2390:
2371:
2355:
2343:
2331:
2249:
1594:
intelligibility between 15 Chinese provinces. In each province, 15 university students were recruited as speakers and 15 older rural inhabitants recruited as listeners. The listeners were then tested on their comprehension of isolated words and of particular words in the context of sentences spoken by speakers from all 15 of the provinces surveyed. The results demonstrated significant levels of unintelligibility between areas, even within the
Mandarin group. In a few cases, listeners understood fewer than 70% of words spoken by speakers from the same province, indicating significant differences between urban and rural varieties. As expected from the wide use of
2413:
2551:
5417:
1526:
16379:
257:
6410:
11131:
13150:
1301:, and form the only branch of Chinese that cannot be directly derived from Middle Chinese. It is also the most diverse, with many of the varieties used in neighbouring counties—and, in the mountains of western Fujian, even in adjacent villages—being mutually unintelligible. Early classifications divided Min into Northern and Southern subgroups, but a survey in the early 1960s found that the primary split was between inland and coastal groups. Varieties from the coastal region around
6731:, improve communication between them, and create a Mandarin-speaking environment conducive to the successful implementation of the bilingual education program. The initial goal of the campaign was for all young Chinese to stop speaking dialects in five years, and to establish Mandarin as the language of choice in public places within 10 years. According to the government, for the bilingual policy to be effective, Mandarin should be spoken at home and should serve as the
6653:
6368:
speakers of the local dialect. The choice of dialect varies based on the social situation. Standard
Chinese is usually considered more formal and is required when speaking to a person who does not understand the local dialect. The local dialect (be it non-Standard Chinese or non-Mandarin altogether) is generally considered more intimate and is used among close family members and friends and in everyday conversation within the local area. Chinese speakers will frequently
6319:
1678:
16367:
6432:
6262:
13800:
6221:
1651:, and has had a range of meanings in the millennia since. It is used for any regional subdivision of Chinese, from the speech of a village to major branches such as Mandarin and Wu. Linguists writing in Chinese often qualify the term to distinguish different levels of classification. All these terms have customarily been translated into English as
5428:, with other orders used for emphasis or contrast. Modifiers usually precede the word they modify, so that adjectives precede nouns. Instances in which the modifier follows the head are mainly found in the south, and are attributed to substrate influences from languages formerly dominant in the area, especially
6556:. One consequence of this is that China does not have a well-developed tradition of spoken political rhetoric, and most Chinese political works are intended primarily as written works rather than spoken works. Another factor that limits the political implications of dialect is that it is very common within an
6609:
in 1949, they brought a substantial influx of speakers of
Northern Chinese (and other dialects from across China), and viewed the use of Mandarin as part of their claim to be a legitimate government of the whole of China. Education policy promoted the use of Mandarin over the local languages, and was
6367:
In southern China (not including Hong Kong and Macau), where the difference between
Standard Chinese and local dialects is particularly pronounced, well-educated Chinese are generally fluent in Standard Chinese, and most people have at least a good passive knowledge of it, in addition to being native
6182:
may be used to move the object before the verb (the "disposal" construction). Similar structures using several different prepositions are used in the south, but tend to be avoided in more colloquial speech. Comparative constructions are expressed with a prepositional phrase before the stative verb in
6380:
People generally are tied to the hometown and therefore the hometown dialect, instead of a broad linguistic classification. For example, a person from Wuxi may claim that he speaks Wuxi dialect, even though it is similar to
Shanghainese (another Wu dialect). Likewise, a person from Xiaogan may claim
1021:
However, the rate of change in mutual intelligibility varies immensely depending on region. For example, the varieties of
Mandarin spoken in all three northeastern Chinese provinces are mutually intelligible, but in the province of Fujian, where Min varieties predominate, the speech of neighbouring
6201:
using markers following the main verb. The markers, usually derived from verbs, vary widely in both their forms and their degree of grammaticalization, from independent verbs, through complements to bound suffixes. Southern varieties tend to have richer aspect systems making more distinctions than
6613:
From the 1970s, the government promoted adult education in
Mandarin, required Mandarin for official purposes, and encouraged its increased use in broadcasting. Over a 40-year period, these policies succeeded in spreading the use and prestige of Mandarin through society at the expense of the other
3259:
a third tone changes to a second tone when followed by another third tone. Particularly complex sandhi patterns are found in Wu dialects and coastal Min dialects. In
Shanghainese, the tone of all syllables in a word is determined by the tone of the first, so that Shanghainese has word rather than
3247:
In Wu, voiced obstruents were retained, and the tone split never became phonemic: the higher-pitched allophones occur with initial voiceless consonants, and the lower-pitched allophones occur with initial voiced consonants. (Traditional
Chinese classification nonetheless counts these as different
6737:
among
Chinese Singaporeans. They also argued that Mandarin was more economically valuable, and speaking Mandarin would help Chinese Singaporeans retain their heritage, as Mandarin contains a cultural repository of values and traditions that are identifiable to all Chinese, regardless of dialect
2782:
However, most Chinese varieties have reduced the number of tonal distinctions. For example, in Mandarin, the tones resulting from the split of Middle Chinese rising and departing tones merged, leaving four tones. Furthermore, final stop consonants disappeared in most Mandarin dialects, and such
1139:
Classifications of Chinese varieties in the late 19th century and early 20th century were based on impressionistic criteria. They often followed river systems, which were historically the main routes of migration and communication in southern China. The first scientific classifications, based
6501:
is not used in formal documents, and within the PRC a character set closer to Mandarin tends to be used. At the national level, differences in dialect generally do not correspond to political divisions or categories, and this has for the most part prevented dialect from becoming the basis of
1593:
Most assessments of mutual intelligibility of varieties of Chinese in the literature are impressionistic. Functional intelligibility testing is time-consuming in any language family, and usually not done when more than 10 varieties are to be compared. However, one 2009 study aimed to measure
988:, a unity that has persisted with relatively brief interludes until the present day. Meanwhile, Europe remained politically decentralized, and developed numerous independent states. Vernacular writing using the Latin alphabet supplanted Latin itself, and states eventually developed their own
6400:
Due to the variety in Chinese speech, Mandarin speakers from each area of China are very often prone to fuse or "translate" words from their local language into their Mandarin conversations. In addition, each area of China has its recognizable accents while speaking Mandarin. Generally, the
5911:
The forms of demonstratives vary greatly, with few cognates between different areas. A two-way distinction between proximal and distal is most common, but some varieties have a single neutral demonstrative, while others distinguish three or more on the basis of distance, visibility or other
845:
provided few barriers to migration, which resulted in relative linguistic homogeneity over a wide area. Contrastingly, the mountains and rivers of southern China contain all six of the other major Chinese dialect groups, with each in turn featuring great internal diversity, particularly in
1610:, and have a common cultural heritage with long periods of political unity, the varieties are popularly perceived among native speakers as variants of a single Chinese language, and this is also the official position. Conventional English-language usage in Chinese linguistics is to use
793:
valley and the hills of south China. Chinese eventually replaced many of the languages previously dominant in these areas, and forms of the language spoken in different regions began to diverge. During periods of political unity there was a tendency for states to promote the use of a
6717:, Cantonese, and Hakka. Hence, the government decided to rectify problems facing implementation of the bilingual education policy, by launching a campaign to promote Mandarin as a common language among the Chinese population, and to discourage use of other Chinese varieties.
1397:
southwest of Guangzhou, was historically the most common Yue variety among overseas communities in the West until the late 20th century. Not all Yue varieties are mutually intelligible. Most Yue varieties retain the full complement of Middle Chinese word-final consonants
1577:, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined. Several east-west isoglosses run along the Huai and Yangtze Rivers. A north-south barrier is formed by the
1537:
classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three zones: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang) and Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min). He argued that the dialects of the Southern zone are derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the
2655:, though cognate tonal categories in different dialects are often realized as quite different pitch contours. Middle Chinese had a three-way tonal contrast in syllables with vocalic or nasal endings. The traditional names of the tonal categories are 'level'/'even' (
6148:. In Mandarin varieties this word is also used for 'not yet', whereas in Wu and other groups a different form is typically used. In Southern varieties, negators tend to come from the second family. The ordinary negators in these varieties are all derived from a
928:
Standard Chinese is much more widely studied than any other variety of Chinese, and its use is now dominant in public life on the mainland. Outside of China and Taiwan, the only varieties of Chinese commonly taught in university courses are Standard Chinese and
6039:, but many southern varieties distinguish between manner and extent complements using different markers. Standard Chinese does not allow an object to co-occur with a verbal complement, but other varieties permit an object between the marker and the complement.
1546:
proposed a refined model, dividing Norman's Northern zone into Northern and Southwestern areas, and his Southern zone into Southeastern (Min) and Far Southern (Yue and Hakka) areas, with Pinghua transitional between Southwestern and Far Southern areas.
6092:+ V, repeating the same verb. When the verb takes an object, some northwestern Mandarin varieties tend to place it after the first occurrence of the verb, while other Mandarin varieties and most southern varieties place it after the second occurrence.
992:. In China, Literary Chinese was predominantly used in formal writing until the early 20th century. Written Chinese, read with different local pronunciations, continued to serve as a source of vocabulary for the local varieties. The new standard
5934:
in the north or a classifier in the south. The latter pattern is also common in the languages of Southeast Asia. A few varieties in the Jiang–Huai, Wu, southern Min and Yue areas feature the old southern pattern of a zero attributive marker.
1628:
assign language codes to each of the top-level groups listed above except Min and Pinghua, whose subdivisions are assigned five and two codes respectively. Some linguists refer to the local varieties as languages, numbering in the hundreds.
2775:). When voicing was lost in all dialects except in the Wu and Old Xiang groups, this distinction became phonemic, yielding eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables.
1512:
appears to be related to Chinese words, though many are clearly loans from the last few centuries. Some scholars have suggested that it represents a very early branching from Chinese, while others argue that it is a more distantly related
5519:
First- and second-person pronouns are cognate across all varieties. For third-person pronouns, Jin, Mandarin, and Xiang varieties have cognate forms, but other varieties generally use forms that originally had a velar or glottal initial:
6393:. Generally the differences are more pronounced lexically than grammatically. Typically, a speaker of one dialect of Chinese will need about a year of immersion to understand the local dialect and about three to five years to become
6384:
Knowing the local dialect is of considerable social benefit, and most Chinese who permanently move to a new area will attempt to pick up the local dialect. Learning a new dialect is usually done informally through a process of
3263:
In northern varieties, many particles or suffixes are weakly stressed or atonic syllables. These are much rarer in southern varieties. Such syllables have a reduced pitch range that is determined by the preceding syllable.
6170:
verbs. Varieties differ in the set of prepositions used, with northern varieties tending to use a substantially larger inventory, including disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions. In northern varieties, the preposition
2518:, are best preserved in southern dialects, particularly Yue dialects such as Cantonese. In some Min dialects, nasals and stops following open vowels have shifted to nasalization and glottal stops respectively. In Jin,
6401:
nationalized standard form of Mandarin pronunciation is only heard on news and radio broadcasts. Even in the streets of Beijing, the flavor of Mandarin varies in pronunciation from the Mandarin heard on the media.
6183:
most northern and central varieties, as well as Northern Min and Hakka, while other southern varieties retain the older form in which the prepositional phrase follows the stative verb. The preposition is usually
6614:
languages. They also aggravated social divisions, as Mandarin speakers found it difficult to find jobs in private companies but were favored for government positions. From the 1990s, Taiwanese native languages (
1529:
Map of the spread of 16 features identified by Norman as characteristic of northern dialects. Areas with all these features are shown in darkest blue; those with none in darkest red. The central dialects lie in
6496:
drive; for instance, the education system is entirely Mandarin-medium from the second year onward. However, usage of local dialect is tolerated and socially preferred in many informal situations. In Hong Kong,
1598:, speakers from Beijing were understood more than speakers from elsewhere. The scores supported a primary division between northern groups (Mandarin and Jin) and all others, with Min as an identifiable branch.
1693:. In general, southern varieties have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. Some varieties, such as Cantonese, Hokkien and
1542:(206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central zone was a transitional area of dialects that were originally of southern type, but overlain with centuries of Northern influence.
6372:
between Standard Chinese and the local dialect. Parents will generally speak to their children in the local variety, and the relationship between dialect and Mandarin appears to be mostly stable, even a
829:
published in 601, noted wide variations in pronunciation between regions, and was created with the goal of defining a standard system of pronunciation for reading the classics. This standard is known as
2640:, in which the pitch contour of a syllable is affected by the tones of adjacent syllables in a compound word or phrase. This process is so extensive in Shanghainese that the tone system is reduced to a
913:
was adopted, but with vocabulary drawn from a range of Mandarin varieties, and grammar based on literature in the modern written vernacular. Standard Chinese is the official spoken language of the
10001:
5900:
is common in the north, but several different suffixes are use elsewhere. In some varieties, especially in the Wu area, different suffixes are used for first, second and third person pronouns.
1445:, share different features with Wu, Gan and Mandarin, making them difficult to classify. Earlier scholars had assigned to them one or other of these groups, or to a group of their own.
11543:
11534:
711:. Southern varieties tend to have fewer initial consonants than northern and central varieties, but more often preserve the Middle Chinese final consonants. All have phonemic
6381:
that he speaks Xiaogan dialect. Linguistically, Xiaogan dialect is a dialect of Mandarin, but the pronunciation and diction are quite different from spoken Standard Chinese.
12028:
6810:
and Chinese. The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain, but the term "Sinitic" is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family.
6099:
by placing a conjunction between the alternatives, though some also use particles to mark the disjuncts. Standard Chinese is unusual in allowing a form with no conjunction.
1337:
living in the hills of northeastern Guangdong, southwestern Fujian and many other parts of southern China, as well as Taiwan and parts of Southeast Asia such as Singapore,
12573:
2779:
maintains these eight tonal categories and has developed an additional distinction in checked syllables. (The latter distinction has disappeared again in many varieties.)
6713:
in two languages. It was later determined that the learning of Mandarin among Singaporean Chinese was hindered by home use of other Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien,
10635:, Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Series IV: Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, vol. 271, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 233–254,
5939:
of verb phrases or predicates is achieved by following them with a marker, usually the same as the attributive marker, though some varieties use a different marker.
2636:'to scold'). The number of tonal contrasts varies between dialects, with Northern dialects tending to have fewer distinctions than Southern ones. Many dialects have
2570:. Each syllable may be pronounced with between three and seven distinct pitch contours, denoting different morphemes. For example, the Beijing dialect distinguishes
12535:
6848:
1257:
because of the way Middle Chinese voiced initials became voiceless aspirated initials as in Hakka, and were hence called by the umbrella term "Hakka–Gan dialects".
1148:
in 1937, with minor modifications by other linguists since. The conventionally accepted set of seven dialect groups first appeared in the second edition (1980) of
9718:——— (2015b), "Linguistic areas in China for differential object marking, passive, and comparative constructions", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.),
6028:+ VP2, with a verbal complement VP2 containing a stative verb describing the manner or extent of the main verb. In northern varieties, the marker is a cognate of
2389:
2370:
1161:
This is the group spoken in northern and southwestern China and has by far the most speakers. This group includes the Beijing dialect, which forms the basis for
2264:, which is often merged with the zero initial, the initials of this dialect are present in all Chinese varieties, although several varieties do not distinguish
13275:
12057:
5499:
or numeral. The inventory of classifiers tends to be larger in the south than in the north, where some varieties use only the general classifier cognate with
2320:(as in Suzhou), or both. In many places, including Beijing, palatalized dental affricates and palatalized velars have merged to form a new palatal series.
13082:
13072:
10022:
656:. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast part of mainland China. The varieties are typically classified into several groups:
5408:. There are major differences between northern and southern varieties, but often some northern areas share features found in the south, and vice versa.
13077:
12836:
12384:
2354:
12991:
10928:
6536:, and this is reflected in their conventional English names reflecting Cantonese pronunciations for their given names, and differing from their
2330:
1618:. Other linguists choose to refer to the major groups as languages. However, each of these groups contains mutually unintelligible varieties.
984:
However, a major difference between China and Western Europe is the historical reestablishment of political unity in 6th century China by the
5955:
sentences vary, with northern varieties placing the indirect object before the direct object and southern varieties using the reverse order.
10813: (archived 18 October 2005), compiled by William Wang and Chin-Chuan Cheng (archived from the originals at City University of Hong Kong)
6610:
implemented especially rigidly in elementary schools, with punishments and public humiliation for children using other languages at school.
16123:
13834:
2342:
2272:. However, most varieties have additional initials, due to a combination of innovations and retention of distinctions from Middle Chinese:
6513:
were from southern China and did not natively speak Mandarin, and even leaders from northern China rarely spoke with the standard accent.
13158:
12396:
10593:
Handel, Zev (2015), "The Classification of Chinese: Sinitic (The Chinese Language Family)", in Wang, William S. Y.; Sun, Chaofen (eds.),
9385:
6602:
5478:
Compounds consisting of an attributive following a noun are less common, but some are found in the south as well as a few northern areas.
1711:
1018:, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, although there are also some sharp boundaries.
11785:
10575:"Language or Dialect – or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese"
10826:
973:
remained the standard for scholarly and administrative writing in Western Europe for centuries, influencing local varieties much like
9403:
894:'officer speech'). While never formally defined, knowledge of this language was essential for a career in the imperial bureaucracy.
12360:
12348:
10379:
Ben Hamed, Mahé (2005), "Neighbour-nets portray the Chinese dialect continuum and the linguistic legacy of China's demic history",
2302:
varieties have an unrelated series of voiced initials resulting from devoicing of nasal initials in syllables without nasal finals.
758:
15729:
13878:
12372:
11864:
5488:
2563:
1550:
The long history of migration of peoples and interaction between speakers of different dialects makes it difficult to apply the
13456:
9822:
6764:
873:
6397:
in speaking it. Because of the variety of dialects spoken, there are usually few formal methods for learning a local dialect.
12695:
10816:
10774:
10729:
10702:
10683:
10640:
10621:
10602:
10538:
10486:
10460:
10316:
10297:
10275:
10256:
10228:
10148:
10129:
10107:
10080:
10016:
9967:
9948:
9925:
9836:
9808:
9786:
9767:
9746:
9727:
9708:
9686:
9660:
9634:
9603:
9581:
9512:
9440:
6453:
6279:
6234:
1501:. She Chinese, Xiangnan Tuhua, Shaozhou Tuhua and unclassified varieties of southwest Jiangxi appear to be related to Hakka.
1457:, predating the later influx of Yue and Southwest Mandarin speakers. Some linguists treat them as a mixture of Yue and Xiang.
733:
takes its phonology from the Beijing dialect, with vocabulary from the Mandarin group and grammar based on literature in the
2309:
initials are retained in many Mandarin dialects, including Beijing but not southwestern and southeastern Mandarin varieties.
13896:
13506:
10806:
9617:
6758:
2737:
conditioned by syllabic onsets. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late
9560:
9457:
5420:
Map of the variation in the placement of animal gender markers in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area
864:
Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people spoke only their local language. As a practical measure, officials of the
809:
royal domain was no longer politically powerful, its speech still represented a model for communication across China. The
13348:
10921:
9935:
Li, Ying-Che (2001), "Aspects of historical-comparative syntax: functions of prepositions in Taiwanese and Mandarin", in
9777:
Chen, Yujie (2015), "The semantic differentiation of demonstratives in Sinitic languages", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.),
3248:
tones.) Most Wu dialects retain the tone categories of Middle Chinese, but in Shanghainese several of these have merged.
1357:, though there is a tendency for Middle Chinese velar codas -ŋ and -k to yield dental codas -n and -t after front vowels.
941:
Local varieties from different areas of China are often mutually unintelligible, differing at least as much as different
1429:
and adjacent areas, were formerly included in Mandarin. They are distinguished by their retention of the Middle Chinese
14023:
10863:
6687:
education, where Singaporean students learn both English and their designated native language, which was Mandarin for
6155:, though it has a level tone in Hakka and Yue and a rising tone in Min. Existential negators derive from a proto-form
5475:) 'rooster', but most southern varieties use the reverse order, while others use different orders for different words.
977:
did in China. In both cases, local forms of speech diverged from both the literary standard and each other, producing
6479:
6354:
6301:
6248:
6131:, as the ordinary negator. A word from the second family is used as an existential negator 'have not', as in Beijing
898:
10356:
Baron, Stephen P. (1983), "Chain shifts in Chinese historical phonology: problems of motivation and functionality",
6461:
16116:
13827:
11130:
6010:, which can also be used as a transitive verb indicating possession. Most varieties use a locative verb cognate to
909:, which was based on northern dialects. In the 1930s, a standard national language with pronunciation based on the
10471:
6783:
The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese.
798:
across the territory they controlled, in order to facilitate communication between people from different regions.
13926:
13428:
11655:
10158:
Tang, Chaoju; van Heuven, Vincent J. (2009), "Mutual intelligibility of Chinese dialects experimentally tested",
2554:
Map of the variation in the number of tone categories in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area
2277:
1614:
for the speech of a particular place (regardless of status), with regional groupings like Mandarin and Wu called
996:, the counterpart of spoken Standard Chinese, is similarly used as a literary form by speakers of all varieties.
10292:, Paris: École des hautes études en sciences sociales, Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l'Asie orientale,
1715:, the number of initials (including a zero initial) ranges from 15 in some southern dialects to a high of 35 in
16319:
16289:
16274:
12135:
11778:
10914:
10047:
6457:
6283:
1221:
features several atypical innovations. Wu varieties are distinguished by their retention of voiced or murmured
523:
310:
9828:
9803:, Language and linguistics Monograph Series, vol. 63, Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica,
6120:, respectively. Northern and Central varieties tend to use a word from the first family, cognate with Beijing
692:
nor individual languages defined by mutual intelligibility, but reflect common phonological developments from
16404:
16399:
13744:
13198:
9900:
5951:, which can function as predicates but differ from intransitive verbs in being modifiable by degree adverbs.
2313:
914:
443:
294:
2783:
syllables were distributed amongst the four remaining tones in a manner that is only partially predictable.
16234:
14959:
14019:
13803:
13714:
13238:
11713:
11660:
11316:
6752:
6664:
6631:
6330:
5905:
2652:
1005:
6156:
6152:
6117:
6113:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5800:
5795:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5748:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5713:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5688:
5683:
5678:
5673:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5648:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5134:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4918:
4913:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
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4641:
4636:
4631:
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4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4588:
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4578:
4573:
4568:
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4505:
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4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
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2503:
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2213:
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2201:
2194:
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2145:
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2115:
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2069:
2064:
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2054:
2047:
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2035:
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2023:
2016:
2011:
1986:
1981:
1974:
1969:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
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1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1894:
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1879:
1865:
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1833:
1828:
1823:
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1813:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1399:
1389:(historically called "Canton"), which is also the native language of the majority in Hong Kong and Macau.
1354:
1350:
1213:. The group comprises hundreds of distinct spoken forms, many of which are not mutually intelligible. The
1014:
estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a
16109:
13874:
13820:
13719:
13591:
13516:
13173:
11706:
11361:
11283:
10999:
9859:
Exploring teachers' views about native language instruction and education in Taiwanese elementary schools
6721:
5425:
773:
At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, a form of Chinese was spoken in a compact area along the lower
399:
9699:(2015a), "Introduction: Ways of tackling diversity in Sinitic languages", in Chappell, Hilary M. (ed.),
5883:
Plural personal pronouns may be marked with a suffix, noun or phrase in different varieties. The suffix
5436:
Adverbs generally precede verbs, but in some southern varieties certain kinds of adverb follow the verb.
2467:. Many dialects, particularly in northern and central China, have apical or retroflex vowels, which are
2412:
16357:
16309:
13761:
13734:
13611:
13523:
13270:
13250:
10676:
Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn, and Common Northern Wu
9737:———; Li, Lan (2016), "Mandarin and other Sinitic languages", in Chan, Sin-wai (ed.),
2550:
1607:
993:
906:
734:
481:
10307:
Yue, Anne O. (2017), "The Sinitic languages: grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),
3255:, in which the realization of a tone varies depending on the context of the syllable. For example, in
815:(early 1st century AD) is devoted to differences in vocabulary between regions. Commentaries from the
16229:
14868:
13313:
12011:
11771:
11606:
11053:
10974:
10068:
6240:
1534:
1011:
502:
15349:
14888:
14853:
13954:
13687:
13672:
13662:
13376:
11687:
11290:
11103:
9591:
6442:
5947:
All varieties have transitive and intransitive verbs. Instead of adjectives, Chinese varieties use
5416:
802:
229:
9914:
Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"
757:, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between the three forms. It is also one of the
16050:
15744:
15002:
14913:
14795:
14790:
13699:
11938:
11681:
11467:
11351:
10239:
10218:
6446:
6272:
5397:
5385:
5381:
2733:
The tones of Middle Chinese, as well as similar systems in neighbouring languages, experienced a
2651:
The tonal categories of modern varieties can be related by considering their derivation from the
2416:
Map of the distribution of stop codas in local Chinese dialects in the core Chinese-speaking area
1408:
946:
263:
13692:
13541:
5923:+ NP, where the last noun phrase is the head and the attributive marker is usually a cognate of
2741:, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials, known as "upper" (
16249:
15773:
15590:
15272:
14097:
14092:
14063:
14051:
13633:
13476:
12074:
11727:
11720:
11500:
11434:
10937:
9981:
6643:
6493:
2707:) had no tonal contrasts but were traditionally treated as a fourth tone category, 'entering' (
2519:
1685:
The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, traditionally analysed as consisting of an initial
1570:
valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.
1563:
1525:
1377:, and have been carried by immigrants to Southeast Asia and many other parts of the world. The
918:
746:
653:
649:
551:
77:
9876:
Iwata, Ray (1995), "Linguistic geography of Chinese dialects: Project on Han dialects (PHD)",
9404:
A Critical Evaluation of Singapore's Language Policy and its Implications for English Teaching
9389:
1554:
to Chinese. Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of
838:, based on a compromise between the reading traditions of the northern and southern capitals.
16132:
16062:
16038:
15761:
15724:
14222:
13628:
13551:
13265:
13243:
11998:
11831:
11670:
11620:
11176:
9982:"What Is a Chinese 'Dialect/Topolect'? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms"
6710:
5429:
5377:
1514:
922:
754:
20:
16259:
15936:
10497:
2479:, producing a rich inventory of vowels in open syllables. Reduction of medials is common in
16169:
15570:
15389:
15369:
15354:
15090:
15055:
14863:
13396:
13364:
13193:
12318:
11482:
11328:
11274:
10117:
6728:
6688:
6627:
6591:
6096:
5996:
5959:
5401:
715:, with northern varieties tending to have fewer distinctions than southern ones. Many have
16294:
9503:: Language ideological debates and the imagining of the nation". In Blommaert, Jan (ed.).
9486:
6709:, showed that less than 40% of the student population managed to attain minimum levels of
1309:(named from a dialectical pronunciation of "Fujian"), and Taiwan, where they are known as
1173:
in Chinese, and often also translated as "Mandarin" or simply "Chinese". In addition, the
8:
16284:
16214:
16209:
16149:
16022:
16002:
15766:
15693:
15394:
15344:
15339:
14750:
14317:
13901:
13640:
13606:
13441:
13408:
13255:
13183:
13100:
12941:
12936:
12690:
12500:
12006:
11665:
11255:
11082:
11013:
10574:
9796:
6692:
6569:
6510:
6329: with: Info on Taiwan, e.g. for Hakka-Mandarin and Hokkien-Mandarin. You can help by
6060:
2325:
Maps of the distributions of various initial consonants in the core Chinese-speaking area
2306:
1997:
1781:
1234:
1230:
109:
15379:
15364:
13979:
6084:
in the north, but varies between other varieties. Other question forms are also common:
5471:
5453:
1639:
1349:
is the prestige form. Most Hakka varieties retain the full complement of nasal endings,
16334:
16279:
16264:
16184:
16164:
16154:
15967:
15739:
15673:
15622:
15575:
15519:
15249:
15192:
14918:
14074:
13843:
13756:
13623:
13586:
13471:
13369:
13303:
13298:
13188:
13178:
12804:
12782:
12675:
12483:
12478:
12401:
12389:
12377:
12365:
12353:
11877:
11506:
11115:
10981:
10662:
10517:
10409:
10396:
10214:
10056:
10009:
Breaking Down the Barriers: Interdisciplinary Studies in Chinese Linguistics and Beyond
6747:
6623:
6595:
6414:
6386:
6198:
6167:
6054:
5492:
5487:
Nouns in Chinese varieties are generally not marked for number. As in languages of the
3377:
2776:
2567:
2468:
1690:
1574:
1413:
1286:
1141:
954:
738:
712:
573:
565:
27:
15374:
13984:
5966:+ NP2, though the copula varies. Most Yue and Hakka varieties use a form cognate with
593:
256:
247:
16299:
16254:
16239:
16219:
16159:
16144:
15946:
15606:
15480:
15425:
15317:
15225:
15220:
15177:
15099:
14830:
14810:
14735:
14712:
14485:
14367:
14337:
14179:
14170:
14122:
14112:
13959:
13891:
13667:
13657:
13536:
13501:
13356:
13308:
13260:
13027:
12880:
12814:
12670:
12655:
12326:
12303:
12257:
12182:
12108:
11988:
11956:
11910:
11849:
11839:
11804:
11614:
11574:
11552:
11517:
11511:
11476:
11414:
11408:
11388:
11182:
11170:
11153:
11061:
11007:
10987:
10770:
10750:
10725:
10698:
10679:
10636:
10617:
10598:
10534:
10531:
Creole and Dialect Continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC)
10521:
10482:
10456:
10414:
10348:
10312:
10293:
10271:
10252:
10224:
10144:
10125:
10103:
10076:
10012:
9963:
9944:
9921:
9917:
9832:
9804:
9782:
9763:
9757:
9742:
9723:
9704:
9682:
9656:
9630:
9599:
9577:
9541:
9508:
9436:
9430:
6793:
6615:
6606:
6583:
6503:
6498:
2527:
2290:
The voiced initials of Middle Chinese are retained in Wu dialects such as Suzhou and
1716:
1318:
1310:
1015:
989:
942:
842:
795:
782:
617:
465:
457:
82:
10007:, in Cao, Guangshun; Djamouri, Redouane; Chappell, Hilary; Wiebusch, Thekla (eds.),
6409:
6162:
Chinese varieties generally indicate the roles of nouns with respect to verbs using
2538:, while some central dialects have a single nasal coda, in some cases realized as a
2298:
dialects and a few Gan dialects, but have merged with voiceless initials elsewhere.
819:(25–220 AD) provide significant evidence of local differences in pronunciation. The
16344:
16339:
16329:
16324:
16314:
16304:
16189:
16179:
16017:
16012:
15982:
15941:
15921:
15810:
15805:
15749:
15719:
15668:
15557:
15430:
15410:
15359:
15326:
15287:
15282:
15277:
15235:
15230:
15212:
15060:
15050:
14954:
14903:
14898:
14873:
14800:
14493:
14470:
14465:
14395:
14390:
14385:
14347:
14287:
14212:
14155:
14150:
14135:
13906:
13857:
13773:
13293:
13168:
13032:
13022:
13007:
12953:
12875:
12826:
12787:
12736:
12650:
12602:
12586:
12466:
12426:
12421:
12308:
12262:
12208:
12203:
12193:
12187:
12016:
11961:
11946:
11822:
11794:
11635:
11595:
11565:
11539:
11489:
11447:
11356:
11333:
11226:
11206:
11163:
11088:
10951:
10850:
10717:
10633:
The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology
10561:
10509:
10472:"Synchrony and diachrony of Sinitic languages: A brief history of Chinese dialects"
10453:
Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology – the Classification of Miin and Hakka
10439:
10404:
10388:
10365:
10344:
10198:
10175:
10167:
9885:
9862:
9537:
6803:
5901:
5536:
3384:
3370:
3342:
3297:
3256:
2704:
2291:
1768:
1720:
1595:
1378:
1278:
1250:
1162:
1156:
1040:
978:
974:
902:
859:
730:
657:
645:
364:
131:
15565:
11213:
10900:
10631:
Norman, Jerry (2006), "Common Dialectal Chinese", in Branner, David Prager (ed.),
1453:
These varieties are descended from the speech of the earliest Chinese migrants to
16371:
16269:
16244:
16224:
16199:
16174:
15997:
15987:
15977:
15926:
15916:
15790:
15663:
15658:
15653:
15542:
15532:
15527:
15495:
15485:
15470:
15460:
15450:
15420:
15384:
15334:
15297:
15262:
15202:
15182:
15162:
15127:
15112:
15107:
15030:
14969:
14949:
14944:
14939:
14883:
14775:
14745:
14694:
14669:
14654:
14628:
14623:
14603:
14588:
14533:
14475:
14460:
14455:
14440:
14435:
14380:
14312:
14292:
14227:
14202:
14130:
14107:
14009:
13974:
13969:
13944:
13916:
13911:
13724:
13704:
13601:
13561:
13546:
13285:
13135:
13125:
13105:
13062:
13057:
12923:
12887:
12870:
12860:
12799:
12617:
12553:
12495:
12443:
12438:
12340:
12236:
12231:
12140:
12087:
12082:
12062:
12047:
12042:
11983:
11978:
11968:
11951:
11923:
11895:
11872:
11627:
11581:
11440:
11322:
11261:
11095:
11042:
11033:
11019:
10820:
10810:
10740:
10285:
10171:
10091:
9960:
Language Attitudes and Identities in Multilingual China: A Linguistic Ethnography
9936:
9696:
6714:
6619:
6575:
6543:
6525:
3419:
3398:
3356:
3349:
3335:
2645:
2317:
2177:
1764:
1578:
1543:
1474:
1462:
1436:
1346:
1186:
1174:
1120:
910:
826:
429:
186:
181:
146:
72:
9415:
Bokhorst-Heng, W.D. (1998). "Unpacking the Nation". In Allison D. et al. (Ed.),
6413:
A school in Guangdong with writing "Please speak Standard Chinese. Please write
1558:. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the
317:
301:
16204:
16007:
15951:
15931:
15734:
15699:
15688:
15683:
15678:
15585:
15537:
15475:
15445:
15440:
15302:
15292:
15257:
15167:
15132:
15117:
15065:
15025:
15020:
15015:
14964:
14908:
14878:
14858:
14848:
14843:
14820:
14740:
14725:
14720:
14689:
14664:
14649:
14644:
14613:
14608:
14598:
14593:
14583:
14578:
14573:
14568:
14523:
14498:
14445:
14357:
14342:
14307:
14277:
14272:
14252:
14242:
14237:
14232:
14160:
14145:
14087:
14082:
13989:
13949:
13934:
13778:
13768:
13739:
13729:
13446:
13418:
13130:
13115:
13017:
12968:
12963:
12948:
12892:
12831:
12713:
12685:
12665:
12612:
12581:
12558:
12548:
12543:
12505:
12488:
12433:
12298:
12280:
12198:
12172:
12113:
12033:
12021:
11973:
11928:
11918:
11844:
11697:
11675:
11589:
11558:
11494:
11454:
11428:
11402:
11379:
11302:
11248:
11220:
11189:
11067:
10993:
10650:
9977:
9818:
8598:
6891:
The colloquial layers of southern Wu and coastal Min varieties use cognates of
6819:
6663: with: How did dialect speakers react to Mandarinization?. You can help by
6369:
6149:
5936:
5913:
3412:
3405:
3391:
2689:
2257:
1776:
1752:
1740:
1698:
1644:
1582:
1486:
1482:
1226:
1214:
1140:
primarily on the evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials, were produced by
970:
950:
831:
811:
762:
693:
614:
413:
201:
196:
114:
13964:
13149:
10335:
Ao, Benjamin (1991), "Comparative reconstruction of proto-Chinese revisited",
6893:
6190:
6178:
6138:
6127:
6080:
6035:
6017:
6006:
5984:
5973:
5930:
5896:
5512:
1253:
is taken as representative. In the past, Gan was viewed as closely related to
16393:
15992:
15866:
15842:
15785:
15614:
15547:
15505:
15490:
15415:
15267:
15172:
15045:
15040:
14893:
14805:
14785:
14780:
14770:
14760:
14755:
14730:
14684:
14679:
14674:
14659:
14618:
14563:
14558:
14553:
14548:
14543:
14538:
14528:
14518:
14513:
14503:
14450:
14430:
14425:
14420:
14415:
14410:
14405:
14400:
14352:
14332:
14327:
14322:
14302:
14282:
14267:
14262:
14257:
14217:
14207:
14192:
14187:
14140:
14102:
14004:
13994:
13579:
13391:
13386:
12958:
12902:
12897:
12865:
12852:
12728:
12680:
12607:
12563:
12453:
12290:
12213:
12052:
11900:
11887:
11421:
11343:
11109:
11074:
11026:
10095:
7690:
6733:
6706:
6697:
6587:
6523:
in speaking, rendering much of what he said incomprehensible to many Chinese.
5989:
5561:
5541:
5496:
3322:
3302:
2559:
2284:
1567:
1430:
1324:
1260:
1254:
1110:
1100:
790:
681:
669:
495:
166:
156:
11756:
indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.
10754:
10513:
5439:
In the north, animal gender markers are prefixed to the noun, as in Beijing
5380:
of vocabulary of non-Chinese origin. Some of these words may have come from
1297:
These varieties originated in the mountainous terrain of Fujian and eastern
925:, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary between the three forms.
16383:
15972:
15837:
15800:
15500:
15465:
15455:
15435:
15307:
15187:
15152:
15142:
15137:
15122:
15010:
14934:
14838:
14815:
14508:
14375:
14297:
14247:
14197:
13999:
13939:
13451:
13401:
12777:
12660:
12633:
12177:
12167:
11395:
11311:
11267:
11196:
10854:
10443:
10418:
10392:
10370:
10210:
10202:
9890:
6807:
6798:
6724:
6390:
5992:
in Classical Chinese but began to be used as a copula from the Han period.
5952:
5948:
2738:
2641:
2523:
2480:
2428:
2299:
1694:
1505:
1330:
1218:
1145:
966:
869:
865:
806:
778:
583:
371:
330:
10721:
10565:
10455:, Trends in Linguistics series, vol. 123, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter,
9594:(1992), "Chinese as a Pluricentric Language", in Clyne, Michael G. (ed.),
221:
26:"Spoken Chinese" redirects here. For other languages spoken in China, see
16101:
15883:
15859:
15832:
15822:
15795:
15780:
15756:
15580:
15157:
15080:
15075:
15035:
14765:
13596:
13570:
13466:
13436:
13413:
13381:
13120:
13110:
12914:
12809:
12794:
12757:
12705:
12526:
12517:
12413:
12252:
12127:
11854:
11741:
10956:
10767:
Summary of Local Chinese Dialects in Southeast Asian Overseas Communities
9528:
Wee, Lionel (2006). "The semiotics of language ideologies in Singapore".
6861:
Some words of literary origin with voiced initials shifted to category 6.
6833:
6579:
6557:
6551:
6533:
6529:
6163:
6109:
6050:
5566:
5556:
5546:
5531:
5405:
3327:
3317:
3307:
3292:
3277:
3252:
2788:
2637:
2539:
2476:
2472:
2252:
Map of the extent of the palatal merger in the core Chinese-speaking area
1744:
1648:
1539:
1498:
1494:
1470:
1420:
1360:
1334:
1292:
1240:
1149:
1090:
1080:
1070:
1050:
985:
962:
958:
816:
716:
685:
677:
673:
665:
607:
347:
206:
191:
171:
161:
151:
136:
104:
10906:
10666:
10400:
10060:
9629:] (in Chinese), vol. 1 (Phonetics), Beijing: Commercial Press,
7564:
7528:
6652:
6318:
5400:
and instead express grammatical categories using analytic means such as
1677:
15911:
15849:
15827:
15197:
15070:
13012:
12986:
12752:
12718:
12223:
12150:
10011:, Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, pp. 735–754,
9901:"Chinese Geolinguistics: History, Current Trend and Theoretical Issues"
9613:
6599:
6516:
6286: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
5551:
3312:
2734:
1756:
1624:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1490:
1390:
1192:
1182:
1178:
1060:
801:
The first evidence of dialectal variation is found in the texts of the
704:
661:
474:
141:
10549:
10180:
9846:
Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2024),
9681:] (in Chinese), vol. 3 (Grammar), Beijing: Commercial Press,
9655:] (in Chinese), vol. 2 (Lexicon), Beijing: Commercial Press,
7702:
5297:
5219:
5141:
5063:
4985:
4907:
4829:
4751:
4673:
4595:
4517:
4439:
4361:
4283:
4205:
4127:
4049:
3971:
3893:
3815:
3737:
3659:
3581:
3503:
3434:
688:, though some varieties remain unclassified. These groups are neither
15888:
15876:
15871:
15815:
15147:
13886:
13812:
13461:
13212:
13203:
12931:
12821:
12473:
12461:
12272:
12103:
11734:
11375:
11140:
10947:
10887:
10695:
Studies in Colloquial Chinese and Its History : Dialect and Text
9867:
8130:
6684:
6374:
3426:
2464:
2421:
2295:
1686:
1619:
1566:
area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the
1386:
1382:
1370:
1342:
1298:
1282:
1274:
1222:
930:
835:
774:
750:
724:
700:
516:
241:
215:
61:
10090:——— (2003), "The Chinese dialects: phonology", in
6431:
6261:
1281:, have been significantly influenced by Southwest Mandarin, whereas
981:
with mutually unintelligible varieties separated by long distances.
16366:
15854:
13751:
13337:
12978:
12159:
11763:
10427:
9165:
3363:
3273:
2124:
1724:
1655:, a practice that has been criticized as confusing. The neologisms
1394:
1338:
1202:
1198:
786:
720:
537:
385:
272:
65:
13783:
10903:, by Dylan W.H. Sung (Phonology and Official Romanization Schemes)
10867:
10251:] (in Chinese) (2nd ed.), Beijing: The Commercial Press,
10189:
Wang, Feng (2005), "On the genetic position of the Bai language",
9237:
8576:
8574:
8438:
8436:
7678:
7316:
15893:
13650:
13330:
13217:
13046:
12642:
11236:
10290:
Comparative Chinese Dialectal Grammar: Handbook for Investigators
9054:
9042:
8922:
7837:
7825:
7813:
7789:
6939:
6394:
1454:
1448:
1366:
1306:
1246:
1206:
1130:
590:
176:
9153:
8346:
7885:
6806:
proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising
13709:
13511:
11149:
10964:
9117:
9095:
9093:
9018:
8571:
8559:
8433:
8298:
8094:
6537:
5912:
properties. An extreme example is found in a variety spoken in
2260:
of northern Fujian is a minimal example. With the exception of
1509:
1466:
1426:
1314:
1302:
953:, the ancestral language was spread by imperial expansion over
872:
dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a
847:
821:
708:
268:
57:
8721:
8610:
8082:
6727:, the campaign aimed to simplify the language environment for
2471:
derived from high vowels following sibilant initials. In many
622:
13222:
11145:
10960:
10002:"The Classification of Sinitic Languages: What Is 'Chinese'?"
9576:(in Chinese) (2nd ed.), Beijing: Wenzi gaige chubanshe,
9261:
8946:
8709:
8697:
8685:
7801:
7777:
7352:
6520:
6377:. Local dialects are valued as symbols of regional cultures.
6088:
Most varieties have neutral questions employing the form V +
6021:, but Min, Wu and Yue varieties use several different forms.
2526:, while in most northern varieties they have disappeared. In
2455:-like vowel. In other dialects, including Mandarin dialects,
1489:(northern Guangdong), and the forms of Chinese spoken by the
1478:
1442:
1374:
1270:
1266:
1210:
742:
689:
598:
53:
9847:
9596:
Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations
9288:
9105:
9090:
9006:
8958:
8448:
7719:
7717:
7480:
7268:
7243:
7241:
6683:
In 1966, the Singaporean government implemented a policy of
6578:-speaking population, most of the population of Taiwan were
5916:, Jiangxi, where five grades of distance are distinguished.
10428:"Stuck in the forest: Trees, networks and Chinese dialects"
9406:", Karen's Linguistics Issues. Retrieved on 4 November 2010
8748:
8673:
8547:
8310:
8238:
8010:
7668:
7666:
6108:
A sentence is negated by placing a marker before the verb.
10653:(1998), "On distinguishing Hakka and non-Hakka dialects",
9570:
Dictionary of Dialect Pronunciations of Chinese Characters
9189:
9066:
8910:
8661:
8535:
8499:
8487:
8421:
8409:
8274:
8262:
8214:
8106:
8070:
8034:
8022:
7952:
7950:
7948:
7729:
7110:
7098:
7002:
6626:) were offered in elementary and middle schools, first in
5977:'to connect'. All other varieties use a form cognate with
5919:
Attributive constructions typically have the form NP/VP +
1022:
counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible.
719:, with the most complex patterns in the coastal area from
10496:———; Li, Ming; Peyraube, Alain (2007),
9432:
From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965–2000
8477:
8475:
7986:
7974:
7714:
7612:
7600:
7552:
7492:
7415:
7376:
7340:
7292:
7280:
7238:
7050:
7026:
6560:
for different people to know and use different dialects.
6159:, though again the tonal category varies between groups.
949:
as a whole. As with the Romance languages descended from
699:
Chinese varieties have the greatest differences in their
570:
556:
542:
528:
10823: (archived 27 June 2015) compiled by Dylan W.H. Sung
10498:"Chinese linguistics and typology: the state of the art"
9141:
8385:
8373:
8363:
8361:
8202:
7765:
7753:
7663:
7653:
7651:
7624:
7446:
7444:
7442:
7405:
7403:
7258:
7256:
7151:
7149:
6915:
6849:
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
6143:
6053:
are formed by replacing the desired information with an
486:
10807:
DOC (Dialects of China or Dictionary on Computer) files
10479:
Sinitic grammar: synchronic and diachronic perspectives
10381:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
9941:
Sinitic grammar: synchronic and diachronic perspectives
9366:
9356:
9354:
9339:
9329:
9327:
9312:
9249:
9225:
9129:
9078:
9030:
8637:
8586:
8460:
8226:
8190:
8178:
8166:
8154:
8142:
7945:
7228:
7226:
7224:
7209:
7038:
6992:
6990:
6927:
1305:
have spread to Southeast Asia, where they are known as
9278:
9276:
9213:
9177:
8994:
8970:
8900:
8898:
8849:
8847:
8832:
8820:
8808:
8796:
8784:
8772:
8760:
8738:
8736:
8627:
8625:
8523:
8472:
8322:
8286:
8250:
8118:
8046:
7933:
7897:
7516:
7388:
7086:
6634:(DPP) politicians, and finally throughout the island.
5424:
The usual unmarked word order in Chinese varieties is
3276:
in Chinese varieties are monosyllables descended from
16355:
10749:] (in Japanese), Yokohama shiritsu daigaku kiyō,
9419:(pp. 202–204). Singapore: Singapore University Press.
9201:
8397:
8358:
7998:
7921:
7849:
7648:
7588:
7456:
7439:
7427:
7400:
7304:
7253:
7197:
7146:
7134:
7122:
7074:
7014:
6841:
6832:
when referring to mutually unintelligible divisions.
6827:
6549:
6541:
6184:
6172:
6132:
6121:
6068:
6029:
6024:
All varieties allow sentences of the form NP + VP1 +
6011:
6000:
5978:
5967:
5924:
5884:
5500:
5458:
5440:
2770:
2753:
2713:
2683:
2672:
2661:
2619:
2601:
2589:
2571:
2420:
Chinese finals may be analysed as an optional medial
1664:
1633:
1321:, with smaller communities throughout southern China.
877:
781:. Use of this language expanded eastwards across the
462:
448:
434:
418:
404:
390:
376:
9845:
9351:
9324:
8883:
8334:
7891:
7741:
7504:
7468:
7221:
7062:
6987:
10829:: search interface to the DOC database, at StarLing
10747:
Compilation of Chinese dialects in local chronicles
10124:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,
9300:
9273:
8982:
8934:
8895:
8871:
8859:
8844:
8733:
8649:
8622:
8511:
7909:
7861:
7185:
7161:
6877:
are used to facilitate comparison between dialects.
6705:, an evaluation of Singapore's education system by
6492:Within mainland China, there has been a persistent
6112:had two families of negation markers starting with
6063:
are formed by appending a particle to the sentence.
507:
10481:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3–28,
9739:The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese Language
9558:
8580:
8058:
7540:
7364:
6963:
6951:
6210:
2522:and Wu dialects, the stops have merged as a final
2463:, leaving a single mid vowel with a wide range of
1461:Some varieties remain unclassified, including the
10769:] (in Chinese), Guangzhou: World Publishing,
10041:Nakanishi, Hiroki (2010), "Lùn Shēhuà de guīshǔ"
7962:
7576:
7328:
6042:A characteristic feature of Chinese varieties is
1643:, literally 'place speech', was the title of the
16391:
10901:Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects
10209:
10045:[On the genetic affiliation of Shehua],
7873:
7636:
7486:
7173:
6975:
6945:
6869:
6867:
6057:, though the words vary between different areas.
2312:In many northern and central varieties there is
1663:have been proposed as alternative renderings of
10238:Xiong, Zhenghui; Zhang, Zhenxing, eds. (2012),
10122:Middle Chinese: A Study in Historical Phonology
9852:(27th ed.), Dallas, TX: SIL International.
6194:in the north, with other forms used elsewhere.
3284:Colloquial pronunciations of cognate morphemes
2718:), corresponding to syllables ending in nasals
2486:The Middle Chinese codas, consisting of glides
11605:
11052:
10883:(revised ed.), Beijing: Commercial Press.
10157:
9801:Common Neo-Hakka: A Comparative Reconstruction
7843:
7831:
7819:
7807:
7795:
6509:Historically, many of the people who promoted
16117:
13828:
11779:
10922:
10311:(2nd ed.), Routledge, pp. 114–163,
10284:
9943:, Oxford University Press, pp. 340–368,
9861:(PhD thesis), University of Texas at Austin,
9498:
9294:
9267:
9243:
9123:
9111:
9099:
9060:
9048:
9024:
9012:
8964:
8952:
8928:
8715:
8703:
8691:
8679:
6864:
6073:
5889:
5505:
5464:
5446:
2765:
2759:
2748:
2742:
2708:
2678:
2667:
2656:
2631:
2625:
2613:
2607:
2595:
2583:
2577:
2443:, which also function as medials, mid vowels
2427:Conservative vowel systems, such as those of
889:
883:
315:
299:
261:Primary branches of Chinese according to the
19:For the varieties of Han Chinese people, see
13578:
11466:
10800:Dictionary of Chinese dialect pronunciations
10761:Chen Xiaojin (陈晓锦) Gan Yu'en (甘于恩) (2010),
9781:, Oxford University Press, pp. 81–109,
9759:Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics
5376:Southern varieties also include distinctive
1333:(literally "guest families") are a group of
1217:is usually taken as representative, because
10714:Dialect and Nationalism in China, 1860–1960
10597:, Oxford University Press, pp. 34–44,
10116:
9722:, Oxford University Press, pp. 13–52,
9456:Lim, Siew Yeen; Yak, Jessie (4 July 2013).
6933:
6460:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
6249:Learn how and when to remove these messages
5491:, Chinese varieties require an intervening
3280:words, and have cognates in all varieties:
1712:Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects
1381:and by far most commonly spoken variety is
874:common language based on Mandarin varieties
16131:
16124:
16110:
14050:
13835:
13821:
13799:
13569:
11786:
11772:
10929:
10915:
10595:The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics
10426:———; Wang, Feng (2006),
10241:Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí: Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn
10237:
9736:
9703:, Oxford University Press, pp. 3–12,
9499:Bokhorst-Heng, Wendy (1999). "Singapore's
9195:
9072:
8916:
8727:
8667:
8616:
7570:
7274:
6887:
6885:
6883:
6630:, then in other areas governed by elected
5904:is not marked, except in varieties in the
1588:
1289:, retain features such as voiced initials.
936:
10936:
10408:
10369:
10249:Language Atlas of China: Chinese dialects
10179:
10040:
9889:
9866:
9817:
9717:
9695:
7956:
7903:
7735:
7594:
6480:Learn how and when to remove this message
6355:Learn how and when to remove this message
6302:Learn how and when to remove this message
6089:
1365:These varieties are spoken in Guangdong,
10890:– linguistic maps and commentaries from
9911:
9878:Cahiers de linguistique – Asie orientale
9762:, New York: Cambridge University Press,
8607:, pp. 17–19, 213–214, 219, 231–232.
8016:
7939:
7927:
7558:
7534:
7498:
7394:
7358:
7322:
7298:
7286:
6408:
5415:
2549:
2411:
2247:
1676:
1524:
905:was replaced as the written standard by
13494:
9598:, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 305–324,
9590:
9507:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 235–265.
7116:
7104:
6880:
5942:
5489:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area
2564:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area
1416:, distinguishing three further groups:
1033:Proportions of first-language speakers
16392:
13842:
10738:
10358:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale
10191:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale
10138:
10089:
10067:
9824:The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy
9795:
9455:
9207:
9183:
9171:
9159:
9147:
9000:
8976:
8838:
8826:
8814:
8802:
8790:
8778:
8766:
8754:
8604:
8565:
8553:
8541:
8529:
8505:
8493:
8481:
8442:
8427:
8415:
8403:
8391:
8379:
8367:
8352:
8340:
8316:
8304:
8292:
8280:
8268:
8256:
8244:
8220:
8136:
8124:
8112:
8088:
8076:
8040:
8004:
7992:
7980:
7855:
7747:
7723:
7672:
7657:
7630:
7618:
7606:
7474:
7462:
7450:
7433:
7421:
7409:
7382:
7346:
7310:
7262:
7247:
7232:
7215:
7203:
7191:
7167:
7155:
7140:
7092:
7080:
7068:
7056:
7044:
7032:
7020:
7008:
6996:
6921:
6765:Protection of the Varieties of Chinese
2283:, which developed from Middle Chinese
1681:Traditional Chinese syllable structure
1517:overlaid with two millennia of loans.
1313:. Other offshoots of Min are found in
572:
464:
16105:
14990:
14049:
13816:
11767:
10910:
10894:Interpretive maps of Chinese dialects
10849:CLDF dataset (Version v4.0). Zenodo.
10217:; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987),
9957:
9898:
9875:
9856:
9372:
9360:
9345:
9333:
9318:
7867:
7783:
7771:
7759:
2795:
2424:, a main vowel and an optional coda.
1441:The Hui dialects, spoken in southern
1402:) and have rich inventories of tones.
1185:is a Mandarin variety written in the
11793:
10268:Introduction to Chinese Dialectology
10188:
9999:
9976:
9776:
9755:
9679:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects
9670:———, ed. (2008c),
9669:
9653:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects
9644:———, ed. (2008b),
9643:
9627:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects
9612:
9306:
8889:
8877:
8643:
8592:
8328:
8208:
8196:
8184:
8172:
8160:
8148:
8052:
7968:
7915:
7892:Eberhard, Simons & Fennig (2024)
7879:
7708:
7696:
7684:
7642:
7582:
7128:
6981:
6969:
6957:
6759:Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects
6647:
6458:adding citations to reliable sources
6425:
6313:
6284:adding citations to reliable sources
6255:
6214:
5411:
1709:In the 42 varieties surveyed in the
1520:
14991:
10693:———, ed. (2022),
10306:
10265:
9527:
9464:. National Library Board, Singapore
9428:
9282:
9255:
9231:
9135:
9084:
9036:
8988:
8940:
8904:
8865:
8853:
8742:
8655:
8631:
8517:
8466:
8454:
8232:
8100:
8064:
8028:
7546:
7522:
7510:
7370:
7334:
7179:
6205:
6197:Chinese varieties tend to indicate
6025:
5920:
1412:(1987) follows a classification of
853:
13:
10864:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
10327:
9934:
9849:Ethnologue: Languages of the World
9219:
6404:
1645:first work of Chinese dialectology
1265:The Xiang varieties are spoken in
648:varieties forming a branch of the
16:Family of local language varieties
14:
16416:
10785:
10674:Simmons, Richard VanNess (1999),
6840:as a translation for all uses of
6421:
6230:This section has multiple issues.
5396:Chinese varieties generally lack
1025:
999:
267:. The Mandarin area extends into
16377:
16365:
13798:
13276:Literary and colloquial readings
13148:
11129:
10845:], Beijing University, 1964.
10802:], Beijing University, 1962.
9542:10.1111/j.1360-6441.2006.00331.x
9521:
9492:
9489:", Hua Sheng Bao, 17 March 2009.
9476:
9449:
9422:
9409:
9396:
9378:
7699:, Maps 5, 52, 79, 109, 134, 138.
7537:, pp. 43–44, 48, 69, 75–76.
6855:
6651:
6574:Before 1945, other than a small
6519:often emphasized his origins in
6430:
6317:
6260:
6219:
2798:Middle Chinese tone and initial
2388:
2369:
2353:
2341:
2329:
805:(771–476 BC). Although the
255:
10616:, University of Hawaiʻi Press,
10550:"Language and dialect in China"
9741:, Routledge, pp. 606–628,
6813:
6271:needs additional citations for
6238:or discuss these issues on the
6211:Bilingualism and code-switching
6103:
3251:Many Chinese varieties exhibit
2475:, vowels and final glides have
1731:Initials of selected varieties
789:, and then southwards into the
623:
599:
571:
557:
543:
529:
508:
487:
10877:Dialect survey character table
10716:, Cambridge University Press,
10697:, Hong Kong University Press,
10655:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
10554:Chinese Language and Discourse
10451:Branner, David Prager (2000),
10143:, Princeton University Press,
10075:, Cambridge University Press,
10048:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
10000:——— (2013),
9899:——— (2010),
9779:Diversity in Sinitic Languages
9720:Diversity in Sinitic Languages
9701:Diversity in Sinitic Languages
9551:
8139:, pp. 182, 193, 200, 205.
7573:, pp. 161, 188, 189, 195.
6826:to serve as a translation for
6786:
6777:
6074:
6067:This particle is a cognate of
5963:
5890:
5506:
2766:
2760:
2749:
2743:
2709:
2679:
2668:
2657:
2632:
2626:
2614:
2608:
2596:
2584:
2578:
2276:Most non-Min varieties have a
1601:
1504:Most of the vocabulary of the
1285:varieties, represented by the
1277:varieties, represented by the
1245:These varieties are spoken in
1197:These varieties are spoken in
921:of Singapore. It has become a
917:and Taiwan, and is one of the
890:
884:
463:
449:
435:
419:
405:
391:
377:
316:
300:
1:
10477:, in Chappell, Hilary (ed.),
10102:, Routledge, pp. 72–83,
9417:Text in Education and Society
6904:
6846:. The latter term appears in
5495:when a noun is preceded by a
3267:
13804:List of varieties of Chinese
10843:Chinese dialect vocabularies
10739:Hatano Tarō (波多野太郎) (1966),
10349:10.1016/0388-0001(91)90022-S
10172:10.1016/j.lingua.2008.10.001
9505:Language Ideological Debates
9174:, pp. 196–197, 203–204.
8103:, pp. 91, 108–109, 152.
7844:Tang & van Heuven (2009)
7832:Tang & van Heuven (2009)
7820:Tang & van Heuven (2009)
7808:Tang & van Heuven (2009)
7796:Tang & van Heuven (2009)
6909:
6753:List of varieties of Chinese
6637:
6632:Democratic Progressive Party
6144:
5962:sentences of the form NP1 +
2653:four tones of Middle Chinese
1672:
1249:and neighbouring areas. The
1006:List of varieties of Chinese
945:and perhaps even as much as
703:, and to a lesser extent in
650:Sino-Tibetan language family
644:There are hundreds of local
7:
10614:Asia's Orthographic Dilemma
10612:Hannas, William C. (1997),
10266:Yan, Margaret Mian (2006),
9829:University of Hawaiʻi Press
9559:Beijing University (1989),
9530:Journal of Sociolinguistics
6842:
6828:
6741:
6550:
6542:
6185:
6173:
6133:
6122:
6069:
6030:
6012:
6001:
5979:
5968:
5925:
5885:
5501:
5482:
5459:
5441:
2771:
2754:
2714:
2684:
2677:) and 'departing'/'going' (
2673:
2662:
2620:
2602:
2590:
2572:
2560:like neighbouring languages
1704:
1665:
1634:
1425:These varieties, spoken in
1393:, from the coastal area of
878:
10:
16421:
13762:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
10896:, Tokyo: Hakuteisha Press.
10862:Institute of Linguistics,
10529:Escure, Geneviève (1997),
10309:The Sino-Tibetan Languages
10139:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987),
10100:The Sino-Tibetan languages
9907:, Special issue I: 97–121.
7325:, pp. 53–55, 61, 215.
6874:
6802:, "the Chinese". In 1982,
6695:had previously been their
6641:
6567:
5391:
2797:
2558:All varieties of Chinese,
2256:The initial system of the
1701:as independent syllables.
1205:and the southern parts of
1152:'s dialectology handbook:
1003:
994:written vernacular Chinese
965:empires in China, and the
915:People's Republic of China
907:written vernacular Chinese
897:In the early years of the
857:
834:, and is believed to be a
768:
25:
18:
16140:
16073:
16046:Southern (Shanghai) Sign
16031:
15960:
15904:
15708:
15646:
15599:
15556:
15518:
15403:
15325:
15316:
15248:
15211:
15098:
15089:
15001:
14997:
14986:
14927:
14829:
14711:
14637:
14484:
14366:
14178:
14169:
14121:
14073:
14062:
14058:
14045:
14038:
14018:
13925:
13873:
13866:
13850:
13796:
13680:
13649:
13560:
13485:
13427:
13347:
13322:
13284:
13231:
13157:
13146:
13093:
13045:
13000:
12977:
12922:
12913:
12851:
12770:
12745:
12727:
12704:
12641:
12632:
12595:
12572:
12534:
12525:
12516:
12452:
12412:
12339:
12317:
12289:
12271:
12245:
12222:
12158:
12149:
12126:
12096:
12073:
11997:
11937:
11909:
11886:
11863:
11830:
11821:
11812:
11801:
11751:
11696:
11648:
11533:
11374:
11342:
11300:
11235:
11138:
11127:
10945:
10888:Chinese Dialect Geography
10573:Groves, Julie M. (2008),
10548:Francis, Norbert (2016),
10470:Chappell, Hilary (2001),
10118:Pulleyblank, Edwin George
9458:"Speak Mandarin Campaign"
9162:, pp. 196, 200, 204.
8581:Beijing University (1989)
8355:, pp. 147, 202, 239.
7711:, Maps 3, 28, 38, 41, 76.
6892:
6720:Launched in 1979 by then
6563:
6189:
6177:
6137:
6126:
6079:
6034:
6016:
6005:
5999:with a verb cognate with
5983:
5972:
5929:
5895:
5555:
5550:
5540:
5535:
5528:
5511:
5470:
5465:
5452:
5447:
3316:
3311:
3301:
3296:
3288:
3240:
3231:
3225:
3219:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3187:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3158:
3155:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3129:
3123:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3097:
3094:
3083:
3080:
3077:
3068:
3065:
3056:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3036:
3033:
3019:
3016:
3007:
3004:
2993:
2990:
2981:
2978:
2969:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2944:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2886:
2877:
2869:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2843:
2811:
2808:
2805:
2802:
2688:). Syllables ending in a
2407:
2336:voiced obstruent initials
2176:
2123:
2119:
2110:
2108:
2082:
1996:
1992:
1966:
1775:
1763:
1761:
1751:
1749:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1638:
1606:Because speakers share a
1400:/p/,/t/,/k/,/m/,/n/and/ŋ/
735:modern written vernacular
638:
634:
613:
606:
589:
582:
564:
550:
536:
522:
515:
501:
494:
480:
473:
456:
442:
428:
412:
398:
384:
370:
363:
358:
354:
343:
339:
329:
325:
309:
293:
288:
284:
280:
254:
240:
228:
214:
125:
97:
73:Linguistic classification
71:
47:
42:
37:
10892:Iwata, Ray, ed. (2009),
10871:
10838:
10795:
10762:
10741:
10243:
10042:
9912:Kurpaska, Maria (2010),
9857:Hsieh, Hsiu-Mei (2007),
9674:
9648:
9621:
9564:
9196:Chappell & Li (2016)
9073:Chappell & Li (2016)
8917:Chappell & Li (2016)
8728:Chappell & Li (2016)
8668:Chappell & Li (2016)
8617:Chappell & Li (2016)
8568:, pp. 148–149, 195.
8457:, pp. 108, 116–117.
8445:, pp. 195–196, 272.
8307:, pp. 193, 201–202.
8091:, pp. 199–200, 207.
7786:, pp. 215–216, 218.
7571:Xiong & Zhang (2012)
7275:Xiong & Zhang (2012)
6770:
5906:Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund
2545:
2287:in certain environments.
803:Spring and Autumn period
652:, many of which are not
311:Traditional Chinese
16043:Northern (Beijing) Sign
10712:Tam, Gina Anne (2020),
10514:10.1515/LINGTY.2007.014
10220:Language Atlas of China
9501:Speak Mandarin Campaign
9402:Manfred Whoa Man-Fat, "
8031:, pp. 69, 90, 127.
6822:proposed the neologism
6603:retreated to the island
5398:inflectional morphology
1589:Intelligibility testing
1409:Language Atlas of China
957:2000 years ago, by the
947:Indo-European languages
937:Comparison with Romance
747:four official languages
295:Simplified Chinese
264:Language Atlas of China
14052:Sino-Tibetan languages
10869:Fāngyán diàochá zìbiǎo
10855:10.5281/zenodo.3534942
10444:10.1075/dia.23.1.04ham
10393:10.1098/rspb.2004.3015
10371:10.3406/clao.1983.1125
10203:10.3406/clao.2005.1728
10141:The Languages of China
9891:10.3406/clao.1995.1475
9429:Lee, Kuan Yew (2000).
6644:Languages of Singapore
6494:Promotion of Putonghua
6418:
5421:
2555:
2520:Lower Yangtze Mandarin
2417:
2316:of dental affricates,
2253:
1682:
1564:Lower Yangtze Mandarin
1531:
759:six official languages
11656:Central Tibeto-Burman
10722:10.1017/9781108776400
10566:10.1075/cld.7.1.05fra
10211:Wurm, Stephen Adolphe
9958:Liang, Sihua (2014),
9672:Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí
9646:Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí
9619:Hànyǔ fāngyán dìtú jí
7687:, Maps 4, 52, 66, 73.
7361:, pp. 46, 49–50.
6642:Further information:
6590:, with a minority of
6568:Further information:
6412:
6097:disjunctive questions
5997:existential sentences
5419:
2791:in colloquial layers
2787:Tonal categories and
2553:
2415:
2360:velar nasal initial (
2278:labiodental fricative
2251:
1875:voiceless unaspirated
1680:
1608:standard written form
1528:
1515:Sino-Tibetan language
1004:Further information:
923:pluricentric language
755:pluricentric language
654:mutually intelligible
21:Han Chinese subgroups
16405:Dialects by language
16400:Varieties of Chinese
10582:Sino-Platonic Papers
9989:Sino-Platonic Papers
9295:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
9268:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
9246:, pp. 143, 146.
9244:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
9124:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
9112:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
9100:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
9061:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
9049:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
9025:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
9013:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
8965:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
8953:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
8929:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
8757:, pp. 182, 214.
8716:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
8704:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
8692:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
8680:Yue-Hashimoto (1993)
8556:, pp. 202, 239.
8319:, pp. 193, 201.
8247:, pp. 141, 198.
8079:, pp. 211, 233.
8043:, pp. 139, 236.
7011:, pp. 183, 185.
6873:The tone numbers of
6729:Chinese Singaporeans
6689:Chinese Singaporeans
6592:Taiwanese aborigines
6454:improve this section
6280:improve this article
6095:Most varieties form
5943:Major sentence types
574:[hɔ̄ːn.jy̬ː]
16086:NM = Inner Mongolia
11714:Proto-Tibeto-Burman
10836:Hànyǔ Fāngyīn Cíhuì
10793:Hànyǔ Fāngyīn Zìhuì
10502:Linguistic Typology
10387:(1567): 1015–1022,
10286:Yue-Hashimoto, Anne
9937:Chappell, Hilary M.
9756:Chen, Ping (1999),
9697:Chappell, Hilary M.
9562:Hànyǔ fāngyīn zìhuì
9462:Singapore Infopedia
9258:, pp. 147–148.
9234:, pp. 141–142.
9222:, pp. 341–343.
9138:, pp. 136–137.
9087:, pp. 135–136.
9063:, pp. 173–174.
9051:, pp. 173–178.
9039:, pp. 153–154.
8931:, pp. 227–232.
8730:, pp. 607–608.
8619:, pp. 606–607.
8544:, pp. 146–147.
8508:, pp. 225–226.
8496:, pp. 238–239.
8469:, pp. 162–163.
8430:, pp. 194–195.
8418:, pp. 217–218.
8283:, pp. 216–217.
8271:, pp. 200–201.
8235:, pp. 150–151.
8223:, pp. 28, 141.
8115:, pp. 235–236.
8019:, pp. 186–188.
7995:, pp. 212–213.
7983:, pp. 138–139.
7846:, pp. 721–722.
7834:, pp. 718–722.
7822:, pp. 715–717.
7798:, pp. 713–714.
7774:, pp. 211–212.
7762:, pp. 102–108.
7726:, pp. 182–183.
7621:, pp. 290–291.
7525:, pp. 222–223.
7424:, pp. 232–233.
7385:, pp. 207–209.
7349:, pp. 199–200.
7250:, pp. 189–190.
7119:, pp. 313–318.
7107:, pp. 309–312.
7059:, pp. 183–190.
7035:, pp. 116–117.
6924:, pp. 211–214.
6693:Singaporean Hokkien
6570:Languages of Taiwan
6511:Chinese nationalism
6415:standard characters
5995:All varieties form
5958:All varieties have
5525:
5426:subject–verb–object
3285:
2792:
2469:syllabic fricatives
2431:, have high vowels
2305:The Middle Chinese
1787:voiceless aspirated
1732:
1473:(southern Hainan),
1385:, from the city of
955:substrate languages
737:. It is one of the
552:Canton Romanization
110:Eastern Han Chinese
15623:Formosan languages
13844:Languages of China
13757:Cantonese Bopomofo
13624:Chinese characters
13552:Written Sichuanese
12136:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
11707:Proto-Sino-Tibetan
11649:Proposed groupings
10678:, John Benjamins,
10533:, John Benjamins,
9392:on 2 October 2013.
7675:, pp. 73, 76.
7633:, pp. 73, 75.
7609:, p. 438–443.
7487:Wurm et al. (1987)
7277:, pp. 3, 125.
6946:Wurm et al. (1987)
6934:Pulleyblank (1984)
6796:, from Late Latin
6792:Also known as the
6748:Languages of China
6624:Formosan languages
6596:Formosan languages
6419:
6055:interrogative word
5524:Personal pronouns
5523:
5422:
3283:
2786:
2556:
2418:
2399:where Beijing has
2380:where Beijing has
2348:retroflex initials
2254:
1730:
1683:
1575:dialect boundaries
1532:
1485:(southern Hunan),
1287:Shuangfeng dialect
990:standard languages
919:official languages
753:. It has become a
739:official languages
28:Languages of China
16353:
16352:
16099:
16098:
15642:
15641:
15638:
15637:
15634:
15633:
15627:
15619:
15611:
15514:
15513:
15244:
15243:
14982:
14981:
14978:
14977:
14707:
14706:
14703:
14702:
14034:
14033:
13810:
13809:
13792:
13791:
13619:
13618:
13537:Written Cantonese
13532:
13531:
13314:Classical grammar
13309:Cantonese grammar
13144:
13143:
13041:
13040:
12847:
12846:
12766:
12765:
12628:
12627:
12335:
12334:
12122:
12121:
12012:Chengdu–Chongqing
11805:Sinitic languages
11761:
11760:
11644:
11643:
11529:
11528:
11370:
11369:
11125:
11124:
10776:978-7-510-08769-1
10731:978-1-108-77640-0
10704:978-988-8754-09-0
10685:978-90-272-8433-4
10642:978-90-272-4785-8
10623:978-0-8248-1892-0
10604:978-0-19-985633-6
10540:978-90-272-5240-1
10488:978-0-19-829977-6
10462:978-3-11-015831-1
10337:Language Sciences
10318:978-1-138-78332-4
10299:978-2-910216-00-9
10277:978-3-89586-629-6
10270:, LINCOM Europa,
10258:978-7-10-007054-6
10230:978-962-359-085-3
10150:978-0-691-01468-5
10131:978-0-7748-0192-8
10109:978-0-7007-1129-1
10096:LaPolla, Randy J.
10082:978-0-521-29653-3
10018:978-986-03-7678-4
9969:978-3-319-12618-0
9950:978-0-19-829977-6
9927:978-3-11-021914-2
9918:Walter de Gruyter
9838:978-0-8248-1068-9
9810:978-986-54-3228-7
9788:978-0-19-872379-0
9769:978-0-521-64572-0
9748:978-0-415-53970-8
9729:978-0-19-872379-0
9710:978-0-19-872379-0
9688:978-7-100-05785-1
9662:978-7-100-05784-4
9636:978-7-100-05774-5
9605:978-3-11-012855-0
9583:978-7-80029-000-8
9514:978-3-11-016350-6
9487:讲华语运动30年 对象随大环境改变
9442:978-0-06-019776-6
9435:. HarperCollins.
9375:, pp. 20–21.
9348:, pp. 16–17.
9321:, pp. 12–13.
9150:, pp. 97–98.
9126:, pp. 44–47.
9027:, pp. 32–33.
8394:, pp. 53–54.
8382:, pp. 34–36.
7738:, pp. 45–51.
7561:, pp. 72–73.
7513:, pp. 60–61.
7501:, pp. 55–56.
7301:, pp. 41–53.
7289:, pp. 36–41.
7218:, pp. 16–18.
7131:, pp. 46–49.
7047:, pp. 24–25.
6794:Sinitic languages
6681:
6680:
6616:Taiwanese Hokkien
6607:Chinese Civil War
6605:after losing the
6584:Taiwanese Hokkien
6504:identity politics
6499:written Cantonese
6490:
6489:
6482:
6365:
6364:
6357:
6347:
6346:
6312:
6311:
6304:
6253:
5881:
5880:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5595:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5430:Kra–Dai languages
5412:Constituent order
5374:
5373:
3429:
3422:
3415:
3408:
3401:
3394:
3387:
3380:
3373:
3366:
3359:
3352:
3345:
3338:
3245:
3244:
2705:checked syllables
2644:system much like
2528:Mandarin dialects
2246:
2245:
2080:
2004:
1964:
1876:
1788:
1717:Chongming dialect
1632:The Chinese term
1521:Dialect geography
1353:and stop endings
1319:Leizhou Peninsula
1016:dialect continuum
943:Romance languages
899:Republic of China
843:North China Plain
796:standard language
783:North China Plain
642:
641:
630:
629:
524:Yale Romanization
444:Yale Romanization
365:Standard Mandarin
16412:
16382:
16381:
16380:
16370:
16369:
16361:
16126:
16119:
16112:
16103:
16102:
16055:
15625:
15617:
15609:
15323:
15322:
15096:
15095:
14999:
14998:
14988:
14987:
14176:
14175:
14071:
14070:
14060:
14059:
14047:
14046:
14043:
14042:
13871:
13870:
13858:Standard Chinese
13837:
13830:
13823:
13814:
13813:
13802:
13801:
13774:Taiwanese Hangul
13663:Mainland Chinese
13576:
13575:
13567:
13566:
13492:
13491:
13169:Standard Chinese
13152:
12920:
12919:
12639:
12638:
12532:
12531:
12523:
12522:
12405:
12393:
12381:
12369:
12357:
12156:
12155:
11828:
11827:
11819:
11818:
11795:Chinese language
11788:
11781:
11774:
11765:
11764:
11603:
11602:
11464:
11463:
11298:
11297:
11133:
11050:
11049:
10931:
10924:
10917:
10908:
10907:
10897:
10884:
10882:
10846:
10827:Chinese Dialects
10803:
10780:
10757:
10735:
10708:
10689:
10670:
10646:
10627:
10608:
10589:
10579:
10569:
10544:
10525:
10492:
10476:
10466:
10447:
10422:
10412:
10375:
10373:
10352:
10343:(3/4): 335–379,
10322:
10303:
10281:
10262:
10234:
10206:
10185:
10183:
10154:
10135:
10113:
10092:Thurgood, Graham
10086:
10064:
10037:
10035:
10033:
10028:on 16 April 2018
10027:
10021:, archived from
10006:
9996:
9986:
9973:
9954:
9931:
9908:
9895:
9893:
9872:
9870:
9853:
9842:
9814:
9797:Coblin, W. South
9792:
9773:
9752:
9733:
9714:
9692:
9666:
9640:
9609:
9587:
9575:
9546:
9545:
9525:
9519:
9518:
9496:
9490:
9484:
9480:
9474:
9473:
9471:
9469:
9453:
9447:
9446:
9426:
9420:
9413:
9407:
9400:
9394:
9393:
9388:. Archived from
9386:"The Goh Report"
9382:
9376:
9370:
9364:
9358:
9349:
9343:
9337:
9331:
9322:
9316:
9310:
9304:
9298:
9292:
9286:
9280:
9271:
9265:
9259:
9253:
9247:
9241:
9235:
9229:
9223:
9217:
9211:
9205:
9199:
9193:
9187:
9181:
9175:
9169:
9163:
9157:
9151:
9145:
9139:
9133:
9127:
9121:
9115:
9109:
9103:
9097:
9088:
9082:
9076:
9070:
9064:
9058:
9052:
9046:
9040:
9034:
9028:
9022:
9016:
9010:
9004:
8998:
8992:
8986:
8980:
8974:
8968:
8962:
8956:
8950:
8944:
8938:
8932:
8926:
8920:
8914:
8908:
8902:
8893:
8887:
8881:
8875:
8869:
8863:
8857:
8851:
8842:
8836:
8830:
8824:
8818:
8812:
8806:
8800:
8794:
8788:
8782:
8776:
8770:
8764:
8758:
8752:
8746:
8740:
8731:
8725:
8719:
8713:
8707:
8701:
8695:
8689:
8683:
8677:
8671:
8665:
8659:
8653:
8647:
8641:
8635:
8629:
8620:
8614:
8608:
8602:
8596:
8590:
8584:
8578:
8569:
8563:
8557:
8551:
8545:
8539:
8533:
8527:
8521:
8515:
8509:
8503:
8497:
8491:
8485:
8479:
8470:
8464:
8458:
8452:
8446:
8440:
8431:
8425:
8419:
8413:
8407:
8401:
8395:
8389:
8383:
8377:
8371:
8365:
8356:
8350:
8344:
8338:
8332:
8326:
8320:
8314:
8308:
8302:
8296:
8290:
8284:
8278:
8272:
8266:
8260:
8254:
8248:
8242:
8236:
8230:
8224:
8218:
8212:
8206:
8200:
8194:
8188:
8182:
8176:
8170:
8164:
8158:
8152:
8146:
8140:
8134:
8128:
8122:
8116:
8110:
8104:
8098:
8092:
8086:
8080:
8074:
8068:
8062:
8056:
8050:
8044:
8038:
8032:
8026:
8020:
8014:
8008:
8002:
7996:
7990:
7984:
7978:
7972:
7966:
7960:
7957:DeFrancis (1984)
7954:
7943:
7937:
7931:
7925:
7919:
7913:
7907:
7904:Chappell (2015a)
7901:
7895:
7889:
7883:
7877:
7871:
7865:
7859:
7853:
7847:
7841:
7835:
7829:
7823:
7817:
7811:
7805:
7799:
7793:
7787:
7781:
7775:
7769:
7763:
7757:
7751:
7745:
7739:
7736:Chappell (2015b)
7733:
7727:
7721:
7712:
7706:
7700:
7694:
7688:
7682:
7676:
7670:
7661:
7655:
7646:
7640:
7634:
7628:
7622:
7616:
7610:
7604:
7598:
7595:Nakanishi (2010)
7592:
7586:
7580:
7574:
7568:
7562:
7556:
7550:
7544:
7538:
7532:
7526:
7520:
7514:
7508:
7502:
7496:
7490:
7484:
7478:
7472:
7466:
7460:
7454:
7448:
7437:
7431:
7425:
7419:
7413:
7407:
7398:
7392:
7386:
7380:
7374:
7368:
7362:
7356:
7350:
7344:
7338:
7332:
7326:
7320:
7314:
7308:
7302:
7296:
7290:
7284:
7278:
7272:
7266:
7260:
7251:
7245:
7236:
7230:
7219:
7213:
7207:
7201:
7195:
7189:
7183:
7177:
7171:
7165:
7159:
7153:
7144:
7138:
7132:
7126:
7120:
7114:
7108:
7102:
7096:
7095:, pp. 3–15.
7090:
7084:
7078:
7072:
7066:
7060:
7054:
7048:
7042:
7036:
7030:
7024:
7018:
7012:
7006:
7000:
6994:
6985:
6979:
6973:
6967:
6961:
6955:
6949:
6943:
6937:
6931:
6925:
6919:
6898:
6896:
6889:
6878:
6871:
6862:
6859:
6853:
6845:
6836:coined the term
6831:
6817:
6811:
6804:Paul K. Benedict
6790:
6784:
6781:
6676:
6673:
6655:
6648:
6555:
6547:
6524:
6485:
6478:
6474:
6471:
6465:
6434:
6426:
6389:and recognizing
6360:
6353:
6342:
6339:
6321:
6314:
6307:
6300:
6296:
6293:
6287:
6264:
6256:
6245:
6223:
6222:
6215:
6206:Sociolinguistics
6193:
6188:
6181:
6176:
6158:
6154:
6147:
6141:
6136:
6130:
6125:
6119:
6115:
6091:
6083:
6077:
6076:
6072:
6061:Yes–no questions
6038:
6033:
6027:
6020:
6015:
6009:
6004:
5987:
5982:
5976:
5971:
5965:
5933:
5928:
5922:
5899:
5893:
5892:
5888:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5802:
5797:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5773:
5768:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5608:
5603:
5598:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5526:
5522:
5515:
5509:
5508:
5504:
5474:
5468:
5467:
5462:
5456:
5450:
5449:
5444:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5227:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3498:
3493:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3425:
3418:
3411:
3404:
3397:
3390:
3383:
3376:
3369:
3362:
3355:
3348:
3341:
3334:
3286:
3282:
3257:Standard Chinese
2793:
2785:
2774:
2769:
2768:
2763:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2745:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2711:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2687:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2659:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2610:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2593:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2580:
2575:
2566:, have phonemic
2537:
2534:has merged with
2533:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2462:
2459:has merged with
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2392:
2373:
2363:
2357:
2345:
2333:
2282:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2232:
2227:
2220:
2215:
2208:
2203:
2196:
2189:
2184:
2163:
2147:
2133:
2117:
2113:
2106:
2099:
2094:
2087:
2078:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2049:
2044:
2037:
2032:
2025:
2018:
2013:
2002:
1988:
1983:
1976:
1971:
1962:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1874:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1786:
1733:
1729:
1721:Chongming Island
1689:, a final and a
1668:
1642:
1637:
1596:Standard Chinese
1401:
1379:prestige variety
1356:
1352:
1279:Changsha dialect
1251:Nanchang dialect
1163:Standard Chinese
1128:
1118:
1108:
1098:
1088:
1078:
1068:
1058:
1048:
1038:
979:dialect continua
975:Literary Chinese
903:Literary Chinese
893:
892:
887:
886:
881:
860:Standard Chinese
854:Standard Chinese
731:Standard Chinese
646:Chinese language
626:
625:
602:
601:
578:
577:
576:
560:
559:
546:
545:
532:
531:
511:
510:
490:
489:
469:
468:
467:
452:
451:
438:
437:
424:
423:
422:
408:
407:
394:
393:
380:
379:
356:
355:
321:
320:
305:
304:
259:
250:
236:
224:
35:
34:
16420:
16419:
16415:
16414:
16413:
16411:
16410:
16409:
16390:
16389:
16388:
16378:
16376:
16364:
16356:
16354:
16349:
16136:
16130:
16100:
16095:
16069:
16049:
16027:
15956:
15900:
15711:
15704:
15630:
15610:(Indo-European)
15595:
15552:
15510:
15399:
15312:
15240:
15207:
15085:
14993:
14992:Other languages
14974:
14923:
14854:Central Tibetan
14825:
14699:
14633:
14480:
14362:
14165:
14117:
14065:
14054:
14030:
14014:
13921:
13862:
13846:
13841:
13811:
13806:
13788:
13725:Tongyong Pinyin
13705:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
13693:Dungan Cyrillic
13676:
13645:
13615:
13556:
13547:Written Hokkien
13528:
13487:
13481:
13457:Middle Mandarin
13423:
13343:
13318:
13280:
13227:
13160:
13153:
13140:
13089:
13037:
12996:
12973:
12909:
12843:
12762:
12741:
12723:
12700:
12624:
12591:
12568:
12512:
12448:
12408:
12399:
12387:
12375:
12363:
12351:
12331:
12313:
12285:
12267:
12241:
12218:
12145:
12118:
12092:
12069:
11993:
11933:
11905:
11882:
11859:
11808:
11797:
11792:
11762:
11757:
11747:
11698:Proto-languages
11692:
11640:
11607:Greater Siangic
11601:
11538:
11525:
11462:
11366:
11338:
11296:
11240:
11231:
11143:
11134:
11121:
11054:Greater Magaric
11048:
10975:West Himalayish
10955:
10941:
10935:
10891:
10880:
10873:
10861:
10840:
10834:
10821:Wayback Machine
10811:Wayback Machine
10797:
10791:
10788:
10783:
10777:
10764:
10760:
10743:
10732:
10711:
10705:
10692:
10686:
10673:
10651:Sagart, Laurent
10649:
10643:
10630:
10624:
10611:
10605:
10592:
10577:
10572:
10547:
10541:
10528:
10495:
10489:
10474:
10469:
10463:
10450:
10425:
10378:
10355:
10334:
10330:
10328:Further reading
10325:
10319:
10300:
10278:
10259:
10245:
10231:
10151:
10132:
10110:
10083:
10044:
10031:
10029:
10025:
10019:
10004:
9984:
9978:Mair, Victor H.
9970:
9951:
9928:
9839:
9819:DeFrancis, John
9811:
9789:
9770:
9749:
9730:
9711:
9689:
9676:
9663:
9650:
9637:
9623:
9616:, ed. (2008a),
9606:
9584:
9573:
9566:
9554:
9549:
9526:
9522:
9515:
9497:
9493:
9482:
9481:
9477:
9467:
9465:
9454:
9450:
9443:
9427:
9423:
9414:
9410:
9401:
9397:
9384:
9383:
9379:
9371:
9367:
9359:
9352:
9344:
9340:
9332:
9325:
9317:
9313:
9305:
9301:
9293:
9289:
9281:
9274:
9266:
9262:
9254:
9250:
9242:
9238:
9230:
9226:
9218:
9214:
9206:
9202:
9194:
9190:
9182:
9178:
9170:
9166:
9158:
9154:
9146:
9142:
9134:
9130:
9122:
9118:
9110:
9106:
9098:
9091:
9083:
9079:
9071:
9067:
9059:
9055:
9047:
9043:
9035:
9031:
9023:
9019:
9011:
9007:
8999:
8995:
8987:
8983:
8975:
8971:
8963:
8959:
8951:
8947:
8939:
8935:
8927:
8923:
8915:
8911:
8903:
8896:
8888:
8884:
8876:
8872:
8864:
8860:
8852:
8845:
8837:
8833:
8825:
8821:
8813:
8809:
8801:
8797:
8789:
8785:
8777:
8773:
8765:
8761:
8753:
8749:
8741:
8734:
8726:
8722:
8718:, pp. 4–5.
8714:
8710:
8706:, pp. 2–4.
8702:
8698:
8694:, pp. 1–2.
8690:
8686:
8678:
8674:
8666:
8662:
8654:
8650:
8642:
8638:
8630:
8623:
8615:
8611:
8603:
8599:
8591:
8587:
8579:
8572:
8564:
8560:
8552:
8548:
8540:
8536:
8528:
8524:
8516:
8512:
8504:
8500:
8492:
8488:
8480:
8473:
8465:
8461:
8453:
8449:
8441:
8434:
8426:
8422:
8414:
8410:
8402:
8398:
8390:
8386:
8378:
8374:
8366:
8359:
8351:
8347:
8339:
8335:
8327:
8323:
8315:
8311:
8303:
8299:
8291:
8287:
8279:
8275:
8267:
8263:
8255:
8251:
8243:
8239:
8231:
8227:
8219:
8215:
8207:
8203:
8195:
8191:
8183:
8179:
8171:
8167:
8159:
8155:
8147:
8143:
8135:
8131:
8123:
8119:
8111:
8107:
8099:
8095:
8087:
8083:
8075:
8071:
8063:
8059:
8051:
8047:
8039:
8035:
8027:
8023:
8017:Kurpaska (2010)
8015:
8011:
8003:
7999:
7991:
7987:
7979:
7975:
7967:
7963:
7955:
7946:
7940:Kurpaska (2010)
7938:
7934:
7928:Kurpaska (2010)
7926:
7922:
7918:, pp. 3–6.
7914:
7910:
7902:
7898:
7890:
7886:
7878:
7874:
7866:
7862:
7858:, pp. 1–2.
7854:
7850:
7842:
7838:
7830:
7826:
7818:
7814:
7806:
7802:
7794:
7790:
7782:
7778:
7770:
7766:
7758:
7754:
7746:
7742:
7734:
7730:
7722:
7715:
7707:
7703:
7695:
7691:
7683:
7679:
7671:
7664:
7656:
7649:
7641:
7637:
7629:
7625:
7617:
7613:
7605:
7601:
7593:
7589:
7581:
7577:
7569:
7565:
7559:Kurpaska (2010)
7557:
7553:
7545:
7541:
7535:Kurpaska (2010)
7533:
7529:
7521:
7517:
7509:
7505:
7499:Kurpaska (2010)
7497:
7493:
7485:
7481:
7473:
7469:
7461:
7457:
7449:
7440:
7432:
7428:
7420:
7416:
7408:
7401:
7395:Kurpaska (2010)
7393:
7389:
7381:
7377:
7369:
7365:
7359:Kurpaska (2010)
7357:
7353:
7345:
7341:
7333:
7329:
7323:Kurpaska (2010)
7321:
7317:
7309:
7305:
7299:Kurpaska (2010)
7297:
7293:
7287:Kurpaska (2010)
7285:
7281:
7273:
7269:
7261:
7254:
7246:
7239:
7231:
7222:
7214:
7210:
7206:, pp. 2–3.
7202:
7198:
7190:
7186:
7178:
7174:
7166:
7162:
7154:
7147:
7139:
7135:
7127:
7123:
7115:
7111:
7103:
7099:
7091:
7087:
7079:
7075:
7067:
7063:
7055:
7051:
7043:
7039:
7031:
7027:
7019:
7015:
7007:
7003:
6995:
6988:
6980:
6976:
6968:
6964:
6956:
6952:
6944:
6940:
6932:
6928:
6920:
6916:
6912:
6907:
6902:
6901:
6890:
6881:
6872:
6865:
6860:
6856:
6818:
6814:
6791:
6787:
6782:
6778:
6773:
6744:
6677:
6671:
6668:
6661:needs expansion
6646:
6640:
6620:Taiwanese Hakka
6572:
6566:
6558:extended family
6532:were also from
6526:Chiang Kai-shek
6514:
6486:
6475:
6469:
6466:
6451:
6435:
6424:
6407:
6405:Language policy
6361:
6350:
6349:
6348:
6343:
6337:
6334:
6327:needs expansion
6308:
6297:
6291:
6288:
6277:
6265:
6224:
6220:
6213:
6208:
6202:northern ones.
6168:grammaticalized
6106:
5945:
5485:
5414:
5394:
4286:"moon", 'month'
3270:
3260:syllable tone.
2758:) and "lower" (
2646:modern Japanese
2548:
2477:monophthongized
2410:
2403:
2393:
2384:
2374:
2365:
2358:
2349:
2346:
2337:
2334:
1780:
1707:
1699:syllabic nasals
1675:
1604:
1591:
1544:Hilary Chappell
1523:
1463:Danzhou dialect
1347:Meixian dialect
1187:Cyrillic script
1175:Dungan language
1137:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1133:, others (0.6%)
1126:
1124:
1116:
1114:
1106:
1104:
1096:
1094:
1086:
1084:
1076:
1074:
1066:
1064:
1056:
1054:
1046:
1044:
1036:
1028:
1010:Dialectologist
1008:
1002:
939:
911:Beijing dialect
862:
856:
827:rime dictionary
771:
745:and one of the
430:Tongyong Pinyin
420:
400:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
344:Literal meaning
276:
246:
234:
220:
121:
100:
49:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
16418:
16408:
16407:
16402:
16387:
16386:
16374:
16351:
16350:
16348:
16347:
16342:
16337:
16332:
16327:
16322:
16317:
16312:
16310:Serbo-Croatian
16307:
16302:
16297:
16292:
16287:
16282:
16277:
16272:
16267:
16262:
16257:
16252:
16247:
16242:
16237:
16232:
16227:
16222:
16217:
16212:
16207:
16202:
16197:
16192:
16187:
16182:
16177:
16172:
16167:
16162:
16157:
16152:
16147:
16141:
16138:
16137:
16129:
16128:
16121:
16114:
16106:
16097:
16096:
16094:
16093:
16090:
16087:
16084:
16081:
16080:HK = Hong Kong
16078:
16074:
16071:
16070:
16068:
16067:
16060:
16059:
16058:
16057:
16056:
16051:Hong Kong Sign
16044:
16035:
16033:
16029:
16028:
16026:
16025:
16020:
16015:
16010:
16005:
16000:
15995:
15990:
15985:
15980:
15975:
15970:
15964:
15962:
15958:
15957:
15955:
15954:
15949:
15944:
15939:
15934:
15929:
15924:
15919:
15914:
15908:
15906:
15902:
15901:
15899:
15898:
15897:
15896:
15891:
15881:
15880:
15879:
15874:
15864:
15863:
15862:
15857:
15847:
15846:
15845:
15840:
15835:
15830:
15825:
15820:
15819:
15818:
15813:
15808:
15793:
15788:
15783:
15778:
15777:
15776:
15771:
15770:
15769:
15759:
15754:
15753:
15752:
15742:
15737:
15732:
15727:
15716:
15714:
15706:
15705:
15703:
15702:
15697:
15691:
15686:
15681:
15676:
15671:
15666:
15661:
15656:
15650:
15648:
15644:
15643:
15640:
15639:
15636:
15635:
15632:
15631:
15629:
15628:
15626:(Austronesian)
15620:
15618:(Austronesian)
15612:
15603:
15601:
15597:
15596:
15594:
15593:
15588:
15583:
15578:
15573:
15568:
15562:
15560:
15554:
15553:
15551:
15550:
15545:
15540:
15535:
15530:
15524:
15522:
15516:
15515:
15512:
15511:
15509:
15508:
15503:
15498:
15493:
15488:
15483:
15478:
15473:
15468:
15463:
15458:
15453:
15448:
15443:
15438:
15433:
15428:
15423:
15418:
15413:
15407:
15405:
15401:
15400:
15398:
15397:
15392:
15387:
15382:
15377:
15372:
15367:
15362:
15357:
15352:
15347:
15342:
15337:
15331:
15329:
15320:
15314:
15313:
15311:
15310:
15305:
15300:
15295:
15290:
15285:
15280:
15275:
15270:
15265:
15260:
15254:
15252:
15246:
15245:
15242:
15241:
15239:
15238:
15233:
15228:
15223:
15217:
15215:
15209:
15208:
15206:
15205:
15200:
15195:
15190:
15185:
15180:
15175:
15170:
15165:
15160:
15155:
15150:
15145:
15140:
15135:
15130:
15125:
15120:
15115:
15110:
15104:
15102:
15093:
15087:
15086:
15084:
15083:
15078:
15073:
15068:
15063:
15058:
15053:
15048:
15043:
15038:
15033:
15028:
15023:
15018:
15013:
15007:
15005:
14995:
14994:
14984:
14983:
14980:
14979:
14976:
14975:
14973:
14972:
14967:
14962:
14957:
14952:
14947:
14942:
14937:
14931:
14929:
14925:
14924:
14922:
14921:
14916:
14911:
14906:
14901:
14896:
14891:
14886:
14881:
14876:
14871:
14866:
14861:
14856:
14851:
14846:
14841:
14835:
14833:
14827:
14826:
14824:
14823:
14818:
14813:
14808:
14803:
14798:
14796:Southern Qiang
14793:
14791:Northern Qiang
14788:
14783:
14778:
14773:
14768:
14763:
14758:
14753:
14748:
14743:
14738:
14733:
14728:
14723:
14717:
14715:
14709:
14708:
14705:
14704:
14701:
14700:
14698:
14697:
14692:
14687:
14682:
14677:
14672:
14667:
14662:
14657:
14652:
14647:
14641:
14639:
14635:
14634:
14632:
14631:
14626:
14621:
14616:
14611:
14606:
14601:
14596:
14591:
14586:
14581:
14576:
14571:
14566:
14561:
14556:
14551:
14546:
14541:
14536:
14531:
14526:
14521:
14516:
14511:
14506:
14501:
14496:
14490:
14488:
14482:
14481:
14479:
14478:
14473:
14468:
14463:
14458:
14453:
14448:
14443:
14438:
14433:
14428:
14423:
14418:
14413:
14408:
14403:
14398:
14393:
14388:
14383:
14378:
14372:
14370:
14364:
14363:
14361:
14360:
14355:
14350:
14345:
14340:
14335:
14330:
14325:
14320:
14315:
14310:
14305:
14300:
14295:
14290:
14285:
14280:
14275:
14270:
14265:
14260:
14255:
14250:
14245:
14240:
14235:
14230:
14225:
14220:
14215:
14210:
14205:
14200:
14195:
14190:
14184:
14182:
14173:
14167:
14166:
14164:
14163:
14158:
14153:
14148:
14143:
14138:
14133:
14127:
14125:
14119:
14118:
14116:
14115:
14110:
14105:
14100:
14095:
14090:
14085:
14079:
14077:
14068:
14056:
14055:
14040:
14036:
14035:
14032:
14031:
14028:
14026:
14016:
14015:
14013:
14012:
14007:
14002:
13997:
13992:
13987:
13982:
13977:
13972:
13967:
13962:
13957:
13952:
13947:
13942:
13937:
13931:
13929:
13923:
13922:
13920:
13919:
13914:
13909:
13904:
13899:
13894:
13889:
13883:
13881:
13868:
13864:
13863:
13861:
13860:
13854:
13852:
13848:
13847:
13840:
13839:
13832:
13825:
13817:
13808:
13807:
13797:
13794:
13793:
13790:
13789:
13787:
13786:
13781:
13776:
13771:
13769:Taiwanese kana
13766:
13765:
13764:
13759:
13749:
13748:
13747:
13742:
13740:Lessing-Othmer
13737:
13732:
13727:
13722:
13717:
13712:
13707:
13697:
13696:
13695:
13684:
13682:
13678:
13677:
13675:
13670:
13665:
13660:
13655:
13653:
13647:
13646:
13644:
13643:
13638:
13637:
13636:
13631:
13620:
13617:
13616:
13614:
13609:
13604:
13599:
13594:
13589:
13584:
13582:
13573:
13564:
13558:
13557:
13555:
13554:
13549:
13544:
13542:Written Dungan
13539:
13533:
13530:
13529:
13527:
13526:
13521:
13520:
13519:
13514:
13509:
13498:
13496:
13489:
13483:
13482:
13480:
13479:
13474:
13469:
13464:
13459:
13454:
13449:
13447:Middle Chinese
13444:
13439:
13433:
13431:
13425:
13424:
13422:
13421:
13416:
13414:Wubi (Wang Ma)
13411:
13406:
13405:
13404:
13399:
13394:
13384:
13379:
13374:
13373:
13372:
13362:
13359:
13353:
13351:
13345:
13344:
13342:
13341:
13334:
13326:
13324:
13320:
13319:
13317:
13316:
13311:
13306:
13301:
13296:
13290:
13288:
13282:
13281:
13279:
13278:
13273:
13268:
13263:
13258:
13253:
13248:
13247:
13246:
13235:
13233:
13229:
13228:
13226:
13225:
13220:
13215:
13210:
13209:
13208:
13207:
13206:
13201:
13191:
13186:
13181:
13176:
13165:
13163:
13155:
13154:
13147:
13145:
13142:
13141:
13139:
13138:
13133:
13131:Xiangnan Tuhua
13128:
13123:
13118:
13116:Shaozhou Tuhua
13113:
13108:
13103:
13097:
13095:
13091:
13090:
13088:
13087:
13086:
13085:
13080:
13075:
13067:
13066:
13065:
13060:
13051:
13049:
13043:
13042:
13039:
13038:
13036:
13035:
13030:
13025:
13020:
13015:
13010:
13004:
13002:
12998:
12997:
12995:
12994:
12989:
12983:
12981:
12975:
12974:
12972:
12971:
12966:
12961:
12956:
12951:
12946:
12945:
12944:
12939:
12928:
12926:
12917:
12911:
12910:
12908:
12907:
12906:
12905:
12900:
12895:
12885:
12884:
12883:
12873:
12868:
12863:
12857:
12855:
12849:
12848:
12845:
12844:
12842:
12841:
12840:
12839:
12834:
12829:
12819:
12818:
12817:
12807:
12802:
12797:
12792:
12791:
12790:
12785:
12774:
12772:
12768:
12767:
12764:
12763:
12761:
12760:
12755:
12749:
12747:
12743:
12742:
12740:
12739:
12733:
12731:
12725:
12724:
12722:
12721:
12716:
12710:
12708:
12702:
12701:
12699:
12698:
12693:
12688:
12683:
12678:
12673:
12668:
12663:
12658:
12653:
12647:
12645:
12636:
12630:
12629:
12626:
12625:
12623:
12622:
12621:
12620:
12615:
12605:
12599:
12597:
12593:
12592:
12590:
12589:
12584:
12578:
12576:
12570:
12569:
12567:
12566:
12561:
12556:
12551:
12546:
12540:
12538:
12529:
12520:
12514:
12513:
12511:
12510:
12509:
12508:
12498:
12493:
12492:
12491:
12486:
12481:
12471:
12470:
12469:
12458:
12456:
12450:
12449:
12447:
12446:
12441:
12436:
12431:
12430:
12429:
12418:
12416:
12410:
12409:
12407:
12406:
12394:
12382:
12370:
12358:
12345:
12343:
12337:
12336:
12333:
12332:
12330:
12329:
12323:
12321:
12315:
12314:
12312:
12311:
12306:
12301:
12295:
12293:
12287:
12286:
12284:
12283:
12277:
12275:
12269:
12268:
12266:
12265:
12260:
12255:
12249:
12247:
12243:
12242:
12240:
12239:
12234:
12228:
12226:
12220:
12219:
12217:
12216:
12211:
12206:
12201:
12196:
12191:
12185:
12180:
12175:
12170:
12164:
12162:
12153:
12147:
12146:
12144:
12143:
12138:
12132:
12130:
12124:
12123:
12120:
12119:
12117:
12116:
12111:
12106:
12100:
12098:
12094:
12093:
12091:
12090:
12085:
12079:
12077:
12071:
12070:
12068:
12067:
12066:
12065:
12055:
12050:
12045:
12040:
12039:
12038:
12037:
12036:
12029:Renshou–Fushun
12026:
12025:
12024:
12014:
12003:
12001:
11995:
11994:
11992:
11991:
11986:
11981:
11976:
11971:
11966:
11965:
11964:
11954:
11949:
11943:
11941:
11939:Central Plains
11935:
11934:
11932:
11931:
11926:
11921:
11915:
11913:
11907:
11906:
11904:
11903:
11898:
11892:
11890:
11884:
11883:
11881:
11880:
11875:
11869:
11867:
11861:
11860:
11858:
11857:
11852:
11847:
11842:
11836:
11834:
11825:
11816:
11810:
11809:
11802:
11799:
11798:
11791:
11790:
11783:
11776:
11768:
11759:
11758:
11752:
11749:
11748:
11746:
11745:
11738:
11731:
11724:
11717:
11710:
11702:
11700:
11694:
11693:
11691:
11690:
11688:Tibeto-Kanauri
11685:
11678:
11673:
11668:
11663:
11661:Kuki-Chin–Naga
11658:
11652:
11650:
11646:
11645:
11642:
11641:
11639:
11638:
11633:
11632:
11631:
11624:
11611:
11609:
11600:
11599:
11592:
11587:
11586:
11585:
11571:
11570:
11569:
11562:
11549:
11547:
11531:
11530:
11527:
11526:
11524:
11523:
11522:
11521:
11514:
11509:
11497:
11492:
11487:
11486:
11485:
11472:
11470:
11461:
11460:
11459:
11458:
11451:
11444:
11432:
11425:
11418:
11411:
11406:
11399:
11392:
11384:
11382:
11380:Southeast Asia
11372:
11371:
11368:
11367:
11365:
11364:
11359:
11354:
11348:
11346:
11340:
11339:
11337:
11336:
11331:
11326:
11319:
11317:Angami–Pochuri
11314:
11308:
11306:
11295:
11294:
11287:
11280:
11279:
11278:
11271:
11259:
11252:
11244:
11242:
11241:Burmese border
11233:
11232:
11230:
11229:
11224:
11217:
11210:
11203:
11202:
11201:
11193:
11186:
11179:
11174:
11159:
11157:
11136:
11135:
11128:
11126:
11123:
11122:
11120:
11119:
11106:
11101:
11100:
11099:
11092:
11080:
11079:
11078:
11071:
11058:
11056:
11047:
11046:
11039:
11038:
11037:
11030:
11023:
11011:
11004:
11003:
11002:
10997:
10985:
10978:
10970:
10968:
10943:
10942:
10934:
10933:
10926:
10919:
10911:
10905:
10904:
10898:
10885:
10859:
10858:
10857:
10832:
10831:
10830:
10824:
10814:
10787:
10786:External links
10784:
10782:
10781:
10775:
10758:
10736:
10730:
10709:
10703:
10690:
10684:
10671:
10661:(2): 281–302,
10647:
10641:
10628:
10622:
10609:
10603:
10590:
10570:
10560:(1): 136–149,
10545:
10539:
10526:
10508:(1): 187–211,
10493:
10487:
10467:
10461:
10448:
10423:
10376:
10353:
10331:
10329:
10326:
10324:
10323:
10317:
10304:
10298:
10282:
10276:
10263:
10257:
10235:
10229:
10207:
10197:(1): 101–127,
10186:
10166:(5): 709–732,
10155:
10149:
10136:
10130:
10114:
10108:
10087:
10081:
10065:
10051:(in Chinese),
10038:
10017:
9997:
9974:
9968:
9955:
9949:
9932:
9926:
9909:
9896:
9884:(2): 195–227,
9873:
9854:
9843:
9837:
9815:
9809:
9793:
9787:
9774:
9768:
9753:
9747:
9734:
9728:
9715:
9709:
9693:
9687:
9667:
9661:
9641:
9635:
9610:
9604:
9592:Bradley, David
9588:
9582:
9555:
9553:
9550:
9548:
9547:
9536:(3): 344–361.
9520:
9513:
9491:
9475:
9448:
9441:
9421:
9408:
9395:
9377:
9365:
9350:
9338:
9323:
9311:
9299:
9287:
9285:, p. 124.
9272:
9270:, p. 159.
9260:
9248:
9236:
9224:
9212:
9200:
9198:, p. 607.
9188:
9186:, p. 213.
9176:
9164:
9152:
9140:
9128:
9116:
9104:
9089:
9077:
9075:, p. 608.
9065:
9053:
9041:
9029:
9017:
9005:
9003:, p. 125.
8993:
8991:, p. 131.
8981:
8979:, p. 223.
8969:
8957:
8955:, p. 111.
8945:
8943:, p. 121.
8933:
8921:
8919:, p. 623.
8909:
8907:, p. 150.
8894:
8892:, p. 106.
8882:
8870:
8868:, p. 117.
8858:
8856:, p. 116.
8843:
8841:, p. 220.
8831:
8829:, p. 227.
8819:
8817:, p. 234.
8807:
8805:, p. 203.
8795:
8793:, p. 205.
8783:
8781:, p. 208.
8771:
8769:, p. 196.
8759:
8747:
8745:, p. 115.
8732:
8720:
8708:
8696:
8684:
8672:
8670:, p. 606.
8660:
8658:, p. 130.
8648:
8636:
8634:, p. 114.
8621:
8609:
8597:
8585:
8570:
8558:
8546:
8534:
8532:, p. 218.
8522:
8520:, p. 198.
8510:
8498:
8486:
8484:, p. 202.
8471:
8459:
8447:
8432:
8420:
8408:
8396:
8384:
8372:
8357:
8345:
8333:
8321:
8309:
8297:
8295:, p. 237.
8285:
8273:
8261:
8259:, p. 194.
8249:
8237:
8225:
8213:
8201:
8189:
8177:
8165:
8153:
8141:
8129:
8127:, p. 193.
8117:
8105:
8093:
8081:
8069:
8067:, p. 127.
8057:
8045:
8033:
8021:
8009:
8007:, p. 101.
7997:
7985:
7973:
7961:
7944:
7932:
7920:
7908:
7896:
7884:
7872:
7860:
7848:
7836:
7824:
7812:
7810:, p. 712.
7800:
7788:
7776:
7764:
7752:
7740:
7728:
7713:
7701:
7689:
7677:
7662:
7660:, p. 182.
7647:
7635:
7623:
7611:
7599:
7587:
7575:
7563:
7551:
7549:, p. 235.
7539:
7527:
7515:
7503:
7491:
7479:
7467:
7465:, p. 215.
7455:
7453:, p. 217.
7438:
7436:, p. 224.
7426:
7414:
7412:, p. 233.
7399:
7387:
7375:
7373:, p. 148.
7363:
7351:
7339:
7327:
7315:
7313:, p. 181.
7303:
7291:
7279:
7267:
7265:, p. 188.
7252:
7237:
7220:
7208:
7196:
7184:
7172:
7160:
7158:, p. 187.
7145:
7143:, p. 247.
7133:
7121:
7117:Bradley (1992)
7109:
7105:Bradley (1992)
7097:
7085:
7083:, p. 136.
7073:
7061:
7049:
7037:
7025:
7023:, p. 185.
7013:
7001:
6999:, p. 183.
6986:
6974:
6972:, p. 122.
6962:
6960:, p. 107.
6950:
6938:
6926:
6913:
6911:
6908:
6906:
6903:
6900:
6899:
6879:
6863:
6854:
6820:John DeFrancis
6812:
6785:
6775:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6768:
6767:
6762:
6755:
6750:
6743:
6740:
6722:Prime Minister
6679:
6678:
6658:
6656:
6639:
6636:
6565:
6562:
6534:southern China
6488:
6487:
6438:
6436:
6429:
6423:
6422:Mainland China
6420:
6417:" on the wall.
6406:
6403:
6363:
6362:
6345:
6344:
6324:
6322:
6310:
6309:
6292:September 2023
6268:
6266:
6259:
6254:
6228:
6227:
6225:
6218:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6150:syllabic nasal
6105:
6102:
6101:
6100:
6093:
6065:
6064:
6058:
6051:Open questions
5988:, which was a
5944:
5941:
5937:Nominalization
5914:Yongxin County
5879:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5804:
5803:
5798:
5789:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5769:
5760:
5755:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5717:
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5711:
5706:
5701:
5696:
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5611:
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5591:
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5576:
5570:
5569:
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5539:
5534:
5529:
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5480:
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5476:
5437:
5413:
5410:
5393:
5390:
5372:
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5341:
5336:
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5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5294:
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5288:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5216:
5215:
5210:
5205:
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5190:
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5112:
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4982:
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4976:
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4961:
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4951:
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4921:
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4755:
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4727:
4722:
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4712:
4707:
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4682:
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3990:
3985:
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3962:
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3600:
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3478:
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3463:
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3453:
3448:
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3416:
3409:
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3395:
3388:
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3367:
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3346:
3339:
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3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3269:
3266:
3243:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3221:
3218:
3215:
3212:
3208:
3207:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3144:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3115:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3090:
3086:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3054:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3035:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3022:
3021:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2963:
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2957:
2954:
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2947:
2946:
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2940:
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2934:
2931:
2927:
2926:
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2917:
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2911:
2908:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2875:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2852:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2814:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2804:
2800:
2799:
2796:
2789:pitch contours
2690:stop consonant
2547:
2544:
2542:of the vowel.
2409:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2394:
2387:
2385:
2375:
2368:
2366:
2359:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2321:
2314:palatalization
2310:
2303:
2288:
2285:bilabial stops
2258:Fuzhou dialect
2244:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2197:
2192:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2129:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2109:
2107:
2102:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2088:
2083:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2021:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1773:
1772:
1762:
1760:
1750:
1748:
1738:
1736:
1706:
1703:
1674:
1671:
1616:dialect groups
1603:
1600:
1590:
1587:
1583:Wuyi Mountains
1522:
1519:
1487:Shaozhou Tuhua
1483:Xiangnan Tuhua
1477:(northwestern
1465:(northwestern
1459:
1458:
1451:
1446:
1439:
1434:
1423:
1404:
1403:
1363:
1358:
1327:
1322:
1295:
1290:
1263:
1258:
1243:
1238:
1215:Suzhou dialect
1195:
1190:
1159:
1125:
1115:
1105:
1095:
1085:
1075:
1065:
1055:
1045:
1035:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1027:
1026:Dialect groups
1024:
1001:
1000:Classification
998:
971:Medieval Latin
938:
935:
858:Main article:
855:
852:
832:Middle Chinese
770:
767:
763:United Nations
694:Middle Chinese
640:
639:
636:
635:
632:
631:
628:
627:
620:
611:
610:
604:
603:
600:Hàn-gí, Hàn-gú
596:
587:
586:
580:
579:
568:
562:
561:
554:
548:
547:
540:
534:
533:
526:
520:
519:
517:Yue: Cantonese
513:
512:
505:
499:
498:
492:
491:
484:
478:
477:
471:
470:
460:
454:
453:
446:
440:
439:
432:
426:
425:
416:
410:
409:
402:
396:
395:
388:
382:
381:
374:
368:
367:
361:
360:
359:Transcriptions
352:
351:
345:
341:
340:
337:
336:
333:
327:
326:
323:
322:
313:
307:
306:
297:
291:
290:
286:
285:
282:
281:
278:
277:
260:
252:
251:
244:
238:
237:
232:
226:
225:
218:
212:
211:
210:
209:
204:
202:Shaozhou Tuhua
199:
197:Xiangnan Tuhua
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
127:
123:
122:
120:
119:
118:
117:
115:Middle Chinese
103:
101:
98:
95:
94:
93:
92:
91:
90:
75:
69:
68:
51:
45:
44:
40:
39:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
16417:
16406:
16403:
16401:
16398:
16397:
16395:
16385:
16375:
16373:
16368:
16363:
16362:
16359:
16346:
16343:
16341:
16338:
16336:
16333:
16331:
16328:
16326:
16323:
16321:
16318:
16316:
16313:
16311:
16308:
16306:
16303:
16301:
16298:
16296:
16293:
16291:
16288:
16286:
16283:
16281:
16278:
16276:
16273:
16271:
16268:
16266:
16263:
16261:
16258:
16256:
16253:
16251:
16248:
16246:
16243:
16241:
16238:
16236:
16233:
16231:
16228:
16226:
16223:
16221:
16218:
16216:
16213:
16211:
16208:
16206:
16203:
16201:
16198:
16196:
16193:
16191:
16188:
16186:
16183:
16181:
16178:
16176:
16173:
16171:
16168:
16166:
16163:
16161:
16158:
16156:
16153:
16151:
16148:
16146:
16143:
16142:
16139:
16134:
16127:
16122:
16120:
16115:
16113:
16108:
16107:
16104:
16091:
16089:XJ = Xinjiang
16088:
16085:
16082:
16079:
16076:
16075:
16072:
16066:
16064:
16061:
16054:
16052:
16048:
16047:
16045:
16042:
16041:
16040:
16037:
16036:
16034:
16030:
16024:
16021:
16019:
16016:
16014:
16011:
16009:
16006:
16004:
16001:
15999:
15996:
15994:
15991:
15989:
15986:
15984:
15981:
15979:
15976:
15974:
15971:
15969:
15966:
15965:
15963:
15959:
15953:
15950:
15948:
15945:
15943:
15940:
15938:
15935:
15933:
15930:
15928:
15925:
15923:
15920:
15918:
15915:
15913:
15910:
15909:
15907:
15903:
15895:
15892:
15890:
15887:
15886:
15885:
15882:
15878:
15875:
15873:
15870:
15869:
15868:
15865:
15861:
15858:
15856:
15853:
15852:
15851:
15848:
15844:
15841:
15839:
15836:
15834:
15831:
15829:
15826:
15824:
15821:
15817:
15814:
15812:
15809:
15807:
15804:
15803:
15802:
15799:
15798:
15797:
15794:
15792:
15789:
15787:
15784:
15782:
15779:
15775:
15772:
15768:
15765:
15764:
15763:
15760:
15758:
15755:
15751:
15748:
15747:
15746:
15743:
15741:
15738:
15736:
15733:
15731:
15728:
15726:
15723:
15722:
15721:
15718:
15717:
15715:
15713:
15707:
15701:
15698:
15695:
15692:
15690:
15687:
15685:
15682:
15680:
15677:
15675:
15672:
15670:
15667:
15665:
15662:
15660:
15657:
15655:
15652:
15651:
15649:
15645:
15624:
15621:
15616:
15613:
15608:
15605:
15604:
15602:
15598:
15592:
15591:Western Yugur
15589:
15587:
15584:
15582:
15579:
15577:
15574:
15572:
15569:
15567:
15564:
15563:
15561:
15559:
15555:
15549:
15546:
15544:
15541:
15539:
15536:
15534:
15531:
15529:
15526:
15525:
15523:
15521:
15517:
15507:
15504:
15502:
15499:
15497:
15494:
15492:
15489:
15487:
15484:
15482:
15479:
15477:
15474:
15472:
15469:
15467:
15464:
15462:
15459:
15457:
15454:
15452:
15449:
15447:
15444:
15442:
15439:
15437:
15434:
15432:
15429:
15427:
15424:
15422:
15419:
15417:
15414:
15412:
15409:
15408:
15406:
15402:
15396:
15393:
15391:
15388:
15386:
15383:
15381:
15378:
15376:
15373:
15371:
15368:
15366:
15363:
15361:
15358:
15356:
15353:
15351:
15348:
15346:
15343:
15341:
15338:
15336:
15333:
15332:
15330:
15328:
15324:
15321:
15319:
15315:
15309:
15306:
15304:
15301:
15299:
15296:
15294:
15291:
15289:
15286:
15284:
15281:
15279:
15276:
15274:
15273:Eastern Yugur
15271:
15269:
15266:
15264:
15261:
15259:
15256:
15255:
15253:
15251:
15247:
15237:
15234:
15232:
15229:
15227:
15224:
15222:
15219:
15218:
15216:
15214:
15210:
15204:
15201:
15199:
15196:
15194:
15193:Small Flowery
15191:
15189:
15186:
15184:
15181:
15179:
15176:
15174:
15171:
15169:
15166:
15164:
15161:
15159:
15156:
15154:
15151:
15149:
15146:
15144:
15141:
15139:
15136:
15134:
15131:
15129:
15126:
15124:
15121:
15119:
15116:
15114:
15111:
15109:
15106:
15105:
15103:
15101:
15097:
15094:
15092:
15088:
15082:
15079:
15077:
15074:
15072:
15069:
15067:
15064:
15062:
15059:
15057:
15054:
15052:
15049:
15047:
15044:
15042:
15039:
15037:
15034:
15032:
15029:
15027:
15024:
15022:
15019:
15017:
15014:
15012:
15009:
15008:
15006:
15004:
15003:Austroasiatic
15000:
14996:
14989:
14985:
14971:
14968:
14966:
14963:
14961:
14958:
14956:
14953:
14951:
14948:
14946:
14943:
14941:
14938:
14936:
14933:
14932:
14930:
14926:
14920:
14917:
14915:
14912:
14910:
14907:
14905:
14902:
14900:
14897:
14895:
14892:
14890:
14887:
14885:
14882:
14880:
14877:
14875:
14872:
14870:
14867:
14865:
14862:
14860:
14857:
14855:
14852:
14850:
14847:
14845:
14842:
14840:
14837:
14836:
14834:
14832:
14828:
14822:
14819:
14817:
14814:
14812:
14809:
14807:
14804:
14802:
14799:
14797:
14794:
14792:
14789:
14787:
14784:
14782:
14779:
14777:
14774:
14772:
14769:
14767:
14764:
14762:
14759:
14757:
14754:
14752:
14749:
14747:
14744:
14742:
14739:
14737:
14734:
14732:
14729:
14727:
14724:
14722:
14719:
14718:
14716:
14714:
14710:
14696:
14693:
14691:
14688:
14686:
14683:
14681:
14678:
14676:
14673:
14671:
14668:
14666:
14663:
14661:
14658:
14656:
14653:
14651:
14648:
14646:
14643:
14642:
14640:
14636:
14630:
14627:
14625:
14622:
14620:
14617:
14615:
14612:
14610:
14607:
14605:
14602:
14600:
14597:
14595:
14592:
14590:
14587:
14585:
14582:
14580:
14577:
14575:
14572:
14570:
14567:
14565:
14562:
14560:
14557:
14555:
14552:
14550:
14547:
14545:
14542:
14540:
14537:
14535:
14532:
14530:
14527:
14525:
14522:
14520:
14517:
14515:
14512:
14510:
14507:
14505:
14502:
14500:
14497:
14495:
14492:
14491:
14489:
14487:
14483:
14477:
14474:
14472:
14469:
14467:
14464:
14462:
14459:
14457:
14454:
14452:
14449:
14447:
14444:
14442:
14439:
14437:
14434:
14432:
14429:
14427:
14424:
14422:
14419:
14417:
14414:
14412:
14409:
14407:
14404:
14402:
14399:
14397:
14394:
14392:
14389:
14387:
14384:
14382:
14379:
14377:
14374:
14373:
14371:
14369:
14365:
14359:
14356:
14354:
14351:
14349:
14346:
14344:
14341:
14339:
14336:
14334:
14331:
14329:
14326:
14324:
14321:
14319:
14316:
14314:
14311:
14309:
14306:
14304:
14301:
14299:
14296:
14294:
14291:
14289:
14286:
14284:
14281:
14279:
14276:
14274:
14271:
14269:
14266:
14264:
14261:
14259:
14256:
14254:
14251:
14249:
14246:
14244:
14241:
14239:
14236:
14234:
14231:
14229:
14226:
14224:
14221:
14219:
14216:
14214:
14211:
14209:
14206:
14204:
14201:
14199:
14196:
14194:
14191:
14189:
14186:
14185:
14183:
14181:
14177:
14174:
14172:
14168:
14162:
14159:
14157:
14154:
14152:
14149:
14147:
14144:
14142:
14139:
14137:
14134:
14132:
14129:
14128:
14126:
14124:
14120:
14114:
14111:
14109:
14106:
14104:
14101:
14099:
14096:
14094:
14091:
14089:
14086:
14084:
14081:
14080:
14078:
14076:
14072:
14069:
14067:
14061:
14057:
14053:
14048:
14044:
14041:
14037:
14027:
14025:
14021:
14017:
14011:
14008:
14006:
14003:
14001:
13998:
13996:
13993:
13991:
13988:
13986:
13983:
13981:
13978:
13976:
13973:
13971:
13968:
13966:
13963:
13961:
13958:
13956:
13953:
13951:
13948:
13946:
13943:
13941:
13938:
13936:
13933:
13932:
13930:
13928:
13924:
13918:
13915:
13913:
13910:
13908:
13905:
13903:
13900:
13898:
13895:
13893:
13890:
13888:
13885:
13884:
13882:
13880:
13876:
13872:
13869:
13865:
13859:
13856:
13855:
13853:
13849:
13845:
13838:
13833:
13831:
13826:
13824:
13819:
13818:
13815:
13805:
13795:
13785:
13782:
13780:
13777:
13775:
13772:
13770:
13767:
13763:
13760:
13758:
13755:
13754:
13753:
13750:
13746:
13743:
13741:
13738:
13736:
13733:
13731:
13728:
13726:
13723:
13721:
13718:
13716:
13713:
13711:
13708:
13706:
13703:
13702:
13701:
13698:
13694:
13691:
13690:
13689:
13688:Cyrillization
13686:
13685:
13683:
13679:
13674:
13671:
13669:
13666:
13664:
13661:
13659:
13656:
13654:
13652:
13648:
13642:
13639:
13635:
13632:
13630:
13627:
13626:
13625:
13622:
13621:
13613:
13610:
13608:
13605:
13603:
13600:
13598:
13595:
13593:
13590:
13588:
13585:
13583:
13581:
13580:Script styles
13577:
13574:
13572:
13568:
13565:
13563:
13559:
13553:
13550:
13548:
13545:
13543:
13540:
13538:
13535:
13534:
13525:
13522:
13518:
13515:
13513:
13510:
13508:
13505:
13504:
13503:
13500:
13499:
13497:
13493:
13490:
13484:
13478:
13475:
13473:
13470:
13468:
13465:
13463:
13460:
13458:
13455:
13453:
13450:
13448:
13445:
13443:
13440:
13438:
13435:
13434:
13432:
13430:
13426:
13420:
13417:
13415:
13412:
13410:
13407:
13403:
13400:
13398:
13395:
13393:
13390:
13389:
13388:
13385:
13383:
13380:
13378:
13375:
13371:
13368:
13367:
13366:
13363:
13360:
13358:
13355:
13354:
13352:
13350:
13346:
13340:
13339:
13335:
13333:
13332:
13328:
13327:
13325:
13321:
13315:
13312:
13310:
13307:
13305:
13302:
13300:
13297:
13295:
13292:
13291:
13289:
13287:
13283:
13277:
13274:
13272:
13269:
13267:
13264:
13262:
13259:
13257:
13254:
13252:
13249:
13245:
13242:
13241:
13240:
13237:
13236:
13234:
13230:
13224:
13221:
13219:
13216:
13214:
13211:
13205:
13202:
13200:
13197:
13196:
13195:
13192:
13190:
13187:
13185:
13182:
13180:
13177:
13175:
13172:
13171:
13170:
13167:
13166:
13164:
13162:
13156:
13151:
13137:
13134:
13132:
13129:
13127:
13124:
13122:
13119:
13117:
13114:
13112:
13109:
13107:
13104:
13102:
13099:
13098:
13096:
13092:
13084:
13081:
13079:
13076:
13074:
13071:
13070:
13068:
13064:
13061:
13059:
13056:
13055:
13053:
13052:
13050:
13048:
13044:
13034:
13031:
13029:
13026:
13024:
13021:
13019:
13016:
13014:
13011:
13009:
13006:
13005:
13003:
12999:
12993:
12990:
12988:
12985:
12984:
12982:
12980:
12976:
12970:
12967:
12965:
12962:
12960:
12957:
12955:
12952:
12950:
12947:
12943:
12940:
12938:
12935:
12934:
12933:
12930:
12929:
12927:
12925:
12921:
12918:
12916:
12912:
12904:
12901:
12899:
12896:
12894:
12891:
12890:
12889:
12886:
12882:
12879:
12878:
12877:
12874:
12872:
12869:
12867:
12864:
12862:
12859:
12858:
12856:
12854:
12850:
12838:
12835:
12833:
12830:
12828:
12825:
12824:
12823:
12820:
12816:
12813:
12812:
12811:
12808:
12806:
12803:
12801:
12798:
12796:
12793:
12789:
12786:
12784:
12781:
12780:
12779:
12776:
12775:
12773:
12769:
12759:
12756:
12754:
12751:
12750:
12748:
12744:
12738:
12735:
12734:
12732:
12730:
12726:
12720:
12717:
12715:
12712:
12711:
12709:
12707:
12703:
12697:
12694:
12692:
12689:
12687:
12684:
12682:
12679:
12677:
12674:
12672:
12669:
12667:
12664:
12662:
12659:
12657:
12654:
12652:
12649:
12648:
12646:
12644:
12640:
12637:
12635:
12631:
12619:
12616:
12614:
12611:
12610:
12609:
12606:
12604:
12601:
12600:
12598:
12594:
12588:
12585:
12583:
12580:
12579:
12577:
12575:
12571:
12565:
12562:
12560:
12557:
12555:
12552:
12550:
12547:
12545:
12542:
12541:
12539:
12537:
12533:
12530:
12528:
12524:
12521:
12519:
12515:
12507:
12504:
12503:
12502:
12499:
12497:
12494:
12490:
12487:
12485:
12482:
12480:
12477:
12476:
12475:
12472:
12468:
12465:
12464:
12463:
12460:
12459:
12457:
12455:
12451:
12445:
12442:
12440:
12437:
12435:
12432:
12428:
12425:
12424:
12423:
12420:
12419:
12417:
12415:
12411:
12403:
12398:
12395:
12391:
12386:
12383:
12379:
12374:
12371:
12367:
12362:
12359:
12355:
12350:
12347:
12346:
12344:
12342:
12338:
12328:
12325:
12324:
12322:
12320:
12316:
12310:
12307:
12305:
12302:
12300:
12297:
12296:
12294:
12292:
12288:
12282:
12279:
12278:
12276:
12274:
12270:
12264:
12261:
12259:
12256:
12254:
12251:
12250:
12248:
12244:
12238:
12235:
12233:
12230:
12229:
12227:
12225:
12221:
12215:
12212:
12210:
12207:
12205:
12202:
12200:
12197:
12195:
12192:
12189:
12186:
12184:
12181:
12179:
12176:
12174:
12171:
12169:
12166:
12165:
12163:
12161:
12157:
12154:
12152:
12148:
12142:
12139:
12137:
12134:
12133:
12131:
12129:
12125:
12115:
12112:
12110:
12107:
12105:
12102:
12101:
12099:
12095:
12089:
12086:
12084:
12081:
12080:
12078:
12076:
12072:
12064:
12061:
12060:
12059:
12056:
12054:
12051:
12049:
12046:
12044:
12041:
12035:
12032:
12031:
12030:
12027:
12023:
12020:
12019:
12018:
12015:
12013:
12010:
12009:
12008:
12005:
12004:
12002:
12000:
11996:
11990:
11987:
11985:
11982:
11980:
11977:
11975:
11972:
11970:
11967:
11963:
11960:
11959:
11958:
11955:
11953:
11950:
11948:
11945:
11944:
11942:
11940:
11936:
11930:
11927:
11925:
11922:
11920:
11917:
11916:
11914:
11912:
11908:
11902:
11899:
11897:
11894:
11893:
11891:
11889:
11885:
11879:
11876:
11874:
11871:
11870:
11868:
11866:
11862:
11856:
11853:
11851:
11848:
11846:
11843:
11841:
11838:
11837:
11835:
11833:
11829:
11826:
11824:
11820:
11817:
11815:
11811:
11807:
11806:
11800:
11796:
11789:
11784:
11782:
11777:
11775:
11770:
11769:
11766:
11755:
11750:
11744:
11743:
11739:
11737:
11736:
11732:
11730:
11729:
11728:Proto-Karenic
11725:
11723:
11722:
11721:Proto-Loloish
11718:
11716:
11715:
11711:
11709:
11708:
11704:
11703:
11701:
11699:
11695:
11689:
11686:
11684:
11683:
11682:Tibeto-Burman
11679:
11677:
11674:
11672:
11669:
11667:
11664:
11662:
11659:
11657:
11654:
11653:
11651:
11647:
11637:
11634:
11630:
11629:
11625:
11623:
11622:
11618:
11617:
11616:
11613:
11612:
11610:
11608:
11604:
11598:
11597:
11593:
11591:
11588:
11584:
11583:
11579:
11578:
11577:
11576:
11572:
11568:
11567:
11563:
11561:
11560:
11556:
11555:
11554:
11551:
11550:
11548:
11545:
11541:
11536:
11532:
11520:
11519:
11515:
11513:
11510:
11508:
11505:
11504:
11503:
11502:
11498:
11496:
11493:
11491:
11488:
11484:
11481:
11480:
11479:
11478:
11474:
11473:
11471:
11469:
11468:Burmo-Qiangic
11465:
11457:
11456:
11452:
11450:
11449:
11445:
11443:
11442:
11438:
11437:
11436:
11433:
11431:
11430:
11426:
11424:
11423:
11419:
11417:
11416:
11412:
11410:
11407:
11405:
11404:
11400:
11398:
11397:
11393:
11391:
11390:
11386:
11385:
11383:
11381:
11377:
11373:
11363:
11362:Jingpho–Luish
11360:
11358:
11355:
11353:
11350:
11349:
11347:
11345:
11341:
11335:
11332:
11330:
11327:
11325:
11324:
11320:
11318:
11315:
11313:
11310:
11309:
11307:
11304:
11299:
11293:
11292:
11288:
11286:
11285:
11281:
11277:
11276:
11272:
11270:
11269:
11265:
11264:
11263:
11260:
11258:
11257:
11253:
11251:
11250:
11246:
11245:
11243:
11238:
11234:
11228:
11225:
11223:
11222:
11218:
11216:
11215:
11211:
11209:
11208:
11204:
11199:
11198:
11194:
11192:
11191:
11187:
11185:
11184:
11180:
11178:
11175:
11173:
11172:
11168:
11167:
11166:
11165:
11161:
11160:
11158:
11155:
11151:
11147:
11142:
11137:
11132:
11118:
11117:
11112:
11111:
11107:
11105:
11102:
11098:
11097:
11093:
11091:
11090:
11086:
11085:
11084:
11081:
11077:
11076:
11072:
11070:
11069:
11065:
11064:
11063:
11060:
11059:
11057:
11055:
11051:
11045:
11044:
11040:
11036:
11035:
11031:
11029:
11028:
11024:
11022:
11021:
11017:
11016:
11015:
11012:
11010:
11009:
11005:
11001:
11000:Baram–Thangmi
10998:
10996:
10995:
10991:
10990:
10989:
10986:
10984:
10983:
10979:
10977:
10976:
10972:
10971:
10969:
10966:
10962:
10958:
10953:
10949:
10944:
10939:
10932:
10927:
10925:
10920:
10918:
10913:
10912:
10909:
10902:
10899:
10895:
10889:
10886:
10878:
10874:
10870:
10865:
10860:
10856:
10852:
10848:
10847:
10844:
10837:
10833:
10828:
10825:
10822:
10818:
10815:
10812:
10808:
10805:
10804:
10801:
10794:
10790:
10789:
10778:
10772:
10768:
10763:东南亚华人社区汉语方言概要
10759:
10756:
10752:
10748:
10744:
10737:
10733:
10727:
10723:
10719:
10715:
10710:
10706:
10700:
10696:
10691:
10687:
10681:
10677:
10672:
10668:
10664:
10660:
10656:
10652:
10648:
10644:
10638:
10634:
10629:
10625:
10619:
10615:
10610:
10606:
10600:
10596:
10591:
10587:
10583:
10576:
10571:
10567:
10563:
10559:
10555:
10551:
10546:
10542:
10536:
10532:
10527:
10523:
10519:
10515:
10511:
10507:
10503:
10499:
10494:
10490:
10484:
10480:
10473:
10468:
10464:
10458:
10454:
10449:
10445:
10441:
10437:
10433:
10429:
10424:
10420:
10416:
10411:
10406:
10402:
10398:
10394:
10390:
10386:
10382:
10377:
10372:
10367:
10363:
10359:
10354:
10350:
10346:
10342:
10338:
10333:
10332:
10320:
10314:
10310:
10305:
10301:
10295:
10291:
10287:
10283:
10279:
10273:
10269:
10264:
10260:
10254:
10250:
10246:
10244:中国语言地图集:汉语方言卷
10242:
10236:
10232:
10226:
10222:
10221:
10216:
10212:
10208:
10204:
10200:
10196:
10192:
10187:
10182:
10177:
10173:
10169:
10165:
10161:
10156:
10152:
10146:
10142:
10137:
10133:
10127:
10123:
10119:
10115:
10111:
10105:
10101:
10097:
10093:
10088:
10084:
10078:
10074:
10070:
10069:Norman, Jerry
10066:
10062:
10058:
10054:
10050:
10049:
10039:
10024:
10020:
10014:
10010:
10003:
9998:
9994:
9990:
9983:
9979:
9975:
9971:
9965:
9961:
9956:
9952:
9946:
9942:
9938:
9933:
9929:
9923:
9919:
9915:
9910:
9906:
9905:Dialectologia
9902:
9897:
9892:
9887:
9883:
9879:
9874:
9869:
9864:
9860:
9855:
9851:
9850:
9844:
9840:
9834:
9830:
9826:
9825:
9820:
9816:
9812:
9806:
9802:
9798:
9794:
9790:
9784:
9780:
9775:
9771:
9765:
9761:
9760:
9754:
9750:
9744:
9740:
9735:
9731:
9725:
9721:
9716:
9712:
9706:
9702:
9698:
9694:
9690:
9684:
9680:
9673:
9668:
9664:
9658:
9654:
9647:
9642:
9638:
9632:
9628:
9624:
9620:
9615:
9611:
9607:
9601:
9597:
9593:
9589:
9585:
9579:
9571:
9567:
9563:
9557:
9556:
9543:
9539:
9535:
9531:
9524:
9516:
9510:
9506:
9502:
9495:
9488:
9479:
9463:
9459:
9452:
9444:
9438:
9434:
9433:
9425:
9418:
9412:
9405:
9399:
9391:
9387:
9381:
9374:
9369:
9363:, p. 17.
9362:
9357:
9355:
9347:
9342:
9336:, p. 15.
9335:
9330:
9328:
9320:
9315:
9309:, p. 57.
9308:
9303:
9297:, p. 69.
9296:
9291:
9284:
9279:
9277:
9269:
9264:
9257:
9252:
9245:
9240:
9233:
9228:
9221:
9216:
9210:, p. 92.
9209:
9208:Norman (1988)
9204:
9197:
9192:
9185:
9184:Norman (1988)
9180:
9173:
9172:Norman (1988)
9168:
9161:
9160:Norman (1988)
9156:
9149:
9148:Norman (1988)
9144:
9137:
9132:
9125:
9120:
9114:, p. 42.
9113:
9108:
9102:, p. 49.
9101:
9096:
9094:
9086:
9081:
9074:
9069:
9062:
9057:
9050:
9045:
9038:
9033:
9026:
9021:
9015:, p. 31.
9014:
9009:
9002:
9001:Norman (1988)
8997:
8990:
8985:
8978:
8977:Norman (1988)
8973:
8967:, p. 23.
8966:
8961:
8954:
8949:
8942:
8937:
8930:
8925:
8918:
8913:
8906:
8901:
8899:
8891:
8886:
8880:, p. 81.
8879:
8874:
8867:
8862:
8855:
8850:
8848:
8840:
8839:Norman (1988)
8835:
8828:
8827:Norman (1988)
8823:
8816:
8815:Norman (1988)
8811:
8804:
8803:Norman (1988)
8799:
8792:
8791:Norman (1988)
8787:
8780:
8779:Norman (1988)
8775:
8768:
8767:Norman (1988)
8763:
8756:
8755:Norman (1988)
8751:
8744:
8739:
8737:
8729:
8724:
8717:
8712:
8705:
8700:
8693:
8688:
8681:
8676:
8669:
8664:
8657:
8652:
8645:
8640:
8633:
8628:
8626:
8618:
8613:
8606:
8605:Norman (1988)
8601:
8594:
8589:
8582:
8577:
8575:
8567:
8566:Norman (1988)
8562:
8555:
8554:Norman (1988)
8550:
8543:
8542:Norman (1988)
8538:
8531:
8530:Norman (1988)
8526:
8519:
8514:
8507:
8506:Norman (1988)
8502:
8495:
8494:Norman (1988)
8490:
8483:
8482:Norman (1988)
8478:
8476:
8468:
8463:
8456:
8451:
8444:
8443:Norman (1988)
8439:
8437:
8429:
8428:Norman (1988)
8424:
8417:
8416:Norman (1988)
8412:
8406:, p. 53.
8405:
8404:Norman (1988)
8400:
8393:
8392:Norman (1988)
8388:
8381:
8380:Norman (1988)
8376:
8370:, p. 54.
8369:
8368:Norman (1988)
8364:
8362:
8354:
8353:Norman (1988)
8349:
8342:
8341:Norman (1988)
8337:
8330:
8325:
8318:
8317:Norman (1988)
8313:
8306:
8305:Norman (1988)
8301:
8294:
8293:Norman (1988)
8289:
8282:
8281:Norman (1988)
8277:
8270:
8269:Norman (1988)
8265:
8258:
8257:Norman (1988)
8253:
8246:
8245:Norman (1988)
8241:
8234:
8229:
8222:
8221:Norman (1988)
8217:
8210:
8205:
8198:
8193:
8186:
8181:
8174:
8169:
8162:
8157:
8150:
8145:
8138:
8137:Norman (1988)
8133:
8126:
8125:Norman (1988)
8121:
8114:
8113:Norman (1988)
8109:
8102:
8097:
8090:
8089:Norman (1988)
8085:
8078:
8077:Norman (1988)
8073:
8066:
8061:
8054:
8049:
8042:
8041:Norman (1988)
8037:
8030:
8025:
8018:
8013:
8006:
8005:Ramsey (1987)
8001:
7994:
7993:Norman (1988)
7989:
7982:
7981:Norman (1988)
7977:
7970:
7965:
7959:, p. 57.
7958:
7953:
7951:
7949:
7942:, p. 63.
7941:
7936:
7929:
7924:
7917:
7912:
7905:
7900:
7893:
7888:
7881:
7876:
7870:, p. 14.
7869:
7864:
7857:
7856:Norman (1988)
7852:
7845:
7840:
7833:
7828:
7821:
7816:
7809:
7804:
7797:
7792:
7785:
7780:
7773:
7768:
7761:
7756:
7750:, p. 76.
7749:
7748:Norman (2003)
7744:
7737:
7732:
7725:
7724:Norman (1988)
7720:
7718:
7710:
7705:
7698:
7693:
7686:
7681:
7674:
7673:Norman (2003)
7669:
7667:
7659:
7658:Norman (1988)
7654:
7652:
7644:
7639:
7632:
7631:Norman (2003)
7627:
7620:
7619:Ramsey (1987)
7615:
7608:
7607:Coblin (2019)
7603:
7596:
7591:
7584:
7579:
7572:
7567:
7560:
7555:
7548:
7543:
7536:
7531:
7524:
7519:
7512:
7507:
7500:
7495:
7488:
7483:
7477:, p. 98.
7476:
7475:Ramsey (1987)
7471:
7464:
7463:Norman (1988)
7459:
7452:
7451:Norman (1988)
7447:
7445:
7443:
7435:
7434:Norman (1988)
7430:
7423:
7422:Norman (1988)
7418:
7411:
7410:Norman (1988)
7406:
7404:
7397:, p. 49.
7396:
7391:
7384:
7383:Norman (1988)
7379:
7372:
7367:
7360:
7355:
7348:
7347:Norman (1988)
7343:
7337:, p. 90.
7336:
7331:
7324:
7319:
7312:
7311:Norman (1988)
7307:
7300:
7295:
7288:
7283:
7276:
7271:
7264:
7263:Norman (1988)
7259:
7257:
7249:
7248:Norman (1988)
7244:
7242:
7235:, p. 72.
7234:
7233:Norman (2003)
7229:
7227:
7225:
7217:
7216:Ramsey (1987)
7212:
7205:
7204:Norman (1988)
7200:
7193:
7192:Ramsey (1987)
7188:
7181:
7176:
7169:
7168:Norman (1988)
7164:
7157:
7156:Norman (1988)
7152:
7150:
7142:
7141:Norman (1988)
7137:
7130:
7125:
7118:
7113:
7106:
7101:
7094:
7093:Ramsey (1987)
7089:
7082:
7081:Norman (1988)
7077:
7071:, p. 22.
7070:
7069:Ramsey (1987)
7065:
7058:
7057:Norman (1988)
7053:
7046:
7045:Norman (1988)
7041:
7034:
7033:Ramsey (1987)
7029:
7022:
7021:Norman (1988)
7017:
7010:
7009:Norman (1988)
7005:
6998:
6997:Norman (1988)
6993:
6991:
6983:
6978:
6971:
6966:
6959:
6954:
6947:
6942:
6935:
6930:
6923:
6922:Norman (1988)
6918:
6914:
6897:for 'person'.
6895:
6888:
6886:
6884:
6876:
6870:
6868:
6858:
6851:
6850:
6844:
6839:
6835:
6830:
6825:
6821:
6816:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6800:
6795:
6789:
6780:
6776:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6760:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6746:
6745:
6739:
6736:
6735:
6734:lingua franca
6730:
6726:
6723:
6718:
6716:
6712:
6708:
6707:Goh Keng Swee
6704:
6700:
6699:
6698:lingua franca
6694:
6691:(even though
6690:
6686:
6675:
6672:December 2018
6666:
6662:
6659:This section
6657:
6654:
6650:
6649:
6645:
6635:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6611:
6608:
6604:
6601:
6597:
6593:
6589:
6585:
6581:
6577:
6571:
6561:
6559:
6554:
6553:
6546:
6545:
6539:
6535:
6531:
6527:
6522:
6518:
6515:For example,
6512:
6507:
6505:
6500:
6495:
6484:
6481:
6473:
6470:November 2008
6463:
6459:
6455:
6449:
6448:
6444:
6439:This section
6437:
6433:
6428:
6427:
6416:
6411:
6402:
6398:
6396:
6392:
6388:
6382:
6378:
6376:
6371:
6359:
6356:
6341:
6338:December 2018
6332:
6328:
6325:This section
6323:
6320:
6316:
6315:
6306:
6303:
6295:
6285:
6281:
6275:
6274:
6269:This section
6267:
6263:
6258:
6257:
6252:
6250:
6243:
6242:
6237:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6217:
6216:
6203:
6200:
6195:
6192:
6187:
6180:
6175:
6169:
6166:derived from
6165:
6160:
6151:
6146:
6142:and Shanghai
6140:
6135:
6129:
6124:
6111:
6098:
6094:
6087:
6086:
6085:
6082:
6071:
6062:
6059:
6056:
6052:
6049:
6048:
6047:
6045:
6040:
6037:
6032:
6022:
6019:
6014:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5991:
5990:demonstrative
5986:
5981:
5975:
5970:
5961:
5956:
5954:
5950:
5949:stative verbs
5940:
5938:
5932:
5927:
5917:
5915:
5909:
5907:
5903:
5898:
5887:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5806:
5805:
5799:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5761:
5756:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5719:
5718:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5644:
5643:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5571:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5530:
5527:
5521:
5517:
5514:
5503:
5498:
5497:demonstrative
5494:
5490:
5477:
5473:
5461:
5455:
5443:
5438:
5435:
5434:
5433:
5431:
5427:
5418:
5409:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5389:
5387:
5386:Austroasiatic
5383:
5379:
5367:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5299:
5296:
5295:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5221:
5218:
5217:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5143:
5140:
5139:
5133:
5128:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5065:
5062:
5061:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4987:
4984:
4983:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4909:
4906:
4905:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4831:
4828:
4827:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4749:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4675:
4672:
4671:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4593:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4519:
4516:
4515:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4441:
4438:
4437:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4363:
4360:
4359:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4285:
4282:
4281:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4207:
4204:
4203:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3739:
3736:
3735:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3501:
3495:
3490:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3421:
3417:
3414:
3410:
3407:
3403:
3400:
3396:
3393:
3389:
3386:
3382:
3379:
3375:
3372:
3368:
3365:
3361:
3358:
3354:
3351:
3347:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3291:
3287:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3265:
3261:
3258:
3254:
3249:
3237:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3164:
3161:
3152:
3149:
3146:
3145:
3132:
3126:
3120:
3117:
3116:
3103:
3100:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3074:
3071:
3062:
3059:
3055:
3042:
3039:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3023:
3013:
3010:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2987:
2984:
2975:
2972:
2968:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2921:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2898:
2883:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2846:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2801:
2794:
2790:
2784:
2780:
2778:
2773:
2756:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2716:
2706:
2691:
2686:
2675:
2666:), 'rising' (
2664:
2654:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2622:
2604:
2592:
2574:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2552:
2543:
2541:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2430:
2425:
2423:
2414:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2386:
2383:
2379:
2372:
2367:
2356:
2351:
2344:
2339:
2332:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2297:
2294:, as well as
2293:
2289:
2286:
2279:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2259:
2250:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2103:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2089:
2084:
2077:
2076:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2022:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1961:
1960:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1783:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1758:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1734:
1728:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1713:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1679:
1670:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1599:
1597:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1569:
1568:Yangtze River
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1527:
1518:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1431:entering tone
1428:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1410:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1269:and southern
1268:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1132:
1122:
1112:
1102:
1092:
1082:
1072:
1062:
1052:
1042:
1034:
1023:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1007:
997:
995:
991:
987:
982:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
934:
932:
926:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
895:
880:
875:
871:
867:
861:
851:
849:
844:
839:
837:
833:
828:
824:
823:
818:
814:
813:
808:
804:
799:
797:
792:
791:Yangtze River
788:
784:
780:
776:
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
697:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
637:
633:
621:
619:
616:
612:
609:
605:
597:
595:
592:
588:
585:
581:
575:
569:
567:
563:
555:
553:
549:
541:
539:
535:
527:
525:
521:
518:
514:
506:
504:
500:
497:
493:
485:
483:
479:
476:
472:
466:
461:
459:
455:
447:
445:
441:
433:
431:
427:
417:
415:
411:
403:
401:
397:
389:
387:
383:
375:
373:
369:
366:
362:
357:
353:
349:
346:
342:
338:
334:
332:
328:
324:
319:
314:
312:
308:
303:
298:
296:
292:
287:
283:
279:
274:
270:
266:
265:
258:
253:
249:
245:
243:
239:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
217:
213:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
129:
128:
124:
116:
113:
112:
111:
108:
107:
106:
102:
96:
89:
86:
85:
84:
81:
80:
79:
76:
74:
70:
67:
63:
59:
55:
52:
46:
41:
36:
33:
29:
22:
16194:
16135:of languages
16077:GX = Guangxi
16065:
16063:Tibetan Sign
16053:
16039:Chinese Sign
15905:Creole/Mixed
15774:Southeastern
15762:Southwestern
15725:Northeastern
15710:Varieties of
15709:
13710:Hanyu Pinyin
13700:Romanization
13607:Semi-cursive
13452:Old Mandarin
13409:Stroke count
13336:
13329:
13251:Old National
13094:Unclassified
11999:Southwestern
11832:Northeastern
11814:Major groups
11813:
11803:
11753:
11740:
11733:
11726:
11719:
11712:
11705:
11680:
11626:
11619:
11594:
11580:
11573:
11564:
11557:
11516:
11501:Lolo-Burmese
11499:
11475:
11453:
11446:
11439:
11427:
11420:
11413:
11401:
11394:
11387:
11321:
11289:
11282:
11273:
11266:
11254:
11247:
11219:
11212:
11205:
11195:
11188:
11181:
11169:
11162:
11114:
11108:
11094:
11087:
11073:
11066:
11041:
11032:
11025:
11018:
11006:
10992:
10980:
10973:
10938:Sino-Tibetan
10893:
10876:
10868:
10842:
10835:
10817:HTML version
10799:
10792:
10766:
10746:
10713:
10694:
10675:
10658:
10654:
10632:
10613:
10594:
10585:
10581:
10557:
10553:
10530:
10505:
10501:
10478:
10452:
10438:(1): 29–60,
10435:
10431:
10384:
10380:
10364:(1): 43–63,
10361:
10357:
10340:
10336:
10308:
10289:
10267:
10248:
10240:
10219:
10194:
10190:
10163:
10159:
10140:
10121:
10099:
10072:
10052:
10046:
10030:, retrieved
10023:the original
10008:
9992:
9988:
9962:, Springer,
9959:
9940:
9913:
9904:
9881:
9877:
9858:
9848:
9827:, Honolulu:
9823:
9800:
9778:
9758:
9738:
9719:
9700:
9678:
9671:
9652:
9645:
9626:
9618:
9595:
9569:
9561:
9533:
9529:
9523:
9504:
9500:
9494:
9483:(in Chinese)
9478:
9466:. Retrieved
9461:
9451:
9431:
9424:
9416:
9411:
9398:
9390:the original
9380:
9373:Hsieh (2007)
9368:
9361:Hsieh (2007)
9346:Hsieh (2007)
9341:
9334:Hsieh (2007)
9319:Hsieh (2007)
9314:
9302:
9290:
9263:
9251:
9239:
9227:
9215:
9203:
9191:
9179:
9167:
9155:
9143:
9131:
9119:
9107:
9080:
9068:
9056:
9044:
9032:
9020:
9008:
8996:
8984:
8972:
8960:
8948:
8936:
8924:
8912:
8885:
8873:
8861:
8834:
8822:
8810:
8798:
8786:
8774:
8762:
8750:
8723:
8711:
8699:
8687:
8682:, p. 1.
8675:
8663:
8651:
8639:
8612:
8600:
8588:
8561:
8549:
8537:
8525:
8513:
8501:
8489:
8462:
8450:
8423:
8411:
8399:
8387:
8375:
8348:
8343:, p. 9.
8336:
8324:
8312:
8300:
8288:
8276:
8264:
8252:
8240:
8228:
8216:
8204:
8192:
8180:
8168:
8156:
8144:
8132:
8120:
8108:
8096:
8084:
8072:
8060:
8048:
8036:
8024:
8012:
8000:
7988:
7976:
7971:, p. 7.
7964:
7935:
7930:, p. 2.
7923:
7911:
7906:, p. 8.
7899:
7887:
7875:
7868:Liang (2014)
7863:
7851:
7839:
7827:
7815:
7803:
7791:
7784:Iwata (1995)
7779:
7772:Iwata (1995)
7767:
7760:Iwata (2010)
7755:
7743:
7731:
7704:
7692:
7680:
7638:
7626:
7614:
7602:
7590:
7585:, p. 9.
7578:
7566:
7554:
7542:
7530:
7518:
7506:
7494:
7482:
7470:
7458:
7429:
7417:
7390:
7378:
7366:
7354:
7342:
7330:
7318:
7306:
7294:
7282:
7270:
7211:
7199:
7194:, p. 7.
7187:
7182:, p. 2.
7175:
7170:, p. 1.
7163:
7136:
7124:
7112:
7100:
7088:
7076:
7064:
7052:
7040:
7028:
7016:
7004:
6984:, p. 3.
6977:
6965:
6953:
6941:
6936:, p. 3.
6929:
6917:
6875:§ Tones
6857:
6847:
6837:
6823:
6815:
6797:
6788:
6779:
6757:
6732:
6725:Lee Kuan Yew
6719:
6702:
6696:
6682:
6669:
6665:adding to it
6660:
6628:Yilan county
6612:
6594:, who spoke
6582:, who spoke
6573:
6544:Jiǎng Jièshí
6508:
6491:
6476:
6467:
6452:Please help
6440:
6399:
6391:sound shifts
6383:
6379:
6366:
6351:
6335:
6331:adding to it
6326:
6298:
6289:
6278:Please help
6273:verification
6270:
6246:
6239:
6233:
6232:Please help
6229:
6196:
6164:prepositions
6161:
6107:
6104:Verb phrases
6066:
6043:
6041:
6023:
5994:
5957:
5953:Ditransitive
5946:
5918:
5910:
5882:
5518:
5486:
5457:) 'hen' and
5423:
5406:prepositions
5395:
5375:
4208:"sun", 'day'
3271:
3262:
3250:
3246:
2781:
2739:Tang dynasty
2732:
2650:
2642:pitch accent
2618:'horse) and
2557:
2540:nasalization
2524:glottal stop
2506:, and stops
2485:
2481:Yue dialects
2451:, and a low
2429:Gan dialects
2426:
2419:
2400:
2396:
2381:
2377:
2300:Southern Min
2255:
1719:, spoken in
1710:
1708:
1695:Shanghainese
1684:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1631:
1623:
1615:
1611:
1605:
1592:
1572:
1549:
1535:Jerry Norman
1533:
1506:Bai language
1503:
1460:
1407:
1405:
1219:Shanghainese
1170:
1166:
1146:Li Fang-Kuei
1144:in 1936 and
1138:
1032:
1020:
1012:Jerry Norman
1009:
983:
967:Roman Empire
940:
927:
896:
863:
840:
820:
810:
800:
779:Yellow River
772:
729:
698:
643:
584:Southern Min
503:Romanization
482:Romanization
372:Hanyu Pinyin
331:Hanyu Pinyin
289:Chinese name
275:(not shown).
262:
230:Linguasphere
126:Subdivisions
87:
78:Sino-Tibetan
50:distribution
32:
16170:Azerbaijani
15571:Fuyu Kyrgyz
15370:Tai Hongjin
15056:Muak Sa-aak
13779:Xiao'erjing
13641:Punctuation
13634:Traditional
13587:Oracle bone
13571:Logographic
13467:Proto-Hakka
13442:Eastern Han
13437:Old Chinese
13299:Classifiers
13266:Northern Wu
13194:Singaporean
12400: [
12388: [
12376: [
12364: [
12352: [
11742:Proto-Hakka
11671:Mahakiranti
11177:East Bodish
10957:Uttarakhand
10432:Diachronica
10223:, Longman,
10055:: 247–267,
9614:Cao, Zhiyun
9552:Works cited
9307:Chen (1999)
8890:Chen (2015)
8878:Chen (2015)
8644:Cao (2008c)
8593:Cao (2008b)
8329:Cao (2008a)
8209:Cao (2008a)
8197:Cao (2008a)
8185:Cao (2008a)
8173:Cao (2008a)
8161:Cao (2008a)
8149:Cao (2008a)
8053:Cao (2008a)
7969:Mair (1991)
7916:Mair (1991)
7880:Mair (2013)
7709:Cao (2008c)
7697:Cao (2008b)
7685:Cao (2008a)
7643:Wang (2005)
7583:Cao (2008a)
7129:Chen (1999)
6982:Mair (1991)
6970:Wang (2005)
6958:Wang (2005)
6834:Victor Mair
6824:regionalect
6598:. When the
6580:Han Chinese
6530:Sun Yat-sen
6370:code switch
6110:Old Chinese
6046:questions:
5388:languages.
3278:Old Chinese
3253:tone sandhi
2999:Shuangfeng
2638:tone sandhi
2588:'mother'),
2473:Wu dialects
1657:regionalect
1649:Han dynasty
1602:Terminology
1556:wave models
1540:Han dynasty
1499:Miao people
1495:She Chinese
1335:Han Chinese
1150:Yuan Jiahua
986:Sui dynasty
969:in Europe.
876:, known as
817:Eastern Han
777:and middle
723:to eastern
717:tone sandhi
608:Eastern Min
105:Old Chinese
99:Early forms
16394:Categories
16285:Portuguese
16250:Macedonian
16092:XZ = Tibet
16083:MC = Macau
16023:Zhangzhung
15767:Sichuanese
15694:Vietnamese
15091:Hmong-Mien
14970:Waxianghua
14751:Khroskyabs
14039:Indigenous
13927:Prefecture
13902:Portuguese
13730:Wade–Giles
13629:Simplified
13524:Vernacular
13517:in Vietnam
13370:Simplified
13357:Biaoxingma
13304:Honorifics
13239:Historical
13184:Philippine
13174:Sichuanese
13101:Badong Yao
12805:Shao–Jiang
12676:Philippine
12484:Xiangxiang
12479:Shuangfeng
12224:Taizhou Wu
12007:Sichuanese
11636:Idu–Taraon
11590:Miju–Meyor
11483:Gyalrongic
11329:Tangkhulic
11104:Raji–Raute
10742:中国方志所錄方言滙編
10181:1887/14919
9283:Yue (2017)
9256:Yue (2017)
9232:Yue (2017)
9136:Yue (2017)
9085:Yue (2017)
9037:Yue (2017)
8989:Yue (2017)
8941:Yue (2017)
8905:Yue (2017)
8866:Yue (2017)
8854:Yue (2017)
8743:Yue (2017)
8656:Yue (2017)
8632:Yue (2017)
8518:Yan (2006)
8467:Yan (2006)
8455:Yan (2006)
8233:Yan (2006)
8211:, Map 124.
8101:Yan (2006)
8065:Yan (2006)
8029:Yan (2006)
7547:Yan (2006)
7523:Yan (2006)
7511:Yan (2006)
7371:Yan (2006)
7335:Yan (2006)
7180:Yan (2006)
6905:References
6711:competency
6703:Goh Report
6600:Kuomintang
6552:Sūn Yìxiān
6540:spellings
6517:Mao Zedong
6235:improve it
5604:Shuangfeng
5493:classifier
4442:'mountain'
3378:Shuangfeng
3268:Vocabulary
3214:Guangzhou
2809:departing
2735:tone split
2465:allophones
1998:Fricatives
1782:affricates
1697:, include
1625:Ethnologue
1560:Huai River
1552:tree model
1497:) and the
1491:She people
1391:Taishanese
1235:fricatives
1231:affricates
1225:initials (
1201:, most of
1183:Kazakhstan
1179:Kyrgyzstan
705:vocabulary
488:hoe3 nyiu2
414:Wade–Giles
48:Geographic
16335:Ukrainian
16265:Norwegian
16185:Bulgarian
16165:Aromanian
16155:Aragonese
16133:Varieties
16003:Tocharian
15937:Qoqmončaq
15889:Cantonese
15843:Shaojiang
15816:Hainanese
15745:Zhongyuan
15740:Jiao-Liao
15674:Esperanto
15576:Ili Turki
15283:Khamnigan
15148:Kiong Nai
14919:Zitsadegu
13897:Mongolian
13887:Cantonese
13668:Taiwanese
13658:Cantonese
13502:Classical
13462:Proto-Min
13397:Microsoft
13256:Cantonese
13232:Phonology
13213:Cantonese
13204:Singdarin
13189:Malaysian
13179:Taiwanese
13083:Rongjiang
13073:Yongjiang
13069:Southern
13054:Northern
13028:Luo–Guang
12937:Hong Kong
12932:Guangzhou
12888:Taiwanese
12881:Changting
12815:Zhanjiang
12729:Zhongshan
12696:Malaysian
12691:Singapore
12656:Zhangzhou
12608:Zhongshan
12501:Yong–Quan
12397:Jing-Zhan
12327:Xuancheng
12304:Jiangshan
12183:Changzhou
12104:Junjiahua
11957:Guanzhong
11840:Changchun
11735:Proto-Min
11666:Macro-Bai
11544:Arunachal
11537:(possible
11352:Boro–Garo
11256:Kuki-Chin
11239:and Indo-
11154:Arunachal
11141:Himalayas
11116:Tandrange
11083:Chepangic
11014:Dhimalish
10948:Himalayas
10522:123103670
9868:2152/3598
9220:Li (2001)
8646:, Map 76.
8595:, Map 39.
8199:, Map 73.
8187:, Map 52.
8175:, Map 43.
8163:, Map 45.
8151:, Map 40.
8055:, Map 66.
6948:, Map A2.
6910:Citations
6685:bilingual
6638:Singapore
6441:does not
6387:immersion
6375:diglossia
6241:talk page
5639:Guangzhou
5402:particles
5382:Tai–Kadai
5378:substrata
3427:Guangzhou
3274:morphemes
3089:Shanghai
3028:Nanchang
2973:Changsha
2950:Yangzhou
2878:Mandarin
2812:entering
2777:Cantonese
2600:'hemp'),
2494:, nasals
2395:retained
2376:retained
2307:retroflex
2296:Old Xiang
2125:Sonorants
2003:voiceless
1687:consonant
1673:Phonology
1620:ISO 639-3
1433:category.
1387:Guangzhou
1383:Cantonese
1371:Hong Kong
1343:Indonesia
1311:Taiwanese
1299:Guangdong
1283:Old Xiang
1275:New Xiang
1223:obstruent
1167:Putonghua
1165:, called
931:Cantonese
836:diasystem
775:Wei River
751:Singapore
725:Guangdong
701:phonology
624:Háng-ngṳ̄
544:hon3 jyu5
242:Glottolog
216:ISO 639-5
62:Singapore
16372:Language
16300:Romanian
16240:Japanese
16220:Georgian
16160:Armenian
16145:Albanian
15947:Tangwang
15927:Macanese
15922:Lingling
15855:Northern
15838:Northern
15801:Southern
15720:Mandarin
15647:Minority
15607:Sarikoli
15520:Tungusic
15481:Naxi Yao
15426:Cao Miao
15350:Ningming
15250:Mongolic
15226:Dzao Min
15221:Biao Min
15178:Qo Xiong
15173:Pingtang
14869:Dongwang
14811:Tshobdun
14736:Guiqiong
14338:Sangkong
14113:Muangphe
14075:Mondzish
14029:numerous
14020:Counties
13867:Regional
13851:Official
13752:Bopomofo
13681:Phonetic
13673:Two-cell
13602:Clerical
13512:in Japan
13507:Adoption
13495:Official
13486:Literary
13361:Boshiamy
13338:Xiehouyu
13294:Numerals
13271:Mandarin
13199:Standard
13159:Standard
13033:Qin–Lian
13023:Yong–Xun
13008:Gao–Yang
12954:Jiujiang
12942:Malaysia
12876:Tingzhou
12827:Wenchang
12788:Jianyang
12778:Northern
12737:Sanxiang
12651:Quanzhou
12634:Southern
12603:Manjiang
12467:Changsha
12427:Nanchang
12422:Chang–Du
12319:Xuanzhou
12309:Qingtian
12263:Wencheng
12209:Jiangyin
12204:Jinxiang
12194:Shaoxing
12188:Hangzhou
12168:Shanghai
12109:Qinjiang
12017:Minjiang
11989:Xinjiang
11947:Dongping
11911:Jiaoliao
11850:Shenyang
11823:Mandarin
11540:isolates
11507:Mondzish
11435:Cai–Long
11183:Tshangla
11139:Eastern
10982:Tamangic
10952:Himachal
10946:Western
10940:branches
10866:(1981),
10755:50634504
10667:23756757
10588:: 1–103.
10419:16024359
10401:30047639
10288:(1993),
10215:Li, Rong
10120:(1984),
10098:(eds.),
10071:(1988),
10061:23825447
10032:15 April
9980:(1991),
9821:(1984),
9799:(2019),
9468:16 March
8331:, Map 1.
6838:topolect
6742:See also
6622:and the
6576:Japanese
5807:'he/she'
5609:Nanchang
5599:Changsha
5594:Yangzhou
5537:Mandarin
5483:Nominals
5144:'middle'
4754:'yellow'
3437:'person'
3385:Nanchang
3371:Changsha
3364:Yangzhou
3298:Mandarin
3182:Meixian
3118:Wenzhou
2930:Chengdu
2904:Beijing
2858:Taiyuan
2292:Shanghai
1769:Mandarin
1725:Shanghai
1705:Initials
1661:topolect
1622:and the
1530:between.
1395:Jiangmen
1339:Malaysia
1317:and the
1203:Zhejiang
1199:Shanghai
1157:Mandarin
1041:Mandarin
787:Shandong
721:Zhejiang
658:Mandarin
538:Jyutping
386:Bopomofo
350:language
273:Xinjiang
248:sini1245
132:Mandarin
66:Malaysia
16358:Portals
16345:Yiddish
16330:Turkish
16325:Swedish
16320:Spanish
16315:Slovene
16305:Russian
16290:Punjabi
16275:Persian
16260:Maltese
16210:English
16195:Chinese
16190:Catalan
16180:Bengali
16018:Xianbei
16013:Tuyuhun
15983:Old Yue
15961:Extinct
15942:Sanqiao
15833:Central
15823:Eastern
15806:Hokkien
15750:Lan-Yin
15730:Beijing
15712:Chinese
15669:Russian
15431:Chadong
15411:Ai-Cham
15380:Tai Nüa
15365:Tai Dón
15360:Tai Dam
15318:Kra-Dai
15288:Monguor
15278:Kangjia
15236:Kim Mun
15231:Iu Mien
15153:Luobohe
15143:Huishui
15123:Guiyang
15100:Hmongic
15061:Palaung
15051:Man Met
14955:Longjia
14904:Ladakhi
14899:Kyirong
14889:Khalong
14874:Drugchu
14831:Tibetic
14801:Shixing
14713:Qiangic
14494:Alingpo
14486:Nisoish
14471:Yangliu
14466:Xuzhang
14396:Laizisi
14391:Kuamasi
14386:Kua-nsi
14368:Lisoish
14348:Tsukong
14288:Laomian
14213:Baihong
14180:Hanoish
14171:Loloish
14156:Lhao Vo
14151:Chashan
14136:Xiandao
14123:Burmish
14066:Burmese
14024:Banners
13980:Tai Nüa
13907:Tibetan
13892:English
13651:Braille
13612:Cursive
13562:Scripts
13429:History
13419:ZhengMa
13365:Cangjie
13331:Chengyu
13286:Grammar
13261:Hokkien
13218:Hokkien
13126:Waxiang
13106:Danzhou
13078:Guandao
13063:Younian
13058:Tongdao
13047:Pinghua
12987:Taishan
12903:Raoping
12871:Huizhou
12861:Meixian
12837:Banqiao
12810:Leizhou
12800:Pu–Xian
12795:Central
12783:Jian'ou
12758:Longyan
12706:Teochew
12643:Hokkien
12618:Nanlang
12574:Fu–Ning
12554:Changle
12536:Houguan
12527:Eastern
12474:Loushao
12462:Changyi
12444:Da–Tong
12439:Ying–Yi
12385:Yanzhou
12253:Wenzhou
12246:Oujiang
12237:Tiantai
12232:Taizhou
12141:Zhi–Yan
12088:Nantong
12083:Nanjing
12058:Gui–Liu
12048:Nanping
12043:Kunming
11969:Luoyang
11924:Qingdao
11896:Tianjin
11873:Beijing
11865:Beijing
11754:Italics
11615:Siangic
11596:Songlin
11575:Kho-Bwa
11553:Hrusish
11535:Dubious
11518:Loloish
11512:Burmish
11477:Qiangic
11448:Longjia
11415:Karenic
11409:Nungish
11389:Sinitic
11275:Hkongso
11237:Myanmar
11207:Gongduk
11171:Tibetic
11089:Chepang
11062:Magaric
11008:Kiranti
10988:Newaric
10819:at the
10809:at the
10410:1599877
10073:Chinese
9995:: 1–31.
9939:(ed.),
9675:汉语方言地图集
9649:汉语方言地图集
9622:汉语方言地图集
6843:fāngyán
6829:fāngyán
6738:group.
6715:Teochew
6701:). The
6462:removed
6447:sources
6044:in situ
5960:copular
5634:Meixian
5619:Wenzhou
5589:Chengdu
5584:Beijing
5574:Taiyuan
5392:Grammar
5300:'small'
5066:'below'
4988:'above'
4910:'black'
4832:'white'
4676:'green'
4520:'water'
3740:'snake'
3584:'woman'
3420:Meixian
3399:Wenzhou
3357:Chengdu
3350:Beijing
3336:Taiyuan
3217:1 ˥˧,˥
3150:Xiamen
3060:Suzhou
2919:1,2,3,5
2806:rising
2562:in the
1765:Beijing
1666:fāngyán
1653:dialect
1647:in the
1635:fāngyán
1612:dialect
1562:to the
1475:Waxiang
1455:Guangxi
1449:Pinghua
1437:Huizhou
1414:Li Rong
1367:Guangxi
1307:Hokkien
1247:Jiangxi
1207:Jiangsu
1142:Wang Li
1131:Pinghua
1121:Huizhou
1043:(65.7%)
879:Guānhuà
812:Fangyan
769:History
761:of the
591:Hokkien
530:hon yúh
509:Hon Ngi
406:Hannyeu
187:Danzhou
182:Waxiang
88:Chinese
83:Sinitic
43:Sinitic
38:Chinese
16295:Romani
16280:Polish
16270:Pashto
16245:Korean
16225:German
16215:French
16200:Danish
16175:Basque
16150:Arabic
15998:Tangut
15988:Rouran
15978:Khitan
15968:Ba–Shu
15932:Maojia
15917:Hezhou
15828:Puxian
15811:Teoswa
15696:(Kinh)
15664:Kyrgyz
15659:Korean
15654:Kazakh
15558:Turkic
15543:Oroqen
15533:Manchu
15528:Evenki
15496:Qabiao
15486:Ong Be
15471:Maonan
15461:Lakkja
15451:Jiamao
15421:Buyang
15385:Tai Ya
15375:Tai Lü
15335:Bouyei
15327:Zhuang
15308:Torgut
15263:Buryat
15213:Mienic
15203:Younuo
15183:Raojia
15163:Pa-Hng
15158:Mashan
15128:Hm Nai
15113:Bu-Nao
15108:A-Hmao
15031:Bumang
14950:Jingpo
14945:Derung
14940:Caijia
14914:Zhongu
14884:Gserpa
14776:Namuyi
14746:Japhug
14695:Zauzou
14670:Namuyi
14655:Kucong
14629:Zokhuo
14624:Thopho
14604:Phupha
14589:Phukha
14534:Khlula
14476:Zibusi
14461:Toloza
14456:Sonaga
14441:Mangdi
14436:Lolopo
14381:Hlersu
14318:Phana’
14313:Nuomei
14293:Laopin
14228:Bukong
14203:Angluo
14131:Achang
14108:Mondzi
14010:Zhuang
13985:Tai Lü
13975:Kazakh
13970:Kyrgyz
13955:Korean
13945:Bouyei
13917:Zhuang
13912:Uyghur
13720:Postal
13715:MPS II
13592:Bronze
13472:Ba–Shu
13392:Google
13387:Pinyin
13323:Idioms
13136:Yeheni
13018:Wu–Hua
13013:Goulou
12992:Xinhui
12969:Dapeng
12964:Weitou
12949:Xiguan
12924:Yuehai
12893:Sixian
12832:Haikou
12822:Hainan
12753:Zhenan
12719:Haklau
12714:Swatow
12686:Penang
12671:Taiwan
12666:Chawan
12613:Longdu
12582:Ningde
12559:Gutian
12549:Fuqing
12544:Fuzhou
12506:Qiyang
12489:Wugang
12434:Yi–Liu
12361:Xiu-Yi
12349:Ji-She
12299:Quzhou
12291:Chu–Qu
12281:Jinhua
12273:Wuzhou
12258:Rui'an
12199:Ningbo
12173:Suzhou
12063:Wuming
12034:Zigong
12022:Leshan
11984:Lanyin
11979:Dungan
11974:Xuzhou
11952:Gangou
11929:Weihai
11919:Dalian
11878:Taiwan
11845:Harbin
11628:Milang
11582:Puroik
11566:Mijiic
11490:Ersuic
11441:Caijia
11357:Konyak
11323:Meitei
11227:Chamdo
11164:Bodish
11150:Bhutan
11096:Bhujel
11043:Lepcha
11034:Lhokpu
11020:Dhimal
10965:Sikkim
10879:]
10872:方言调查字表
10839:汉語方音词汇
10796:汉語方音字汇
10773:
10753:
10728:
10701:
10682:
10665:
10639:
10620:
10601:
10537:
10520:
10485:
10459:
10417:
10407:
10399:
10315:
10296:
10274:
10255:
10227:
10160:Lingua
10147:
10128:
10106:
10079:
10059:
10043:论畬话的归属
10015:
9966:
9947:
9924:
9835:
9807:
9785:
9766:
9745:
9726:
9707:
9685:
9659:
9633:
9602:
9580:
9572:]
9565:汉语方音字汇
9511:
9439:
6564:Taiwan
6538:pinyin
6395:fluent
6199:aspect
5629:Xiamen
5624:Fuzhou
5614:Suzhou
5460:gōngjī
4364:'year'
4130:'nose'
3896:'bone'
3818:'meat'
3662:'fish'
3413:Xiamen
3406:Fuzhou
3392:Suzhou
3179:Hakka
3075:5 ˥˩˧
3037:3 ˨˩˧
2970:Xiang
2913:3 ˨˩˦
2881:Xi'an
2803:level
2530:final
2408:Finals
2318:velars
2178:Nasals
2079:voiced
1963:voiced
1753:Suzhou
1741:Fuzhou
1579:Tianmu
1510:Yunnan
1467:Hainan
1427:Shanxi
1355:-p-t-k
1351:-m-n-ŋ
1345:. The
1315:Hainan
1303:Xiamen
1273:. The
1129:
1127:
1123:(0.3%)
1119:
1117:
1113:(3.0%)
1109:
1107:
1103:(3.5%)
1099:
1097:
1093:(3.9%)
1089:
1087:
1083:(5.2%)
1079:
1077:
1073:(5.6%)
1069:
1067:
1063:(6.1%)
1059:
1057:
1053:(6.2%)
1049:
1047:
1039:
1037:
848:Fujian
822:Qieyun
709:syntax
690:clades
615:Fuzhou
558:hon yü
450:Hàn-yǔ
436:Hàn-yǔ
421:Han-yu
392:ㄏㄢˋ ㄩˇ
269:Yunnan
235:79-AAA
58:Taiwan
16384:China
16255:Malay
16235:Hindi
16230:Greek
16205:Dutch
16008:Tuoba
15952:Wutun
15867:Xiang
15860:Auish
15786:Hakka
15735:Ji-Lu
15700:Wakhi
15689:Uzbek
15684:Tuvan
15679:Tatar
15600:Other
15586:Salar
15538:Nanai
15476:Mulam
15441:Gelao
15404:Other
15303:Santa
15298:Ordos
15293:Oirat
15258:Bonan
15198:Xixiu
15168:Pa Na
15133:Hmong
15118:Gejia
15066:Riang
15026:Bugan
15021:Bolyu
15016:Blang
14965:Tujia
14928:Other
14909:Tseku
14894:Khams
14879:Groma
14859:Choni
14849:Basum
14844:Baima
14821:Zhaba
14741:Horpa
14726:Choyo
14721:Baima
14690:Sanie
14665:Naruo
14650:Katso
14645:Gokhy
14638:Other
14614:Samei
14609:Phuza
14599:Phupa
14594:Phuma
14584:Phowa
14579:Phola
14574:Phala
14569:Nuosu
14524:Bokha
14499:Alugu
14446:Micha
14358:Yiche
14343:Suobi
14308:Nuobi
14278:Kaduo
14273:Kabie
14253:Habei
14243:Duota
14238:Duoni
14233:Cosao
14161:Zaiwa
14146:Lashi
14098:Mango
14093:Manga
14088:Maang
14083:Kathu
14064:Lolo-
13990:Zaiwa
13960:Qiang
13950:Tujia
13935:Hmong
13784:Nüshu
13488:forms
13402:Sogou
13349:Input
13223:Hakka
13161:forms
13001:Other
12959:Shiqi
12898:Hailu
12866:Wuhua
12853:Hakka
12771:Other
12746:Other
12681:Pedan
12596:Other
12587:Fu'an
12564:Matsu
12496:Ji–Xu
12454:Xiang
12404:]
12392:]
12380:]
12373:Qi-De
12368:]
12356:]
12214:Shadi
12160:Taihu
12114:Gyami
12097:Other
12053:Wuhan
11962:Xi'an
11901:Jinan
11559:Hruso
11455:Luren
11429:Kathu
11403:Tujia
11291:Taman
11262:Mruic
11249:Karbi
11190:Basum
11146:Tibet
11068:Magar
10994:Newar
10961:Nepal
10881:(PDF)
10875:[
10841:[
10798:[
10765:[
10745:[
10663:JSTOR
10578:(PDF)
10518:S2CID
10475:(PDF)
10397:JSTOR
10247:[
10057:JSTOR
10026:(PDF)
10005:(PDF)
9985:(PDF)
9677:[
9651:[
9625:[
9574:(PDF)
9568:[
6799:Sīnae
6771:Notes
6588:Hakka
6521:Hunan
5846:tɕʰiɛ
5720:'you'
5579:Xi'an
5562:Hakka
5542:Xiang
5222:'big'
5193:tɕyoŋ
4598:'red'
4052:'ear'
3974:'eye'
3506:'man'
3343:Xi'an
3323:Hakka
3303:Xiang
3289:Word
3272:Most
3238:7b ˧
3226:4 ˨˧
3223:3 ˧˥
3220:2 ˨˩
3203:7 ˨˩
3200:5 ˦˨
3191:3 ˧˩
3188:2 ˩˨
3171:7 ˧˨
3159:3 ˥˩
3156:2 ˨˦
3142:8 ˩˨
3139:7 ˨˧
3133:5 ˦˨
3130:4 ˨˦
3127:3 ˦˥
3124:2 ˧˩
3113:8 ˨˧
3098:3 ˧˥
3095:2 ˨˦
3092:1 ˦˨
3084:8 ˨˧
3078:6 ˧˩
3069:3 ˦˩
3066:2 ˨˦
3052:8 ˨˩
3046:6 ˨˩
3043:5 ˦˥
3034:2 ˨˦
3031:1 ˦˨
3020:2, 5
3014:5 ˧˥
3008:3 ˨˩
3005:2 ˨˧
2994:7 ˨˦
2991:6 ˨˩
2982:3 ˦˩
2979:2 ˩˧
2959:3 ˧˩
2956:2 ˧˥
2953:1 ˨˩
2942:5 ˩˧
2939:3 ˥˧
2936:2 ˧˩
2916:5 ˥˩
2910:2 ˧˥
2890:3 ˦˨
2887:2 ˨˦
2884:1 ˧˩
2873:8 ˥˦
2870:7 ˨˩
2864:3 ˥˧
2726:, or
2674:shǎng
2568:tones
2546:Tones
2422:glide
2268:from
1777:Stops
1573:Some
1479:Hunan
1443:Anhui
1375:Macau
1331:Hakka
1325:Hakka
1271:Hubei
1267:Hunan
1261:Xiang
1255:Hakka
1227:stops
1211:Anhui
1171:Guoyu
1111:Xiang
1101:Hakka
951:Latin
785:into
743:China
713:tones
682:Hakka
670:Xiang
496:Hakka
378:Hànyǔ
335:Hànyǔ
167:Hakka
157:Xiang
54:China
16340:Urdu
16032:Sign
15993:Saka
15894:Ping
15615:Tsat
15566:Äynu
15548:Xibe
15506:Then
15491:Paha
15446:Hlai
15416:Biao
15390:Yang
15355:Nong
15268:Daur
15046:Mang
15041:Kuan
14960:Nung
14839:Amdo
14806:Situ
14786:Pumi
14781:Naxi
14771:Muya
14761:Lizu
14756:Laze
14731:Ersu
14685:Samu
14680:Nusu
14675:Naxi
14660:Lahu
14619:Sani
14564:Nisu
14559:Nasu
14554:Muzi
14549:Muji
14544:Moji
14539:Lope
14529:Gepo
14519:Azhe
14514:Azha
14504:Aluo
14451:Mili
14431:Lisu
14426:Lipo
14421:Limi
14416:Lawu
14411:Lavu
14406:Lamu
14401:Lalo
14353:Woni
14333:Sadu
14328:Qidi
14323:Piyo
14303:Muda
14283:Lami
14268:Jino
14263:Honi
14258:Hani
14223:Budu
14218:Bisu
14208:Asuo
14193:Akha
14188:Akeu
14141:Pela
14103:Maza
14005:Hani
13995:Lisu
13879:SARs
13745:Yale
13735:EFEO
13597:Seal
13382:Dayi
12979:Siyi
12661:Amoy
12178:Wuxi
12075:Huai
11888:Jilu
11676:Rung
11621:Koro
11495:Naic
11422:Gong
11378:and
11376:East
11334:Zeme
11303:Naga
11221:Tani
11214:ʼOle
11110:Dura
11075:Kham
11027:Toto
10771:ISBN
10751:OCLC
10726:ISBN
10699:ISBN
10680:ISBN
10637:ISBN
10618:ISBN
10599:ISBN
10535:ISBN
10483:ISBN
10457:ISBN
10415:PMID
10313:ISBN
10294:ISBN
10272:ISBN
10253:ISBN
10225:ISBN
10145:ISBN
10126:ISBN
10104:ISBN
10077:ISBN
10034:2018
10013:ISBN
9964:ISBN
9945:ISBN
9922:ISBN
9833:ISBN
9805:ISBN
9783:ISBN
9764:ISBN
9743:ISBN
9724:ISBN
9705:ISBN
9683:ISBN
9657:ISBN
9631:ISBN
9600:ISBN
9578:ISBN
9509:ISBN
9470:2024
9437:ISBN
6548:and
6528:and
6445:any
6443:cite
6157:*mau
6116:and
6026:COMP
5921:ATTR
5902:Case
5876:kʰøy
5699:ŋuai
5442:mǔjī
5404:and
5384:and
5364:siau
5354:sieu
5339:ɕiɛu
5329:ɕiau
5319:ɕiau
5314:ɕiau
5309:ɕiau
5304:ɕiau
5286:tʰai
5276:tuai
5213:tʃuŋ
5198:touŋ
5188:tsoŋ
5183:tsuŋ
5173:tʂən
5168:tsoŋ
5163:tsoŋ
5158:tʂuŋ
5153:pfəŋ
5148:tsuŋ
5047:tsiũ
5042:suɔŋ
5022:ɣiaŋ
4964:xaiʔ
4896:pʰak
4871:pʰak
4836:piəʔ
4798:ɦuɒŋ
4778:xuɑŋ
4773:xuaŋ
4768:xuaŋ
4763:xuaŋ
4758:xuɒ̃
4740:liuk
4730:luɔʔ
4715:liuk
4680:luəʔ
4607:xuoŋ
4579:tsui
4549:ɕyei
4544:suəi
4539:suei
4534:ʂuei
4524:suei
4428:ɲian
4418:nieŋ
4403:ɲiɛn
4383:ɲiɛn
4378:niɛn
4373:ɲiæ̃
4350:ɲiat
4340:ŋuɔʔ
4325:ɲyɔt
4257:ɲiai
4169:pʰit
4154:pieʔ
4134:pieʔ
4038:ɲian
4028:ŋiaŋ
3965:kuɐt
3950:kauʔ
3940:kuɤʔ
3920:kuəʔ
3900:kuəʔ
3882:ɲiuk
3867:ɲiəu
3862:ɲioʔ
3857:ɲiuk
3822:zuəʔ
3799:tsua
3530:liæ̃
3471:ɲiɛn
3241:8 ˨
3235:7a ˥
3232:6 ˨
3229:5 ˧
3211:Yue
3206:8 ˦
3194:1,3
3185:1 ˦
3174:8 ˥
3168:6 ˧
3165:5 ˩
3153:1 ˥
3147:Min
3136:6 ˩
3121:1 ˦
3110:7 ˥
3081:7 ˦
3063:1 ˦
3049:7 ˥
3025:Gan
3017:6 ˧
3002:1 ˦
2988:5 ˥
2976:1 ˧
2965:7 ˦
2962:5 ˥
2933:1 ˦
2907:1 ˥
2893:5 ˥
2867:5 ˥
2861:1 ˩
2855:Jin
2850:vd.
2841:vd.
2832:vd.
2823:vd.
2772:yáng
2663:píng
2514:and
2502:and
2490:and
2447:and
2439:and
1691:tone
1659:and
1581:and
1406:The
1373:and
1341:and
1329:The
1233:and
1209:and
1181:and
961:and
870:Qing
868:and
866:Ming
841:The
825:, a
807:Zhou
707:and
684:and
271:and
177:Ping
15973:Jie
15884:Yue
15877:Old
15872:New
15796:Min
15791:Hui
15781:Gan
15757:Jin
15581:Lop
15501:Sui
15466:Mak
15456:Kam
15436:Cun
15395:Yei
15345:Min
15340:Dai
15188:She
15138:Hmu
15011:Bit
14935:Bai
14864:Dao
14816:Zbu
14509:Axi
14376:Eka
14298:Mpi
14248:Enu
14198:Amu
14000:Bai
13940:Kam
13875:ARs
13477:Gan
13377:CKC
13244:Old
13121:She
13111:Mai
12915:Yue
12518:Min
12414:Gan
12341:Hui
12190:(?)
12128:Jin
11855:Taz
11542:) (
11396:Bai
11344:Sal
11284:Pyu
11268:Mru
11197:Nam
10851:doi
10718:doi
10586:179
10562:doi
10510:doi
10440:doi
10405:PMC
10389:doi
10385:272
10366:doi
10345:doi
10199:doi
10176:hdl
10168:doi
10164:119
9886:doi
9863:hdl
9538:doi
6808:Bai
6667:.
6586:or
6456:by
6333:.
6282:by
6153:*m̩
6134:méi
6118:*m-
6114:*p-
6090:NEG
6013:zài
6002:yǒu
5980:shì
5964:COP
5886:men
5841:tʰo
5836:tʰa
5831:tʰa
5826:tʰa
5821:tʰa
5816:tʰa
5811:tʰa
5801:nei
5744:liɪ
5709:ŋai
5704:gua
5689:ŋəu
5645:'I'
5567:Yue
5557:Min
5547:Gan
5532:Jin
5369:ʃiu
5359:sio
5349:sai
5344:siæ
5334:ɕiɤ
5324:ɕiɔ
5291:tai
5281:tua
5271:dəu
5266:dəu
5261:tʰɔ
5251:tai
5246:tai
5231:tuo
5208:tuŋ
5203:taŋ
5178:tan
5085:ɕia
5080:ɕia
5070:ɕia
5057:ʃœŋ
5052:sɔŋ
5032:zɒŋ
5027:sɔŋ
5017:san
5012:sɑŋ
5007:saŋ
5002:ʂaŋ
4997:ʂaŋ
4992:sɒ̃
4979:hɐk
4974:hɛt
4969:hɪk
4954:hɤʔ
4949:hɛt
4944:ɕia
4934:xəʔ
4924:xei
4919:xei
4914:xəʔ
4901:pak
4891:peʔ
4886:paʔ
4876:bɒʔ
4866:pia
4856:pɔʔ
4846:pai
4841:pei
4823:wɔŋ
4818:vɔŋ
4813:hɔŋ
4808:uɔŋ
4803:ɦuɔ
4793:uɔŋ
4783:uan
4745:luk
4735:lɪk
4720:loʔ
4710:ləu
4705:lou
4700:lɔʔ
4685:lou
4667:huŋ
4662:fuŋ
4652:øyŋ
4647:ɦoŋ
4642:ɦoŋ
4637:fuŋ
4632:ɣən
4627:xən
4622:xoŋ
4617:xoŋ
4612:xuŋ
4602:xuŋ
4589:ʃøy
4584:sui
4574:tsy
4559:sui
4529:fei
4511:ʃan
4506:san
4501:suã
4496:saŋ
4481:san
4476:sæ̃
4471:san
4466:sæ̃
4461:san
4456:ʂan
4451:sæ̃
4446:sæ̃
4433:nin
4408:ɲiɪ
4398:ɲɪ̃
4393:ɲiẽ
4388:liẽ
4368:nie
4355:jyt
4345:geʔ
4330:ŋɤʔ
4310:yəʔ
4290:yəʔ
4277:jat
4272:ɲit
4267:lit
4262:niʔ
4252:ɲɪʔ
4247:ɲit
4232:ləʔ
4212:zəʔ
4199:pei
4194:pʰi
4189:pʰi
4184:pei
4179:bei
4174:bɤʔ
4106:ŋei
4043:ŋan
4033:gɪŋ
4013:ŋan
4008:ŋæ̃
4003:ŋan
3998:iæ̃
3993:iɛn
3988:iɛn
3983:ɲiã
3978:nie
3960:kut
3955:kut
3935:kut
3930:kəu
3887:juk
3877:hɪk
3872:nyʔ
3847:ʐəu
3842:ləʔ
3837:zəu
3832:ʐou
3827:ʐou
3794:sie
3789:zei
3774:ɣio
3711:ŋøy
3701:ɲiɛ
3653:nøy
3575:nam
3570:nam
3565:lam
3560:naŋ
3545:lan
3540:læ̃
3535:lan
3525:nan
3520:nan
3515:næ̃
3510:næ̃
3497:jɐn
3492:ɲin
3481:ɲin
3476:ɲin
3466:ʐən
3461:lən
3456:zən
3451:ʐən
3441:zəŋ
3328:Yue
3318:Min
3308:Gan
3293:Jin
3057:Wu
2844:vl.
2835:vl.
2826:vl.
2817:vl.
2755:yīn
2728:/ŋ/
2724:/n/
2720:/m/
2701:/k/
2699:or
2697:/t/
2693:/p/
2536:/n/
2532:/m/
2516:/k/
2512:/t/
2508:/p/
2504:/ŋ/
2500:/n/
2496:/m/
2492:/w/
2488:/j/
2461:/a/
2457:/o/
2453:/a/
2449:/o/
2445:/e/
2441:/y/
2437:/u/
2433:/i/
2281:/f/
2270:/l/
2266:/n/
2262:/ŋ/
1861:tʂʰ
1856:tɕʰ
1851:tsʰ
1829:tɕʰ
1824:tsʰ
1802:tsʰ
1779:and
1745:Min
1508:of
1481:),
1471:Mai
1469:),
1421:Jin
1361:Yue
1293:Min
1241:Gan
1177:of
1169:or
1091:Gan
1081:Jin
1071:Yue
1051:Min
963:Han
959:Qin
749:of
741:of
686:Yue
678:Jin
674:Gan
666:Min
618:BUC
594:POJ
566:IPA
458:IPA
348:Han
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