:(65.7%) 890:Guānhuà 823:Fangyan 780:History 772:of the 602:Hokkien 541:hon yúh 520:Hon Ngi 417:Hannyeu 198:Danzhou 193:Waxiang 99:Chinese 94:Sinitic 54:Sinitic 49:Chinese 16306:Romani 16291:Polish 16281:Pashto 16256:Korean 16236:German 16226:French 16211:Danish 16186:Basque 16161:Arabic 16009:Tangut 15999:Rouran 15989:Khitan 15979:Ba–Shu 15943:Maojia 15928:Hezhou 15839:Puxian 15822:Teoswa 15707:(Kinh) 15675:Kyrgyz 15670:Korean 15665:Kazakh 15569:Turkic 15554:Oroqen 15544:Manchu 15539:Evenki 15507:Qabiao 15497:Ong Be 15482:Maonan 15472:Lakkja 15462:Jiamao 15432:Buyang 15396:Tai Ya 15386:Tai Lü 15346:Bouyei 15338:Zhuang 15319:Torgut 15274:Buryat 15224:Mienic 15214:Younuo 15194:Raojia 15174:Pa-Hng 15169:Mashan 15139:Hm Nai 15124:Bu-Nao 15119:A-Hmao 15042:Bumang 14961:Jingpo 14956:Derung 14951:Caijia 14925:Zhongu 14895:Gserpa 14787:Namuyi 14757:Japhug 14706:Zauzou 14681:Namuyi 14666:Kucong 14640:Zokhuo 14635:Thopho 14615:Phupha 14600:Phukha 14545:Khlula 14487:Zibusi 14472:Toloza 14467:Sonaga 14452:Mangdi 14447:Lolopo 14392:Hlersu 14329:Phana’ 14324:Nuomei 14304:Laopin 14239:Bukong 14214:Angluo 14142:Achang 14119:Mondzi 14021:Zhuang 13996:Tai Lü 13986:Kazakh 13981:Kyrgyz 13966:Korean 13956:Bouyei 13928:Zhuang 13923:Uyghur 13731:Postal 13726:MPS II 13603:Bronze 13483:Ba–Shu 13403:Google 13398:Pinyin 13334:Idioms 13147:Yeheni 13029:Wu–Hua 13024:Goulou 13003:Xinhui 12980:Dapeng 12975:Weitou 12960:Xiguan 12935:Yuehai 12904:Sixian 12843:Haikou 12833:Hainan 12764:Zhenan 12730:Haklau 12725:Swatow 12697:Penang 12682:Taiwan 12677:Chawan 12624:Longdu 12593:Ningde 12570:Gutian 12560:Fuqing 12555:Fuzhou 12517:Qiyang 12500:Wugang 12445:Yi–Liu 12372:Xiu-Yi 12360:Ji-She 12310:Quzhou 12302:Chu–Qu 12292:Jinhua 12284:Wuzhou 12269:Rui'an 12210:Ningbo 12184:Suzhou 12074:Wuming 12045:Zigong 12033:Leshan 11995:Lanyin 11990:Dungan 11985:Xuzhou 11963:Gangou 11940:Weihai 11930:Dalian 11889:Taiwan 11856:Harbin 11639:Milang 11593:Puroik 11577:Mijiic 11501:Ersuic 11452:Caijia 11368:Konyak 11334:Meitei 11238:Chamdo 11175:Bodish 11161:Bhutan 11107:Bhujel 11054:Lepcha 11045:Lhokpu 11031:Dhimal 10976:Sikkim 10890:] 10883:方言调查字表 10850:汉語方音词汇 10807:汉語方音字汇 10784: 10764: 10739: 10712: 10693: 10676: 10650: 10631: 10612: 10548: 10531: 10496: 10470: 10428: 10418: 10410: 10326: 10307: 10285: 10266: 10238: 10171:Lingua 10158: 10139: 10117: 10090: 10070: 10054:论畬话的归属 10026: 9977: 9958: 9935: 9846: 9818: 9796: 9777: 9756: 9737: 9718: 9696: 9670: 9644: 9613: 9591: 9583:] 9576:汉语方音字汇 9522: 9450: 6575:Taiwan 6549:pinyin 6406:fluent 6210:aspect 5640:Xiamen 5635:Fuzhou 5625:Suzhou 5471:gōngjī 4375:'year' 4141:'nose' 3907:'bone' 3829:'meat' 3673:'fish' 3424:Xiamen 3417:Fuzhou 3403:Suzhou 3190:Hakka 3086:5 ˥˩˧ 3048:3 ˨˩˧ 2981:Xiang 2924:3 ˨˩˦ 2892:Xi'an 2814:level 2541:final 2419:Finals 2329:velars 2189:Nasals 2090:voiced 1974:voiced 1764:Suzhou 1752:Fuzhou 1590:Tianmu 1521:Yunnan 1478:Hainan 1438:Shanxi 1366:-p-t-k 1362:-m-n-ŋ 1356:. The 1326:Hainan 1314:Xiamen 1284:. The 1140: 1138: 1134:(0.3%) 1130: 1128: 1124:(3.0%) 1120: 1118: 1114:(3.5%) 1110: 1108: 1104:(3.9%) 1100: 1098: 1094:(5.2%) 1090: 1088: 1084:(5.6%) 1080: 1078: 1074:(6.1%) 1070: 1068: 1064:(6.2%) 1060: 1058: 1050: 1048: 859:Fujian 833:Qieyun 720:syntax 701:clades 626:Fuzhou 569:hon yü 461:Hàn-yǔ 447:Hàn-yǔ 432:Han-yu 403:ㄏㄢˋ ㄩˇ 280:Yunnan 246:79-AAA 69:Taiwan 16395:China 16266:Malay 16246:Hindi 16241:Greek 16216:Dutch 16019:Tuoba 15963:Wutun 15878:Xiang 15871:Auish 15797:Hakka 15746:Ji-Lu 15711:Wakhi 15700:Uzbek 15695:Tuvan 15690:Tatar 15611:Other 15597:Salar 15549:Nanai 15487:Mulam 15452:Gelao 15415:Other 15314:Santa 15309:Ordos 15304:Oirat 15269:Bonan 15209:Xixiu 15179:Pa Na 15144:Hmong 15129:Gejia 15077:Riang 15037:Bugan 15032:Bolyu 15027:Blang 14976:Tujia 14939:Other 14920:Tseku 14905:Khams 14890:Groma 14870:Choni 14860:Basum 14855:Baima 14832:Zhaba 14752:Horpa 14737:Choyo 14732:Baima 14701:Sanie 14676:Naruo 14661:Katso 14656:Gokhy 14649:Other 14625:Samei 14620:Phuza 14610:Phupa 14605:Phuma 14595:Phowa 14590:Phola 14585:Phala 14580:Nuosu 14535:Bokha 14510:Alugu 14457:Micha 14369:Yiche 14354:Suobi 14319:Nuobi 14289:Kaduo 14284:Kabie 14264:Habei 14254:Duota 14249:Duoni 14244:Cosao 14172:Zaiwa 14157:Lashi 14109:Mango 14104:Manga 14099:Maang 14094:Kathu 14075:Lolo- 14001:Zaiwa 13971:Qiang 13961:Tujia 13946:Hmong 13795:Nüshu 13499:forms 13413:Sogou 13360:Input 13234:Hakka 13172:forms 13012:Other 12970:Shiqi 12909:Hailu 12877:Wuhua 12864:Hakka 12782:Other 12757:Other 12692:Pedan 12607:Other 12598:Fu'an 12575:Matsu 12507:Ji–Xu 12465:Xiang 12415:] 12403:] 12391:] 12384:Qi-De 12379:] 12367:] 12225:Shadi 12171:Taihu 12125:Gyami 12108:Other 12064:Wuhan 11973:Xi'an 11912:Jinan 11570:Hruso 11466:Luren 11440:Kathu 11414:Tujia 11302:Taman 11273:Mruic 11260:Karbi 11201:Basum 11157:Tibet 11079:Magar 11005:Newar 10972:Nepal 10892:(PDF) 10886:[ 10852:[ 10809:[ 10776:[ 10756:[ 10674:JSTOR 10589:(PDF) 10529:S2CID 10486:(PDF) 10408:JSTOR 10258:[ 10068:JSTOR 10037:(PDF) 10016:(PDF) 9996:(PDF) 9688:[ 9662:[ 9636:[ 9585:(PDF) 9579:[ 6810:Sīnae 6782:Notes 6599:Hakka 6532:Hunan 5857:tɕʰiɛ 5731:'you' 5590:Xi'an 5573:Hakka 5553:Xiang 5233:'big' 5204:tɕyoŋ 4609:'red' 4063:'ear' 3985:'eye' 3517:'man' 3354:Xi'an 3334:Hakka 3314:Xiang 3300:Word 3283:Most 3249:7b ˧ 3237:4 ˨˧ 3234:3 ˧˥ 3231:2 ˨˩ 3214:7 ˨˩ 3211:5 ˦˨ 3202:3 ˧˩ 3199:2 ˩˨ 3182:7 ˧˨ 3170:3 ˥˩ 3167:2 ˨˦ 3153:8 ˩˨ 3150:7 ˨˧ 3144:5 ˦˨ 3141:4 ˨˦ 3138:3 ˦˥ 3135:2 ˧˩ 3124:8 ˨˧ 3109:3 ˧˥ 3106:2 ˨˦ 3103:1 ˦˨ 3095:8 ˨˧ 3089:6 ˧˩ 3080:3 ˦˩ 3077:2 ˨˦ 3063:8 ˨˩ 3057:6 ˨˩ 3054:5 ˦˥ 3045:2 ˨˦ 3042:1 ˦˨ 3031:2, 5 3025:5 ˧˥ 3019:3 ˨˩ 3016:2 ˨˧ 3005:7 ˨˦ 3002:6 ˨˩ 2993:3 ˦˩ 2990:2 ˩˧ 2970:3 ˧˩ 2967:2 ˧˥ 2964:1 ˨˩ 2953:5 ˩˧ 2950:3 ˥˧ 2947:2 ˧˩ 2927:5 ˥˩ 2921:2 ˧˥ 2901:3 ˦˨ 2898:2 ˨˦ 2895:1 ˧˩ 2884:8 ˥˦ 2881:7 ˨˩ 2875:3 ˥˧ 2737:, or 2685:shǎng 2579:tones 2557:Tones 2433:glide 2279:from 1788:Stops 1584:Some 1490:Hunan 1454:Anhui 1386:Macau 1342:Hakka 1336:Hakka 1282:Hubei 1278:Hunan 1272:Xiang 1266:Hakka 1238:stops 1222:Anhui 1182:Guoyu 1122:Xiang 1112:Hakka 962:Latin 796:into 754:China 724:tones 693:Hakka 681:Xiang 507:Hakka 389:Hànyǔ 346:Hànyǔ 178:Hakka 168:Xiang 65:China 16351:Urdu 16043:Sign 16004:Saka 15905:Ping 15626:Tsat 15577:Äynu 15559:Xibe 15517:Then 15502:Paha 15457:Hlai 15427:Biao 15401:Yang 15366:Nong 15279:Daur 15057:Mang 15052:Kuan 14971:Nung 14850:Amdo 14817:Situ 14797:Pumi 14792:Naxi 14782:Muya 14772:Lizu 14767:Laze 14742:Ersu 14696:Samu 14691:Nusu 14686:Naxi 14671:Lahu 14630:Sani 14575:Nisu 14570:Nasu 14565:Muzi 14560:Muji 14555:Moji 14550:Lope 14540:Gepo 14530:Azhe 14525:Azha 14515:Aluo 14462:Mili 14442:Lisu 14437:Lipo 14432:Limi 14427:Lawu 14422:Lavu 14417:Lamu 14412:Lalo 14364:Woni 14344:Sadu 14339:Qidi 14334:Piyo 14314:Muda 14294:Lami 14279:Jino 14274:Honi 14269:Hani 14234:Budu 14229:Bisu 14219:Asuo 14204:Akha 14199:Akeu 14152:Pela 14114:Maza 14016:Hani 14006:Lisu 13890:SARs 13756:Yale 13746:EFEO 13608:Seal 13393:Dayi 12990:Siyi 12672:Amoy 12189:Wuxi 12086:Huai 11899:Jilu 11687:Rung 11632:Koro 11506:Naic 11433:Gong 11389:and 11387:East 11345:Zeme 11314:Naga 11232:Tani 11225:ʼOle 11121:Dura 11086:Kham 11038:Toto 10782:ISBN 10762:OCLC 10737:ISBN 10710:ISBN 10691:ISBN 10648:ISBN 10629:ISBN 10610:ISBN 10546:ISBN 10494:ISBN 10468:ISBN 10426:PMID 10324:ISBN 10305:ISBN 10283:ISBN 10264:ISBN 10236:ISBN 10156:ISBN 10137:ISBN 10115:ISBN 10088:ISBN 10045:2018 10024:ISBN 9975:ISBN 9956:ISBN 9933:ISBN 9844:ISBN 9816:ISBN 9794:ISBN 9775:ISBN 9754:ISBN 9735:ISBN 9716:ISBN 9694:ISBN 9668:ISBN 9642:ISBN 9611:ISBN 9589:ISBN 9520:ISBN 9481:2024 9448:ISBN 6559:and 6539:and 6456:any 6454:cite 6168:*mau 6127:and 6037:COMP 5932:ATTR 5913:Case 5887:kʰøy 5710:ŋuai 5453:mǔjī 5415:and 5395:and 5375:siau 5365:sieu 5350:ɕiɛu 5340:ɕiau 5330:ɕiau 5325:ɕiau 5320:ɕiau 5315:ɕiau 5297:tʰai 5287:tuai 5224:tʃuŋ 5209:touŋ 5199:tsoŋ 5194:tsuŋ 5184:tʂən 5179:tsoŋ 5174:tsoŋ 5169:tʂuŋ 5164:pfəŋ 5159:tsuŋ 5058:tsiũ 5053:suɔŋ 5033:ɣiaŋ 4975:xaiʔ 4907:pʰak 4882:pʰak 4847:piəʔ 4809:ɦuɒŋ 4789:xuɑŋ 4784:xuaŋ 4779:xuaŋ 4774:xuaŋ 4769:xuɒ̃ 4751:liuk 4741:luɔʔ 4726:liuk 4691:luəʔ 4618:xuoŋ 4590:tsui 4560:ɕyei 4555:suəi 4550:suei 4545:ʂuei 4535:suei 4439:ɲian 4429:nieŋ 4414:ɲiɛn 4394:ɲiɛn 4389:niɛn 4384:ɲiæ̃ 4361:ɲiat 4351:ŋuɔʔ 4336:ɲyɔt 4268:ɲiai 4180:pʰit 4165:pieʔ 4145:pieʔ 4049:ɲian 4039:ŋiaŋ 3976:kuɐt 3961:kauʔ 3951:kuɤʔ 3931:kuəʔ 3911:kuəʔ 3893:ɲiuk 3878:ɲiəu 3873:ɲioʔ 3868:ɲiuk 3833:zuəʔ 3810:tsua 3541:liæ̃ 3482:ɲiɛn 3252:8 ˨ 3246:7a ˥ 3243:6 ˨ 3240:5 ˧ 3222:Yue 3217:8 ˦ 3205:1,3 3196:1 ˦ 3185:8 ˥ 3179:6 ˧ 3176:5 ˩ 3164:1 ˥ 3158:Min 3147:6 ˩ 3132:1 ˦ 3121:7 ˥ 3092:7 ˦ 3074:1 ˦ 3060:7 ˥ 3036:Gan 3028:6 ˧ 3013:1 ˦ 2999:5 ˥ 2987:1 ˧ 2976:7 ˦ 2973:5 ˥ 2944:1 ˦ 2918:1 ˥ 2904:5 ˥ 2878:5 ˥ 2872:1 ˩ 2866:Jin 2861:vd. 2852:vd. 2843:vd. 2834:vd. 2783:yáng 2674:píng 2525:and 2513:and 2501:and 2458:and 2450:and 1702:tone 1670:and 1592:and 1417:The 1384:and 1352:and 1340:The 1244:and 1220:and 1192:and 972:and 881:Qing 879:and 877:Ming 852:The 836:, a 818:Zhou 718:and 695:and 282:and 188:Ping 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