6681:"without prior exposure, speakers of different Mandarin dialects often have considerable difficulty understanding each other's local vernacular even if they come from the same province, provided that two or more distinct groups of Mandarin are spoken therein. In some cases, mutual intelligibility is not guaranteed even if the Mandarin dialects concerned belong to the same group and are spoken within the same province. As reported by a native speaker of the Zhenjiang dialect (a Jianghuai (Lower Yangtze) Mandarin dialect spoken in the Jiangsu province), it is impossible for her to understand the Nantong dialect (another Jianghuai Mandarin dialect spoken around 140 kilometers away in the same province)."
1473:
6557:
6749:
950:
9649:
2507:
11668:
4006:
3988:
3997:
3979:
449:
6571:
885:
1732:
2801:
461:
61:
12318:
2478:, Gan and Xiang groups, is weakly defined due to centuries of diffusion of northern features. Many border varieties have a mixture of features that make them difficult to classify. The boundary between Southwestern Mandarin and Xiang is particularly weak, and in many early classifications the two were not separated.
888:
1362:
language; rather, there are strong regional identities centred on individual dialects because of the wide geographical distribution and cultural diversity of their speakers. Speakers of forms of
Mandarin other than the standard typically refer to the variety they speak by a geographic name—for example the
2034:. Comparison of dictionaries produced in the two areas will show that there are few substantial differences. However, both versions of "school-standard" Chinese are often quite different from the Mandarin varieties that are spoken in accordance with regional habits, and neither is wholly identical to the
887:
892:
891:
886:
2009:
because of their colonial and linguistic history. While
Standard Mandarin is now the medium of instruction in schools throughout China, it still has yet to gain traction as a common language among the local population in areas where Mandarin dialects are not native. In these regions, people may be
5265:
Mandarin dialects frequently employ neutral tones in the second syllables of words, creating syllables whose tone contour is so short and light that it is difficult or impossible to discriminate. These atonal syllables also occur in non-Mandarin dialects, but in many southern dialects the tones of
4067:
stops and affricates had a three-way distinction between tenuis, voiceless aspirate and voiced (or breathy voiced) consonants. In
Mandarin dialects the voicing is generally lost, yielding voiceless aspirates in syllables with a Middle Chinese level tone and non-aspirates in other syllables. Of the
2131:
were colonized by speakers of
Mandarin dialects at the same time, and the dialects in those areas similarly closely resemble their relatives in the core Mandarin area. The Southwest was settled early, but the population fell dramatically for obscure reasons in the 13th century, and did not recover
893:
5521:), which may be exclusive of the listener. Dialects of Mandarin agree with each other quite consistently on these pronouns. While the first and second person singular pronouns are cognate with forms in other varieties of Chinese, the rest of the pronominal system is a Mandarin innovation (e.g.,
4072:
of Middle
Chinese, the level, rising and departing tones have also developed into four modern tones in a uniform way across Mandarin dialects; the Middle Chinese level tone has split into two registers, conditioned on voicing of the Middle Chinese initial, while rising tone syllables with voiced
2252:
in 1979 by the government prioritized the language over traditional vernaculars in an attempt to create a common ethnic language and foster closer connections to China. This has led to a significant increase and presence of
Mandarin usage in the country, coupled with a strong decline in usage of
1759:
The
Chinese have different languages in different provinces, to such an extent that they cannot understand each other.... also have another language which is like a universal and common language; this is the official language of the mandarins and of the court; it is among them like Latin among
1590:
shows the typical
Mandarin four-tone system resulting from a split of the "even" tone and loss of the entering tone, with its syllables distributed across the other tones (though their different origin is marked in the dictionary). Similarly, voiced plosives and affricates have become voiceless
1505:(Mongol) dynasties in northern China, a common form of speech developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital, a language referred to as Old Mandarin. New genres of vernacular literature were based on this language, including verse, drama and story forms, such as the
1361:
Native speakers who are not academic linguists may not recognize that the variants they speak are classified in linguistics as members of "Mandarin" (or so-called "Northern dialects") in a broader sense. Within
Chinese social or cultural discourse, there is not a "Mandarin" identity based on
2014:
or speak the standard language with a notable accent. However, since the start of the 21st century, there has been an effort of mass education in
Standard Mandarin Chinese and discouragement of local language usage by the Chinese government in order to erase these regional differences.
5624:
In general, the greatest variation occurs in slang, in kinship terms, in names for common crops and domesticated animals, for common verbs and adjectives, and other such everyday terms. The least variation occurs in "formal" vocabulary—terms dealing with science, law, or government.
2073:
provided few barriers to migration, leading to relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area in northern China. In contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China have spawned the other six major groups of Chinese varieties, with great internal diversity, particularly in
894:
2264:
is used in informal daily life and is heavily influenced in terms of both grammar and vocabulary by local languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, and Malay. Instances of code-switching with English, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, or a combination of any of these is also common.
1653:. Over time, the various spoken varieties diverged greatly from Literary Chinese, which was learned and composed as a special language. Preserved from the sound changes that affected the various spoken varieties, its economy of expression was greatly valued. For example,
890:
1544:, a rime dictionary based on 'Phags-pa. The rime books differ in some details, but overall show many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects, such as the reduction and disappearance of final plosives and the reorganization of the Middle Chinese tones.
1583:, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials. When voicing was lost in all languages except the Wu subfamily, this distinction became phonemic and the system of initials and tones was rearranged differently in each of the major groups.
5896:
Some characters in Mandarin can be combined with others to indicate a particular meaning just like prefix and suffix in English. For example, the suffix -er which means the person who is doing the action, e.g. teacher, person who teaches. In Mandarin the character
2448:
in 1960 kept Xiang and Gan separate, with Mandarin divided into Northern, Northwestern, Southwestern and Jiang–Huai (Lower Yangtze) subgroups. Of Yuan's four Mandarin subgroups, the Northwestern dialects are the most diverse, particularly in the province of
1674:
The literary language was less appropriate for documents that were meant to be performed or recited, such as plays or stories. From at least the Yuan dynasty plays that recounted the subversive tales of China's Robin Hoods to the Ming dynasty novels such as
6675:"the common term assigned by linguists to this group of languages implies a certain homogeneity which is more likely to be related to the sociopolitical context than to linguistic reality, since most of those varieties are not mutually intelligible."
1978:'common speech'). Some 54% of speakers of Mandarin varieties could understand the standard language in the early 1950s, rising to 91% in 1984. Nationally, the proportion understanding the standard rose from 41% to 90% over the same period.
1861:
on this koiné as the standard of the time, though he conceded that the Beijing dialect was gaining in influence. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.
1358:; 'Northern dialects'), is used less and less among Chinese linguists. By extension, the term "Old Mandarin" or "Early Mandarin" is used by linguists to refer to the northern dialects recorded in materials from the Yuan dynasty.
1705:). In many cases, this written language reflected Mandarin varieties and since pronunciation differences were not conveyed in this written form, this tradition had a unifying force across all the Mandarin-speaking regions and beyond.
1599:
in modern dialects and initial voiced fricatives. It also retained the distinction between velars and alveolar sibilants in palatal environments, which later merged in most Mandarin dialects to yield a palatal series (rendered
4409:
In the Beijing dialect that underlies the standard language, syllables beginning with original voiceless consonants were redistributed across the four tones in a completely random pattern. For example, the three characters
2299:, where Mandarin is increasingly used alongside Cantonese as a lingua franca in part due to Singaporean influence. As in Singapore, the local colloquial variant of Mandarin exhibits influences from Cantonese and Malay.
3696:. In other dialects they have been lost, with varying effects on the vowel. As a result, Beijing Mandarin and Northeastern Mandarin underwent more vowel mergers than many other varieties of Mandarin. For example:
4060:
tones of (55), (35), (214), and (51). The exception to this rule lies in the distribution of syllables formerly ending in a stop consonant, which are treated differently in different dialects of Mandarin.
4486:. In line with traditional Chinese phonology, dialects such as Lower Yangtze and Minjiang are thus said to have five tones instead of four. However, modern linguistics considers these syllables as having no
2259:
is nearly identical to the standards of China and Taiwan, with minor vocabulary differences. It is the Mandarin variant used in education, media, and official settings. Meanwhile, a colloquial form called
1780:
spoke only their local variety. As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as
4025:
951:
3345:, though they often have a different distribution than in the standard language. In most dialects of the southeast and southwest the retroflex initials have merged with the alveolar sibilants, so that
889:
1134:
for government officials and the courts since the 14th century. In the early 20th century, a standard form based on the Beijing dialect, with elements from other Mandarin dialects, was adopted as the
2410:
The classification of Chinese dialects evolved during the 20th century, and many points remain unsettled. Early classifications tended to follow provincial boundaries or major geographical features.
5552:
Because of contact with Mongolian and Manchurian peoples, Mandarin (especially the Northeastern varieties) has some loanwords from these languages not present in other varieties of Chinese, such as
6811:
For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.
2283:, Mandarin has been adopted by local Chinese-language schools as the medium of instruction with the standard based on that of Singapore. However, it is not as widespread in daily life among the
5858:) is characteristic of Mandarin dialects. Some southern dialects, and a few Lower Yangtze dialects, preserve an older pattern of subordination without a marking particle, while in others a
4452:
mark characters whose pronunciation formerly ended with a stop with a superscript 5; however, this tone number is more commonly used for syllables that always have a neutral tone (see below).
1711:, a pivotal figure of the first half of the twentieth century, wrote an influential and perceptive study of this literary tradition, entitled "A History of Vernacular Literature" (
2565:. The Beijing dialect forms the basis of Standard Chinese. This classification is controversial, as a number of researchers view Beijing and Northeastern Mandarin as a single dialect group.
4073:
obstruent initials have shifted to the departing tone. The following examples from the standard language illustrate the regular development common to Mandarin dialects (recall that pinyin
2711:, etc. There are significant phonological and lexical changes to varying degrees, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited. Lower Yangtze Mandarin has been significantly influenced by
2057:
Mandarin is spoken across northern and southwestern China, with some pockets in neighbouring countries. Unlike their compatriots on the southeast coast, few Mandarin speakers engaged in
4406:". These final stops have disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, with the syllables distributed over the other four modern tones in different ways in the various Mandarin subgroups.
4023:
7716:
2173:
While the spoken standard of Taiwanese Mandarin is nearly identical to that of mainland China, the colloquial form has been heavily influenced by other local languages, especially
10061:
10052:
1154:. Recent increased migration from Mandarin-speaking regions of China and Taiwan has now resulted in the language being one of the more frequently used varieties of Chinese among
6672:"Hence we see that even Mandarin includes within it an unspecified number of languages, very few of which have ever been reduced to writing, that are mutually unintelligible."
2170:. The Taiwanese standard of Mandarin differs very little from that of mainland China, with differences largely in some technical vocabulary developed from the 1950s onwards.
2018:
From an official point of view, the mainland Chinese and the Taiwanese governments maintain their own forms of the standard under different names. The codified forms of both
1800:, issued a decree requiring the governors of those provinces to provide for the teaching of proper pronunciation. Although the resulting Academies for Correct Pronunciation (
10546:
11091:
7681:
6542:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
7779:
7577:
4402:
In traditional Chinese phonology, syllables that ended in a stop in Middle Chinese (i.e. /p/, /t/ or /k/) were considered to belong to a special category known as the "
4024:
2609:, due to migration. Very noticeable tonal changes, different in "flavour" from Ji–Lu Mandarin, but with more variance. There is moderate intelligibility with Beijing.
9171:
11053:
1534:
tradition that had evolved over the previous centuries, this dictionary contains a wealth of information on the phonology of Old Mandarin. Further sources are the
5671:. Although modern varieties, including the Mandarin dialects, use a small number of particles in a similar fashion to suffixes, they are still strongly analytic.
2494:
dialects have features of both Mandarin and Wu, and have been assigned to one or other of these groups or treated as separate by various authors. Li Rong and the
2471:(1987). Many other linguists continue to include these dialects in the Mandarin group, pointing out that the Lower Yangtze dialects also retain the glottal stop.
8938:
Szeto, Pui Yiu; Ansaldo, Umberto; Matthews, Stephen (2018), "Typological variation across Mandarin dialects: An areal perspective with a quantitative approach",
11793:
10575:
3384:. In about 20% of dialects, the alveolar sibilants did not palatalize, remaining separate from the alveolo-palatal initials. (The unique pronunciation used in
8470:
2777:, recorded in the 19th century in the Tibetan foothills, who the Chinese apparently did not recognize as Chinese. Some northwestern Mandarin varieties in the
2528:
calls the remainder of Mandarin a "supergroup", divided into eight dialect groups distinguished by their treatment of the Middle Chinese entering tone (see
1619:
The flourishing vernacular literature of the period also shows distinctively Mandarin vocabulary and syntax, though some, such as the third-person pronoun
1591:
aspirates in the "even" tone and voiceless non-aspirates in others, another distinctive Mandarin development. However, the language still retained a final
1130:
has been within the Mandarin-speaking area for most of the last millennium, making these dialects very influential. Some form of Mandarin has served as a
11600:
11590:
2945:
The maximal inventory of initials of a Mandarin dialect is as follows, with bracketed pinyin spellings given for those present in the standard language:
6539:
Rénrén shēng ér zìyóu, zài zūnyán hé quánlì shàng yīlù píngděng. Tāmen fùyǒu lǐxìng hé liángxīn, bìng yīng yǐ xiōngdì guānxì de jīngshén hùxiāng duìdài.
5869:
alter the inherent meaning of a sentence. Like much vocabulary, particles can vary a great deal with regards to the locale. For example, the particle
11595:
11354:
10902:
1338:
Linguists use the term "Mandarin" to refer to the diverse group of dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China, which Chinese linguists call
15268:
11509:
6678:"A speaker of only standard Mandarin might take a week or two to comprehend even simple Kunminghua with ease—and then only if willing to learn it."
5278:. This is partly because Mandarin has undergone many more sound changes than southern varieties of Chinese have, and needed to deal with many more
8496:
2081:
However, the varieties of Mandarin cover a huge area containing nearly a billion people. As a result, there are pronounced regional variations in
15696:
9446:
1078:
17058:
15101:
6669:
In the early 1950s, only 54% of people in the Mandarin-speaking area could understand Standard Chinese, which was based on the Beijing dialect.
6616:
8792:
6761:
5682:
sentences. In northern dialects the indirect object precedes the direct object (as in English), for example in the Standard Chinese sentence:
1810:) were short-lived, the decree did spawn a number of textbooks that give some insight into the ideal pronunciation. Common features included:
14641:
2193:
between Mandarin and Taiwanese Hokkien is common, as the majority of the population continues to also speak the latter as a native language.
8971:, Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, vol. 3, Chinese University Press, Project on Linguistic Analysis, pp. 185–234,
3469:
corresponding to the zero initial of the standard language. This initial is the result of a merger of the Middle Chinese zero initial with
12352:
4425:
15373:
16889:
11676:
10914:
7287:
6794:
3946:, a characteristic feature of Mandarin, works quite differently in the southwest. Whereas Beijing dialect generally removes only a final
7717:"The Lost Hui: How a People from China Mastered the Cyrillic Alphabet and Found Themselves on the Other Side of the Celestial Mountains"
2030:
on the Beijing accent, and also take some elements from other sources, and deviate from the Beijing dialect in vocabulary, grammar, and
10303:
8772:
7744:"Dispatch from the Chüy Valley Since ethnic violence in 2020, Dungans on the Kyrgyz-Kazakh border have straddled two different worlds"
453:
Mandarin area in China as of 1987, including Sichuanese, Lower Yangtze and (in light green) Jin, which are arguably separate languages
15738:
10878:
10866:
2049:
remain in use in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau. Singapore has followed mainland China in officially adopting simplified characters.
1265:
6859:
2132:
until the 17th century. The dialects in this area are now relatively uniform. However, long-established cities even very close to
17053:
14247:
12396:
10890:
10382:
6827:
2550:
255:
7671:
7603:
2457:
proposed that the northwestern dialects of Shanxi and neighbouring areas that retain a final glottal stop in the Middle Chinese
1538:
based on the Tibetan alphabet, which was used to write several of the languages of the Mongol empire, including Chinese and the
11974:
9418:
5348:), made from elements meaning "hurried" and "busy". A distinctive feature of southwestern Mandarin is its frequent use of noun
4448:
2869:. Not all combinations occur. For example, Standard Chinese (based on the Beijing dialect) has about 1,200 distinct syllables.
1830:
the characteristic Mandarin four-tone system in open syllables, but retaining a final glottal stop in "entering tone" syllables
1726:
197:
24:
7562:
16523:
15779:
11213:
9092:
9069:
9050:
9031:
9012:
8993:
8899:
8880:
8861:
8842:
8743:
8688:
8669:
8589:
8563:
8540:
6902:
6589:
6329:
3636:
in contrast to the larger sets of monophthongs common in other dialect groups (and some widely scattered Mandarin dialects).
1077:
with the standard language (or are only partially intelligible). Nevertheless, Mandarin as a group is often placed first in
15261:
12414:
12024:
6610:
4459:) and Jin Chinese (sometimes considered non-Mandarin), former final stops were not deleted entirely, but were reduced to a
2749:. There are sharp phonological, lexical, and tonal changes, and intelligibility with Beijing is limited to varying degrees.
1952:
finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic, founded in 1949, retained this standard, calling it
1858:
7518:
Yao, Qian (September 2014). "Analysis of Computer Terminology Translation Differences between Taiwan and Mainland China".
6795:"Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)"
2635:, due to recent migration. There are significant phonological differences, with partial intelligibility with Beijing. The
15689:
11866:
9439:
9159:
8714:
3289:
3277:
3246:
3147:
2322:
513:
5258:* Dialects in and around the Nantong area typically have many more than 4 tones, due to influence from the neighbouring
1370:, all being regarded as distinct from the standard language, with which they may not share much mutual intelligibility.
12541:
8909:
Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer, Svetlana (1977–1978), "Soviet Dungan nationalism: a few comments on their origin and language",
5768:
In southern dialects, as well as many southwestern and Lower Yangtze dialects, the objects occur in the reverse order.
2547:. This dialect is closely related to Standard Chinese, with little variation in lexicon and very few tonal differences.
9421:
Comprehensive tone comparison charts for 523 Mandarin dialects. (Compiled by James Campbell) – Internet Archive mirror
2591:. Tones and vocabulary are markedly different. In general, there is substantial intelligibility with Beijing Mandarin.
14634:
8037:
7633:
2840:
2818:
2380:
2376:
1885:
1837:
velars and dental affricates, the source of the spellings "Peking" and "Tientsin" for modern "Beijing" and "Tianjin".
957:
9024:
Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol I: Maps. Vol II: Texts
2757:
also includes several unclassified Mandarin dialects spoken in scattered pockets across southeastern China, such as
2441:, while splitting the remaining Mandarin dialects between Northern, Lower Yangtze and Southwestern Mandarin groups.
1248:, with some lexical and syntactic influence from other Mandarin dialects. It is the official spoken language of the
16783:
12345:
9648:
8466:
8967:
Ting, Pang-Hsin (1991), "Some theoretical issues in the study of Mandarin dialects", in Wang, William S-Y. (ed.),
6981:
1223:
missionaries learned this standard language in the 16th century, they called it "Mandarin", from its Chinese name
1104:
compared to the more mountainous south, combined with the relatively recent spread of Mandarin to frontier areas.
17063:
17043:
15254:
12444:
11946:
10173:
3210:
2933:
1849:
area, though not identical to any single dialect. This form remained prestigious long after the capital moved to
1379:
503:
2005:, the standard form of Chinese used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life remains the local
1908:, which was based on northern dialects. A parallel priority was the definition of a standard national language (
17048:
16228:
15682:
10653:
10296:
9432:
2822:
2046:
1965:
1909:
1215:
empires. Since their native varieties were often mutually unintelligible, these officials communicated using a
1038:
976:
861:
729:
692:
558:
314:
82:
2421:
voiced initials. His Mandarin group included dialects of northern and southwestern China, as well as those of
17068:
15465:
15324:
15131:
12262:
11716:
3234:
3135:
2877:
2256:
2069:
Most Han Chinese living in northern and southwestern China are native speakers of a dialect of Mandarin. The
2042:
1957:
1917:
1834:
1396:. Traditionally, seven major groups of dialects have been recognized. Aside from Mandarin, the other six are
1159:
1030:
966:
715:
542:
439:
310:
78:
3684:
The Middle Chinese final stops have undergone a variety of developments in different Mandarin dialects (see
17038:
16793:
16223:
14627:
13477:
12537:
12321:
12232:
11756:
10231:
10178:
9834:
6604:
3301:
3222:
3123:
2885:
2778:
2405:
2116:
of the area now speak these dialects exclusively; their native language is only maintained in northwestern
2061:
until the late 20th century, but there are now significant communities of them in cities across the world.
1949:
1854:
1785:. Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined.
1127:
6706:
5249:
5245:
5239:
5235:
5229:
5223:
5217:
5204:
5198:
5192:
5186:
5180:
5164:
5158:
5152:
5146:
5133:
5127:
5121:
5115:
5102:
5096:
5090:
5084:
5071:
5065:
5059:
5053:
5047:
5034:
5028:
5022:
5016:
5000:
4994:
4988:
4975:
4969:
4963:
4957:
4941:
4935:
4929:
4916:
4910:
4904:
4898:
4885:
4879:
4873:
4867:
4854:
4848:
4842:
4836:
4820:
4814:
4808:
4802:
4789:
4783:
4777:
4771:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4736:
4720:
4714:
4708:
4702:
4686:
4680:
4674:
4668:
4463:
4086:
4078:
3958:
3951:
3947:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3670:
3663:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3640:
3625:
3621:
3586:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3564:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3527:
3517:
3513:
3503:
3499:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3414:
3407:
3400:
3396:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3342:
3338:
2903:
17033:
14922:
14722:
12392:
12338:
12237:
12109:
12034:
11691:
10224:
9879:
9801:
9517:
5675:
1560:
1498:
795:
626:
7743:
7115:
Linguae Sinarum Mandarinicae hieroglyphicae grammatica duplex, latinè, & cum characteribus Sinensium
2295:
serves as the common language (especially in commerce and local media). An exception is in the state of
1088:; it is spoken by 70 percent of all Chinese speakers over a large geographical area that stretches from
16263:
15663:
12279:
12252:
12129:
12041:
11788:
11768:
8834:
8492:
3321:
3309:
3044:
3032:
2790:
1945:
1905:
1688:
1944:). After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at
1746:("Middle Kingdom's Common Speech"), used on the frontispiece of an early Chinese grammar published by
1100:
in the northeast. This is generally attributed to the greater ease of travel and communication in the
17028:
16118:
15784:
13386:
11831:
10529:
10289:
10124:
9571:
9492:
8826:
8360:
5376:). There are also a small number of words that have been polysyllabic since Old Chinese, such as
3319:
3307:
3299:
3287:
3275:
3258:
3256:
3244:
3232:
3220:
3208:
3187:
3175:
3163:
3145:
3133:
3121:
3100:
3084:
3072:
3058:
3042:
3030:
3013:
2997:
2985:
2968:
2308:
2185:
series (z, c, s), frequent mergers of the "neutral tone" with a word's original tone, and absence of
2104:, did not receive significant settlements by Han Chinese until the 18th century, and as a result the
7527:
6748:
1472:
16148:
15804:
13867:
13406:
13371:
12472:
12205:
12190:
12180:
11894:
10205:
9808:
9621:
5879:), which is used in most northern dialects to denote obviousness or contention, is replaced by
5859:
5567:
3620:, are common in Mandarin dialects, though they also occur elsewhere. The Middle Chinese off-glides
3589:. This is a stereotypical feature of southwestern Mandarin, since it is so easily noticeable. E.g.
3439:
People in many Mandarin-speaking areas may use different initial sounds where Beijing uses initial
2321:
variant close to the Yunnanese dialect is spoken by local Chinese and other ethnic groups. In some
1683:
1494:
433:
330:
320:
8732:
Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"
5274:
There are more polysyllabic words in Mandarin than in all other major varieties of Chinese except
1264:. It also functions as the language of instruction in mainland China and Taiwan. It is one of the
16961:
16874:
16605:
16358:
16308:
16288:
16208:
16193:
16128:
15762:
14799:
14568:
14262:
13520:
13431:
13313:
13308:
12217:
10456:
10199:
9985:
9869:
9060:
Yue, Anne O. (2003), "Chinese dialects: grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),
5575:
3060:
2811:
2612:
2516:
2467:
2384:
2249:
1422:
903:
382:
275:
19:
This article is about the group of Chinese language varieties. For the standardized variety, see
12210:
12059:
7628:
Lee Kuan Yew, "From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000", HarperCollins, 2000 (
5485:) added for the plural. Further, there is a distinction between the plural first-person pronoun
16989:
16926:
16452:
16113:
16018:
15973:
15913:
15774:
15532:
15352:
15277:
14957:
14762:
14757:
14752:
14747:
14658:
14291:
14108:
13790:
12615:
12610:
12581:
12569:
12151:
11994:
10592:
10245:
10238:
10018:
9952:
9455:
8807:
5678:
is common across Chinese dialects, but there are variations in the order of the two objects of
5579:
3689:
2680:
1147:
1070:
270:
137:
16423:
9137:
Dwyer, Arienne M. (1995), "From the Northwest China Sprachbund: Xúnhuà Chinese dialect data",
7284:
6798:
6692:
Speaker numbers are rounded to the nearest million from figures in the revised edition of the
16831:
16333:
16213:
15958:
15811:
15705:
15378:
15235:
14580:
14556:
14279:
14242:
12740:
12146:
12069:
11783:
11761:
10516:
10349:
10188:
10138:
9694:
9297:
Kong, Huifang; Wu, Shengyi; Li, Mingxing (2022). "Hefei Mandarin". Illustrations of the IPA.
8793:"What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms"
2999:
2987:
2926:
2922:
2718:
2536:
2318:
2105:
1646:
1579:). Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch and by the late
1367:
1204:
1074:
1062:
389:
285:
250:
14454:
9337:
Western Mandarin: or the spoken language of western China, with syllabic and English indexes
8757:
1853:
in 1421, though the speech of the new capital emerged as a rival standard. As late as 1815,
16984:
16966:
16708:
16687:
16278:
15968:
15799:
15789:
15587:
15490:
15139:
14227:
14088:
13907:
13887:
13872:
13608:
13573:
13381:
11914:
11882:
11711:
10836:
10331:
10000:
9846:
9792:
2895:
one syllable contains maximum four phonemes (maximum three vowels and no consonant cluster)
2417:
produced the first classification based on phonetic criteria, principally the evolution of
2229:
2207:
1990:
1889:
1764:
1385:
243:
1637:
Until the early 20th century, formal writing and even much poetry and fiction was done in
8:
16936:
16884:
16849:
16682:
16576:
16467:
16313:
16258:
16003:
15858:
15833:
15643:
15565:
15560:
15473:
15448:
15230:
15218:
14898:
14650:
14540:
14520:
14284:
14211:
13912:
13862:
13857:
13268:
12835:
12419:
12158:
12124:
11959:
11926:
11773:
11701:
11618:
11459:
11454:
11208:
11018:
10524:
10183:
9773:
9600:
9531:
9401:
9335:
8599:
7164:
5475:
4471:
3203:
3189:
3177:
3165:
3114:
3102:
3086:
3074:
2963:
2918:
2889:
1981:
This standard language is now used in education, the media, and formal occasions in both
1552:
1535:
1363:
1171:
1066:
1025:
and most Mandarin dialects are found in the north, the group is sometimes referred to as
182:
13897:
13882:
12497:
9379:
9368:
9324:
8631:——— (2003), "Robert Morrison and the Phonology of Mid-Qīng Mandarin",
5511:
5493:
5384:
1747:
16650:
16556:
16398:
16363:
16328:
16183:
16163:
16133:
15873:
15478:
15213:
15111:
14983:
14817:
14735:
14676:
14667:
14485:
14257:
14191:
14140:
14093:
14037:
13767:
13710:
13436:
12592:
12361:
12274:
12141:
12104:
11989:
11887:
11821:
11816:
11706:
11696:
11322:
11300:
11193:
11001:
10996:
10919:
10907:
10895:
10883:
10871:
10395:
10024:
9633:
9499:
9202:
8972:
8955:
8926:
8648:
8619:
8529:
7531:
6973:
6849:
6705:
The development is purely due to the preservation of an early glide which later became
6599:
6584:
5866:
5804:
5772:
5656:
5652:
4037:
3609:
3015:
2862:
2602:
2598:
2580:
2544:
2454:
2414:
2274:
2182:
2161:
1884:
in the early 1900s and the successive Republican government. In the early years of the
1108:
306:
265:
172:
73:
15878:
13892:
12502:
6823:
4595:
Although the system of tones is common across Mandarin dialects, their realization as
2651:
have reported being understood by speakers of the Beijing dialect, but not vice versa.
1272:, under the name "Chinese". Chinese speakers refer to the modern standard language as
425:
16901:
16879:
16773:
16672:
16667:
16655:
16645:
16610:
16408:
16373:
16203:
16173:
16043:
15943:
15933:
15794:
15733:
15720:
15623:
15618:
15608:
15582:
15577:
15572:
15540:
15500:
15418:
15383:
15314:
15198:
15193:
15155:
15015:
14966:
14931:
14844:
14784:
14464:
14124:
13998:
13943:
13835:
13743:
13738:
13695:
13617:
13348:
13328:
13253:
13230:
13003:
12885:
12855:
12697:
12688:
12640:
12630:
12477:
12409:
12185:
12175:
12054:
12019:
11874:
11826:
11778:
11545:
11398:
11332:
11188:
11173:
10844:
10821:
10775:
10700:
10626:
10506:
10474:
10428:
10367:
10357:
10322:
10132:
10092:
10070:
10035:
10029:
9994:
9932:
9926:
9906:
9700:
9688:
9671:
9579:
9525:
9505:
9111:
9088:
9065:
9046:
9027:
9008:
8989:
8959:
8895:
8876:
8857:
8838:
8739:
8735:
8684:
8665:
8662:
Creole and dialect continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC)
8652:
8585:
8559:
8552:
8536:
8033:
7629:
7607:
7535:
7170:
6977:
6965:
6898:
5786:
5660:
5640:
2594:
2284:
2174:
2070:
1789:
1139:
1135:
1101:
1002:
845:
837:
676:
668:
325:
142:
16153:
15993:
9370:
The Standard System of Mandarin Romanization: Introduction, Sound Table an Syllabary
9346:
1842:
1216:
509:
16896:
16864:
16859:
16718:
16692:
16677:
16620:
16393:
16353:
16273:
16268:
16248:
16238:
16198:
16188:
16178:
16123:
16093:
16083:
16038:
16008:
15918:
15883:
15767:
15613:
15555:
15520:
15510:
15495:
15410:
15171:
14890:
14854:
14839:
14834:
14827:
14812:
14535:
14530:
14500:
14459:
14439:
14328:
14323:
14267:
14186:
14075:
13948:
13928:
13877:
13844:
13805:
13800:
13795:
13753:
13748:
13730:
13578:
13568:
13472:
13421:
13416:
13391:
13318:
13011:
12988:
12983:
12913:
12908:
12903:
12865:
12805:
12730:
12673:
12668:
12653:
12424:
12375:
12291:
11811:
11686:
11550:
11540:
11525:
11471:
11393:
11344:
11305:
11254:
11168:
11120:
11104:
10984:
10944:
10939:
10826:
10780:
10726:
10721:
10711:
10705:
10534:
10479:
10464:
10312:
10153:
10113:
10083:
10057:
10007:
9965:
9874:
9851:
9744:
9724:
9681:
9606:
9469:
9357:
9302:
9283:
9258:
9146:
9123:
9083:
education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong", in Zhou, Minglang (ed.),
8947:
8922:
8918:
8640:
8611:
8380:
8376:
7523:
6957:
5668:
5664:
4456:
2958:
2953:
2766:
2506:
2387:
dialects of southeast Gansu and southwest Shaanxi, and write their language in the
2217:
2058:
1901:
1871:
1769:
Historia del principio y progresso de la Compañía de Jesús en las Indias Orientales
1668:
1642:
1638:
1556:
1526:
1241:
1155:
1018:
916:
760:
591:
280:
223:
147:
20:
14083:
9731:
6709:
and triggered palatalization, and does not indicate the absence of a vowel merger.
2872:
Phonological features that are generally shared by the Mandarin dialects include:
1115:
have disappeared in most of these varieties, but some have merged them as a final
16916:
16906:
16760:
16728:
16723:
16713:
16660:
16598:
16591:
16540:
16383:
16298:
16293:
16233:
16138:
16103:
16098:
16088:
16078:
16033:
16023:
16013:
15953:
15948:
15928:
15923:
15754:
15728:
15633:
15628:
15550:
15545:
15515:
15483:
15453:
15203:
15106:
15086:
15020:
14903:
14880:
14875:
14849:
14740:
14730:
14689:
14684:
14515:
14505:
14495:
14444:
14434:
14308:
14181:
14176:
14171:
14060:
14050:
14045:
14013:
14003:
13988:
13978:
13968:
13938:
13902:
13852:
13815:
13780:
13720:
13700:
13680:
13645:
13630:
13625:
13548:
13487:
13467:
13462:
13457:
13401:
13293:
13263:
13212:
13187:
13172:
13146:
13141:
13121:
13106:
13051:
12993:
12978:
12973:
12958:
12953:
12898:
12830:
12810:
12745:
12720:
12648:
12625:
12527:
12492:
12487:
12462:
12434:
12429:
12242:
12222:
12119:
12079:
12064:
11803:
11653:
11643:
11623:
11580:
11575:
11441:
11405:
11388:
11378:
11317:
11135:
11071:
11013:
10961:
10956:
10858:
10754:
10749:
10658:
10605:
10600:
10580:
10565:
10560:
10501:
10496:
10486:
10469:
10441:
10413:
10390:
10145:
10099:
9958:
9840:
9779:
9613:
9560:
9551:
9537:
9390:
9085:
Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949
7676:
7291:
6594:
6576:
5634:
4057:
3943:
3567:, is lost after apical initials in several areas. Thus Southwestern Mandarin has
2980:
2973:
2881:
2654:
2636:
2588:
2540:
2491:
2388:
2334:
2237:
2128:
2109:
2097:
2035:
1521:
1431:
1245:
1085:
1010:
823:
654:
369:
365:
129:
119:
2041:
The written forms of Standard Chinese are also essentially equivalent, although
1244:, which is often called simply "Chinese". Standard Mandarin Chinese is based on
981:
971:
565:
549:
16869:
16586:
16528:
16496:
16491:
16413:
16403:
16388:
16348:
16323:
16318:
16303:
16283:
16253:
16243:
16218:
16168:
16143:
16073:
16068:
16028:
15998:
15938:
15898:
15893:
15888:
15868:
15848:
15828:
15443:
15329:
15319:
15298:
15208:
15091:
15063:
14870:
14822:
14779:
14769:
14712:
14694:
14525:
14469:
14449:
14252:
14217:
14206:
14201:
14196:
14103:
14055:
13993:
13963:
13958:
13820:
13810:
13775:
13685:
13650:
13635:
13583:
13543:
13538:
13533:
13482:
13426:
13396:
13376:
13366:
13361:
13338:
13258:
13243:
13238:
13207:
13182:
13167:
13162:
13131:
13126:
13116:
13111:
13101:
13096:
13091:
13086:
13041:
13016:
12963:
12875:
12860:
12825:
12795:
12790:
12770:
12760:
12755:
12750:
12678:
12663:
12605:
12600:
12507:
12467:
12452:
12296:
12286:
12257:
12247:
11964:
11936:
11648:
11633:
11535:
11486:
11481:
11466:
11410:
11349:
11231:
11203:
11183:
11130:
11099:
11076:
11066:
11061:
11023:
11006:
10951:
10816:
10798:
10716:
10690:
10631:
10551:
10539:
10491:
10446:
10436:
10362:
10215:
10193:
10107:
10076:
10012:
9972:
9946:
9920:
9897:
9820:
9766:
9738:
9707:
9585:
9511:
8753:
7985:
7771:
6636:
4064:
3428:
are not distinguished. In Southwestern Mandarin, these sounds usually merge to
3025:
2899:
2418:
2360:
2225:
2221:
2190:
1982:
1935:
1548:
1435:
1393:
1269:
1180:
1151:
1112:
809:
640:
355:
296:
260:
187:
114:
12482:
11667:
9306:
9287:
9263:
9246:
8702:
8644:
5545:
5530:
5463:
5457:
5451:
5445:
5433:
5421:
5415:
5403:
4229:
4222:
4215:
4208:
4201:
4194:
4187:
4180:
4173:
4166:
4159:
4152:
2291:
speakers continue to form a plurality among the ethnic Chinese population and
1760:
ourselves.... Two of our fathers have been learning this mandarin language...
17022:
16946:
16931:
16921:
16746:
16476:
16418:
16378:
16368:
16343:
16338:
16158:
16063:
16053:
15816:
15638:
15433:
15225:
15096:
15078:
15043:
14939:
14908:
14807:
14789:
14510:
14384:
14360:
14303:
14132:
14065:
14023:
14008:
13933:
13785:
13690:
13563:
13558:
13411:
13323:
13303:
13298:
13288:
13278:
13273:
13248:
13202:
13197:
13192:
13177:
13136:
13081:
13076:
13071:
13066:
13061:
13056:
13046:
13036:
13031:
13021:
12968:
12948:
12943:
12938:
12933:
12928:
12923:
12918:
12870:
12850:
12845:
12840:
12820:
12800:
12785:
12780:
12775:
12735:
12725:
12710:
12705:
12658:
12620:
12522:
12512:
12097:
11909:
11904:
11476:
11420:
11415:
11383:
11370:
11246:
11198:
11125:
11081:
10971:
10808:
10731:
10570:
10418:
10405:
9939:
9861:
9627:
9592:
9544:
9160:"Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese"
8951:
8698:
7174:
6969:
6826:. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan). 31 December 2014.
6654:
5571:
5349:
4403:
2648:
2568:
2461:(plosive-final) category should constitute a separate top-level group called
2458:
2434:
2340:
2245:
2121:
2113:
2082:
1751:
1413:
1405:
1131:
899:
359:
10274:
indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.
8367:(1976). "The Austroasiatics in ancient South China: some lexical evidence".
7672:"In Myanmar's Remote Mongla Region, Mandarin Supplants The Burmese Language"
5585:
There are also many Chinese words which come from foreign languages such as
2865:. In the traditional analysis, the medial, vowel and coda are combined as a
2561:, as well as some areas of recent large-scale immigration, such as northern
1731:
448:
16911:
16821:
16535:
16513:
16108:
15978:
15186:
15007:
14490:
14355:
14318:
14018:
13983:
13973:
13953:
13825:
13705:
13670:
13660:
13655:
13640:
13528:
13452:
13356:
13333:
13026:
12893:
12815:
12765:
12715:
12517:
12457:
11969:
11919:
11295:
11178:
11151:
10695:
10685:
9913:
9829:
9785:
9714:
9128:
8070:
6562:
5679:
5522:
5338:), or by compounding, e.g. by combining two words of similar meaning as in
5275:
4797:
4596:
4483:
4460:
3693:
3644:
3385:
2911:
2624:
2606:
2584:
2486:
dialects within Southwestern Mandarin, treating only the more conservative
2430:
1881:
1677:
1580:
1564:
1540:
1502:
1478:
1467:
1256:(Republic of China, ROC), as well as one of the four official languages of
1212:
1208:
1123:
initial consonants, which have been lost in southern varieties of Chinese.
1116:
1097:
1005:
dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern
767:
598:
344:
192:
9395:, Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs.
9274:
Chen, Yiya; Guo, Li (2022). "Zhushan Mandarin". Illustrations of the IPA.
6736:
5807:. Other Chinese varieties tend to use different particles, e.g. Cantonese
3388:
falls into this category.) On the other side, in some dialects of eastern
2498:
treated it as a separate top-level group, but this remains controversial.
409:
16841:
16803:
16798:
16508:
16486:
16481:
16457:
15988:
15983:
15908:
15903:
15438:
15246:
15055:
15030:
14998:
14401:
14377:
14350:
14340:
14313:
14298:
14274:
14098:
13675:
13598:
13593:
13553:
13283:
12114:
12088:
11984:
11954:
11931:
11899:
11638:
11628:
11432:
11327:
11312:
11275:
11223:
11044:
11035:
10931:
10770:
10645:
10372:
10259:
9474:
8892:
The unending frontier: an environmental history of the early modern world
8364:
8082:
7793:
7696:
6961:
4005:
3987:
2907:
2511:
2479:
2462:
2445:
2438:
2372:
1777:
1663:; 'wing') is unambiguous in written Chinese, but has over 75
1650:
1507:
1427:
1417:
1409:
1401:
1389:
1022:
177:
15674:
9424:
9206:
8976:
8930:
4036:
In general, no two Mandarin-speaking areas have exactly the same set of
3996:
3978:
3337:
Most Mandarin-speaking areas distinguish between the retroflex initials
1776:
Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people living in many parts of
16788:
15963:
15368:
15181:
15038:
14429:
14367:
14345:
13715:
13588:
11530:
11504:
11270:
11236:
10741:
10668:
8118:
8094:
8058:
8009:
7458:
6741:
5775:, but the particles used vary. Most Mandarin dialects use the particle
5644:
5259:
4479:
4069:
3651:
in the modern dialects. In some areas (especially the southwest) final
3633:
2825: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2712:
2644:
2640:
2475:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2086:
2031:
1897:
1531:
1397:
14619:
9362:(revised 2nd ed.), Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press.
8623:
6944:
4417:
4414:
4411:
3524:
3510:
3496:
23:. For the court lingua franca during the Ming and Qing dynasties, see
16768:
16581:
16503:
16462:
15428:
15423:
15393:
15176:
14988:
14406:
14394:
14389:
14333:
13665:
12404:
12330:
11979:
11730:
11721:
11449:
11339:
10991:
10979:
10790:
10621:
10252:
9893:
9658:
9465:
9150:
8531:
Portraits of "primitives": Ordering human kinds in the Chinese nation
5279:
4831:
4455:
In Lower Yangtze dialects, a minority of Southwestern dialects (e.g.
3629:
2858:
2773:. Another Mandarin variety of uncertain classification is apparently
2514:, which many linguists include as part of Mandarin, according to the
2487:
2483:
2368:
2364:
2292:
2261:
2241:
2213:
2178:
2027:
2011:
2006:
1998:
1994:
1793:
1664:
1257:
1120:
1014:
854:
685:
418:
402:
9296:
9003:
Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987),
7563:"Code-switching and Identity Constructions in Taiwan TV Commercials"
6536:人人 生 而 自由, 在 尊嚴 和 權利 上 一律 平等。 他們 賦有 理性 和 良心, 並 應 以 兄弟 關係 的 精神 互相 對待。
3403:, substituting one for the other in some or all cases. For example,
2936:
of stops and sibilants (also common to most non-Mandarin varieties).
2800:
16826:
16778:
15388:
14372:
12269:
11855:
11496:
10677:
10281:
9326:
Idiomatic Dialogues in the Peking Colloquial for the Use of Student
8633:
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland
8615:
7639:
6570:
5175:
4983:
4924:
4893:
4511:
4487:
4053:
3389:
3376:
are the result of merger between the historical palatalized velars
3270:
2854:
2704:
2674:
2670:
2632:
2576:
2562:
2280:
2145:
2117:
2101:
1443:
1261:
1189:
1093:
781:
612:
521:
12301:
9406:(2nd ed.), London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company.
8572:
8190:
8106:
8046:
7997:
7991:
7961:
5639:
Chinese varieties of all periods are considered prime examples of
4494:
Reflexes of the Middle Chinese entering tone in Mandarin dialects
2781:
have undergone drastic changes in phonology, lexicon and grammar.
460:
60:
16518:
14411:
12168:
11848:
11735:
11564:
11160:
9754:
5392:
5353:
5212:
5141:
5079:
5042:
5011:
4952:
4862:
4766:
4663:
4467:
4093:
Reflexes of Middle Chinese initials and tones in modern Mandarin
4049:
2758:
2746:
2742:
2730:
2726:
2708:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2684:
2666:
2662:
2620:
2554:
2433:'s classification of 1937 distinguished the latter two groups as
2426:
2314:
2288:
2233:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2090:
1893:
1877:
1850:
1846:
1708:
1451:
1447:
1119:. Many Mandarin varieties, including the Beijing dialect, retain
1021:, the official language of China. Because Mandarin originated in
517:
9022:
Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (2011).
7889:
7392:
5771:
Most varieties of Chinese use post-verbal particles to indicate
4056:
and so on all have four tones that correspond quite well to the
4040:
values, but most Mandarin-speaking areas have very similar tone
2325:-controlled regions, Mandarin also serves as the lingua franca.
1841:
As the last two of these features indicate, this language was a
1061:'northern speech'). Many varieties of Mandarin, such as
16854:
15603:
12227:
12029:
9667:
9482:
8873:
Applying Linguistics in the Classroom: A Sociocultural Approach
8329:
7013:
7011:
5555:
4731:
4697:
3628:
are generally preserved in Mandarin dialects, yielding several
3480:
Many dialects of Northwestern and Central Plains Mandarin have
2770:
2762:
2734:
2450:
2167:
2149:
2075:
1986:
1925:
1797:
1613:
1455:
1322:
1253:
1220:
1143:
1089:
1046:
986:
350:
340:
7604:"Envisioning Chinese Identity and Multiracialism in Singapore"
7166:
A dictionary of the Chinese language: in three parts, Volume 1
7059:
4015:
934:
16615:
15505:
11740:
9663:
9478:
9244:
8582:
Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Chinese dialect volume
8306:
Li Rong's 1985 article on Mandarin classification, quoted in
6897:. Vol. 1 (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. 2007.
5648:
5283:
5110:
4603:
Phonetic realization of Mandarin tones in principal dialects
4045:
2774:
2738:
2722:
2688:
2658:
2628:
2616:
2572:
2558:
2474:
The southern boundary of the Mandarin area, with the central
2422:
2296:
2186:
2093:, and many Mandarin varieties are not mutually intelligible.
2002:
1788:
Officials varied widely in their pronunciation; in 1728, the
1513:
1439:
1249:
1006:
94:
8467:"Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Chinese (Mandarin)"
7313:
7008:
6911:
6881:
China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Mathew Ricci
3692:
and some north-western dialects they have merged as a final
1520:
The rhyming conventions of the new verse were codified in a
465:
Countries and regions where Mandarin is spoken as L1 or L2
16625:
9381:
The Standard System of Mandarin Romanization: Radical Index
8703:"Typological interaction in the Qinghai linguistic complex"
7780:
Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences
7470:
1183:
8908:
8317:
8271:
8259:
8088:
7853:
7799:
7702:
2232:, which primarily spoke the Southern Chinese languages of
1150:. It is also used as one of the official languages of the
520:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
8290:
8288:
8286:
8249:
8247:
8234:
8232:
8166:
8154:
8130:
7937:
7913:
7841:
7817:
7805:
7499:
7368:
7301:
7181:
7083:
7023:
4474:
was based; it transcribes the glottal stop as a trailing
2647:
belongs to this group. Dungan speakers such as the poet
2383:
in Russia. The Dungan speak two dialects, descended from
1876:
The variant of Mandarin as spoken by educated classes in
937:
925:
866:
697:
9392:
A Dictionary from English to Colloquial Mandarin Chinese
8681:
The politics of language in Chinese education, 1895–1919
8341:
8219:
8217:
8215:
8213:
8211:
8209:
8207:
8205:
7433:
7431:
7358:
7356:
7354:
7352:
3608:
Mandarin dialects typically have relatively few vowels.
1559:, voiceless aspirated and voiced consonants. There were
1203:, meaning 'minister or counsellor') originally meant an
8447:
8411:
7489:
7487:
7485:
7325:
7071:
7047:
7035:
6777:
6775:
6773:
6269:'theater fan', 'sports fan', 'groupie (of a musician)'
2910:
dialects, an echo of the final stops is preserved as a
8435:
8399:
8283:
8244:
8229:
7973:
7949:
7925:
7829:
7193:
7132:
6191:
usually used in a disparaging way, similar to -aholic
5908:
List of several common Chinese prefixes and suffixes:
3563:
in pinyin), though their incidence varies. The medial
2379:
in 1881. About 500 speakers live in a compact area in
2166:
Standard Mandarin is one of the official languages of
1814:
loss of the Middle Chinese voiced initials except for
8575:
Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn
8423:
8387:
8202:
7901:
7670:
Aung Thein Kha; Gerin, Roseanne (17 September 2019).
7448:
7446:
7428:
7349:
7265:
7253:
7241:
7229:
7217:
7205:
7144:
7120:
6996:
6923:
6797:. Chinese Government. 31 October 2000. Archived from
6640:
5865:
Especially in conversational Chinese, sentence-final
5831:) respectively. The experiential aspect particle
5610:
5598:
5586:
5553:
5504:
5486:
5468:
5438:
5426:
5408:
5396:
5377:
2857:
consists maximally of an initial consonant, a medial
2553:(27 million), spoken in Beijing and environs such as
2510:
Distribution of the eight subgroups of Mandarin plus
1792:, unable to understand the accents of officials from
958:
940:
928:
842:
828:
814:
800:
786:
772:
673:
659:
645:
631:
617:
603:
476: Statutory or de facto national working language
65:
50:
9315:
9021:
8937:
8178:
7766:
7764:
7645:
7482:
7464:
7398:
7380:
7095:
6770:
6552:
3392:, the velar initials did not undergo palatalization.
2683:(or Jiang–Huai, 86 million), spoken in the parts of
931:
8142:
7877:
7669:
7337:
5905:, which means 'teach', to form the word 'teacher'.
5845:) is used more widely, except in Southern Min.
3432:; in Lower Yangtze Mandarin, they usually merge to
2695:, as well as some areas on the south bank, such as
922:
919:
8551:
8528:
8359:
7651:
7542:
7443:
7416:
7404:
6943:
4020:with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese
3659:. This is especially prevalent in the rhyme pairs
2444:The widely accepted seven-group classification of
2212:Mandarin is one of the four official languages of
9299:Journal of the International Phonetic Association
9276:Journal of the International Phonetic Association
9273:
9251:Journal of the International Phonetic Association
9139:Yuen Ren Society Treasury of Chinese Dialect Data
7865:
7761:
6174:'reliability', 'usability', 'understand-ability'
6071:old, or show respect to a certain type of person
5643:, relying on word order and particles instead of
4482:and is thought to represent the pronunciation of
3539:Most Mandarin dialects have three medial glides,
1900:, successfully campaigned for the replacement of
1289:; 'common speech') in mainland China,
17020:
9340:, Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press.
9087:, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 143–161,
9002:
8124:
8112:
8100:
8076:
8064:
8052:
8015:
8003:
7967:
7017:
6945:"The Vitality of Minority Languages in Malaysia"
2045:are used in mainland China and Singapore, while
1174:
1880:was made the official language of China by the
1629:), can be traced back to the Tang dynasty.
1305:; 'national language') in Taiwan or
1079:lists of languages by number of native speakers
10123:
9570:
9329:, Shanghai: Offices of the North-China Herald.
9232:Mandarin basic dialects basic words collection
8870:
6917:
6617:List of languages by number of native speakers
1198:
1192:
15690:
15262:
14635:
12346:
10297:
9440:
9389:Stent, George Carter; Hemeling, Karl (1905),
9384:, Shanghai: Educational Association of China.
9373:, Shanghai: Educational Association of China.
9235:
9221:
9215:
9188:
7528:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1030-1032.1650
5616:
5604:
5592:
5561:
5535:
5516:
5498:
5480:
5361:
5343:
5333:
5327:
5317:
5311:
5301:
5291:
3903:
3849:
3807:
3753:
2906:(although in many Lower Yangtze Mandarin and
2177:. Notable differences include: the merger of
2108:dialects spoken there differ little from the
1325:language') in Malaysia and Singapore,
734:
720:
563:
547:
12096:
9984:
9359:A course of Mandarin lessons, based on idiom
8554:Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics
2657:(17 million), spoken in central and western
1687:and beyond, there developed a literature in
1237:; 'language of the officials').
8573:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012),
7601:
5901:has the same function, it is combined with
5862:fulfils the role of the Mandarin particle.
5651:to provide grammatical information such as
5503:), which is inclusive of the listener, and
1973:
1426:(1987) distinguishes three further groups:
1260:, and a high-prestige minority language in
1056:
1001:'officials' speech') is a group of
996:
15697:
15683:
15276:
15269:
15255:
14642:
14628:
12568:
12353:
12339:
12317:
12087:
10304:
10290:
9447:
9433:
9348:A Mandarin-Romanized dictionary of Chinese
9245:Li, Qian; Chen, Yiya; Xiong, Ziyu (2019).
8871:Razfar, Aria; Rumenapp, Joseph C. (2013),
4446:respectively. Older dictionaries such as
3571:"correct" where the standard language has
2721:(260 million), spoken in the provinces of
2605:, as well as in few counties of
2583:, as well as in few counties of
2375:valley after it was ceded to China in the
2228:. Historically, it was seldom used by the
2052:
1240:In everyday English, "Mandarin" refers to
1219:based on various northern varieties. When
1158:communities. It is also the most commonly
459:
447:
59:
15704:
9454:
9262:
9127:
9078:
7992:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012)
7741:
7259:
6124:'officialize', 'systemize', 'strengthen'
2841:Learn how and when to remove this message
1567:comprising syllables ending in plosives (
8889:
8729:
8697:
8604:Journal of the American Oriental Society
8558:, New York: Cambridge University Press,
8311:
8160:
8136:
7979:
7943:
7931:
7919:
7895:
7847:
7835:
7823:
7811:
7714:
7476:
7162:
7029:
5947:plural for human nouns, same as -s, -es
5819:
5809:
3395:Many southwestern Mandarin dialects mix
2505:
1950:National Language Unification Commission
1730:
1632:
1563:, with the fourth or "entering tone", a
1471:
883:
15719:
14666:
14649:
12012:
9351:, Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press.
9079:Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004), "
8602:(2000), "A brief history of Mandarin",
8493:"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"
6941:
5282:. New words have been formed by adding
1940:
1497:(959–1126) and during the reign of the
514:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
17021:
14965:
14930:
12360:
9310:, with supplementary sound recordings.
9291:, with supplementary sound recordings.
9268:, with supplementary sound recordings.
9116:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale
9114:(2006), "Mandarin dialect phylogeny",
8851:
8825:
8659:
8630:
8598:
8584:], Beijing: The Commercial Press,
8441:
8405:
8393:
8347:
8335:
8323:
8294:
8277:
8265:
8253:
8238:
8223:
8196:
8184:
8172:
7907:
7859:
7505:
7493:
7437:
7386:
7374:
7362:
7307:
7223:
7199:
7187:
7150:
7126:
7101:
7089:
7077:
7065:
7053:
7041:
7002:
6929:
6781:
5352:, which is hardly used in Beijing. In
1727:Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)
1720:
1146:, as well as one of the four official
1084:Mandarin is by far the largest of the
844:
675:
25:Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)
16524:Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien
15678:
15250:
14623:
13508:
12567:
12334:
10285:
9428:
8778:from the original on 21 February 2015
8678:
7138:
6862:from the original on 20 February 2018
6732:
6730:
6590:Transcription into Chinese characters
6330:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
3582:in some words where the standard has
2737:, and the Mandarin-speaking areas of
2465:. He used this classification in the
1833:retention of the distinction between
1530:(1324). A radical departure from the
10311:
9193:) (2011), "The origin of Mandarin",
9043:Introduction to Chinese Dialectology
8983:
8966:
8790:
8752:
8549:
8526:
8473:from the original on 7 December 2023
8148:
7883:
7657:
7560:
7548:
7465:Szeto, Ansaldo & Matthews (2018)
7452:
7422:
7410:
7399:Szeto, Ansaldo & Matthews (2018)
7343:
7331:
7319:
7271:
7247:
7235:
7211:
6657:big man') is without foundation.
6611:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects
3417:"grey" may be merged in these areas.
2823:adding citations to reliable sources
2794:
2152:, have markedly different dialects.
1681:, on down to the Qing dynasty novel
1555:showed a three-way contrast between
1388:developed from regional variants of
13509:
9059:
9040:
8453:
8429:
8417:
8307:
8027:
7955:
7871:
7517:
4478:.) This development is shared with
4449:Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary
3681:"capital" merge in those dialects.
3380:and palatalized alveolar sibilants
2921:(although these are absent in many
1865:
13:
9174:from the original on 9 August 2014
9103:
8988:. The University of Malaya Press.
8894:, University of California Press,
8717:from the original on 30 April 2023
8499:from the original on 16 March 2021
7646:Wurm, Mühlhäusler & Tryon 2011
7583:from the original on 7 August 2020
7285:The Slow Death of China's Dialects
6727:
6232:'gardener', 'painter', 'carpenter
6000:'trusty', 'laughable', 'reliable'
4021:
3965:replaces nearly the entire rhyme.
2490:dialects as a separate group. The
1170:The English word "mandarin" (from
1107:Most Mandarin varieties have four
482: More than 1,000,000 speakers
14:
17080:
9419:Tones in Mandarin Dialects :
9412:
9316:Historical Western language texts
8089:Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–1978)
7800:Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–1978)
7703:Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer (1977–1978)
6895:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
4426:William H. Baxter's transcription
3578:. Southwestern Mandarin also has
2394:
2381:Rovensky District, Saratov Oblast
2196:
2064:
1993:. However, in other parts of the
16:Major branch of Chinese languages
16784:Malay trade and creole languages
12316:
11794:Literary and colloquial readings
11666:
9647:
9323:Balfour, Frederic Henry (1883),
8485:
8459:
8353:
8300:
6984:from the original on 24 May 2022
6747:
6699:
6569:
6555:
6216:a technician in a certain field
6199:'smoker', 'alcoholic', 'coward'
6149:'writer', 'scientist', 'artist'
4583:marked with final glottal stop (
4466:. (This includes the dialect of
4044:. For example, the dialects of
4004:
3995:
3986:
3977:
2799:
2669:autonomous region (with capital
2181:sounds (zh, ch, sh, r) with the
1859:first English–Chinese dictionary
1845:based on dialects spoken in the
915:
494: More than 100,000 speakers
488: More than 500,000 speakers
15739:comparison with British English
9400:Whymant, A. Neville J. (1922),
9234:] (in Simplified Chinese).
8021:
7735:
7708:
7684:from the original on 5 May 2020
7663:
7622:
7595:
7554:
7511:
7277:
7156:
7107:
6935:
6830:from the original on 2 May 2017
6686:
6660:
6629:
6323:
5366:) "handbag" where Beijing uses
2810:needs additional citations for
2619:province, the central parts of
2328:
2124:, a modern dialect, is spoken.
1461:
1380:History of the Chinese language
867:
698:
104:Northern and southwestern China
17054:Chinese languages in Singapore
9356:Mateer, Calvin Wilson (1906),
9236:
9222:
9216:
9195:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
9189:
9064:, Routledge, pp. 84–125,
8969:Language and Dialects of China
8923:10.1080/02549948.1977.11745054
8856:, Princeton University Press,
8791:——— (1991),
8381:10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121
7561:Chiu, Miao-chin (April 2012).
6886:
6874:
6842:
6816:
6787:
6755:
6650:
6646:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6297:
6293:
6284:
6278:
6274:
6256:
6252:
6243:
6210:
6185:
6160:
6135:
6110:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6065:
6036:
6011:
5978:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5950:
5941:
5935:
5931:
5890:
5881:
5871:
5850:
5842:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5824:
5800:
5796:
5791:
5777:
5743:
5617:
5593:
5536:
5517:
5499:
5481:
5474:
5373:
5368:
5334:
5328:
5318:
5312:
5266:all syllables are made clear.
4651:
4640:
4631:
4622:
4613:
4585:
4442:
4436:
4430:
4392:
4383:
4374:
4365:
4352:
4345:
4338:
4331:
4324:
4317:
4310:
4303:
4296:
4289:
4282:
4139:
4124:
4109:
3914:
3860:
3764:
3372:The alveolo-palatal sibilants
1991:Chinese community of Singapore
1969:
1961:
1930:
1921:
1913:
1806:
1713:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1659:
1621:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1340:
1331:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1302:
1298:
1293:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1051:
1042:
1034:
991:
980:
970:
843:
829:
815:
801:
787:
773:
735:
721:
674:
660:
646:
632:
618:
604:
564:
548:
470: Majority native language
45:
41:
1:
17059:Subject–verb–object languages
9403:Colloquial Chinese (northern)
9345:MacGillivray, Donald (1905),
6716:
6099:'old man', 'boss', 'teacher'
5570:varieties have borrowed from
5269:
3954:when adding the rhotic final
2587:, due to migration. Includes
2399:
2257:Standard Singaporean Mandarin
2230:Chinese Singaporean community
1384:The hundreds of modern local
12322:List of varieties of Chinese
9249:. Illustrations of the IPA.
8535:, Rowman & Littlefield,
8199:, pp. 139–141, 192–193.
6918:Razfar & Rumenapp (2013)
6721:
6605:List of varieties of Chinese
6317:'teacher', 'chef', 'lawyer'
4016:
2784:
2579:("Lu") provinces except the
2501:
2406:List of varieties of Chinese
2371:to Qing forces and from the
2201:
1744:Medii Regni Communis Loquela
1420:on the southeast coast. The
7:
9041:Yan, Margaret Mian (2006),
8986:Mandarin Spread in Malaysia
7520:Advanced Materials Research
7296:McGill International Review
6641:
6548:
6025:'redo', 'rebuild', 'renew'
5848:The subordinative particle
5611:
5599:
5587:
5554:
5505:
5487:
5469:
5439:
5427:
5409:
5397:
5378:
3465:Some dialects have initial
2940:
2898:the disappearance of final
2268:
1946:an artificial pronunciation
1904:as the written standard by
1641:, which was modeled on the
1547:In Middle Chinese, initial
1199:
1193:
1081:(with nearly one billion).
66:
51:
10:
17085:
12280:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
9062:The Sino-Tibetan languages
8890:Richards, John F. (2003),
8852:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987),
8835:Cambridge University Press
8660:Escure, Geneviève (1997),
8527:Blum, Susan Debra (2001),
8514:
7113:Fourmont, Etienne (1742).
5632:
5628:
5467:) 'he, 'she', 'it', with -
3685:
3446:. Common variants include
3420:In some dialects, initial
3341:from the apical sibilants
2791:Standard Chinese phonology
2788:
2529:
2482:and You Rujie include the
2403:
2377:Treaty of Saint Petersburg
2367:in 1877 after the fall of
2332:
2306:
2302:
2272:
2205:
2159:
1906:written vernacular Chinese
1869:
1724:
1689:written vernacular Chinese
1465:
1377:
1373:
1250:People's Republic of China
1138:. Standard Chinese is the
18:
17002:
16977:
16954:
16945:
16890:comparison with Malaysian
16840:
16814:
16759:
16739:
16701:
16636:
16569:
16445:
16436:
16052:
15857:
15841:
15827:
15753:
15712:
15664:Singaporean Sign Language
15656:
15596:
15531:
15464:
15409:
15402:
15361:
15342:
15307:
15291:
15284:
15164:
15148:
15130:
15077:
15054:
15029:
15006:
14997:
14974:
14956:
14921:
14889:
14863:
14798:
14721:
14705:
14675:
14657:
14591:
14564:Southern (Shanghai) Sign
14549:
14478:
14422:
14226:
14164:
14117:
14074:
14036:
13921:
13843:
13834:
13766:
13729:
13616:
13607:
13519:
13515:
13504:
13445:
13347:
13229:
13155:
13002:
12884:
12696:
12687:
12639:
12591:
12580:
12576:
12563:
12556:
12536:
12443:
12391:
12384:
12368:
12314:
12198:
12167:
12078:
12003:
11945:
11865:
11840:
11802:
11749:
11675:
11664:
11611:
11563:
11518:
11495:
11440:
11431:
11369:
11288:
11263:
11245:
11222:
11159:
11150:
11113:
11090:
11052:
11043:
11034:
10970:
10930:
10857:
10835:
10807:
10789:
10763:
10740:
10676:
10667:
10644:
10614:
10591:
10515:
10455:
10427:
10404:
10381:
10348:
10339:
10330:
10319:
10269:
10214:
10166:
10051:
9892:
9860:
9818:
9753:
9656:
9645:
9463:
9307:10.1017/S0025100322000081
9288:10.1017/S0025100320000183
9264:10.1017/S0025100317000287
8679:Kaske, Elisabeth (2008),
8645:10.1017/S1356186303003134
8032:. 北京语言大学出版社. p. 45.
7776:Minor Languages of Russia
7169:. P.P. Thoms. p. x.
7163:Morrison, Robert (1815).
6762:
6264:
6260:
6237:
6227:
6223:
6219:
6204:
6194:
6179:
6169:
6154:
6144:
6129:
6119:
6104:
6059:
6049:
6045:
6030:
6020:
6005:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5972:
5902:
5898:
5893:) in southern usage.
5886:
5876:
5855:
5814:
5782:
5605:
5562:
5544:
5529:
5510:
5492:
5462:
5456:
5450:
5444:
5432:
5420:
5414:
5402:
5383:
5362:
5344:
5302:
5292:
5171:
5007:
4993:
4948:
4928:
4827:
4762:
4607:
4582:
4574:
4566:
4558:
4529:
4526:
4523:
4501:
4498:
4389:
4380:
4371:
4362:
4329:
4228:
4221:
4214:
4207:
4200:
4193:
4186:
4179:
4172:
4165:
4158:
4151:
4134:
4130:
4119:
4115:
4104:
4100:
3904:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3850:
3808:
3769:
3762:
3754:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3704:
3701:
3534:
3113:
3024:
2691:on the north bank of the
2615:(186 million), spoken in
2309:Chinese people in Myanmar
2155:
1801:
1739:
1654:
1626:
1482:, covering the syllables
1366:and the Hebei dialect or
1009:. The group includes the
878:
860:
853:
836:
822:
808:
794:
780:
766:
759:
754:
750:
742:
728:
714:
709:
691:
684:
667:
653:
639:
625:
611:
597:
590:
585:
581:
573:
557:
541:
537:
532:
500:
458:
446:
432:
416:
400:
395:
379:
293:
242:
214:
165:
126:
117:: 940 million (2021)
108:
100:
90:
58:
39:
34:
17009:Nearly extinct languages
9227:
9158:Novotná, Zdenka (1967),
8952:10.1515/lingty-2018-0009
8730:Kurpaska, Maria (2010),
8577:
8338:, pp. 182, 195–196.
8029:
7898:, pp. 55–56, 74–75.
7715:Vdovkina, Maria (2023).
7522:. 1030–1032: 1650–1652.
7322:, pp. 37–41, 46–48.
7068:, pp. 34–36, 52–54.
6850:
6622:
6166:same as -ness, -ability
5674:The basic word order of
3968:
3639:The Middle Chinese coda
2779:Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund
2597:(35 million), spoken in
2571:(89 million), spoken in
2539:(98 million), spoken in
2253:other Chinese variants.
1684:Dream of the Red Chamber
1595:, which has merged with
730:Traditional Chinese
559:Traditional Chinese
331:Two-Cell Chinese Braille
321:Mainland Chinese Braille
16962:Malaysian Sign Language
14561:Northern (Beijing) Sign
9334:Grainger, Adam (1900),
9005:Language Atlas of China
7742:Breazeale, Sam (2023).
7260:Zhang & Yang (2004)
6942:Coluzzi, Paolo (2017).
6824:"ROC Vital Information"
6765:(Taiwan shouyu jianjie)
6694:Language Atlas of China
6639:deriving the name from
6290:suffix for occupations
4502:Middle Chinese initial
4077:denotes a non-aspirate
3961:, in the southwest the
2888:when they occur before
2861:, a vowel, a coda, and
2673:), as well as northern
2661:province (with capital
2613:Central Plains Mandarin
2526:Language Atlas of China
2517:Language Atlas of China
2496:Language Atlas of China
2468:Language Atlas of China
2385:Central Plains Mandarin
2250:Speak Mandarin Campaign
2053:Geographic distribution
1989:, as well as among the
1888:, intellectuals of the
1430:(split from Mandarin),
1423:Language Atlas of China
1344:. The alternative term
1165:
904:Central Plains Mandarin
716:Simplified Chinese
543:Simplified Chinese
122:: 200 million (no date)
17064:Vertical vowel systems
17044:Languages of Singapore
16990:Selangor Sign Language
16109:Bruneian/Kedayan Malay
15914:Kelantan-Pattani Malay
15278:Languages of Singapore
12570:Sino-Tibetan languages
9129:10.3406/clao.2006.1748
8984:Wang, Xiaomei (2012).
8854:The Languages of China
8806:: 1–31, archived from
6332:in Chinese (Mandarin):
6328:From Article 1 of the
6141:same as -er or expert
6042:same as -th, -st, -nd
5967:'students', 'friends'
5785:) to indicate the
5580:Austronesian languages
5437:) 'you (formal)', and
4428:), are now pronounced
4029:
3690:Lower Yangtze dialects
3647:, but has merged with
3601:"street" for standard
2681:Lower Yangtze Mandarin
2631:, as well as southern
2521:
2127:The frontier areas of
2047:traditional characters
1995:Chinese-speaking world
1774:
1771:, I:28 (1542–1564)
1755:
1493:After the fall of the
1490:
1184:
1175:
1160:taught Chinese variety
1148:languages of Singapore
1086:Chinese dialect groups
1063:those of the Southwest
907:
502:This article contains
17049:Languages of Malaysia
16229:Kota Marudu Talantang
15959:Negeri Sembilan Malay
15706:Languages of Malaysia
15236:Yilan Creole Japanese
10174:Central Tibeto-Burman
9026:. Walter de Gruyter.
8758:"Who were the Gyámi?"
6851:《人民日报》评论员文章:说普通话 用规范字
5633:Further information:
5609:) from "bikini", and
4360:Modern Mandarin tone
4028:
3655:has also merged with
3643:was still present in
3506:"water" for standard
2927:Northeastern Mandarin
2719:Southwestern Mandarin
2537:Northeastern Mandarin
2509:
2404:Further information:
2319:Southwestern Mandarin
2106:Northeastern Mandarin
2043:simplified characters
1757:
1734:
1647:Warring States period
1633:Vernacular literature
1475:
1408:in central China and
1378:Further information:
1111:. The final stops of
1096:in the northwest and
1075:mutually intelligible
897:
390:Chinese Sign Language
17069:Varieties of Chinese
16985:Penang Sign Language
16967:Manually Coded Malay
15343:Indigenous languages
15140:Taiwan Sign Language
9378:Meigs, F.E. (1905),
9367:Meigs, F.E. (1904),
8800:Sino-Platonic Papers
8765:Sino-Platonic Papers
7862:, pp. 181, 191.
6962:10.1353/ol.2017.0008
6017:same as re- (again)
5621:) from "hamburger".
4098:Middle Chinese tone
4085:denotes an aspirate
3593:"shoe" for standard
3520:"soft" for standard
2919:retroflex consonants
2819:improve this article
2248:. The launch of the
2208:Singaporean Mandarin
1890:New Culture Movement
1765:Alessandro Valignano
1386:varieties of Chinese
1368:Northeastern dialect
1092:in the southwest to
17039:Languages of Taiwan
16468:Malaysian Cantonese
16224:Klias River Kadazan
15403:Immigrant languages
14651:Languages of Taiwan
14604:NM = Inner Mongolia
10232:Proto-Tibeto-Burman
8940:Linguistic Typology
8550:Chen, Ping (1999),
8456:, pp. 113–115.
8420:, pp. 105–106.
8326:, pp. 195–196.
8280:, pp. 194–195.
8268:, pp. 194–196.
8175:, pp. 138–139.
7958:, pp. 222–223.
7570:Monumenta Taiwanica
7508:, pp. 215–216.
7479:, pp. 138–139.
7467:, pp. 241–242.
7377:, pp. 183–190.
7334:, pp. 162–163.
7310:, pp. 136–137.
7190:, pp. 540–541.
7092:, pp. 111–132.
6950:Oceanic Linguistics
5759:wǒ gěi nǐ yìběn shū
5676:subject–verb–object
4604:
4495:
4472:Postal Romanization
4424:in Middle Chinese (
4094:
3610:Syllabic fricatives
3492:"pig" for standard
3488:. Examples include
3020:
2603:Liaodong Peninsulas
2355:are descendants of
2059:overseas emigration
1966:traditional Chinese
1910:traditional Chinese
1721:Late imperial koiné
1039:traditional Chinese
1013:, the basis of the
977:traditional Chinese
183:Eastern Han Chinese
17034:Languages of China
16815:Mixed & Others
16557:Malaysian Mandarin
14984:Taiwanese Mandarin
14141:Formosan languages
12362:Languages of China
12275:Cantonese Bopomofo
12142:Chinese characters
12070:Written Sichuanese
10654:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
10225:Proto-Sino-Tibetan
10167:Proposed groupings
9247:"Tianjin Mandarin"
9112:Baxter, William H.
8664:, John Benjamins,
8578:中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷
8495:. United Nations.
8125:Wurm et al. (1987)
8113:Wurm et al. (1987)
8101:Wurm et al. (1987)
8079:, Maps B3, B4, B5.
8077:Wurm et al. (1987)
8065:Wurm et al. (1987)
8053:Wurm et al. (1987)
8016:Wurm et al. (1987)
8004:Wurm et al. (1987)
7968:Wurm et al. (1987)
7290:2021-08-12 at the
7018:Wurm et al. (1987)
6600:Languages of China
6585:Chinese dictionary
6116:same as -ize, -en
6054:'second', 'first'
5805:progressive aspect
5641:analytic languages
4602:
4493:
4092:
4030:
3484:where Beijing has
3240:⟨sh⟩
3183:⟨ch⟩
3141:⟨zh⟩
2886:alveolar sibilants
2581:Shandong Peninsula
2545:Liaodong Peninsula
2522:
2275:Malaysian Mandarin
2162:Taiwanese Mandarin
1958:simplified Chinese
1918:simplified Chinese
1756:
1491:
1031:simplified Chinese
967:simplified Chinese
908:
307:Chinese characters
173:Proto-Sino-Tibetan
74:Chinese characters
17016:
17015:
17006:Extinct languages
16998:
16997:
16755:
16754:
16432:
16431:
16264:Mainstream Kenyah
15749:
15748:
15672:
15671:
15652:
15651:
15338:
15337:
15244:
15243:
15156:Taiwanese Braille
15126:
15125:
15122:
15121:
15073:
15072:
15016:Taiwanese Hokkien
14952:
14951:
14948:
14947:
14923:Malayo-Polynesian
14917:
14916:
14617:
14616:
14160:
14159:
14156:
14155:
14152:
14151:
14145:
14137:
14129:
14032:
14031:
13762:
13761:
13500:
13499:
13496:
13495:
13225:
13224:
13221:
13220:
12552:
12551:
12328:
12327:
12310:
12309:
12137:
12136:
12055:Written Cantonese
12050:
12049:
11832:Classical grammar
11827:Cantonese grammar
11662:
11661:
11559:
11558:
11365:
11364:
11284:
11283:
11146:
11145:
10853:
10852:
10640:
10639:
10530:Chengdu–Chongqing
10323:Sinitic languages
10279:
10278:
10162:
10161:
10047:
10046:
9888:
9887:
9643:
9642:
9164:Archiv Orientální
9094:978-1-4020-8038-8
9071:978-0-7007-1129-1
9052:978-3-89586-629-6
9045:, LINCOM Europa,
9033:978-3-11-081972-4
9014:978-962-359-085-3
8995:978-983-100-958-1
8901:978-0-520-23075-0
8882:978-1-136-21205-5
8863:978-0-691-01468-5
8844:978-0-521-29653-3
8745:978-3-11-021914-2
8736:Walter de Gruyter
8707:Studia Orientalia
8690:978-90-04-16367-6
8671:978-90-272-5240-1
8591:978-7-100-07054-6
8565:978-0-521-64572-0
8542:978-0-7425-0092-1
8432:, pp. 90–93.
8350:, pp. 36–38.
8310:, p. 61 and
8163:, pp. 86–89.
8139:, pp. 67–68.
7946:, pp. 75–76.
7922:, pp. 41–46.
7850:, pp. 53–54.
7826:, pp. 41–42.
7814:, pp. 36–41.
7602:Leong Koon Chan.
7274:, pp. 41–46.
7250:, pp. 62–63.
7238:, pp. 63–64.
7214:, pp. 27–28.
7141:, pp. 48–52.
7080:, pp. 49–50.
7056:, pp. 49–51.
7044:, pp. 48–49.
7032:, pp. 55–56.
6904:978-0-19-920687-2
6745:(27th ed., 2024)
6321:
6320:
5787:perfective aspect
5762:I give you a book
5256:
5255:
4593:
4592:
4516:voiced obstruent
4400:
4399:
4278:Standard Chinese
4026:
3941:
3940:
3612:, as in standard
3334:
3333:
3327:⟨y⟩
3315:⟨r⟩
3295:⟨l⟩
3283:⟨w⟩
3264:⟨h⟩
3252:⟨x⟩
3228:⟨s⟩
3216:⟨f⟩
3195:⟨q⟩
3171:⟨c⟩
3153:⟨j⟩
3129:⟨z⟩
3108:⟨k⟩
3092:⟨t⟩
3080:⟨p⟩
3066:⟨g⟩
3050:⟨d⟩
3038:⟨b⟩
3005:⟨n⟩
2993:⟨m⟩
2851:
2850:
2843:
2595:Jiaoliao Mandarin
2285:Malaysian Chinese
2175:Taiwanese Hokkien
2071:North China Plain
1976:
1886:Republic of China
1790:Yongzheng Emperor
1268:languages of the
1140:official language
1136:national language
1102:North China Plain
1059:
999:
895:
882:
881:
874:
873:
862:Yale Romanization
761:Standard Mandarin
705:
704:
693:Yale Romanization
592:Standard Mandarin
577:Officials' speech
528:
527:
510:rendering support
506:phonetic symbols.
326:Taiwanese Braille
224:Standard Mandarin
17076:
17029:Mandarin Chinese
16952:
16951:
16552:Mandarin Chinese
16443:
16442:
16039:Terengganu Malay
15839:
15838:
15717:
15716:
15699:
15692:
15685:
15676:
15675:
15407:
15406:
15362:Creole languages
15349:Johor-Riau Malay
15289:
15288:
15271:
15264:
15257:
15248:
15247:
15004:
15003:
14972:
14971:
14963:
14962:
14928:
14927:
14673:
14672:
14664:
14663:
14644:
14637:
14630:
14621:
14620:
14573:
14143:
14135:
14127:
13841:
13840:
13614:
13613:
13517:
13516:
13506:
13505:
12694:
12693:
12589:
12588:
12578:
12577:
12565:
12564:
12561:
12560:
12389:
12388:
12376:Standard Chinese
12355:
12348:
12341:
12332:
12331:
12320:
12319:
12292:Taiwanese Hangul
12181:Mainland Chinese
12094:
12093:
12085:
12084:
12010:
12009:
11687:Standard Chinese
11670:
11438:
11437:
11157:
11156:
11050:
11049:
11041:
11040:
10923:
10911:
10899:
10887:
10875:
10674:
10673:
10346:
10345:
10337:
10336:
10313:Chinese language
10306:
10299:
10292:
10283:
10282:
10121:
10120:
9982:
9981:
9816:
9815:
9651:
9568:
9567:
9449:
9442:
9435:
9426:
9425:
9407:
9396:
9385:
9374:
9363:
9352:
9341:
9330:
9309:
9290:
9267:
9266:
9241:
9239:
9238:
9225:
9224:
9220:); Li Xingjian (
9219:
9218:
9210:
9192:
9191:
9183:
9181:
9179:
9154:
9133:
9131:
9098:
9075:
9056:
9037:
9018:
8999:
8980:
8963:
8934:
8911:Monumenta Serica
8905:
8886:
8867:
8848:
8822:
8820:
8818:
8812:
8797:
8787:
8785:
8783:
8777:
8762:
8749:
8726:
8724:
8722:
8694:
8675:
8656:
8627:
8600:Coblin, W. South
8595:
8569:
8557:
8546:
8534:
8509:
8508:
8506:
8504:
8489:
8483:
8482:
8480:
8478:
8463:
8457:
8451:
8445:
8439:
8433:
8427:
8421:
8415:
8409:
8403:
8397:
8391:
8385:
8384:
8369:Monumenta Serica
8357:
8351:
8345:
8339:
8333:
8327:
8321:
8315:
8304:
8298:
8292:
8281:
8275:
8269:
8263:
8257:
8251:
8242:
8236:
8227:
8221:
8200:
8194:
8188:
8182:
8176:
8170:
8164:
8158:
8152:
8146:
8140:
8134:
8128:
8122:
8116:
8110:
8104:
8098:
8092:
8086:
8080:
8074:
8068:
8062:
8056:
8050:
8044:
8043:
8025:
8019:
8013:
8007:
8001:
7995:
7989:
7983:
7977:
7971:
7965:
7959:
7953:
7947:
7941:
7935:
7929:
7923:
7917:
7911:
7905:
7899:
7893:
7887:
7881:
7875:
7869:
7863:
7857:
7851:
7845:
7839:
7833:
7827:
7821:
7815:
7809:
7803:
7797:
7791:
7790:
7788:
7786:
7768:
7759:
7758:
7756:
7754:
7739:
7733:
7732:
7730:
7728:
7712:
7706:
7700:
7694:
7693:
7691:
7689:
7667:
7661:
7655:
7649:
7643:
7637:
7626:
7620:
7619:
7617:
7615:
7606:. Archived from
7599:
7593:
7592:
7590:
7588:
7582:
7567:
7558:
7552:
7546:
7540:
7539:
7515:
7509:
7503:
7497:
7491:
7480:
7474:
7468:
7462:
7456:
7450:
7441:
7435:
7426:
7420:
7414:
7408:
7402:
7396:
7390:
7384:
7378:
7372:
7366:
7360:
7347:
7341:
7335:
7329:
7323:
7317:
7311:
7305:
7299:
7281:
7275:
7269:
7263:
7257:
7251:
7245:
7239:
7233:
7227:
7221:
7215:
7209:
7203:
7202:, pp. 3–15.
7197:
7191:
7185:
7179:
7178:
7160:
7154:
7148:
7142:
7136:
7130:
7124:
7118:
7111:
7105:
7099:
7093:
7087:
7081:
7075:
7069:
7063:
7057:
7051:
7045:
7039:
7033:
7027:
7021:
7015:
7006:
7000:
6994:
6993:
6991:
6989:
6947:
6939:
6933:
6927:
6921:
6915:
6909:
6908:
6890:
6884:
6878:
6872:
6871:
6869:
6867:
6846:
6840:
6839:
6837:
6835:
6820:
6814:
6813:
6808:
6806:
6791:
6785:
6779:
6768:
6764:
6759:
6753:
6752:
6751:
6734:
6710:
6708:
6703:
6697:
6690:
6684:
6664:
6658:
6652:
6648:
6644:
6633:
6579:
6574:
6573:
6565:
6560:
6559:
6558:
6314:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6299:
6295:
6286:
6280:
6276:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6254:
6245:
6239:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6212:
6206:
6196:
6187:
6181:
6171:
6162:
6156:
6146:
6137:
6131:
6121:
6112:
6106:
6096:
6092:
6088:
6084:
6080:
6076:
6067:
6061:
6051:
6047:
6038:
6032:
6022:
6013:
6007:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5980:
5974:
5964:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5943:
5937:
5933:
5911:
5910:
5904:
5900:
5892:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5857:
5852:
5844:
5840:
5835:
5830:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5802:
5798:
5793:
5784:
5779:
5745:
5620:
5619:
5614:
5608:
5607:
5602:
5596:
5595:
5590:
5568:Southern Chinese
5565:
5564:
5559:
5548:
5539:
5538:
5533:
5520:
5519:
5514:
5508:
5502:
5501:
5496:
5490:
5484:
5483:
5478:
5472:
5466:
5460:
5454:
5448:
5442:
5436:
5430:
5424:
5418:
5412:
5406:
5400:
5395:in Mandarin are
5387:
5381:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5364:
5347:
5346:
5337:
5336:
5331:
5330:
5321:
5320:
5315:
5314:
5305:
5304:
5295:
5294:
5251:
5247:
5241:
5237:
5231:
5225:
5219:
5206:
5200:
5194:
5188:
5182:
5166:
5160:
5154:
5148:
5135:
5129:
5123:
5117:
5104:
5098:
5092:
5086:
5073:
5067:
5061:
5055:
5049:
5036:
5030:
5024:
5018:
5002:
4996:
4990:
4977:
4971:
4965:
4959:
4943:
4937:
4931:
4918:
4912:
4906:
4900:
4887:
4881:
4875:
4869:
4856:
4850:
4844:
4838:
4822:
4816:
4810:
4804:
4791:
4785:
4779:
4773:
4757:
4751:
4745:
4738:
4722:
4716:
4710:
4704:
4688:
4682:
4676:
4670:
4653:
4642:
4633:
4624:
4615:
4605:
4601:
4587:
4496:
4492:
4465:
4444:
4438:
4432:
4394:
4385:
4376:
4367:
4354:
4347:
4340:
4333:
4326:
4319:
4312:
4305:
4298:
4291:
4284:
4232:
4225:
4218:
4211:
4204:
4197:
4190:
4183:
4176:
4169:
4162:
4155:
4141:
4136:
4131:"departing tone"
4126:
4121:
4111:
4106:
4095:
4091:
4088:
4080:
4027:
4019:
4008:
3999:
3990:
3981:
3960:
3953:
3949:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3916:
3907:
3906:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3862:
3853:
3852:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3811:
3810:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3766:
3757:
3756:
3725:(Central Plains)
3699:
3698:
3672:
3665:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3642:
3627:
3623:
3588:
3581:
3577:
3570:
3566:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3529:
3519:
3515:
3505:
3501:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3416:
3409:
3402:
3398:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3344:
3340:
3328:
3325:
3316:
3313:
3305:
3296:
3293:
3284:
3281:
3265:
3262:
3253:
3250:
3241:
3238:
3229:
3226:
3217:
3214:
3196:
3193:
3184:
3181:
3172:
3169:
3154:
3151:
3142:
3139:
3130:
3127:
3109:
3106:
3093:
3090:
3081:
3078:
3067:
3064:
3051:
3048:
3039:
3036:
3019:
3006:
3003:
2994:
2991:
2948:
2947:
2917:the presence of
2905:
2882:velar consonants
2846:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2826:
2803:
2795:
2627:valley, eastern
2551:Beijing Mandarin
2359:who fled to the
1977:
1974:
1971:
1963:
1942:
1932:
1923:
1915:
1902:Literary Chinese
1872:Standard Chinese
1866:Standard Chinese
1808:
1807:Zhèngyīn Shūyuàn
1803:
1772:
1748:Étienne Fourmont
1741:
1736:Zhongguo Guanhua
1715:
1714:Báihuà Wénxuéshǐ
1703:
1698:
1694:
1669:Standard Chinese
1661:
1656:
1639:Literary Chinese
1628:
1623:
1588:Zhongyuan Yinyun
1536:'Phags-pa script
1527:Zhongyuan Yinyun
1501:(1115–1234) and
1357:
1353:
1348:
1342:
1333:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1304:
1300:
1295:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1242:Standard Chinese
1236:
1232:
1227:
1202:
1196:
1187:
1178:
1156:Chinese diaspora
1060:
1057:
1053:
1044:
1036:
1027:Northern Chinese
1019:Standard Chinese
1003:Chinese language
1000:
997:
993:
984:
974:
961:
956:
955:
954:
953:
946:
943:
942:
939:
936:
933:
930:
927:
924:
921:
896:
870:
869:
849:
848:
847:
832:
831:
818:
817:
804:
803:
790:
789:
776:
775:
752:
751:
738:
737:
724:
723:
710:Northern Chinese
701:
700:
680:
679:
678:
663:
662:
649:
648:
635:
634:
621:
620:
607:
606:
583:
582:
569:
568:
553:
552:
533:Mandarin Chinese
530:
529:
493:
487:
481:
475:
469:
463:
451:
442:
428:
412:
405:
385:
336:Transcriptions:
299:
132:
69:
63:
54:
48:
47:
43:
32:
31:
21:Standard Chinese
17084:
17083:
17079:
17078:
17077:
17075:
17074:
17073:
17019:
17018:
17017:
17012:
16994:
16973:
16941:
16836:
16810:
16751:
16735:
16697:
16638:
16632:
16592:Malaysian Tamil
16565:
16438:
16428:
16149:Eastern Kadazan
16129:Coastal Kadazan
16055:
16048:
15860:
15853:
15832:
15823:
15745:
15708:
15703:
15673:
15668:
15648:
15592:
15527:
15460:
15398:
15357:
15334:
15303:
15280:
15275:
15245:
15240:
15165:Other languages
15160:
15144:
15118:
15087:Taiwanese Hakka
15069:
15066:(Wuqiu dialect)
15050:
15025:
15021:Teochew dialect
14993:
14944:
14913:
14885:
14859:
14794:
14717:
14701:
14653:
14648:
14618:
14613:
14587:
14567:
14545:
14474:
14418:
14229:
14222:
14148:
14128:(Indo-European)
14113:
14070:
14028:
13917:
13830:
13758:
13725:
13603:
13511:
13510:Other languages
13492:
13441:
13372:Central Tibetan
13343:
13217:
13151:
12998:
12880:
12683:
12635:
12583:
12572:
12548:
12532:
12439:
12380:
12364:
12359:
12329:
12324:
12306:
12243:Tongyong Pinyin
12223:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
12211:Dungan Cyrillic
12194:
12163:
12133:
12074:
12065:Written Hokkien
12046:
12005:
11999:
11975:Middle Mandarin
11941:
11861:
11836:
11798:
11745:
11678:
11671:
11658:
11607:
11555:
11514:
11491:
11427:
11361:
11280:
11259:
11241:
11218:
11142:
11109:
11086:
11030:
10966:
10926:
10917:
10905:
10893:
10881:
10869:
10849:
10831:
10803:
10785:
10759:
10736:
10663:
10636:
10610:
10587:
10511:
10451:
10423:
10400:
10377:
10326:
10315:
10310:
10280:
10275:
10265:
10216:Proto-languages
10210:
10158:
10125:Greater Siangic
10119:
10056:
10043:
9980:
9884:
9856:
9814:
9758:
9749:
9661:
9652:
9639:
9572:Greater Magaric
9566:
9493:West Himalayish
9473:
9459:
9453:
9415:
9410:
9399:
9388:
9377:
9366:
9355:
9344:
9333:
9322:
9318:
9313:
9240:. pp. 1–5.
9229:
9214:Chen Zhangtai (
9213:
9187:Shen Zhongwei (
9186:
9177:
9175:
9157:
9136:
9110:
9106:
9104:Further reading
9101:
9095:
9072:
9053:
9034:
9015:
8996:
8902:
8883:
8864:
8845:
8816:
8814:
8810:
8795:
8781:
8779:
8775:
8760:
8754:Mair, Victor H.
8746:
8720:
8718:
8691:
8672:
8592:
8579:
8566:
8543:
8517:
8512:
8502:
8500:
8491:
8490:
8486:
8476:
8474:
8465:
8464:
8460:
8452:
8448:
8440:
8436:
8428:
8424:
8416:
8412:
8404:
8400:
8392:
8388:
8358:
8354:
8346:
8342:
8334:
8330:
8322:
8318:
8312:Kurpaska (2010)
8305:
8301:
8293:
8284:
8276:
8272:
8264:
8260:
8252:
8245:
8237:
8230:
8222:
8203:
8195:
8191:
8183:
8179:
8171:
8167:
8161:Janhunen (2007)
8159:
8155:
8151:, pp. 5–6.
8147:
8143:
8137:Kurpaska (2010)
8135:
8131:
8123:
8119:
8111:
8107:
8099:
8095:
8087:
8083:
8075:
8071:
8063:
8059:
8051:
8047:
8040:
8031:
8026:
8022:
8014:
8010:
8002:
7998:
7990:
7986:
7980:Kurpaska (2010)
7978:
7974:
7966:
7962:
7954:
7950:
7944:Kurpaska (2010)
7942:
7938:
7932:Kurpaska (2010)
7930:
7926:
7920:Kurpaska (2010)
7918:
7914:
7906:
7902:
7896:Kurpaska (2010)
7894:
7890:
7882:
7878:
7870:
7866:
7858:
7854:
7848:Kurpaska (2010)
7846:
7842:
7836:Kurpaska (2010)
7834:
7830:
7824:Kurpaska (2010)
7822:
7818:
7812:Kurpaska (2010)
7810:
7806:
7798:
7794:
7784:
7782:
7770:
7769:
7762:
7752:
7750:
7740:
7736:
7726:
7724:
7713:
7709:
7701:
7697:
7687:
7685:
7677:Radio Free Asia
7668:
7664:
7656:
7652:
7644:
7640:
7627:
7623:
7613:
7611:
7600:
7596:
7586:
7584:
7580:
7565:
7559:
7555:
7547:
7543:
7516:
7512:
7504:
7500:
7492:
7483:
7477:Richards (2003)
7475:
7471:
7463:
7459:
7451:
7444:
7436:
7429:
7421:
7417:
7409:
7405:
7397:
7393:
7385:
7381:
7373:
7369:
7361:
7350:
7342:
7338:
7330:
7326:
7318:
7314:
7306:
7302:
7292:Wayback Machine
7282:
7278:
7270:
7266:
7258:
7254:
7246:
7242:
7234:
7230:
7222:
7218:
7210:
7206:
7198:
7194:
7186:
7182:
7161:
7157:
7149:
7145:
7137:
7133:
7125:
7121:
7112:
7108:
7100:
7096:
7088:
7084:
7076:
7072:
7064:
7060:
7052:
7048:
7040:
7036:
7030:Kurpaska (2010)
7028:
7024:
7016:
7009:
7001:
6997:
6987:
6985:
6940:
6936:
6928:
6924:
6916:
6912:
6905:
6893:
6891:
6887:
6879:
6875:
6865:
6863:
6852:
6848:
6847:
6843:
6833:
6831:
6822:
6821:
6817:
6804:
6802:
6801:on 24 July 2013
6793:
6792:
6788:
6780:
6771:
6760:
6756:
6746:
6735:
6728:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6713:
6704:
6700:
6691:
6687:
6665:
6661:
6634:
6630:
6625:
6595:Written Chinese
6577:Language portal
6575:
6568:
6561:
6556:
6554:
6551:
6546:
6534:
6526:
6518:
6510:
6502:
6494:
6486:
6478:
6470:
6462:
6454:
6446:
6438:
6430:
6422:
6414:
6406:
6398:
6390:
6382:
6374:
6366:
6358:
6350:
6342:
6326:
5766:
5754:
5739:
5728:
5717:
5706:
5695:
5637:
5635:Chinese grammar
5631:
5597:) from "golf";
5388:) 'butterfly'.
5272:
4828:Central Plains
4648:
4599:varies widely:
4556:Central Plains
4237:Middle Chinese
4132:
4117:
4102:
4058:Beijing dialect
4034:
4033:
4032:
4031:
4022:
4011:
4010:
4009:
4001:
4000:
3992:
3991:
3983:
3982:
3971:
3739:
3735:(Lower Yangtze)
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3713:Beijing, Harbin
3709:
3673:. As a result,
3537:
3326:
3314:
3294:
3282:
3263:
3251:
3239:
3227:
3215:
3194:
3182:
3170:
3152:
3140:
3128:
3107:
3091:
3079:
3065:
3049:
3037:
3004:
2992:
2943:
2932:the historical
2900:stop consonants
2847:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2816:
2804:
2793:
2787:
2655:Lanyin Mandarin
2637:Dungan language
2601:(Jiaodong) and
2589:Tianjin dialect
2541:northeast China
2504:
2453:. The linguist
2408:
2402:
2397:
2389:Cyrillic script
2337:
2335:Dungan language
2331:
2311:
2305:
2277:
2271:
2210:
2204:
2199:
2164:
2158:
2129:northwest China
2110:Beijing dialect
2098:northeast China
2067:
2055:
2036:Beijing dialect
1874:
1868:
1855:Robert Morrison
1773:
1762:
1761:
1729:
1723:
1635:
1522:rime dictionary
1470:
1464:
1382:
1376:
1364:Sichuan dialect
1246:Beijing dialect
1168:
1128:Chinese capital
1011:Beijing dialect
959:
949:
948:
918:
914:
898:A speaker from
884:
824:Tongyong Pinyin
796:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
746:Northern speech
743:Literal meaning
655:Tongyong Pinyin
627:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
574:Literal meaning
508:Without proper
496:
495:
491:
489:
485:
483:
479:
477:
473:
471:
467:
454:
438:
424:
408:
401:
386:
381:
375:
300:
295:
238:
226:
217:
210:
198:Middle Mandarin
168:
161:
133:
130:Language family
128:
118:
111:
110:Native speakers
86:
76:
71:
49:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
17082:
17072:
17071:
17066:
17061:
17056:
17051:
17046:
17041:
17036:
17031:
17014:
17013:
17011:
17010:
17007:
17003:
17000:
16999:
16996:
16995:
16993:
16992:
16987:
16981:
16979:
16975:
16974:
16972:
16971:
16970:
16969:
16958:
16956:
16949:
16943:
16942:
16940:
16939:
16934:
16929:
16924:
16919:
16914:
16909:
16904:
16899:
16894:
16893:
16892:
16882:
16877:
16872:
16867:
16862:
16857:
16852:
16846:
16844:
16838:
16837:
16835:
16834:
16829:
16824:
16818:
16816:
16812:
16811:
16809:
16808:
16807:
16806:
16801:
16796:
16791:
16781:
16776:
16771:
16765:
16763:
16757:
16756:
16753:
16752:
16750:
16749:
16743:
16741:
16737:
16736:
16734:
16733:
16732:
16731:
16726:
16721:
16716:
16705:
16703:
16699:
16698:
16696:
16695:
16690:
16685:
16680:
16675:
16670:
16665:
16664:
16663:
16653:
16648:
16642:
16640:
16634:
16633:
16631:
16630:
16629:
16628:
16623:
16618:
16613:
16603:
16602:
16601:
16596:
16595:
16594:
16584:
16573:
16571:
16567:
16566:
16564:
16563:
16562:
16561:
16560:
16559:
16549:
16548:
16547:
16546:
16545:
16544:
16543:
16533:
16532:
16531:
16529:Penang Hokkien
16526:
16511:
16506:
16501:
16500:
16499:
16494:
16479:
16474:
16473:
16472:
16471:
16470:
16449:
16447:
16440:
16434:
16433:
16430:
16429:
16427:
16426:
16421:
16416:
16411:
16406:
16401:
16396:
16391:
16386:
16381:
16376:
16371:
16366:
16361:
16359:Selungai Murut
16356:
16351:
16346:
16341:
16336:
16331:
16326:
16321:
16316:
16311:
16309:Punan Bah-Biau
16306:
16301:
16296:
16291:
16289:Nonukan Tidong
16286:
16281:
16276:
16271:
16266:
16261:
16256:
16251:
16246:
16241:
16236:
16231:
16226:
16221:
16216:
16211:
16209:Keningau Murut
16206:
16201:
16196:
16191:
16186:
16181:
16176:
16171:
16166:
16161:
16156:
16151:
16146:
16141:
16136:
16131:
16126:
16121:
16116:
16111:
16106:
16101:
16096:
16091:
16086:
16081:
16076:
16071:
16066:
16060:
16058:
16050:
16049:
16047:
16046:
16041:
16036:
16031:
16026:
16021:
16016:
16011:
16006:
16001:
15996:
15991:
15986:
15981:
15976:
15971:
15966:
15961:
15956:
15951:
15946:
15941:
15936:
15931:
15926:
15921:
15916:
15911:
15906:
15901:
15896:
15891:
15886:
15881:
15876:
15871:
15865:
15863:
15855:
15854:
15852:
15851:
15845:
15843:
15836:
15825:
15824:
15822:
15821:
15820:
15819:
15809:
15808:
15807:
15802:
15797:
15792:
15787:
15782:
15772:
15771:
15770:
15759:
15757:
15751:
15750:
15747:
15746:
15744:
15743:
15742:
15741:
15731:
15725:
15723:
15714:
15710:
15709:
15702:
15701:
15694:
15687:
15679:
15670:
15669:
15667:
15666:
15660:
15658:
15657:Sign languages
15654:
15653:
15650:
15649:
15647:
15646:
15641:
15636:
15631:
15626:
15621:
15616:
15611:
15606:
15600:
15598:
15594:
15593:
15591:
15590:
15585:
15580:
15575:
15570:
15569:
15568:
15563:
15558:
15548:
15543:
15537:
15535:
15529:
15528:
15526:
15525:
15524:
15523:
15518:
15513:
15508:
15503:
15498:
15488:
15487:
15486:
15481:
15470:
15468:
15462:
15461:
15459:
15458:
15457:
15456:
15451:
15446:
15441:
15436:
15431:
15426:
15415:
15413:
15404:
15400:
15399:
15397:
15396:
15391:
15386:
15381:
15376:
15371:
15365:
15363:
15359:
15358:
15356:
15355:
15350:
15346:
15344:
15340:
15339:
15336:
15335:
15333:
15332:
15327:
15322:
15317:
15311:
15309:
15305:
15304:
15302:
15301:
15295:
15293:
15286:
15285:Main languages
15282:
15281:
15274:
15273:
15266:
15259:
15251:
15242:
15241:
15239:
15238:
15233:
15228:
15223:
15222:
15221:
15216:
15206:
15201:
15196:
15191:
15190:
15189:
15179:
15174:
15168:
15166:
15162:
15161:
15159:
15158:
15152:
15150:
15146:
15145:
15143:
15142:
15136:
15134:
15128:
15127:
15124:
15123:
15120:
15119:
15117:
15116:
15115:
15114:
15109:
15104:
15099:
15094:
15083:
15081:
15075:
15074:
15071:
15070:
15068:
15067:
15064:Putian dialect
15060:
15058:
15052:
15051:
15049:
15048:
15047:
15046:
15035:
15033:
15027:
15026:
15024:
15023:
15018:
15012:
15010:
15001:
14995:
14994:
14992:
14991:
14986:
14980:
14978:
14969:
14960:
14954:
14953:
14950:
14949:
14946:
14945:
14943:
14942:
14936:
14934:
14925:
14919:
14918:
14915:
14914:
14912:
14911:
14906:
14901:
14895:
14893:
14887:
14886:
14884:
14883:
14878:
14873:
14867:
14865:
14861:
14860:
14858:
14857:
14852:
14847:
14842:
14837:
14832:
14831:
14830:
14825:
14815:
14810:
14804:
14802:
14796:
14795:
14793:
14792:
14787:
14782:
14777:
14776:
14775:
14767:
14766:
14765:
14760:
14750:
14745:
14744:
14743:
14738:
14727:
14725:
14719:
14718:
14716:
14715:
14709:
14707:
14703:
14702:
14700:
14699:
14698:
14697:
14687:
14681:
14679:
14670:
14661:
14655:
14654:
14647:
14646:
14639:
14632:
14624:
14615:
14614:
14612:
14611:
14608:
14605:
14602:
14599:
14598:HK = Hong Kong
14596:
14592:
14589:
14588:
14586:
14585:
14578:
14577:
14576:
14575:
14574:
14569:Hong Kong Sign
14562:
14553:
14551:
14547:
14546:
14544:
14543:
14538:
14533:
14528:
14523:
14518:
14513:
14508:
14503:
14498:
14493:
14488:
14482:
14480:
14476:
14475:
14473:
14472:
14467:
14462:
14457:
14452:
14447:
14442:
14437:
14432:
14426:
14424:
14420:
14419:
14417:
14416:
14415:
14414:
14409:
14399:
14398:
14397:
14392:
14382:
14381:
14380:
14375:
14365:
14364:
14363:
14358:
14353:
14348:
14343:
14338:
14337:
14336:
14331:
14326:
14311:
14306:
14301:
14296:
14295:
14294:
14289:
14288:
14287:
14277:
14272:
14271:
14270:
14260:
14255:
14250:
14245:
14234:
14232:
14224:
14223:
14221:
14220:
14215:
14209:
14204:
14199:
14194:
14189:
14184:
14179:
14174:
14168:
14166:
14162:
14161:
14158:
14157:
14154:
14153:
14150:
14149:
14147:
14146:
14144:(Austronesian)
14138:
14136:(Austronesian)
14130:
14121:
14119:
14115:
14114:
14112:
14111:
14106:
14101:
14096:
14091:
14086:
14080:
14078:
14072:
14071:
14069:
14068:
14063:
14058:
14053:
14048:
14042:
14040:
14034:
14033:
14030:
14029:
14027:
14026:
14021:
14016:
14011:
14006:
14001:
13996:
13991:
13986:
13981:
13976:
13971:
13966:
13961:
13956:
13951:
13946:
13941:
13936:
13931:
13925:
13923:
13919:
13918:
13916:
13915:
13910:
13905:
13900:
13895:
13890:
13885:
13880:
13875:
13870:
13865:
13860:
13855:
13849:
13847:
13838:
13832:
13831:
13829:
13828:
13823:
13818:
13813:
13808:
13803:
13798:
13793:
13788:
13783:
13778:
13772:
13770:
13764:
13763:
13760:
13759:
13757:
13756:
13751:
13746:
13741:
13735:
13733:
13727:
13726:
13724:
13723:
13718:
13713:
13708:
13703:
13698:
13693:
13688:
13683:
13678:
13673:
13668:
13663:
13658:
13653:
13648:
13643:
13638:
13633:
13628:
13622:
13620:
13611:
13605:
13604:
13602:
13601:
13596:
13591:
13586:
13581:
13576:
13571:
13566:
13561:
13556:
13551:
13546:
13541:
13536:
13531:
13525:
13523:
13513:
13512:
13502:
13501:
13498:
13497:
13494:
13493:
13491:
13490:
13485:
13480:
13475:
13470:
13465:
13460:
13455:
13449:
13447:
13443:
13442:
13440:
13439:
13434:
13429:
13424:
13419:
13414:
13409:
13404:
13399:
13394:
13389:
13384:
13379:
13374:
13369:
13364:
13359:
13353:
13351:
13345:
13344:
13342:
13341:
13336:
13331:
13326:
13321:
13316:
13314:Southern Qiang
13311:
13309:Northern Qiang
13306:
13301:
13296:
13291:
13286:
13281:
13276:
13271:
13266:
13261:
13256:
13251:
13246:
13241:
13235:
13233:
13227:
13226:
13223:
13222:
13219:
13218:
13216:
13215:
13210:
13205:
13200:
13195:
13190:
13185:
13180:
13175:
13170:
13165:
13159:
13157:
13153:
13152:
13150:
13149:
13144:
13139:
13134:
13129:
13124:
13119:
13114:
13109:
13104:
13099:
13094:
13089:
13084:
13079:
13074:
13069:
13064:
13059:
13054:
13049:
13044:
13039:
13034:
13029:
13024:
13019:
13014:
13008:
13006:
13000:
12999:
12997:
12996:
12991:
12986:
12981:
12976:
12971:
12966:
12961:
12956:
12951:
12946:
12941:
12936:
12931:
12926:
12921:
12916:
12911:
12906:
12901:
12896:
12890:
12888:
12882:
12881:
12879:
12878:
12873:
12868:
12863:
12858:
12853:
12848:
12843:
12838:
12833:
12828:
12823:
12818:
12813:
12808:
12803:
12798:
12793:
12788:
12783:
12778:
12773:
12768:
12763:
12758:
12753:
12748:
12743:
12738:
12733:
12728:
12723:
12718:
12713:
12708:
12702:
12700:
12691:
12685:
12684:
12682:
12681:
12676:
12671:
12666:
12661:
12656:
12651:
12645:
12643:
12637:
12636:
12634:
12633:
12628:
12623:
12618:
12613:
12608:
12603:
12597:
12595:
12586:
12574:
12573:
12558:
12554:
12553:
12550:
12549:
12546:
12544:
12534:
12533:
12531:
12530:
12525:
12520:
12515:
12510:
12505:
12500:
12495:
12490:
12485:
12480:
12475:
12470:
12465:
12460:
12455:
12449:
12447:
12441:
12440:
12438:
12437:
12432:
12427:
12422:
12417:
12412:
12407:
12401:
12399:
12386:
12382:
12381:
12379:
12378:
12372:
12370:
12366:
12365:
12358:
12357:
12350:
12343:
12335:
12326:
12325:
12315:
12312:
12311:
12308:
12307:
12305:
12304:
12299:
12294:
12289:
12287:Taiwanese kana
12284:
12283:
12282:
12277:
12267:
12266:
12265:
12260:
12258:Lessing-Othmer
12255:
12250:
12245:
12240:
12235:
12230:
12225:
12215:
12214:
12213:
12202:
12200:
12196:
12195:
12193:
12188:
12183:
12178:
12173:
12171:
12165:
12164:
12162:
12161:
12156:
12155:
12154:
12149:
12138:
12135:
12134:
12132:
12127:
12122:
12117:
12112:
12107:
12102:
12100:
12091:
12082:
12076:
12075:
12073:
12072:
12067:
12062:
12060:Written Dungan
12057:
12051:
12048:
12047:
12045:
12044:
12039:
12038:
12037:
12032:
12027:
12016:
12014:
12007:
12001:
12000:
11998:
11997:
11992:
11987:
11982:
11977:
11972:
11967:
11965:Middle Chinese
11962:
11957:
11951:
11949:
11943:
11942:
11940:
11939:
11934:
11932:Wubi (Wang Ma)
11929:
11924:
11923:
11922:
11917:
11912:
11902:
11897:
11892:
11891:
11890:
11880:
11877:
11871:
11869:
11863:
11862:
11860:
11859:
11852:
11844:
11842:
11838:
11837:
11835:
11834:
11829:
11824:
11819:
11814:
11808:
11806:
11800:
11799:
11797:
11796:
11791:
11786:
11781:
11776:
11771:
11766:
11765:
11764:
11753:
11751:
11747:
11746:
11744:
11743:
11738:
11733:
11728:
11727:
11726:
11725:
11724:
11719:
11709:
11704:
11699:
11694:
11683:
11681:
11673:
11672:
11665:
11663:
11660:
11659:
11657:
11656:
11651:
11649:Xiangnan Tuhua
11646:
11641:
11636:
11634:Shaozhou Tuhua
11631:
11626:
11621:
11615:
11613:
11609:
11608:
11606:
11605:
11604:
11603:
11598:
11593:
11585:
11584:
11583:
11578:
11569:
11567:
11561:
11560:
11557:
11556:
11554:
11553:
11548:
11543:
11538:
11533:
11528:
11522:
11520:
11516:
11515:
11513:
11512:
11507:
11501:
11499:
11493:
11492:
11490:
11489:
11484:
11479:
11474:
11469:
11464:
11463:
11462:
11457:
11446:
11444:
11435:
11429:
11428:
11426:
11425:
11424:
11423:
11418:
11413:
11403:
11402:
11401:
11391:
11386:
11381:
11375:
11373:
11367:
11366:
11363:
11362:
11360:
11359:
11358:
11357:
11352:
11347:
11337:
11336:
11335:
11325:
11320:
11315:
11310:
11309:
11308:
11303:
11292:
11290:
11286:
11285:
11282:
11281:
11279:
11278:
11273:
11267:
11265:
11261:
11260:
11258:
11257:
11251:
11249:
11243:
11242:
11240:
11239:
11234:
11228:
11226:
11220:
11219:
11217:
11216:
11211:
11206:
11201:
11196:
11191:
11186:
11181:
11176:
11171:
11165:
11163:
11154:
11148:
11147:
11144:
11143:
11141:
11140:
11139:
11138:
11133:
11123:
11117:
11115:
11111:
11110:
11108:
11107:
11102:
11096:
11094:
11088:
11087:
11085:
11084:
11079:
11074:
11069:
11064:
11058:
11056:
11047:
11038:
11032:
11031:
11029:
11028:
11027:
11026:
11016:
11011:
11010:
11009:
11004:
10999:
10989:
10988:
10987:
10976:
10974:
10968:
10967:
10965:
10964:
10959:
10954:
10949:
10948:
10947:
10936:
10934:
10928:
10927:
10925:
10924:
10912:
10900:
10888:
10876:
10863:
10861:
10855:
10854:
10851:
10850:
10848:
10847:
10841:
10839:
10833:
10832:
10830:
10829:
10824:
10819:
10813:
10811:
10805:
10804:
10802:
10801:
10795:
10793:
10787:
10786:
10784:
10783:
10778:
10773:
10767:
10765:
10761:
10760:
10758:
10757:
10752:
10746:
10744:
10738:
10737:
10735:
10734:
10729:
10724:
10719:
10714:
10709:
10703:
10698:
10693:
10688:
10682:
10680:
10671:
10665:
10664:
10662:
10661:
10656:
10650:
10648:
10642:
10641:
10638:
10637:
10635:
10634:
10629:
10624:
10618:
10616:
10612:
10611:
10609:
10608:
10603:
10597:
10595:
10589:
10588:
10586:
10585:
10584:
10583:
10573:
10568:
10563:
10558:
10557:
10556:
10555:
10554:
10547:Renshou–Fushun
10544:
10543:
10542:
10532:
10521:
10519:
10513:
10512:
10510:
10509:
10504:
10499:
10494:
10489:
10484:
10483:
10482:
10472:
10467:
10461:
10459:
10457:Central Plains
10453:
10452:
10450:
10449:
10444:
10439:
10433:
10431:
10425:
10424:
10422:
10421:
10416:
10410:
10408:
10402:
10401:
10399:
10398:
10393:
10387:
10385:
10379:
10378:
10376:
10375:
10370:
10365:
10360:
10354:
10352:
10343:
10334:
10328:
10327:
10320:
10317:
10316:
10309:
10308:
10301:
10294:
10286:
10277:
10276:
10270:
10267:
10266:
10264:
10263:
10256:
10249:
10242:
10235:
10228:
10220:
10218:
10212:
10211:
10209:
10208:
10206:Tibeto-Kanauri
10203:
10196:
10191:
10186:
10181:
10179:Kuki-Chin–Naga
10176:
10170:
10168:
10164:
10163:
10160:
10159:
10157:
10156:
10151:
10150:
10149:
10142:
10129:
10127:
10118:
10117:
10110:
10105:
10104:
10103:
10089:
10088:
10087:
10080:
10067:
10065:
10049:
10048:
10045:
10044:
10042:
10041:
10040:
10039:
10032:
10027:
10015:
10010:
10005:
10004:
10003:
9990:
9988:
9979:
9978:
9977:
9976:
9969:
9962:
9950:
9943:
9936:
9929:
9924:
9917:
9910:
9902:
9900:
9898:Southeast Asia
9890:
9889:
9886:
9885:
9883:
9882:
9877:
9872:
9866:
9864:
9858:
9857:
9855:
9854:
9849:
9844:
9837:
9835:Angami–Pochuri
9832:
9826:
9824:
9813:
9812:
9805:
9798:
9797:
9796:
9789:
9777:
9770:
9762:
9760:
9759:Burmese border
9751:
9750:
9748:
9747:
9742:
9735:
9728:
9721:
9720:
9719:
9711:
9704:
9697:
9692:
9677:
9675:
9654:
9653:
9646:
9644:
9641:
9640:
9638:
9637:
9624:
9619:
9618:
9617:
9610:
9598:
9597:
9596:
9589:
9576:
9574:
9565:
9564:
9557:
9556:
9555:
9548:
9541:
9529:
9522:
9521:
9520:
9515:
9503:
9496:
9488:
9486:
9461:
9460:
9452:
9451:
9444:
9437:
9429:
9423:
9422:
9414:
9413:External links
9411:
9409:
9408:
9397:
9386:
9375:
9364:
9353:
9342:
9331:
9319:
9317:
9314:
9312:
9311:
9293:
9292:
9282:(2): 309–327.
9270:
9269:
9257:(1): 109–128.
9242:
9211:
9184:
9155:
9134:
9107:
9105:
9102:
9100:
9099:
9093:
9076:
9070:
9057:
9051:
9038:
9032:
9019:
9013:
9000:
8994:
8981:
8964:
8946:(2): 233–275,
8935:
8906:
8900:
8887:
8881:
8868:
8862:
8849:
8843:
8823:
8813:on 10 May 2018
8788:
8750:
8744:
8727:
8699:Janhunen, Juha
8695:
8689:
8676:
8670:
8657:
8639:(3): 339–355,
8628:
8616:10.2307/606615
8610:(4): 537–552,
8596:
8590:
8570:
8564:
8547:
8541:
8523:
8522:
8521:
8516:
8513:
8511:
8510:
8484:
8458:
8446:
8444:, p. 196.
8434:
8422:
8410:
8408:, p. 162.
8398:
8386:
8352:
8340:
8328:
8316:
8299:
8297:, p. 195.
8282:
8270:
8258:
8256:, p. 194.
8243:
8241:, p. 192.
8228:
8226:, p. 193.
8201:
8189:
8177:
8165:
8153:
8141:
8129:
8127:, Maps B4, B6.
8117:
8105:
8103:, Maps B4, B5.
8093:
8091:, p. 351.
8081:
8069:
8067:, Maps B1, B3.
8057:
8045:
8038:
8020:
8018:, Maps B2, B5.
8008:
7996:
7984:
7972:
7960:
7948:
7936:
7924:
7912:
7910:, p. 190.
7900:
7888:
7886:, p. 190.
7876:
7864:
7852:
7840:
7828:
7816:
7804:
7802:, p. 355.
7792:
7778:(in Russian).
7760:
7734:
7707:
7705:, p. 349.
7695:
7662:
7650:
7648:, p. 698.
7638:
7621:
7610:on 21 May 2020
7594:
7553:
7541:
7510:
7498:
7481:
7469:
7457:
7442:
7440:, p. 144.
7427:
7415:
7403:
7391:
7379:
7367:
7365:, p. 191.
7348:
7346:, p. 163.
7336:
7324:
7312:
7300:
7298:, 21 Feb 2019.
7276:
7264:
7252:
7240:
7228:
7226:, p. 247.
7216:
7204:
7192:
7180:
7155:
7153:, p. 353.
7143:
7131:
7129:, p. 539.
7119:
7106:
7094:
7082:
7070:
7058:
7046:
7034:
7022:
7007:
7005:, p. 181.
6995:
6934:
6932:, p. 537.
6922:
6920:, p. 293.
6910:
6903:
6885:
6873:
6858:(in Chinese).
6841:
6815:
6786:
6784:, p. 136.
6769:
6754:
6725:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6715:
6712:
6711:
6698:
6685:
6683:
6682:
6679:
6676:
6673:
6670:
6659:
6637:folk etymology
6627:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6620:
6619:
6614:
6607:
6602:
6597:
6592:
6587:
6581:
6580:
6566:
6550:
6547:
6527:
6519:
6511:
6503:
6495:
6487:
6479:
6471:
6463:
6455:
6447:
6439:
6431:
6423:
6415:
6407:
6399:
6391:
6383:
6375:
6367:
6359:
6351:
6343:
6335:
6334:
6325:
6322:
6319:
6318:
6315:
6291:
6288:
6281:
6271:
6270:
6267:
6250:
6249:an enthusiast
6247:
6240:
6234:
6233:
6230:
6217:
6214:
6207:
6201:
6200:
6197:
6192:
6189:
6182:
6176:
6175:
6172:
6167:
6164:
6157:
6151:
6150:
6147:
6142:
6139:
6132:
6126:
6125:
6122:
6117:
6114:
6107:
6101:
6100:
6097:
6072:
6069:
6062:
6056:
6055:
6052:
6043:
6040:
6033:
6027:
6026:
6023:
6018:
6015:
6008:
6002:
6001:
5998:
5985:
5984:same as -able
5982:
5975:
5969:
5968:
5965:
5948:
5945:
5938:
5928:
5927:
5926:Example gloss
5924:
5921:
5918:
5917:Pronunciation
5915:
5803:) for the
5740:
5729:
5718:
5707:
5696:
5685:
5684:
5630:
5627:
5549:'he', 'she').
5271:
5268:
5254:
5253:
5243:
5233:
5227:
5221:
5215:
5209:
5208:
5202:
5196:
5190:
5184:
5178:
5173:
5172:Lower Yangtze
5169:
5168:
5162:
5156:
5150:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5131:
5125:
5119:
5113:
5107:
5106:
5100:
5094:
5088:
5082:
5076:
5075:
5069:
5063:
5057:
5051:
5045:
5039:
5038:
5032:
5026:
5020:
5014:
5009:
5005:
5004:
4998:
4992:
4986:
4980:
4979:
4973:
4967:
4961:
4955:
4950:
4946:
4945:
4939:
4933:
4927:
4921:
4920:
4914:
4908:
4902:
4896:
4890:
4889:
4883:
4877:
4871:
4865:
4859:
4858:
4852:
4846:
4840:
4834:
4829:
4825:
4824:
4818:
4812:
4806:
4800:
4794:
4793:
4787:
4781:
4775:
4769:
4764:
4760:
4759:
4753:
4747:
4740:
4734:
4729:
4725:
4724:
4718:
4712:
4706:
4700:
4695:
4691:
4690:
4684:
4678:
4672:
4666:
4661:
4657:
4656:
4649:glottal stop (
4645:
4636:
4627:
4618:
4609:
4591:
4590:
4581:
4580:Lower Yangtze
4577:
4576:
4573:
4569:
4568:
4565:
4561:
4560:
4557:
4553:
4552:
4549:
4545:
4544:
4541:
4537:
4536:
4532:
4531:
4528:
4525:
4522:
4518:
4517:
4514:
4508:
4504:
4503:
4500:
4398:
4397:
4388:
4379:
4370:
4361:
4357:
4356:
4349:
4342:
4335:
4328:
4321:
4314:
4307:
4300:
4293:
4286:
4279:
4275:
4274:
4271:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4259:
4256:
4253:
4250:
4247:
4244:
4241:
4238:
4234:
4233:
4226:
4219:
4212:
4205:
4198:
4191:
4184:
4177:
4170:
4163:
4156:
4149:
4145:
4144:
4129:
4114:
4099:
4065:Middle Chinese
4013:
4012:
4003:
4002:
3994:
3993:
3985:
3984:
3976:
3975:
3974:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3939:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3911:
3908:
3900:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3857:
3854:
3846:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3812:
3804:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3761:
3758:
3750:
3749:
3746:
3742:
3741:
3740:Reconstructed
3738:Middle Chinese
3736:
3731:
3730:(Southwestern)
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3703:
3587:/tɕjɛtɕʰjɛɕjɛ/
3536:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3478:
3463:
3437:
3418:
3393:
3370:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3317:
3297:
3285:
3273:
3267:
3266:
3254:
3242:
3230:
3218:
3206:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3185:
3173:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3143:
3131:
3119:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3082:
3069:
3068:
3056:
3054:
3052:
3040:
3028:
3022:
3021:
3011:
3009:
3007:
2995:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2937:
2930:
2915:
2896:
2893:
2890:palatal glides
2878:palatalization
2849:
2848:
2807:
2805:
2798:
2786:
2783:
2751:
2750:
2716:
2678:
2652:
2610:
2592:
2566:
2548:
2503:
2500:
2419:Middle Chinese
2401:
2398:
2396:
2395:Classification
2393:
2361:Russian Empire
2333:Main article:
2330:
2327:
2304:
2301:
2287:community, as
2273:Main article:
2270:
2267:
2206:Main article:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2197:Southeast Asia
2195:
2191:Code-switching
2160:Main article:
2157:
2154:
2066:
2065:Mainland China
2063:
2054:
2051:
1983:mainland China
1870:Main article:
1867:
1864:
1839:
1838:
1831:
1828:
1818:
1758:
1725:Main article:
1722:
1719:
1634:
1631:
1476:A page of the
1466:Main article:
1463:
1460:
1436:Huizhou region
1394:Middle Chinese
1375:
1372:
1327:
1326:
1306:
1290:
1270:United Nations
1217:koiné language
1167:
1164:
1152:United Nations
1113:Middle Chinese
880:
879:
876:
875:
872:
871:
864:
858:
857:
855:Yue: Cantonese
851:
850:
840:
834:
833:
826:
820:
819:
812:
806:
805:
798:
792:
791:
784:
778:
777:
770:
764:
763:
757:
756:
755:Transcriptions
748:
747:
744:
740:
739:
732:
726:
725:
718:
712:
711:
707:
706:
703:
702:
695:
689:
688:
686:Yue: Cantonese
682:
681:
671:
665:
664:
657:
651:
650:
643:
637:
636:
629:
623:
622:
615:
609:
608:
601:
595:
594:
588:
587:
586:Transcriptions
579:
578:
575:
571:
570:
561:
555:
554:
545:
539:
538:
535:
534:
526:
525:
512:, you may see
498:
497:
490:
484:
478:
472:
466:
464:
456:
455:
452:
444:
443:
436:
430:
429:
422:
414:
413:
406:
398:
397:
396:Language codes
393:
392:
387:
380:
377:
376:
374:
373:
363:
353:
348:
334:
333:
328:
323:
318:
303:
301:
297:Writing system
294:
291:
290:
289:
288:
283:
278:
276:Central Plains
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
246:
240:
239:
237:
236:
220:
218:
216:Standard forms
215:
212:
211:
209:
208:
207:
206:
205:
204:
203:
202:
201:
200:
188:Middle Chinese
171:
169:
166:
163:
162:
160:
159:
158:
157:
156:
155:
136:
134:
127:
124:
123:
112:
109:
106:
105:
102:
98:
97:
92:
91:Native to
88:
87:
64:
56:
55:
37:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
17081:
17070:
17067:
17065:
17062:
17060:
17057:
17055:
17052:
17050:
17047:
17045:
17042:
17040:
17037:
17035:
17032:
17030:
17027:
17026:
17024:
17008:
17005:
17004:
17001:
16991:
16988:
16986:
16983:
16982:
16980:
16976:
16968:
16965:
16964:
16963:
16960:
16959:
16957:
16953:
16950:
16948:
16944:
16938:
16935:
16933:
16930:
16928:
16925:
16923:
16920:
16918:
16915:
16913:
16910:
16908:
16905:
16903:
16900:
16898:
16895:
16891:
16888:
16887:
16886:
16883:
16881:
16878:
16876:
16875:East Timorese
16873:
16871:
16868:
16866:
16863:
16861:
16858:
16856:
16853:
16851:
16848:
16847:
16845:
16843:
16839:
16833:
16830:
16828:
16825:
16823:
16820:
16819:
16817:
16813:
16805:
16802:
16800:
16797:
16795:
16792:
16790:
16787:
16786:
16785:
16782:
16780:
16777:
16775:
16772:
16770:
16767:
16766:
16764:
16762:
16758:
16748:
16745:
16744:
16742:
16738:
16730:
16727:
16725:
16722:
16720:
16717:
16715:
16712:
16711:
16710:
16707:
16706:
16704:
16700:
16694:
16691:
16689:
16686:
16684:
16681:
16679:
16676:
16674:
16671:
16669:
16666:
16662:
16659:
16658:
16657:
16654:
16652:
16649:
16647:
16644:
16643:
16641:
16635:
16627:
16624:
16622:
16619:
16617:
16614:
16612:
16609:
16608:
16607:
16606:Indo-European
16604:
16600:
16597:
16593:
16590:
16589:
16588:
16585:
16583:
16580:
16579:
16578:
16575:
16574:
16572:
16568:
16558:
16555:
16554:
16553:
16550:
16542:
16539:
16538:
16537:
16534:
16530:
16527:
16525:
16522:
16521:
16520:
16517:
16516:
16515:
16512:
16510:
16507:
16505:
16502:
16498:
16495:
16493:
16490:
16489:
16488:
16485:
16484:
16483:
16480:
16478:
16475:
16469:
16466:
16465:
16464:
16461:
16460:
16459:
16456:
16455:
16454:
16451:
16450:
16448:
16444:
16441:
16435:
16425:
16422:
16420:
16417:
16415:
16412:
16410:
16407:
16405:
16402:
16400:
16397:
16395:
16392:
16390:
16387:
16385:
16382:
16380:
16377:
16375:
16372:
16370:
16367:
16365:
16362:
16360:
16357:
16355:
16352:
16350:
16347:
16345:
16344:Sarawak Malay
16342:
16340:
16337:
16335:
16332:
16330:
16327:
16325:
16322:
16320:
16317:
16315:
16312:
16310:
16307:
16305:
16302:
16300:
16297:
16295:
16292:
16290:
16287:
16285:
16282:
16280:
16277:
16275:
16272:
16270:
16267:
16265:
16262:
16260:
16257:
16255:
16252:
16250:
16247:
16245:
16242:
16240:
16237:
16235:
16232:
16230:
16227:
16225:
16222:
16220:
16217:
16215:
16212:
16210:
16207:
16205:
16202:
16200:
16197:
16195:
16192:
16190:
16187:
16185:
16182:
16180:
16177:
16175:
16172:
16170:
16167:
16165:
16162:
16160:
16157:
16155:
16152:
16150:
16147:
16145:
16142:
16140:
16137:
16135:
16132:
16130:
16127:
16125:
16122:
16120:
16117:
16115:
16114:Brunei Bisaya
16112:
16110:
16107:
16105:
16102:
16100:
16097:
16095:
16092:
16090:
16087:
16085:
16082:
16080:
16077:
16075:
16072:
16070:
16067:
16065:
16062:
16061:
16059:
16057:
16051:
16045:
16042:
16040:
16037:
16035:
16032:
16030:
16027:
16025:
16022:
16020:
16019:Southern Thai
16017:
16015:
16012:
16010:
16007:
16005:
16002:
16000:
15997:
15995:
15992:
15990:
15987:
15985:
15982:
15980:
15977:
15975:
15974:Orang Seletar
15972:
15970:
15967:
15965:
15962:
15960:
15957:
15955:
15952:
15950:
15947:
15945:
15942:
15940:
15937:
15935:
15932:
15930:
15927:
15925:
15922:
15920:
15917:
15915:
15912:
15910:
15907:
15905:
15902:
15900:
15897:
15895:
15892:
15890:
15887:
15885:
15882:
15880:
15877:
15875:
15872:
15870:
15867:
15866:
15864:
15862:
15856:
15850:
15847:
15846:
15844:
15840:
15837:
15835:
15830:
15826:
15818:
15815:
15814:
15813:
15810:
15806:
15803:
15801:
15798:
15796:
15793:
15791:
15788:
15786:
15783:
15781:
15780:North Bornean
15778:
15777:
15776:
15773:
15769:
15766:
15765:
15764:
15763:Austroasiatic
15761:
15760:
15758:
15756:
15752:
15740:
15737:
15736:
15735:
15732:
15730:
15727:
15726:
15724:
15722:
15718:
15715:
15711:
15707:
15700:
15695:
15693:
15688:
15686:
15681:
15680:
15677:
15665:
15662:
15661:
15659:
15655:
15645:
15642:
15640:
15637:
15635:
15632:
15630:
15627:
15625:
15622:
15620:
15617:
15615:
15612:
15610:
15607:
15605:
15602:
15601:
15599:
15595:
15589:
15586:
15584:
15581:
15579:
15576:
15574:
15571:
15567:
15564:
15562:
15559:
15557:
15554:
15553:
15552:
15549:
15547:
15544:
15542:
15539:
15538:
15536:
15534:
15530:
15522:
15519:
15517:
15514:
15512:
15509:
15507:
15504:
15502:
15499:
15497:
15494:
15493:
15492:
15489:
15485:
15482:
15480:
15477:
15476:
15475:
15472:
15471:
15469:
15467:
15463:
15455:
15452:
15450:
15447:
15445:
15442:
15440:
15437:
15435:
15432:
15430:
15427:
15425:
15422:
15421:
15420:
15417:
15416:
15414:
15412:
15408:
15405:
15401:
15395:
15392:
15390:
15387:
15385:
15382:
15380:
15377:
15375:
15372:
15370:
15367:
15366:
15364:
15360:
15354:
15353:Orang Seletar
15351:
15348:
15347:
15345:
15341:
15331:
15328:
15326:
15323:
15321:
15318:
15316:
15313:
15312:
15310:
15306:
15300:
15297:
15296:
15294:
15290:
15287:
15283:
15279:
15272:
15267:
15265:
15260:
15258:
15253:
15252:
15249:
15237:
15234:
15232:
15229:
15227:
15224:
15220:
15217:
15215:
15212:
15211:
15210:
15207:
15205:
15202:
15200:
15197:
15195:
15192:
15188:
15185:
15184:
15183:
15180:
15178:
15175:
15173:
15170:
15169:
15167:
15163:
15157:
15154:
15153:
15151:
15147:
15141:
15138:
15137:
15135:
15133:
15129:
15113:
15110:
15108:
15105:
15103:
15100:
15098:
15095:
15093:
15090:
15089:
15088:
15085:
15084:
15082:
15080:
15076:
15065:
15062:
15061:
15059:
15057:
15053:
15045:
15044:Matsu dialect
15042:
15041:
15040:
15037:
15036:
15034:
15032:
15028:
15022:
15019:
15017:
15014:
15013:
15011:
15009:
15005:
15002:
15000:
14996:
14990:
14987:
14985:
14982:
14981:
14979:
14977:
14973:
14970:
14968:
14964:
14961:
14959:
14955:
14941:
14938:
14937:
14935:
14933:
14929:
14926:
14924:
14920:
14910:
14907:
14905:
14902:
14900:
14897:
14896:
14894:
14892:
14888:
14882:
14879:
14877:
14874:
14872:
14869:
14868:
14866:
14862:
14856:
14853:
14851:
14848:
14846:
14843:
14841:
14838:
14836:
14833:
14829:
14826:
14824:
14821:
14820:
14819:
14816:
14814:
14811:
14809:
14806:
14805:
14803:
14801:
14797:
14791:
14788:
14786:
14783:
14781:
14778:
14773:
14772:
14771:
14768:
14764:
14761:
14759:
14756:
14755:
14754:
14751:
14749:
14746:
14742:
14739:
14737:
14734:
14733:
14732:
14729:
14728:
14726:
14724:
14720:
14714:
14711:
14710:
14708:
14704:
14696:
14693:
14692:
14691:
14688:
14686:
14683:
14682:
14680:
14678:
14674:
14671:
14669:
14665:
14662:
14660:
14656:
14652:
14645:
14640:
14638:
14633:
14631:
14626:
14625:
14622:
14609:
14607:XJ = Xinjiang
14606:
14603:
14600:
14597:
14594:
14593:
14590:
14584:
14582:
14579:
14572:
14570:
14566:
14565:
14563:
14560:
14559:
14558:
14555:
14554:
14552:
14548:
14542:
14539:
14537:
14534:
14532:
14529:
14527:
14524:
14522:
14519:
14517:
14514:
14512:
14509:
14507:
14504:
14502:
14499:
14497:
14494:
14492:
14489:
14487:
14484:
14483:
14481:
14477:
14471:
14468:
14466:
14463:
14461:
14458:
14456:
14453:
14451:
14448:
14446:
14443:
14441:
14438:
14436:
14433:
14431:
14428:
14427:
14425:
14421:
14413:
14410:
14408:
14405:
14404:
14403:
14400:
14396:
14393:
14391:
14388:
14387:
14386:
14383:
14379:
14376:
14374:
14371:
14370:
14369:
14366:
14362:
14359:
14357:
14354:
14352:
14349:
14347:
14344:
14342:
14339:
14335:
14332:
14330:
14327:
14325:
14322:
14321:
14320:
14317:
14316:
14315:
14312:
14310:
14307:
14305:
14302:
14300:
14297:
14293:
14290:
14286:
14283:
14282:
14281:
14278:
14276:
14273:
14269:
14266:
14265:
14264:
14261:
14259:
14256:
14254:
14251:
14249:
14246:
14244:
14241:
14240:
14239:
14236:
14235:
14233:
14231:
14225:
14219:
14216:
14213:
14210:
14208:
14205:
14203:
14200:
14198:
14195:
14193:
14190:
14188:
14185:
14183:
14180:
14178:
14175:
14173:
14170:
14169:
14167:
14163:
14142:
14139:
14134:
14131:
14126:
14123:
14122:
14120:
14116:
14110:
14109:Western Yugur
14107:
14105:
14102:
14100:
14097:
14095:
14092:
14090:
14087:
14085:
14082:
14081:
14079:
14077:
14073:
14067:
14064:
14062:
14059:
14057:
14054:
14052:
14049:
14047:
14044:
14043:
14041:
14039:
14035:
14025:
14022:
14020:
14017:
14015:
14012:
14010:
14007:
14005:
14002:
14000:
13997:
13995:
13992:
13990:
13987:
13985:
13982:
13980:
13977:
13975:
13972:
13970:
13967:
13965:
13962:
13960:
13957:
13955:
13952:
13950:
13947:
13945:
13942:
13940:
13937:
13935:
13932:
13930:
13927:
13926:
13924:
13920:
13914:
13911:
13909:
13906:
13904:
13901:
13899:
13896:
13894:
13891:
13889:
13886:
13884:
13881:
13879:
13876:
13874:
13871:
13869:
13866:
13864:
13861:
13859:
13856:
13854:
13851:
13850:
13848:
13846:
13842:
13839:
13837:
13833:
13827:
13824:
13822:
13819:
13817:
13814:
13812:
13809:
13807:
13804:
13802:
13799:
13797:
13794:
13792:
13791:Eastern Yugur
13789:
13787:
13784:
13782:
13779:
13777:
13774:
13773:
13771:
13769:
13765:
13755:
13752:
13750:
13747:
13745:
13742:
13740:
13737:
13736:
13734:
13732:
13728:
13722:
13719:
13717:
13714:
13712:
13711:Small Flowery
13709:
13707:
13704:
13702:
13699:
13697:
13694:
13692:
13689:
13687:
13684:
13682:
13679:
13677:
13674:
13672:
13669:
13667:
13664:
13662:
13659:
13657:
13654:
13652:
13649:
13647:
13644:
13642:
13639:
13637:
13634:
13632:
13629:
13627:
13624:
13623:
13621:
13619:
13615:
13612:
13610:
13606:
13600:
13597:
13595:
13592:
13590:
13587:
13585:
13582:
13580:
13577:
13575:
13572:
13570:
13567:
13565:
13562:
13560:
13557:
13555:
13552:
13550:
13547:
13545:
13542:
13540:
13537:
13535:
13532:
13530:
13527:
13526:
13524:
13522:
13521:Austroasiatic
13518:
13514:
13507:
13503:
13489:
13486:
13484:
13481:
13479:
13476:
13474:
13471:
13469:
13466:
13464:
13461:
13459:
13456:
13454:
13451:
13450:
13448:
13444:
13438:
13435:
13433:
13430:
13428:
13425:
13423:
13420:
13418:
13415:
13413:
13410:
13408:
13405:
13403:
13400:
13398:
13395:
13393:
13390:
13388:
13385:
13383:
13380:
13378:
13375:
13373:
13370:
13368:
13365:
13363:
13360:
13358:
13355:
13354:
13352:
13350:
13346:
13340:
13337:
13335:
13332:
13330:
13327:
13325:
13322:
13320:
13317:
13315:
13312:
13310:
13307:
13305:
13302:
13300:
13297:
13295:
13292:
13290:
13287:
13285:
13282:
13280:
13277:
13275:
13272:
13270:
13267:
13265:
13262:
13260:
13257:
13255:
13252:
13250:
13247:
13245:
13242:
13240:
13237:
13236:
13234:
13232:
13228:
13214:
13211:
13209:
13206:
13204:
13201:
13199:
13196:
13194:
13191:
13189:
13186:
13184:
13181:
13179:
13176:
13174:
13171:
13169:
13166:
13164:
13161:
13160:
13158:
13154:
13148:
13145:
13143:
13140:
13138:
13135:
13133:
13130:
13128:
13125:
13123:
13120:
13118:
13115:
13113:
13110:
13108:
13105:
13103:
13100:
13098:
13095:
13093:
13090:
13088:
13085:
13083:
13080:
13078:
13075:
13073:
13070:
13068:
13065:
13063:
13060:
13058:
13055:
13053:
13050:
13048:
13045:
13043:
13040:
13038:
13035:
13033:
13030:
13028:
13025:
13023:
13020:
13018:
13015:
13013:
13010:
13009:
13007:
13005:
13001:
12995:
12992:
12990:
12987:
12985:
12982:
12980:
12977:
12975:
12972:
12970:
12967:
12965:
12962:
12960:
12957:
12955:
12952:
12950:
12947:
12945:
12942:
12940:
12937:
12935:
12932:
12930:
12927:
12925:
12922:
12920:
12917:
12915:
12912:
12910:
12907:
12905:
12902:
12900:
12897:
12895:
12892:
12891:
12889:
12887:
12883:
12877:
12874:
12872:
12869:
12867:
12864:
12862:
12859:
12857:
12854:
12852:
12849:
12847:
12844:
12842:
12839:
12837:
12834:
12832:
12829:
12827:
12824:
12822:
12819:
12817:
12814:
12812:
12809:
12807:
12804:
12802:
12799:
12797:
12794:
12792:
12789:
12787:
12784:
12782:
12779:
12777:
12774:
12772:
12769:
12767:
12764:
12762:
12759:
12757:
12754:
12752:
12749:
12747:
12744:
12742:
12739:
12737:
12734:
12732:
12729:
12727:
12724:
12722:
12719:
12717:
12714:
12712:
12709:
12707:
12704:
12703:
12701:
12699:
12695:
12692:
12690:
12686:
12680:
12677:
12675:
12672:
12670:
12667:
12665:
12662:
12660:
12657:
12655:
12652:
12650:
12647:
12646:
12644:
12642:
12638:
12632:
12629:
12627:
12624:
12622:
12619:
12617:
12614:
12612:
12609:
12607:
12604:
12602:
12599:
12598:
12596:
12594:
12590:
12587:
12585:
12579:
12575:
12571:
12566:
12562:
12559:
12555:
12545:
12543:
12539:
12535:
12529:
12526:
12524:
12521:
12519:
12516:
12514:
12511:
12509:
12506:
12504:
12501:
12499:
12496:
12494:
12491:
12489:
12486:
12484:
12481:
12479:
12476:
12474:
12471:
12469:
12466:
12464:
12461:
12459:
12456:
12454:
12451:
12450:
12448:
12446:
12442:
12436:
12433:
12431:
12428:
12426:
12423:
12421:
12418:
12416:
12413:
12411:
12408:
12406:
12403:
12402:
12400:
12398:
12394:
12390:
12387:
12383:
12377:
12374:
12373:
12371:
12367:
12363:
12356:
12351:
12349:
12344:
12342:
12337:
12336:
12333:
12323:
12313:
12303:
12300:
12298:
12295:
12293:
12290:
12288:
12285:
12281:
12278:
12276:
12273:
12272:
12271:
12268:
12264:
12261:
12259:
12256:
12254:
12251:
12249:
12246:
12244:
12241:
12239:
12236:
12234:
12231:
12229:
12226:
12224:
12221:
12220:
12219:
12216:
12212:
12209:
12208:
12207:
12206:Cyrillization
12204:
12203:
12201:
12197:
12192:
12189:
12187:
12184:
12182:
12179:
12177:
12174:
12172:
12170:
12166:
12160:
12157:
12153:
12150:
12148:
12145:
12144:
12143:
12140:
12139:
12131:
12128:
12126:
12123:
12121:
12118:
12116:
12113:
12111:
12108:
12106:
12103:
12101:
12099:
12098:Script styles
12095:
12092:
12090:
12086:
12083:
12081:
12077:
12071:
12068:
12066:
12063:
12061:
12058:
12056:
12053:
12052:
12043:
12040:
12036:
12033:
12031:
12028:
12026:
12023:
12022:
12021:
12018:
12017:
12015:
12011:
12008:
12002:
11996:
11993:
11991:
11988:
11986:
11983:
11981:
11978:
11976:
11973:
11971:
11968:
11966:
11963:
11961:
11958:
11956:
11953:
11952:
11950:
11948:
11944:
11938:
11935:
11933:
11930:
11928:
11925:
11921:
11918:
11916:
11913:
11911:
11908:
11907:
11906:
11903:
11901:
11898:
11896:
11893:
11889:
11886:
11885:
11884:
11881:
11878:
11876:
11873:
11872:
11870:
11868:
11864:
11858:
11857:
11853:
11851:
11850:
11846:
11845:
11843:
11839:
11833:
11830:
11828:
11825:
11823:
11820:
11818:
11815:
11813:
11810:
11809:
11807:
11805:
11801:
11795:
11792:
11790:
11787:
11785:
11782:
11780:
11777:
11775:
11772:
11770:
11767:
11763:
11760:
11759:
11758:
11755:
11754:
11752:
11748:
11742:
11739:
11737:
11734:
11732:
11729:
11723:
11720:
11718:
11715:
11714:
11713:
11710:
11708:
11705:
11703:
11700:
11698:
11695:
11693:
11690:
11689:
11688:
11685:
11684:
11682:
11680:
11674:
11669:
11655:
11652:
11650:
11647:
11645:
11642:
11640:
11637:
11635:
11632:
11630:
11627:
11625:
11622:
11620:
11617:
11616:
11614:
11610:
11602:
11599:
11597:
11594:
11592:
11589:
11588:
11586:
11582:
11579:
11577:
11574:
11573:
11571:
11570:
11568:
11566:
11562:
11552:
11549:
11547:
11544:
11542:
11539:
11537:
11534:
11532:
11529:
11527:
11524:
11523:
11521:
11517:
11511:
11508:
11506:
11503:
11502:
11500:
11498:
11494:
11488:
11485:
11483:
11480:
11478:
11475:
11473:
11470:
11468:
11465:
11461:
11458:
11456:
11453:
11452:
11451:
11448:
11447:
11445:
11443:
11439:
11436:
11434:
11430:
11422:
11419:
11417:
11414:
11412:
11409:
11408:
11407:
11404:
11400:
11397:
11396:
11395:
11392:
11390:
11387:
11385:
11382:
11380:
11377:
11376:
11374:
11372:
11368:
11356:
11353:
11351:
11348:
11346:
11343:
11342:
11341:
11338:
11334:
11331:
11330:
11329:
11326:
11324:
11321:
11319:
11316:
11314:
11311:
11307:
11304:
11302:
11299:
11298:
11297:
11294:
11293:
11291:
11287:
11277:
11274:
11272:
11269:
11268:
11266:
11262:
11256:
11253:
11252:
11250:
11248:
11244:
11238:
11235:
11233:
11230:
11229:
11227:
11225:
11221:
11215:
11212:
11210:
11207:
11205:
11202:
11200:
11197:
11195:
11192:
11190:
11187:
11185:
11182:
11180:
11177:
11175:
11172:
11170:
11167:
11166:
11164:
11162:
11158:
11155:
11153:
11149:
11137:
11134:
11132:
11129:
11128:
11127:
11124:
11122:
11119:
11118:
11116:
11112:
11106:
11103:
11101:
11098:
11097:
11095:
11093:
11089:
11083:
11080:
11078:
11075:
11073:
11070:
11068:
11065:
11063:
11060:
11059:
11057:
11055:
11051:
11048:
11046:
11042:
11039:
11037:
11033:
11025:
11022:
11021:
11020:
11017:
11015:
11012:
11008:
11005:
11003:
11000:
10998:
10995:
10994:
10993:
10990:
10986:
10983:
10982:
10981:
10978:
10977:
10975:
10973:
10969:
10963:
10960:
10958:
10955:
10953:
10950:
10946:
10943:
10942:
10941:
10938:
10937:
10935:
10933:
10929:
10921:
10916:
10913:
10909:
10904:
10901:
10897:
10892:
10889:
10885:
10880:
10877:
10873:
10868:
10865:
10864:
10862:
10860:
10856:
10846:
10843:
10842:
10840:
10838:
10834:
10828:
10825:
10823:
10820:
10818:
10815:
10814:
10812:
10810:
10806:
10800:
10797:
10796:
10794:
10792:
10788:
10782:
10779:
10777:
10774:
10772:
10769:
10768:
10766:
10762:
10756:
10753:
10751:
10748:
10747:
10745:
10743:
10739:
10733:
10730:
10728:
10725:
10723:
10720:
10718:
10715:
10713:
10710:
10707:
10704:
10702:
10699:
10697:
10694:
10692:
10689:
10687:
10684:
10683:
10681:
10679:
10675:
10672:
10670:
10666:
10660:
10657:
10655:
10652:
10651:
10649:
10647:
10643:
10633:
10630:
10628:
10625:
10623:
10620:
10619:
10617:
10613:
10607:
10604:
10602:
10599:
10598:
10596:
10594:
10590:
10582:
10579:
10578:
10577:
10574:
10572:
10569:
10567:
10564:
10562:
10559:
10553:
10550:
10549:
10548:
10545:
10541:
10538:
10537:
10536:
10533:
10531:
10528:
10527:
10526:
10523:
10522:
10520:
10518:
10514:
10508:
10505:
10503:
10500:
10498:
10495:
10493:
10490:
10488:
10485:
10481:
10478:
10477:
10476:
10473:
10471:
10468:
10466:
10463:
10462:
10460:
10458:
10454:
10448:
10445:
10443:
10440:
10438:
10435:
10434:
10432:
10430:
10426:
10420:
10417:
10415:
10412:
10411:
10409:
10407:
10403:
10397:
10394:
10392:
10389:
10388:
10386:
10384:
10380:
10374:
10371:
10369:
10366:
10364:
10361:
10359:
10356:
10355:
10353:
10351:
10347:
10344:
10342:
10338:
10335:
10333:
10329:
10325:
10324:
10318:
10314:
10307:
10302:
10300:
10295:
10293:
10288:
10287:
10284:
10273:
10268:
10262:
10261:
10257:
10255:
10254:
10250:
10248:
10247:
10246:Proto-Karenic
10243:
10241:
10240:
10239:Proto-Loloish
10236:
10234:
10233:
10229:
10227:
10226:
10222:
10221:
10219:
10217:
10213:
10207:
10204:
10202:
10201:
10200:Tibeto-Burman
10197:
10195:
10192:
10190:
10187:
10185:
10182:
10180:
10177:
10175:
10172:
10171:
10169:
10165:
10155:
10152:
10148:
10147:
10143:
10141:
10140:
10136:
10135:
10134:
10131:
10130:
10128:
10126:
10122:
10116:
10115:
10111:
10109:
10106:
10102:
10101:
10097:
10096:
10095:
10094:
10090:
10086:
10085:
10081:
10079:
10078:
10074:
10073:
10072:
10069:
10068:
10066:
10063:
10059:
10054:
10050:
10038:
10037:
10033:
10031:
10028:
10026:
10023:
10022:
10021:
10020:
10016:
10014:
10011:
10009:
10006:
10002:
9999:
9998:
9997:
9996:
9992:
9991:
9989:
9987:
9986:Burmo-Qiangic
9983:
9975:
9974:
9970:
9968:
9967:
9963:
9961:
9960:
9956:
9955:
9954:
9951:
9949:
9948:
9944:
9942:
9941:
9937:
9935:
9934:
9930:
9928:
9925:
9923:
9922:
9918:
9916:
9915:
9911:
9909:
9908:
9904:
9903:
9901:
9899:
9895:
9891:
9881:
9880:Jingpho–Luish
9878:
9876:
9873:
9871:
9868:
9867:
9865:
9863:
9859:
9853:
9850:
9848:
9845:
9843:
9842:
9838:
9836:
9833:
9831:
9828:
9827:
9825:
9822:
9817:
9811:
9810:
9806:
9804:
9803:
9799:
9795:
9794:
9790:
9788:
9787:
9783:
9782:
9781:
9778:
9776:
9775:
9771:
9769:
9768:
9764:
9763:
9761:
9756:
9752:
9746:
9743:
9741:
9740:
9736:
9734:
9733:
9729:
9727:
9726:
9722:
9717:
9716:
9712:
9710:
9709:
9705:
9703:
9702:
9698:
9696:
9693:
9691:
9690:
9686:
9685:
9684:
9683:
9679:
9678:
9676:
9673:
9669:
9665:
9660:
9655:
9650:
9636:
9635:
9630:
9629:
9625:
9623:
9620:
9616:
9615:
9611:
9609:
9608:
9604:
9603:
9602:
9599:
9595:
9594:
9590:
9588:
9587:
9583:
9582:
9581:
9578:
9577:
9575:
9573:
9569:
9563:
9562:
9558:
9554:
9553:
9549:
9547:
9546:
9542:
9540:
9539:
9535:
9534:
9533:
9530:
9528:
9527:
9523:
9519:
9518:Baram–Thangmi
9516:
9514:
9513:
9509:
9508:
9507:
9504:
9502:
9501:
9497:
9495:
9494:
9490:
9489:
9487:
9484:
9480:
9476:
9471:
9467:
9462:
9457:
9450:
9445:
9443:
9438:
9436:
9431:
9430:
9427:
9420:
9417:
9416:
9405:
9404:
9398:
9394:
9393:
9387:
9383:
9382:
9376:
9372:
9371:
9365:
9361:
9360:
9354:
9350:
9349:
9343:
9339:
9338:
9332:
9328:
9327:
9321:
9320:
9308:
9304:
9300:
9295:
9294:
9289:
9285:
9281:
9277:
9272:
9271:
9265:
9260:
9256:
9252:
9248:
9243:
9233:
9212:
9208:
9204:
9200:
9196:
9185:
9173:
9169:
9165:
9161:
9156:
9152:
9148:
9144:
9140:
9135:
9130:
9125:
9122:(1): 71–114,
9121:
9117:
9113:
9109:
9108:
9096:
9090:
9086:
9082:
9077:
9073:
9067:
9063:
9058:
9054:
9048:
9044:
9039:
9035:
9029:
9025:
9020:
9016:
9010:
9006:
9001:
8997:
8991:
8987:
8982:
8978:
8974:
8970:
8965:
8961:
8957:
8953:
8949:
8945:
8941:
8936:
8932:
8928:
8924:
8920:
8916:
8912:
8907:
8903:
8897:
8893:
8888:
8884:
8878:
8875:, Routledge,
8874:
8869:
8865:
8859:
8855:
8850:
8846:
8840:
8836:
8832:
8828:
8827:Norman, Jerry
8824:
8809:
8805:
8801:
8794:
8789:
8774:
8770:
8766:
8759:
8755:
8751:
8747:
8741:
8737:
8733:
8728:
8716:
8712:
8708:
8704:
8700:
8696:
8692:
8686:
8682:
8677:
8673:
8667:
8663:
8658:
8654:
8650:
8646:
8642:
8638:
8634:
8629:
8625:
8621:
8617:
8613:
8609:
8605:
8601:
8597:
8593:
8587:
8583:
8576:
8571:
8567:
8561:
8556:
8555:
8548:
8544:
8538:
8533:
8532:
8525:
8524:
8519:
8518:
8498:
8494:
8488:
8472:
8468:
8462:
8455:
8450:
8443:
8442:Norman (1988)
8438:
8431:
8426:
8419:
8414:
8407:
8406:Norman (1988)
8402:
8396:, p. 10.
8395:
8394:Norman (1988)
8390:
8382:
8378:
8374:
8370:
8366:
8362:
8361:Norman, Jerry
8356:
8349:
8348:Ramsey (1987)
8344:
8337:
8336:Norman (1988)
8332:
8325:
8324:Norman (1988)
8320:
8314:, p. 89.
8313:
8309:
8303:
8296:
8295:Norman (1988)
8291:
8289:
8287:
8279:
8278:Norman (1988)
8274:
8267:
8266:Norman (1988)
8262:
8255:
8254:Norman (1988)
8250:
8248:
8240:
8239:Norman (1988)
8235:
8233:
8225:
8224:Norman (1988)
8220:
8218:
8216:
8214:
8212:
8210:
8208:
8206:
8198:
8197:Norman (1988)
8193:
8187:, p. 41.
8186:
8185:Ramsey (1987)
8181:
8174:
8173:Norman (1988)
8169:
8162:
8157:
8150:
8145:
8138:
8133:
8126:
8121:
8114:
8109:
8102:
8097:
8090:
8085:
8078:
8073:
8066:
8061:
8054:
8049:
8041:
8039:9787561927755
8035:
8028:张世方 (2010).
8024:
8017:
8012:
8005:
8000:
7993:
7988:
7982:, p. 75.
7981:
7976:
7969:
7964:
7957:
7952:
7945:
7940:
7934:, p. 55.
7933:
7928:
7921:
7916:
7909:
7908:Norman (1988)
7904:
7897:
7892:
7885:
7880:
7874:, p. 61.
7873:
7868:
7861:
7860:Norman (1988)
7856:
7849:
7844:
7838:, p. 49.
7837:
7832:
7825:
7820:
7813:
7808:
7801:
7796:
7781:
7777:
7773:
7767:
7765:
7749:
7745:
7738:
7722:
7718:
7711:
7704:
7699:
7683:
7679:
7678:
7673:
7666:
7660:, p. 80.
7659:
7654:
7647:
7642:
7635:
7634:0-06-019776-5
7631:
7625:
7609:
7605:
7598:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7564:
7557:
7551:, p. 47.
7550:
7545:
7537:
7533:
7529:
7525:
7521:
7514:
7507:
7506:Ramsey (1987)
7502:
7496:, p. 21.
7495:
7494:Ramsey (1987)
7490:
7488:
7486:
7478:
7473:
7466:
7461:
7455:, p. 27.
7454:
7449:
7447:
7439:
7438:Escure (1997)
7434:
7432:
7425:, p. 18.
7424:
7419:
7413:, p. 27.
7412:
7407:
7400:
7395:
7389:, p. 22.
7388:
7387:Ramsey (1987)
7383:
7376:
7375:Norman (1988)
7371:
7364:
7363:Norman (1988)
7359:
7357:
7355:
7353:
7345:
7340:
7333:
7328:
7321:
7316:
7309:
7308:Norman (1988)
7304:
7297:
7293:
7289:
7286:
7280:
7273:
7268:
7261:
7256:
7249:
7244:
7237:
7232:
7225:
7224:Norman (1988)
7220:
7213:
7208:
7201:
7200:Ramsey (1987)
7196:
7189:
7188:Coblin (2000)
7184:
7176:
7172:
7168:
7167:
7159:
7152:
7151:Coblin (2003)
7147:
7140:
7135:
7128:
7127:Coblin (2000)
7123:
7116:
7110:
7104:, p. 10.
7103:
7102:Ramsey (1987)
7098:
7091:
7090:Norman (1988)
7086:
7079:
7078:Norman (1988)
7074:
7067:
7066:Norman (1988)
7062:
7055:
7054:Norman (1988)
7050:
7043:
7042:Norman (1988)
7038:
7031:
7026:
7019:
7014:
7012:
7004:
7003:Norman (1988)
6999:
6983:
6979:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6963:
6959:
6955:
6951:
6946:
6938:
6931:
6930:Coblin (2000)
6926:
6919:
6914:
6906:
6900:
6896:
6889:
6882:
6877:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6845:
6829:
6825:
6819:
6812:
6800:
6796:
6790:
6783:
6782:Norman (1988)
6778:
6776:
6774:
6766:
6758:
6750:
6744:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6731:
6726:
6702:
6695:
6689:
6680:
6677:
6674:
6671:
6668:
6667:
6666:For example:
6663:
6656:
6643:
6638:
6632:
6628:
6618:
6615:
6613:
6612:
6608:
6606:
6603:
6601:
6598:
6596:
6593:
6591:
6588:
6586:
6583:
6582:
6578:
6572:
6567:
6564:
6553:
6545:
6544:
6540:
6537:
6533:
6530:
6525:
6522:
6517:
6514:
6509:
6506:
6501:
6498:
6493:
6490:
6485:
6482:
6477:
6474:
6469:
6466:
6461:
6458:
6453:
6450:
6445:
6442:
6437:
6434:
6429:
6426:
6421:
6418:
6413:
6410:
6405:
6402:
6397:
6394:
6389:
6386:
6381:
6378:
6373:
6370:
6365:
6362:
6357:
6354:
6349:
6346:
6341:
6338:
6333:
6331:
6316:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6282:
6273:
6272:
6268:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6235:
6231:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6202:
6198:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6177:
6173:
6170:可靠性、實用性 、可理解性
6168:
6165:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6152:
6148:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6133:
6128:
6127:
6123:
6118:
6115:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6102:
6098:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6063:
6058:
6057:
6053:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6028:
6024:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6009:
6004:
6003:
5999:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5970:
5966:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5939:
5930:
5929:
5925:
5922:
5919:
5916:
5913:
5912:
5909:
5906:
5894:
5884:
5874:
5868:
5863:
5861:
5853:
5846:
5836:
5822:
5812:
5806:
5794:
5788:
5780:
5774:
5769:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5757:
5753:
5750:
5747:
5738:
5735:
5732:
5727:
5724:
5721:
5716:
5713:
5710:
5705:
5702:
5699:
5694:
5691:
5688:
5683:
5681:
5677:
5672:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5636:
5626:
5622:
5613:
5601:
5589:
5583:
5581:
5577:
5576:Austroasiatic
5573:
5569:
5558:
5557:
5550:
5547:
5543:
5532:
5528:
5524:
5513:
5507:
5495:
5489:
5477:
5471:
5465:
5459:
5453:
5447:
5441:
5435:
5429:
5423:
5417:
5411:
5405:
5399:
5394:
5391:The singular
5389:
5386:
5380:
5371:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5350:reduplication
5341:
5325:
5309:
5299:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5267:
5263:
5261:
5244:
5234:
5228:
5222:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5210:
5203:
5197:
5191:
5185:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5170:
5163:
5157:
5151:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5139:
5132:
5126:
5120:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5108:
5101:
5095:
5089:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5077:
5070:
5064:
5058:
5052:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5040:
5033:
5027:
5021:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:Southwestern
5006:
4999:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4981:
4974:
4968:
4962:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4947:
4940:
4934:
4926:
4923:
4922:
4915:
4909:
4903:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4891:
4884:
4878:
4872:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4860:
4853:
4847:
4841:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4826:
4819:
4813:
4807:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4795:
4788:
4782:
4776:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4761:
4754:
4748:
4741:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4727:
4726:
4719:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:Northeastern
4693:
4692:
4685:
4679:
4673:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4659:
4658:
4654:
4646:
4643:
4637:
4634:
4628:
4625:
4619:
4616:
4610:
4606:
4600:
4598:
4597:tone contours
4588:
4579:
4578:
4572:Southwestern
4571:
4570:
4563:
4562:
4555:
4554:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4542:
4539:
4538:
4535:Northeastern
4534:
4533:
4520:
4519:
4515:
4513:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4497:
4491:
4490:tone at all.
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4470:on which the
4469:
4462:
4458:
4453:
4451:
4450:
4445:
4439:
4433:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4416:
4413:
4407:
4405:
4404:entering tone
4395:
4386:
4377:
4368:
4359:
4358:
4355:
4350:
4348:
4343:
4341:
4336:
4334:
4327:
4322:
4320:
4315:
4313:
4308:
4306:
4301:
4299:
4294:
4292:
4287:
4285:
4280:
4277:
4276:
4272:
4269:
4266:
4263:
4260:
4257:
4254:
4251:
4248:
4245:
4242:
4239:
4236:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4224:
4220:
4217:
4213:
4210:
4206:
4203:
4199:
4196:
4192:
4189:
4185:
4182:
4178:
4175:
4171:
4168:
4164:
4161:
4157:
4154:
4150:
4147:
4146:
4142:
4127:
4116:"rising tone"
4112:
4097:
4096:
4090:
4084:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4062:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4018:
4014:The syllable
4007:
3998:
3989:
3980:
3966:
3964:
3957:
3945:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3917:
3912:
3909:
3902:
3901:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3863:
3858:
3855:
3848:
3847:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3813:
3806:
3805:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3767:
3759:
3752:
3751:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3682:
3680:
3676:
3669:
3662:
3646:
3637:
3635:
3631:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3585:
3574:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3526:
3523:
3512:
3509:
3498:
3495:
3486:/tʂwtʂʰwʂwɻw/
3479:
3464:
3442:
3438:
3419:
3413:
3410:"to fly" and
3406:
3394:
3391:
3387:
3371:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3336:
3335:
3330:
3323:
3318:
3311:
3303:
3298:
3291:
3286:
3279:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3260:
3255:
3248:
3243:
3236:
3231:
3224:
3219:
3212:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3198:
3191:
3186:
3179:
3174:
3167:
3162:
3160:
3159:
3156:
3149:
3144:
3137:
3132:
3125:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3104:
3099:
3097:
3095:
3088:
3083:
3076:
3071:
3070:
3062:
3057:
3055:
3053:
3046:
3041:
3034:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3017:
3012:
3010:
3008:
3001:
2996:
2989:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2946:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2874:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2845:
2842:
2834:
2824:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2808:This section
2806:
2802:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2782:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2748:
2745:and southern
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2653:
2650:
2649:Iasyr Shivaza
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2569:Jilu Mandarin
2567:
2564:
2560:
2557:and northern
2556:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2464:
2460:
2459:entering tone
2456:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2425:and northern
2424:
2420:
2416:
2411:
2407:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2341:Dungan people
2336:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2310:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2276:
2266:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2209:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2169:
2163:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2114:Manchu people
2111:
2107:
2103:
2100:, except for
2099:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2083:pronunciation
2079:
2077:
2072:
2062:
2060:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2013:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1967:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1873:
1863:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1836:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1784:
1779:
1770:
1766:
1753:
1752:Arcadio Huang
1749:
1745:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1718:
1716:
1710:
1706:
1704:
1690:
1686:
1685:
1680:
1679:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1630:
1624:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1516:
1515:
1510:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1495:Northern Song
1489:
1485:
1481:
1480:
1474:
1469:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1381:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1349:
1343:
1336:
1334:
1324:
1312:
1307:
1296:
1291:
1280:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1228:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1142:of China and
1141:
1137:
1133:
1132:lingua franca
1129:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1071:Lower Yangtze
1068:
1064:
1054:
1048:
1040:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
994:
988:
983:
978:
973:
968:
964:
963:
952:
945:
912:
905:
901:
877:
865:
863:
859:
856:
852:
846:
841:
839:
835:
827:
825:
821:
813:
811:
807:
799:
797:
793:
785:
783:
779:
771:
769:
765:
762:
758:
753:
749:
745:
741:
733:
731:
727:
719:
717:
713:
708:
696:
694:
690:
687:
683:
677:
672:
670:
666:
658:
656:
652:
644:
642:
638:
630:
628:
624:
616:
614:
610:
602:
600:
596:
593:
589:
584:
580:
576:
572:
567:
562:
560:
556:
551:
546:
544:
540:
536:
531:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
505:
499:
462:
457:
450:
445:
441:
437:
435:
431:
427:
423:
421:
420:
415:
411:
407:
404:
399:
394:
391:
388:
384:
378:
371:
367:
364:
361:
357:
354:
352:
349:
346:
342:
339:
338:
337:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
316:
312:
308:
305:
304:
302:
298:
292:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
271:Lower Yangtze
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
248:
247:
245:
241:
234:
230:
225:
222:
221:
219:
213:
199:
196:
195:
194:
191:
190:
189:
186:
185:
184:
181:
180:
179:
176:
175:
174:
170:
164:
154:
151:
150:
149:
146:
145:
144:
141:
140:
139:
135:
131:
125:
121:
116:
113:
107:
103:
99:
96:
93:
89:
84:
80:
75:
70:('Mandarin')
68:
62:
57:
53:
38:
33:
30:
26:
22:
16794:Chetty Malay
16551:
16536:Chaoshan Min
16514:Southern Min
16453:Sino-Tibetan
16334:Sabah Bisaya
16214:Kinabatangan
16119:Bukar–Sadong
15979:Pahang Malay
15775:Austronesian
15379:Chitty Malay
15374:Bazaar Malay
15187:Shanghainese
15132:Japonic Sign
14975:
14958:Sino-Tibetan
14659:Austronesian
14595:GX = Guangxi
14583:
14581:Tibetan Sign
14571:
14557:Chinese Sign
14423:Creole/Mixed
14292:Southeastern
14280:Southwestern
14243:Northeastern
14237:
14228:Varieties of
12228:Hanyu Pinyin
12218:Romanization
12125:Semi-cursive
11970:Old Mandarin
11927:Stroke count
11854:
11847:
11769:Old National
11612:Unclassified
10517:Southwestern
10350:Northeastern
10340:
10332:Major groups
10321:
10271:
10258:
10251:
10244:
10237:
10230:
10223:
10198:
10144:
10137:
10112:
10098:
10091:
10082:
10075:
10034:
10019:Lolo-Burmese
10017:
9993:
9971:
9964:
9957:
9945:
9938:
9931:
9919:
9912:
9905:
9839:
9807:
9800:
9791:
9784:
9772:
9765:
9737:
9730:
9723:
9713:
9706:
9699:
9687:
9680:
9632:
9626:
9612:
9605:
9591:
9584:
9559:
9550:
9543:
9536:
9524:
9510:
9498:
9491:
9456:Sino-Tibetan
9402:
9391:
9380:
9369:
9358:
9347:
9336:
9325:
9298:
9279:
9275:
9254:
9250:
9231:
9228:普通话基础方言基本词汇集
9198:
9194:
9176:, retrieved
9167:
9163:
9142:
9138:
9119:
9115:
9084:
9080:
9061:
9042:
9023:
9004:
8985:
8968:
8943:
8939:
8914:
8910:
8891:
8872:
8853:
8830:
8815:, retrieved
8808:the original
8803:
8799:
8780:, retrieved
8768:
8764:
8731:
8719:, retrieved
8710:
8706:
8680:
8661:
8636:
8632:
8607:
8603:
8581:
8574:
8553:
8530:
8501:. Retrieved
8487:
8475:. Retrieved
8461:
8449:
8437:
8425:
8413:
8401:
8389:
8372:
8368:
8365:Mei, Tsu-lin
8355:
8343:
8331:
8319:
8302:
8273:
8261:
8192:
8180:
8168:
8156:
8144:
8132:
8120:
8108:
8096:
8084:
8072:
8060:
8048:
8023:
8011:
7999:
7994:, p. 3.
7987:
7975:
7963:
7951:
7939:
7927:
7915:
7903:
7891:
7879:
7867:
7855:
7843:
7831:
7819:
7807:
7795:
7783:. Retrieved
7775:
7751:. Retrieved
7747:
7737:
7725:. Retrieved
7723:(in Russian)
7721:Вокруг Света
7720:
7710:
7698:
7686:. Retrieved
7675:
7665:
7653:
7641:
7624:
7612:. Retrieved
7608:the original
7597:
7585:. Retrieved
7573:
7569:
7556:
7544:
7519:
7513:
7501:
7472:
7460:
7418:
7406:
7394:
7382:
7370:
7339:
7327:
7315:
7303:
7295:
7283:Wong, Wing.
7279:
7267:
7255:
7243:
7231:
7219:
7207:
7195:
7183:
7165:
7158:
7146:
7139:Kaske (2008)
7134:
7122:
7114:
7109:
7097:
7085:
7073:
7061:
7049:
7037:
7025:
6998:
6986:. Retrieved
6953:
6949:
6937:
6925:
6913:
6894:
6892:"mandarin",
6888:
6880:
6876:
6864:. Retrieved
6855:
6844:
6832:. Retrieved
6818:
6810:
6803:. Retrieved
6799:the original
6789:
6757:
6740:
6701:
6693:
6688:
6662:
6631:
6609:
6563:China portal
6543:
6541:
6538:
6535:
6531:
6528:
6523:
6520:
6515:
6512:
6507:
6504:
6499:
6496:
6491:
6488:
6483:
6480:
6475:
6472:
6467:
6464:
6459:
6456:
6451:
6448:
6443:
6440:
6435:
6432:
6427:
6424:
6419:
6416:
6411:
6408:
6403:
6400:
6395:
6392:
6387:
6384:
6379:
6376:
6371:
6368:
6363:
6360:
6355:
6352:
6347:
6344:
6339:
6336:
6327:
6324:Example text
6283:
6242:
6209:
6184:
6159:
6145:作家、科學家 、藝術家
6134:
6109:
6064:
6035:
6010:
5977:
5940:
5907:
5895:
5880:
5870:
5864:
5849:
5847:
5832:
5818:
5808:
5790:
5776:
5770:
5767:
5764:
5761:
5758:
5755:
5751:
5748:
5741:
5736:
5733:
5730:
5725:
5722:
5719:
5714:
5711:
5708:
5703:
5700:
5697:
5692:
5689:
5686:
5680:ditransitive
5673:
5638:
5623:
5584:
5551:
5541:
5526:
5523:Shanghainese
5390:
5367:
5357:
5356:, one hears
5339:
5323:
5307:
5297:
5287:
5276:Shanghainese
5273:
5264:
5257:
4798:Shijiazhuang
4650:
4639:
4630:
4621:
4612:
4594:
4584:
4484:Old Mandarin
4475:
4461:glottal stop
4454:
4447:
4441:
4435:
4429:
4421:
4408:
4401:
4391:
4382:
4373:
4364:
4351:
4344:
4337:
4330:
4323:
4316:
4309:
4302:
4295:
4288:
4281:
4138:
4123:
4108:
4101:"level tone"
4082:
4074:
4063:
4042:distribution
4041:
4035:
3962:
3955:
3942:
3913:
3859:
3763:
3694:glottal stop
3683:
3678:
3674:
3667:
3660:
3645:Old Mandarin
3638:
3617:
3613:
3607:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3583:
3580:/kaikʰaixai/
3572:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3538:
3521:
3507:
3493:
3440:
3411:
3404:
3386:Peking opera
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
2944:
2923:Southwestern
2912:glottal stop
2871:
2866:
2852:
2837:
2828:
2817:Please help
2812:verification
2809:
2754:
2752:
2625:Yellow River
2607:Heilongjiang
2585:Heilongjiang
2525:
2523:
2515:
2495:
2473:
2466:
2443:
2431:Li Fang-Kuei
2412:
2409:
2338:
2329:Central Asia
2313:In northern
2312:
2278:
2255:
2211:
2172:
2165:
2126:
2095:
2080:
2068:
2056:
2040:
2023:
2019:
2017:
1980:
1953:
1939:
1929:
1882:Qing dynasty
1875:
1840:
1825:
1824:finals with
1821:
1815:
1805:
1787:
1782:
1775:
1768:
1743:
1735:
1712:
1707:
1700:
1682:
1678:Water Margin
1676:
1673:
1658:
1636:
1620:
1618:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1585:
1581:Tang dynasty
1576:
1572:
1568:
1565:checked tone
1546:
1541:Menggu Ziyun
1539:
1525:
1519:
1512:
1506:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1479:Menggu Ziyun
1477:
1468:Old Mandarin
1462:Old Mandarin
1421:
1383:
1360:
1345:
1339:
1337:
1330:
1328:
1308:
1292:
1276:
1266:six official
1239:
1224:
1169:
1125:
1117:glottal stop
1106:
1098:Heilongjiang
1083:
1050:
1026:
990:
910:
909:
830:Běi-fang-huà
816:Pei-fang-hua
802:Beeifanghuah
768:Hanyu Pinyin
599:Hanyu Pinyin
501:
434:Linguasphere
417:
383:Signed forms
335:
286:Southwestern
251:Northeastern
232:
228:
193:Old Mandarin
152:
138:Sino-Tibetan
29:
16804:Sabah Malay
16799:Cocos Malay
16688:Minangkabau
16639:archipelago
16509:Pu-Xian Min
16487:Eastern Min
16437:Significant
16279:Murik Kayan
15989:Reman Malay
15984:Perak Malay
15969:Orang Kanaq
15909:Kedah Malay
15904:Judeo-Malay
15785:Kayan–Murik
15588:Minangkabau
14089:Fuyu Kyrgyz
13888:Tai Hongjin
13574:Muak Sa-aak
12297:Xiao'erjing
12159:Punctuation
12152:Traditional
12105:Oracle bone
12089:Logographic
11985:Proto-Hakka
11960:Eastern Han
11955:Old Chinese
11817:Classifiers
11784:Northern Wu
11712:Singaporean
10918: [
10906: [
10894: [
10882: [
10870: [
10260:Proto-Hakka
10189:Mahakiranti
9695:East Bodish
9475:Uttarakhand
9226:) (1996).
9201:(2): 1–31,
9170:: 613–649,
9145:: 143–182,
9007:, Longman,
8917:: 349–362,
8817:16 November
8520:Works cited
8375:: 274–301.
8149:Mair (1990)
7884:Ting (1991)
7785:8 September
7753:9 September
7727:8 September
7614:14 February
7549:Chen (1999)
7453:Blum (2001)
7423:Mair (1991)
7411:Chen (1999)
7344:Chen (1999)
7332:Chen (1999)
7320:Chen (1999)
7272:Chen (1999)
7248:Chen (1999)
7236:Chen (1999)
7212:Chen (1999)
5566:) "alley".
5260:Wu dialects
4647:marked with
3688:below). In
3677:"gold" and
3634:triphthongs
3584:jie qie xie
3382:/tsjtsʰjsj/
2908:Jin Chinese
2575:("Ji") and
2543:except the
2512:Jin Chinese
2480:Zhou Zhenhe
2446:Yuan Jiahua
2323:rebel group
2216:along with
2026:base their
1835:palatalized
1778:South China
1651:Han dynasty
1524:called the
1390:Old Chinese
1329:but not as
1065:(including
1023:North China
516:instead of
356:Xiao'erjing
315:Traditional
178:Old Chinese
167:Early forms
83:traditional
72:written in
17023:Categories
16937:Vietnamese
16927:Sri Lankan
16885:Indonesian
16842:Immigrants
16789:Baba Malay
16709:Philippine
16702:Philippine
16683:Mandailing
16637:Indonesian
16424:Umaʼ Lasan
16314:Punan Batu
16259:Lun Bawang
16004:Semaq Beri
15859:Peninsular
15842:Nationwide
15834:Indigenous
15805:Sama–Bajaw
15800:Philippine
15790:Land Dayak
15644:Vietnamese
15561:Mandailing
15533:Indonesian
15491:Indo-Aryan
15369:Baba Malay
15231:Vietnamese
15219:Indonesian
15039:Fuzhounese
14899:Kanakanavu
14610:XZ = Tibet
14601:MC = Macau
14541:Zhangzhung
14285:Sichuanese
14212:Vietnamese
13609:Hmong-Mien
13488:Waxianghua
13269:Khroskyabs
12557:Indigenous
12445:Prefecture
12420:Portuguese
12248:Wade–Giles
12147:Simplified
12042:Vernacular
12035:in Vietnam
11888:Simplified
11875:Biaoxingma
11822:Honorifics
11757:Historical
11702:Philippine
11692:Sichuanese
11619:Badong Yao
11323:Shao–Jiang
11194:Philippine
11002:Xiangxiang
10997:Shuangfeng
10742:Taizhou Wu
10525:Sichuanese
10154:Idu–Taraon
10108:Miju–Meyor
10001:Gyalrongic
9847:Tangkhulic
9622:Raji–Raute
8771:(b): 1–8,
8713:: 85–102,
8477:6 December
8454:Yue (2003)
8430:Yue (2003)
8418:Yue (2003)
8308:Yan (2006)
7956:Yan (2006)
7872:Yan (2006)
6956:(1): 211.
6856:www.gov.cn
6742:Ethnologue
6717:References
6642:Mǎn dà rén
6195:煙鬼、酒鬼、膽小鬼
6120:公式化、制度化、強化
6021:重做, 重建, 重新
5860:classifier
5817:) and
5756:我 给 你 一本 书
5645:inflection
5612:hànbǎo bāo
5540:'you' and
5280:homophones
5270:Vocabulary
4728:Jiao–Liao
4608:Tone name
4540:Jiao–Liao
4507:voiceless
4480:Wu Chinese
4070:four tones
3944:R-coloring
3715:Colloquial
3630:diphthongs
3204:Fricatives
3115:Affricates
2929:dialects);
2789:See also:
2713:Wu Chinese
2645:Kyrgyzstan
2641:Kazakhstan
2639:spoken in
2400:Boundaries
2357:Hui people
2353:Uzbekistan
2349:Kazakhstan
2345:Kyrgyzstan
2307:See also:
2136:, such as
2087:vocabulary
2032:pragmatics
1936:Wade–Giles
1898:Chen Duxiu
1892:, such as
1857:based the
1820:merger of
1665:homophones
1561:four tones
1553:affricates
1532:rime table
1347:Běifānghuà
1252:(PRC) and
1172:Portuguese
1073:, are not
1069:) and the
1067:Sichuanese
1052:Běifānghuà
810:Wade–Giles
788:ㄅㄟˇㄈㄤ ㄏㄨㄚˋ
774:Běifānghuà
641:Wade–Giles
311:Simplified
79:simplified
16978:By states
16832:Esperanto
16769:Chavacano
16582:Malayalam
16577:Dravidian
16504:Hainanese
16463:Cantonese
16399:Tombonuwo
16364:Sembakung
16184:Kalabakan
16134:Daro-Matu
15874:Cheq Wong
15812:Tai-Kadai
15729:Malaysian
15573:Baweanese
15546:Banjarese
15479:Malayalam
15474:Dravidian
15429:Hainanese
15424:Cantonese
15394:Singdarin
15214:Malaysian
15177:Cantonese
15149:Auxiliary
14818:Ketagalan
14736:Favorlang
14521:Tocharian
14455:Qoqmončaq
14407:Cantonese
14361:Shaojiang
14334:Hainanese
14263:Zhongyuan
14258:Jiao-Liao
14192:Esperanto
14094:Ili Turki
13801:Khamnigan
13666:Kiong Nai
13437:Zitsadegu
12415:Mongolian
12405:Cantonese
12186:Taiwanese
12176:Cantonese
12020:Classical
11980:Proto-Min
11915:Microsoft
11774:Cantonese
11750:Phonology
11731:Cantonese
11722:Singdarin
11707:Malaysian
11697:Taiwanese
11601:Rongjiang
11591:Yongjiang
11587:Southern
11572:Northern
11546:Luo–Guang
11455:Hong Kong
11450:Guangzhou
11406:Taiwanese
11399:Changting
11333:Zhanjiang
11247:Zhongshan
11214:Malaysian
11209:Singapore
11174:Zhangzhou
11126:Zhongshan
11019:Yong–Quan
10915:Jing-Zhan
10845:Xuancheng
10822:Jiangshan
10701:Changzhou
10622:Junjiahua
10475:Guanzhong
10358:Changchun
10253:Proto-Min
10184:Macro-Bai
10062:Arunachal
10055:(possible
9870:Boro–Garo
9774:Kuki-Chin
9757:and Indo-
9672:Arunachal
9659:Himalayas
9634:Tandrange
9601:Chepangic
9532:Dhimalish
9466:Himalayas
9151:1808/7090
9081:Putonghua
8960:126344099
8683:, BRILL,
8653:162258379
8503:7 January
8115:, Map B3.
8055:, Map B2.
8006:, Map B1.
7970:, Map A2.
7748:meduza.io
7658:Wang 2012
7536:136508776
7175:680482801
6978:148793910
6970:1527-9421
6722:Citations
6460:liángxīn,
6420:píngděng.
5867:particles
5425:) 'you',
4832:Zhengzhou
4499:subgroup
3910:'country'
3710:(Beijing)
3702:Character
3551:(spelled
3482:/pfpfʰfv/
3378:/kjkʰjxj/
3271:Sonorants
2964:Retroflex
2934:devoicing
2831:July 2011
2785:Phonology
2502:Subgroups
2488:Old Xiang
2484:New Xiang
2413:In 1936,
2369:Kashgaria
2365:Dzungaria
2293:Cantonese
2262:Singdarin
2242:Cantonese
2214:Singapore
2202:Singapore
2179:retroflex
2028:phonology
2020:Pǔtōnghuà
2012:diglossic
2007:Cantonese
1999:Hong Kong
1997:, namely
1954:pǔtōnghuà
1794:Guangdong
1754:) in 1742
1278:Pǔtōnghuà
1258:Singapore
1121:retroflex
1015:phonology
868:Bākfōngwá
419:Glottolog
403:ISO 639-3
266:Jiao–Liao
244:Varieties
229:Putonghua
16917:Nepalese
16902:Japanese
16880:Filipino
16827:Tanglish
16779:Manglish
16774:Kristang
16673:Javanese
16668:Buginese
16656:Madurese
16646:Acehnese
16611:Gujarati
16439:minority
16409:Tringgus
16374:Serudung
16204:Kendayan
16174:Jangkang
16056:Malaysia
15944:Mah Meri
15934:Kristang
15861:Malaysia
15755:Families
15721:Official
15624:Japanese
15619:Filipino
15609:Armenian
15583:Javanese
15578:Buginese
15541:Acehnese
15501:Gujarati
15389:Singlish
15384:Kristang
15325:Mandarin
15308:Official
15292:National
15199:Japanese
15194:Filipino
15008:Southern
14976:Mandarin
14864:Southern
14845:Sakizaya
14785:Saisiyat
14723:Northern
14677:Atayalic
14668:Formosan
14465:Tangwang
14445:Macanese
14440:Lingling
14373:Northern
14356:Northern
14319:Southern
14238:Mandarin
14165:Minority
14125:Sarikoli
14038:Tungusic
13999:Naxi Yao
13944:Cao Miao
13868:Ningming
13768:Mongolic
13744:Dzao Min
13739:Biao Min
13696:Qo Xiong
13691:Pingtang
13387:Dongwang
13329:Tshobdun
13254:Guiqiong
12856:Sangkong
12631:Muangphe
12593:Mondzish
12547:numerous
12538:Counties
12385:Regional
12369:Official
12270:Bopomofo
12199:Phonetic
12191:Two-cell
12120:Clerical
12030:in Japan
12025:Adoption
12013:Official
12004:Literary
11879:Boshiamy
11856:Xiehouyu
11812:Numerals
11789:Mandarin
11717:Standard
11677:Standard
11551:Qin–Lian
11541:Yong–Xun
11526:Gao–Yang
11472:Jiujiang
11460:Malaysia
11394:Tingzhou
11345:Wenchang
11306:Jianyang
11296:Northern
11255:Sanxiang
11169:Quanzhou
11152:Southern
11121:Manjiang
10985:Changsha
10945:Nanchang
10940:Chang–Du
10837:Xuanzhou
10827:Qingtian
10781:Wencheng
10727:Jiangyin
10722:Jinxiang
10712:Shaoxing
10706:Hangzhou
10686:Shanghai
10627:Qinjiang
10535:Minjiang
10507:Xinjiang
10465:Dongping
10429:Jiaoliao
10368:Shenyang
10341:Mandarin
10058:isolates
10025:Mondzish
9953:Cai–Long
9701:Tshangla
9657:Eastern
9500:Tamangic
9470:Himachal
9464:Western
9458:branches
9301:: 1–22.
9207:23754434
9172:archived
8977:23827039
8931:40726247
8829:(1988),
8773:archived
8756:(1990),
8715:archived
8701:(2007),
8497:Archived
8471:Archived
8030:北京官话语音研究
7772:"Dungan"
7682:Archived
7578:Archived
7288:Archived
6982:Archived
6860:Archived
6834:28 March
6828:Archived
6805:28 March
6737:Mandarin
6549:See also
6516:jīngshén
5923:Example
5588:gāo'ěrfū
5393:pronouns
5340:cōngmáng
5286:such as
5176:Yangzhou
4984:Yinchuan
4949:Lan–Yin
4925:Tianshui
4660:Beijing
4623:yángpíng
4564:Lan–Yin
4521:Beijing
4512:sonorant
4488:phonemic
4457:Minjiang
4375:yángpíng
4148:Example
4081:, while
3760:'lesson'
3733:Yangzhou
3708:Standard
3668:-in/-ing
3661:-en/-eng
3390:Shandong
3374:/tɕtɕʰɕ/
3365:becomes
3357:becomes
3349:becomes
3343:/tstsʰs/
3339:/ʈʂʈʂʰʂ/
2941:Initials
2855:syllable
2767:Dongfang
2705:Jiujiang
2675:Xinjiang
2671:Yinchuan
2633:Xinjiang
2599:Shandong
2577:Shandong
2563:Xinjiang
2532:below):
2281:Malaysia
2269:Malaysia
2183:alveolar
2146:Shenyang
2120:, where
2118:Xinjiang
2102:Liaoning
2096:Most of
1941:Kuo²-yü³
1763:—
1649:and the
1643:classics
1517:poetry.
1444:Zhejiang
1262:Malaysia
1205:official
1190:Sanskrit
1176:mandarim
1094:Xinjiang
911:Mandarin
782:Bopomofo
661:Guan-huà
647:Kuan-hua
633:Guanhuah
619:ㄍㄨㄢ ㄏㄨㄚˋ
613:Bopomofo
522:Help:IPA
440:79-AAA-b
426:mand1415
370:Cyrillic
153:Mandarin
35:Mandarin
16897:Persian
16865:Burmese
16860:Bengali
16850:African
16761:Creoles
16719:Maranao
16678:Kerinci
16621:Punjabi
16541:Teochew
16519:Hokkien
16446:Chinese
16394:Timugon
16354:Sekapan
16274:Momogun
16269:Melanau
16249:Lengilu
16239:Lahanan
16199:Kelabit
16189:Kanowit
16179:Kajaman
16124:Bukitan
16094:Bintulu
16084:Berawan
16009:Semelai
15919:Kenaboi
15884:Jah Hut
15829:Natives
15795:Malayic
15734:English
15614:Burmese
15556:Angkola
15521:Sinhala
15511:Punjabi
15496:Bengali
15454:Teochew
15449:Hokkien
15444:Hokchew
15439:Henghwa
15419:Sinitic
15411:Chinese
15315:English
15172:English
15112:Zhao'an
15107:Raoping
15056:Pu-Xian
15031:Eastern
14967:Sinitic
14932:Batanic
14855:Taivoan
14840:Qauqaut
14835:Makatao
14828:Luilang
14813:Kavalan
14536:Xianbei
14531:Tuyuhun
14501:Old Yue
14479:Extinct
14460:Sanqiao
14351:Central
14341:Eastern
14324:Hokkien
14268:Lan-Yin
14248:Beijing
14230:Chinese
14187:Russian
13949:Chadong
13929:Ai-Cham
13898:Tai Nüa
13883:Tai Dón
13878:Tai Dam
13836:Kra-Dai
13806:Monguor
13796:Kangjia
13754:Kim Mun
13749:Iu Mien
13671:Luobohe
13661:Huishui
13641:Guiyang
13618:Hmongic
13579:Palaung
13569:Man Met
13473:Longjia
13422:Ladakhi
13417:Kyirong
13407:Khalong
13392:Drugchu
13349:Tibetic
13319:Shixing
13231:Qiangic
13012:Alingpo
13004:Nisoish
12989:Yangliu
12984:Xuzhang
12914:Laizisi
12909:Kuamasi
12904:Kua-nsi
12886:Lisoish
12866:Tsukong
12806:Laomian
12731:Baihong
12698:Hanoish
12689:Loloish
12674:Lhao Vo
12669:Chashan
12654:Xiandao
12641:Burmish
12584:Burmese
12542:Banners
12498:Tai Nüa
12425:Tibetan
12410:English
12169:Braille
12130:Cursive
12080:Scripts
11947:History
11937:ZhengMa
11883:Cangjie
11849:Chengyu
11804:Grammar
11779:Hokkien
11736:Hokkien
11644:Waxiang
11624:Danzhou
11596:Guandao
11581:Younian
11576:Tongdao
11565:Pinghua
11505:Taishan
11421:Raoping
11389:Huizhou
11379:Meixian
11355:Banqiao
11328:Leizhou
11318:Pu–Xian
11313:Central
11301:Jian'ou
11276:Longyan
11224:Teochew
11161:Hokkien
11136:Nanlang
11092:Fu–Ning
11072:Changle
11054:Houguan
11045:Eastern
10992:Loushao
10980:Changyi
10962:Da–Tong
10957:Ying–Yi
10903:Yanzhou
10771:Wenzhou
10764:Oujiang
10755:Tiantai
10750:Taizhou
10659:Zhi–Yan
10606:Nantong
10601:Nanjing
10576:Gui–Liu
10566:Nanping
10561:Kunming
10487:Luoyang
10442:Qingdao
10414:Tianjin
10391:Beijing
10383:Beijing
10272:Italics
10133:Siangic
10114:Songlin
10093:Kho-Bwa
10071:Hrusish
10053:Dubious
10036:Loloish
10030:Burmish
9995:Qiangic
9966:Longjia
9933:Karenic
9927:Nungish
9907:Sinitic
9793:Hkongso
9755:Myanmar
9725:Gongduk
9689:Tibetic
9607:Chepang
9580:Magaric
9526:Kiranti
9506:Newaric
8831:Chinese
8515:Sources
6988:21 June
6866:26 July
6653:; '
6532:duìdài.
6524:hùxiāng
6492:xiōngdì
5649:affixes
5629:Grammar
5407:) 'I',
5354:Sichuan
5322:), and
5284:affixes
5242:(213)*
5213:Nantong
5142:Liuzhou
5080:Kunming
5043:Xichang
5012:Chengdu
4953:Lanzhou
4863:Luoyang
4767:Tianjin
4664:Beijing
4614:yīnpíng
4510:voiced
4468:Nanjing
4366:yīnpíng
4050:Chengdu
3856:'fruit'
3814:'guest'
3728:Chengdu
3720:(Ji–Lu)
3705:Meaning
2969:Palatal
2759:Nanping
2747:Shaanxi
2743:Guangxi
2731:Guizhou
2727:Sichuan
2709:Jiangxi
2701:Jiangsu
2697:Nanjing
2693:Yangtze
2685:Jiangsu
2667:Ningxia
2663:Lanzhou
2623:in the
2621:Shaanxi
2555:Chengde
2492:Huizhou
2455:Li Rong
2427:Jiangxi
2415:Wang Li
2315:Myanmar
2303:Myanmar
2289:Hokkien
2238:Teochew
2234:Hokkien
2218:English
2142:Baoding
2138:Tianjin
2134:Beijing
2091:grammar
2010:either
1894:Hu Shih
1878:Beijing
1851:Beijing
1847:Nanjing
1783:Guānhuà
1717:).
1709:Hu Shih
1645:of the
1452:Guangxi
1448:Pinghua
1434:in the
1432:Huizhou
1374:History
1341:Guānhuà
1332:Guānhuà
1321:; '
1226:Guānhuà
1207:of the
1200:mantrin
1188:, from
1185:menteri
1179:, from
992:Guānhuà
962:-dər-in
605:Guānhuà
518:Unicode
281:Lan–Yin
256:Beijing
148:Chinese
143:Sinitic
67:Guānhuà
52:Guānhuà
16907:Korean
16855:Arabic
16740:Others
16724:Molbog
16714:Iranun
16661:Bawean
16651:Banjar
16599:Telugu
16570:Indian
16497:Fuzhou
16492:Fuqing
16384:Sungai
16329:Sa'ban
16299:Paluan
16294:Okolod
16234:Kuijau
16164:Ida'an
16139:Dumpas
16104:Bookan
16099:Bonggi
16089:Biatah
16079:Belait
16034:Temuan
16024:Temiar
16014:Semnam
15954:Mintil
15949:Minriq
15929:Kintaq
15924:Kensiu
15879:Duanoʼ
15768:Aslian
15634:Nepali
15629:Korean
15604:Arabic
15516:Sindhi
15484:Telugu
15466:Indian
15204:Korean
15092:Sixian
14989:Junhua
14904:Saaroa
14891:Tsouic
14881:Puyuma
14876:Paiwan
14850:Siraya
14774:Kaxabu
14758:Arikun
14753:Hoanya
14748:Papora
14741:Taokas
14731:Babuza
14706:Rukaic
14690:Seediq
14685:Atayal
14516:Tangut
14506:Rouran
14496:Khitan
14486:Ba–Shu
14450:Maojia
14435:Hezhou
14346:Puxian
14329:Teoswa
14214:(Kinh)
14182:Kyrgyz
14177:Korean
14172:Kazakh
14076:Turkic
14061:Oroqen
14051:Manchu
14046:Evenki
14014:Qabiao
14004:Ong Be
13989:Maonan
13979:Lakkja
13969:Jiamao
13939:Buyang
13903:Tai Ya
13893:Tai Lü
13853:Bouyei
13845:Zhuang
13826:Torgut
13781:Buryat
13731:Mienic
13721:Younuo
13701:Raojia
13681:Pa-Hng
13676:Mashan
13646:Hm Nai
13631:Bu-Nao
13626:A-Hmao
13549:Bumang
13468:Jingpo
13463:Derung
13458:Caijia
13432:Zhongu
13402:Gserpa
13294:Namuyi
13264:Japhug
13213:Zauzou
13188:Namuyi
13173:Kucong
13147:Zokhuo
13142:Thopho
13122:Phupha
13107:Phukha
13052:Khlula
12994:Zibusi
12979:Toloza
12974:Sonaga
12959:Mangdi
12954:Lolopo
12899:Hlersu
12836:Phana’
12831:Nuomei
12811:Laopin
12746:Bukong
12721:Angluo
12649:Achang
12626:Mondzi
12528:Zhuang
12503:Tai Lü
12493:Kazakh
12488:Kyrgyz
12473:Korean
12463:Bouyei
12435:Zhuang
12430:Uyghur
12238:Postal
12233:MPS II
12110:Bronze
11990:Ba–Shu
11910:Google
11905:Pinyin
11841:Idioms
11654:Yeheni
11536:Wu–Hua
11531:Goulou
11510:Xinhui
11487:Dapeng
11482:Weitou
11467:Xiguan
11442:Yuehai
11411:Sixian
11350:Haikou
11340:Hainan
11271:Zhenan
11237:Haklau
11232:Swatow
11204:Penang
11189:Taiwan
11184:Chawan
11131:Longdu
11100:Ningde
11077:Gutian
11067:Fuqing
11062:Fuzhou
11024:Qiyang
11007:Wugang
10952:Yi–Liu
10879:Xiu-Yi
10867:Ji-She
10817:Quzhou
10809:Chu–Qu
10799:Jinhua
10791:Wuzhou
10776:Rui'an
10717:Ningbo
10691:Suzhou
10581:Wuming
10552:Zigong
10540:Leshan
10502:Lanyin
10497:Dungan
10492:Xuzhou
10470:Gangou
10447:Weihai
10437:Dalian
10396:Taiwan
10363:Harbin
10146:Milang
10100:Puroik
10084:Mijiic
10008:Ersuic
9959:Caijia
9875:Konyak
9841:Meitei
9745:Chamdo
9682:Bodish
9668:Bhutan
9614:Bhujel
9561:Lepcha
9552:Lhokpu
9538:Dhimal
9483:Sikkim
9205:
9178:9 June
9091:
9068:
9049:
9030:
9011:
8992:
8975:
8958:
8929:
8898:
8879:
8860:
8841:
8782:27 May
8742:
8721:13 May
8687:
8668:
8651:
8624:606615
8622:
8588:
8562:
8539:
8036:
7688:31 May
7632:
7587:24 May
7534:
7173:
6976:
6968:
6901:
6767:(2009)
6763:台灣手語簡介
6655:Manchu
6500:guānxì
6444:lǐxìng
6396:quánlì
6380:zūnyán
6364:zìyóu,
6340:Rénrén
5920:Gloss
5914:Affix
5773:aspect
5752:
5749:
5744:我給你一本書
5657:number
5653:person
5600:bǐjīní
5578:, and
5556:hútòng
5488:zánmen
5358:bāobāo
5238:(42),
5124:(213)
5105:(212)
5068:(213)
5037:(213)
4857:(312)
4786:(113)
4763:Ji–Lu
4752:(214)
4746:(55))
4732:Yantai
4717:(213)
4698:Harbin
4683:(214)
4548:Ji–Lu
4524:1,3,4
4420:, all
3745:Pinyin
3671:/iniŋ/
3664:/ənəŋ/
3576:/twei/
3535:Finals
3528:/ɻwan/
3514:/ʂwei/
3415:/xwei/
3361:, and
2981:Nasals
2959:Apical
2954:Labial
2771:Hainan
2763:Fujian
2735:Yunnan
2665:) and
2520:(1987)
2451:Shanxi
2224:, and
2168:Taiwan
2156:Taiwan
2150:Dalian
2148:, and
2112:. The
2089:, and
2076:Fujian
1987:Taiwan
1968::
1960::
1948:, the
1938::
1928::
1926:pinyin
1920::
1912::
1798:Fujian
1767:,
1750:(with
1742:), or
1702:báihuà
1614:pinyin
1557:tenuis
1456:Yunnan
1446:, and
1416:, and
1404:, and
1323:Huaxia
1254:Taiwan
1221:Jesuit
1194:mantrī
1144:Taiwan
1090:Yunnan
1049::
1047:pinyin
1041::
1033::
989::
987:pinyin
979::
969::
900:Tanghe
492:
486:
480:
474:
468:
366:Dungan
360:Arabic
351:Zhuyin
341:Pinyin
101:Region
85:right)
81:left,
16947:Signs
16870:Khmer
16822:Rojak
16729:Suluk
16616:Hindi
16587:Tamil
16477:Hakka
16414:Tutoh
16404:Tring
16389:Tagol
16349:Sebop
16324:Remun
16319:Penan
16304:Papar
16284:Narom
16254:Lotud
16244:Lelak
16219:Kiput
16194:Kayan
16169:Jagoi
16154:Ganaʼ
16144:Dusun
16074:Bajau
16069:Bahau
16044:Wila'
16029:Temoq
15999:Semai
15994:Sabüm
15939:Lanoh
15899:Jedek
15894:Jakun
15889:Jahai
15869:Batek
15849:Malay
15831:&
15597:Other
15551:Batak
15506:Hindi
15434:Hakka
15330:Tamil
15320:Malay
15299:Malay
15209:Malay
15097:Hailu
15079:Hakka
14871:Bunun
14823:Basay
14780:Kulon
14770:Pazeh
14713:Rukai
14695:Truku
14526:Tuoba
14470:Wutun
14385:Xiang
14378:Auish
14304:Hakka
14253:Ji-Lu
14218:Wakhi
14207:Uzbek
14202:Tuvan
14197:Tatar
14118:Other
14104:Salar
14056:Nanai
13994:Mulam
13959:Gelao
13922:Other
13821:Santa
13816:Ordos
13811:Oirat
13776:Bonan
13716:Xixiu
13686:Pa Na
13651:Hmong
13636:Gejia
13584:Riang
13544:Bugan
13539:Bolyu
13534:Blang
13483:Tujia
13446:Other
13427:Tseku
13412:Khams
13397:Groma
13377:Choni
13367:Basum
13362:Baima
13339:Zhaba
13259:Horpa
13244:Choyo
13239:Baima
13208:Sanie
13183:Naruo
13168:Katso
13163:Gokhy
13156:Other
13132:Samei
13127:Phuza
13117:Phupa
13112:Phuma
13102:Phowa
13097:Phola
13092:Phala
13087:Nuosu
13042:Bokha
13017:Alugu
12964:Micha
12876:Yiche
12861:Suobi
12826:Nuobi
12796:Kaduo
12791:Kabie
12771:Habei
12761:Duota
12756:Duoni
12751:Cosao
12679:Zaiwa
12664:Lashi
12616:Mango
12611:Manga
12606:Maang
12601:Kathu
12582:Lolo-
12508:Zaiwa
12478:Qiang
12468:Tujia
12453:Hmong
12302:Nüshu
12006:forms
11920:Sogou
11867:Input
11741:Hakka
11679:forms
11519:Other
11477:Shiqi
11416:Hailu
11384:Wuhua
11371:Hakka
11289:Other
11264:Other
11199:Pedan
11114:Other
11105:Fu'an
11082:Matsu
11014:Ji–Xu
10972:Xiang
10922:]
10910:]
10898:]
10891:Qi-De
10886:]
10874:]
10732:Shadi
10678:Taihu
10632:Gyami
10615:Other
10571:Wuhan
10480:Xi'an
10419:Jinan
10077:Hruso
9973:Luren
9947:Kathu
9921:Tujia
9809:Taman
9780:Mruic
9767:Karbi
9708:Basum
9664:Tibet
9586:Magar
9512:Newar
9479:Nepal
9237:语文出版社
9230:[
9203:JSTOR
8973:JSTOR
8956:S2CID
8927:JSTOR
8811:(PDF)
8796:(PDF)
8776:(PDF)
8761:(PDF)
8649:S2CID
8620:JSTOR
8580:[
7581:(PDF)
7566:(PDF)
7532:S2CID
6974:S2CID
6623:Notes
6436:fùyǒu
6428:Tāmen
6404:shàng
6348:shēng
6211:jiàng
6012:chóng
5746:]
5742:[
5723:yìběn
5667:, or
5661:tense
5506:wǒmen
5379:húdié
5308:-(e)r
5252:(5)*
5248:(4),
5232:(55)
5226:(35)
5220:(21)
5201:(55)
5195:(42)
5189:(35)
5183:(31)
5167:(24)
5161:(53)
5155:(31)
5149:(44)
5136:(35)
5130:(42)
5118:(55)
5111:Wuhan
5099:(53)
5093:(31)
5087:(44)
5074:(31)
5062:(45)
5056:(52)
5050:(33)
5031:(53)
5025:(21)
5019:(44)
5003:(13)
4997:(53)
4991:(44)
4978:(24)
4972:(33)
4966:(53)
4960:(31)
4944:(44)
4938:(53)
4932:(13)
4919:(44)
4913:(53)
4907:(24)
4901:(21)
4894:Xi'an
4888:(31)
4882:(54)
4876:(42)
4870:(34)
4851:(53)
4845:(42)
4839:(24)
4823:(31)
4817:(55)
4811:(53)
4805:(23)
4792:(53)
4780:(35)
4774:(21)
4758:(55)
4739:(31)
4723:(52)
4711:(24)
4705:(44)
4689:(51)
4677:(35)
4671:(55)
4632:shǎng
4422:tsjek
4384:shǎng
4125:shǎng
4054:Xi'an
4046:Jinan
3969:Tones
3843:kʰɰak
3818:tɕʰie
3723:Xi'an
3718:Jinan
3686:Tones
3569:/tei/
3504:/fei/
3500:/tʂu/
3490:/pfu/
3408:/fei/
3026:Stops
2974:Velar
2867:final
2859:glide
2775:Gyami
2755:Atlas
2739:Hunan
2723:Hubei
2689:Anhui
2659:Gansu
2629:Gansu
2617:Henan
2573:Hebei
2559:Hebei
2530:Tones
2435:Xiang
2423:Hunan
2363:from
2297:Johor
2246:Hakka
2244:, or
2226:Tamil
2222:Malay
2187:erhua
2024:Guóyǔ
2003:Macau
1931:Guóyǔ
1843:koiné
1549:stops
1514:sanqu
1440:Anhui
1414:Hakka
1406:Xiang
1310:Huáyǔ
1294:Guóyǔ
1181:Malay
1109:tones
1007:China
947:
699:Gūnwá
345:Latin
261:Ji–Lu
233:Guoyu
95:China
16955:Main
16932:Thai
16922:Urdu
16747:Cham
16693:Rawa
16626:Urdu
16419:Ukit
16379:Sian
16369:Seru
16339:Sama
16159:Iban
16064:Abai
16054:East
15713:Main
15639:Thai
15566:Toba
15226:Thai
15102:Dabu
14940:Yami
14909:Tsou
14808:Amis
14800:East
14790:Thao
14763:Lloa
14550:Sign
14511:Saka
14412:Ping
14133:Tsat
14084:Äynu
14066:Xibe
14024:Then
14009:Paha
13964:Hlai
13934:Biao
13908:Yang
13873:Nong
13786:Daur
13564:Mang
13559:Kuan
13478:Nung
13357:Amdo
13324:Situ
13304:Pumi
13299:Naxi
13289:Muya
13279:Lizu
13274:Laze
13249:Ersu
13203:Samu
13198:Nusu
13193:Naxi
13178:Lahu
13137:Sani
13082:Nisu
13077:Nasu
13072:Muzi
13067:Muji
13062:Moji
13057:Lope
13047:Gepo
13037:Azhe
13032:Azha
13022:Aluo
12969:Mili
12949:Lisu
12944:Lipo
12939:Limi
12934:Lawu
12929:Lavu
12924:Lamu
12919:Lalo
12871:Woni
12851:Sadu
12846:Qidi
12841:Piyo
12821:Muda
12801:Lami
12786:Jino
12781:Honi
12776:Hani
12741:Budu
12736:Bisu
12726:Asuo
12711:Akha
12706:Akeu
12659:Pela
12621:Maza
12523:Hani
12513:Lisu
12397:SARs
12263:Yale
12253:EFEO
12115:Seal
11900:Dayi
11497:Siyi
11179:Amoy
10696:Wuxi
10593:Huai
10406:Jilu
10194:Rung
10139:Koro
10013:Naic
9940:Gong
9896:and
9894:East
9852:Zeme
9821:Naga
9739:Tani
9732:ʼOle
9628:Dura
9593:Kham
9545:Toto
9180:2014
9089:ISBN
9066:ISBN
9047:ISBN
9028:ISBN
9009:ISBN
8990:ISBN
8896:ISBN
8877:ISBN
8858:ISBN
8839:ISBN
8819:2013
8784:2015
8740:ISBN
8723:2023
8685:ISBN
8666:ISBN
8586:ISBN
8560:ISBN
8537:ISBN
8505:2022
8479:2023
8034:ISBN
7787:2024
7755:2024
7729:2024
7690:2020
7630:ISBN
7616:2011
7589:2020
7171:OCLC
6990:2022
6966:ISSN
6899:ISBN
6868:2017
6836:2017
6807:2017
6476:yīng
6468:bìng
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