Venetian Holy Inquisition

721:, the educational committee of the Senate established in 1517, were administratively responsible for censorship, under the authority of the Council of Ten. As representatives of the state, they were principally concerned with controlling political writings as well as those moral texts that could erode public mores and, as a result, threaten proper relationships within the society. Little attention was given to religious writings in the early decades of the Protestant Reformation, despite growing pressures from the papacy to eliminate books critical of Catholic doctrine. Limited control began in 1527 when the Senate decreed that the protection of rights, either for the printer or the author, would be henceforth contingent upon the issuance of an 623: 486: 2241: 507: 568:. For more serious charges, additional guidance from the Holy Office in Rome was often sought, considerably lengthening the detention period. In the event that the Holy Office in Rome sought the extradition of a suspected heretic for further interrogation and punishment, the authorization of the Council of Ten was necessary. While this was readily granted for foreigners on Venetian territory, the council was more resistant to any attempt to extradite Venetian subjects, particularly members of the elite classes. 575:, a member of the inquisition staff, formulated the charges and argued the case before the court. As a crime of thought, heresy was difficult to ascertain. At times, there was evidence in the form of forbidden books, letters, or documents. But the inquisition primarily investigated opinions and ideas, and the inquisitor's role was to probe the intellect and will of the accused individual and discover his motives and intentions. Obtaining a full confession was the principal objective. Torture, primarily 731:(executors against blasphemy), were authorized in 1543 expressly for any printer or bookseller who trafficked in books contrary to the Catholic faith. However, no similar fines existed for imported books with heretical doctrines; hence Protestant books, brought to the city by German merchants, circulated freely. A marked increase in censorship aimed at eliminating controversial religious writings inevitably followed the institution of the Roman inquisition and the creation of the 320: 160: 391:. All laymen, they were initially chosen by the Minor Council, consisting of the doge and six councillors. But legislation of 5 June 1554 reserved the election to the councillors alone, the doge retaining the right of proposal. A reform dated 7 June 1556 empowered the Full College with the election which, after 8 April 1595, became the purview of the entire Senate. The term was set at two years with the possibility of renewal. Henceforth, the 751:), no compiled list of forbidden books existed in Venice: the Venetian inquisition emanated decrees against single works. An early attempt by the Council of Ten to draw up a list of banned titles in 1549 was unsuccessful, the Venetian printers arguing that at that time not even in Rome was there a similar index. With the papal index, censorship became more effective. In 1569, following the Venetian acceptance of the decrees of the 285:), were to assist and control the ecclesiastic tribunal with the objective of defending the sovereignty of the republic and its jurisdiction over its subjects. They were to block any proceedings of the Holy Office that might have violated Venetian laws and customs or had ramifications for the economic, social, and diplomatic interests of the state. Without their participation, the proceedings of the inquisition would be invalid, 548:. Through proclamations in the public squares and sermons in the churches, the populace was encouraged to denounce individuals suspected of heresy. Particularly in the secrecy of the confession, penitents were exhorted to collaborate and identify individuals whose asserted beliefs or religious practices were at odds with Catholic teachings. Parish priests and schoolmasters were also admonished to report any suspicion of heresy. 477:. While it did not regularly act as a court of appeal, it could call cases before it for further investigation and retry any case within its jurisdiction. The Venetian Holy Office also maintained routine correspondence with the Holy Office in Rome, from which it received directives. It submitted all sentences to Rome for approval and could transmit the transcripts of an entire case if there were particular difficulties. 229:

tolerance that made it possible for merchants of faiths other than Catholicism to conduct affairs in the city, unhindered. The government further sought to defend its autonomy in the administration of justice. Resistance also stemmed from the longstanding Venetian conception of the state as a sacred entity empowered by God and the resulting assertion of the government to administer local ecclesiastical matters.

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to proceed on the basis of an anonymous denunciation, unless of grave interest in which case individuals who could corroborate the charge were subpoenaed. Even a signed denunciation was less likely to be acted upon if the accuser had a close acquaintance with the accused, whether personal or financial, for concerns that the accusation could be motivated by vindictiveness.

140:, was to swear an oath of fidelity to the republic in the hands of doge, with the formal promise that he conceal nothing from the government. The state also exercised control financially by means of a fund, managed by the government, which received the assets confiscated from heretics and in turn covered the expenses of the Holy Office. 551:

Time and resources were limited, and the inquisition did not act on all of the denunciations it received: the majority of denunciations was in fact not pursued. The principal criterion for beginning an investigation was the perceived harm to the common welfare. Generally, the inquisition was hesitant

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Although the inquisition could act on its own initiative whenever there was a suspicion of heresy or a Venetian secular magistracy could notify the religious tribunal of evidence discovered in criminal proceedings, most often an investigation began when a formal denunciation, signed or anonymous, was

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Although the accused individual was not given the benefit of a formal defence during the interrogation, he was allowed to review and respond to witness statements, which were provided to the accused devoid of any names that could have exposed the witnesses to retaliation. Witnesses who were found to

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For a signed denunciation, the accuser made a formal deposition. Witnesses were then called for questioning. The parish priest could also be summoned to give testimony regarding the suspect's religious life and conduct. If the charge was found to have merit, normally having been confirmed by several

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On its part, the Venetian government was resistant to the establishment of an inquisitorial tribunal with direct allegiance to Rome. Although it shared the Church's objective of maintaining an orderly society with a hierarchical structure and shared values, its trading interests required a degree of

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In general, cases involving prohibited books were quickly resolved; the evidence was tangible, and printers and booksellers preferred to confess to the crime of illegal trafficking in forbidden texts and pay a fine rather than undergo an investigation into their private beliefs and associations and

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but later reverted to Judaism were apostates and heretics. But despite the occasional removal from the Ghetto of Jewish children who had been baptized, there was little interest on the part of the Venetian Holy Office for the Jewish adults that had been baptized prior to arrival in Venice and chose

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A formal trial began once sufficient evidence had been garnered. The defendant could choose his own advocate, or a defense advocate, a doctor in canon law, was provided to advise the accused and formulate a defense which could be conducted on legal, theological, historical, or even medical grounds,

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The Venetian Holy Office also included the papal nuncio. As the diplomatic representative of the papacy, he could intervene directly with the Venetian government to defend the interests of the Church and the inquisition, particularly in disputed cases. His participation ensured that the inquisition

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to Venice in 1544. He was to institute the new tribunal and organize the first trials of the Protestant reformers. Della Casa judiciously chose his cases and concentrated on prosecuting those heretics that were a greater threat to social order and the security of the state in an effort to win over

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Negotiations between della Casa and the Venetian government for the establishment of the Roman Inquisition in Venice continued. To the Venetian proposal that jurisdiction reside with the Venetian bishops as ordinaries, Paul III countered that the ordinaries were not sufficient and that time was of

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and had full authority throughout the Italian peninsula to identify and interrogate heretics and emit sentences, including the death penalty. The objective was to eliminate religious dissent and ensure uniformity of doctrine. To secular rulers, the pope warned of the risks that came with heresy:

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In the sixteenth century, Venice was Italy's largest centre for printing, with a production of 8,150 titles between 1550 and 1599. Any censorship therefore had potential repercussions for an important sector of the economy. Nevertheless, roughly ten percent of the cases before the Venetian Holy

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of 28 August 1289 that formally established the Holy Office in Venice. The Venetian government, however, reserved for itself a degree of control to ensure its sovereignty and its jurisdiction in all matters pertaining to the state. Specifically, the doge retained the right to intervene in the

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John Martin suggests that the secret executions were also meant to induce fear in the population: "From the vantage point of the Venetian public, a man summoned to the Inquisition, especially for a second time, might seemingly vanish into thin air. There was no public accounting. And if the

650:. With large amounts of liquid capital, the Jews also contributed financially through taxes and forced loans to the government. As a result, only five percent of the cases processed by the Venetian Holy Office in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries involve the Jewish community, mostly 807:, sought refuge in Venice. The prudence of the Venetian government, Sarpi writes, was to avoid the factional strife that had convulsed cities on the Italian mainland by creating magistrates to determine if any of the opinions of the refugees amounted to heresy. See Paolo Sarpi, 682:

who lived ostensibly in the community as Christians while practicing their Jewish faith in secret. Denunciations received by the Venetian Holy Office were similar to those signalling a bad Christian, notably the failure to show reverence to Christian holy images, to pray the

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at dawn, and in the presence of a priest who recited prayers for the individual's soul, he was dropped into the sea, weighted by a stone. The secrecy of executions was intended to preserve Venice's international reputation as a tolerant city, open to Protestant merchants.

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in ecclesiastical matters and was responsible for all of the inquisitorial tribunals within Venice's subject territories. Often the papal nuncio was substituted by the auditor-general who was a staff member and provided essential continuity from one nuncio to the next.

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to live in the Ghetto as Jews. Although occasion denunciations were received, any inquisitorial process would have depended upon the ability to verify events that had occurred in Spain and Portugal. Additionally, in 1589 the Senate voted to grant safe-conduct to the '

96:, dated 13 June 1249. These magistrates were laymen personally chosen by the doge for their religious devotion and integrity. Although they were given authority to prosecute cases of heresy, the actual interrogation of suspected individuals was carried out by the 347:, was required before a newly appointed inquisitor could begin service. Furthermore, he largely served at the pleasure of the Venetian government which could call for his substitution: in 1560 the government demanded the removal of Filippo Peretti, later 755:

and the new Tridentine Index (1564), the government made the procedures to obtain the license for publication more stringent. Control over imported books was tightened with the authorized presence of a representative of the inquisition at the

445:, the ducal chapel. Roughly one third of the proceedings concerned matters directly related to Venice. The tribunal additionally functioned as a district court for the entire Venetian Republic, including the inquisitorial courts in 273:

the essence. It was also suggested that the Church could try cases for heresy alone, but that all other related offences would be deferred to the state. The solution to the impasse was the creation by the Minor Council of the three

375:(formerly the patriarch of Grado), or his vicar-general, had jurisdiction in cases of heresy by virtue of his office. Accordingly, he was a member of the Holy Inquisition in representation of the interests of the local church. 581:

but also applying fire to the feet, was rarely used by the Venetian Holy Office, only in roughly three percent of the cases for which documentation survives. In accordance with directives contained in the inquisitor's manual

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Capital punishment was rare: only eighteen cases out of the 1560 trials documented in the sixteenth century. Despite the calls on the part of the clerical members of the inquisition for exemplary and public executions in

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Efforts to limit the production and circulation of heretical books were initially hindered by the lack of any accepted criteria to identify objectionable texts. Prior to Pope Paul IV's promulgation in 1559 of the

588:, it was limited to situations in which the accused had contradicted himself and strong indications of guilt had already been discovered. More important to obtaining a confession was prolonged imprisonment. 1937:

The history of the government of Venice: wherein the policies, councils, magistrates, and laws of that state are fully related, and the use of the balloting box exactly described: written in the year 1675

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Office in the sixteenth century concerned the production, distribution, or possession of prohibited books, whereas censorship in the seventeenth century accounted for only four percent of the cases.

832:, and subsequent commentary, established that in cases of heresy burning was the most appropriate punishment; the execution, however, was to be deferred to secular authority. Similarly, in 1216 the 604:

in order to educate the people and strengthen their bond with the Church, the Venetian government only consented to secret executions, carried out by drowning. The condemned was rowed to the open

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Sorcery, witchcraft, and superstition accounted for approximately one-eighth of the cases in the sixteenth century. In the seventeenth century, fifty percent of the cases concerned witchcraft.

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Inquisitorial activity was only sporadic in Venice after 1423 when the government suspended the stipend of the inquisitor, but it intensified beginning in the 1530s, largely in response to the

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was necessary for the inquisition to convene. They authorized arrest warrants, and although the sentence was handed down only by the three clerical members, the authorization of the

2504: 47:. The inquisition also intervened in cases of sacrilege, apostasy, prohibited books, superstition, and witchcraft. It was established in the 16th-century and was abolished in 1797. 2464: 2682: 787:

affirms that the nomination of magistrates in 1249 to investigate cases of heresy and the formalization of a judicial process resulted from concerns for public order when

72:, which was seen as a threat to the good ordering of the society. Yet heresy, even though considered among the most heinous of crimes, is not listed as an offence in the 147:. The renewal of inquisitorial activity was also consistent with broader efforts to moralize the society and gain the favour of God following the Venetian defeat at the 892:. Cells under the direct control of the inquisition were constructed near Saint Mark's Square in the 1580s and subsequently incorporated into the New Prisons. See 2454: 177:). As papal nuncio to Venice (1544–1550), della Casa pressed the Venetian government on behalf of Pope Paul III for the establishment of the Roman Inquisition. 909:

individual was executed, the victim's friends and relatives must have relied on horrible rumors, with their potent capacity to intimidate still others." See

678:), allowing them to legally settle in the Ghetto and conduct their international trade with no investigation into their religious past. Of concern were the 403:(senatorial magistracy), a standing subcommittee of the Senate. They were chosen from among the senators, routinely individuals who had been members of the 2135: 638:

Venice economically relied upon the Jewish community. The Germanic-Italian Jews, largely Italian-born but of German descent, operated the banks in the

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of Protestant princes. In this new reality, Venice's previous efforts to counter the influence of the Holy Roman Empire by cultivating relations with

293:. Although the Holy Office in Rome had sought greater clerical control, della Casa reassured his superiors that the three nobles chosen as the first 2565: 2102:, IV (Roma: Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali, Ufficio centrale per i beni archivistici, 1994), pp. 857–1014, 1062–1070, 1076–1140 1978:

Del Col, Andrea, 'Organizzazione, composizione e giurisdizione dei tribunali dell'Inquisizione romana nella repubblica di Venezia (1500-1550)',

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in public, and to attend mass and take communion. But they included more specific charges such as the wearing of Jewish dress, the observing of

225:. The inquisition, he proposed, was the best remedy to restore the honour of the Holy See and to punish those heretics who misled the faithful. 197:. Unlike earlier inquisitions which tasked secular authorities with the punishment of heretics, the new institution depended directly upon the 2817: 541: 2794: 2597: 303:

himself had declared that there was "nothing more fitting a Christian prince than zeal in religion and the defence of the Catholic faith".

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in Venice remained subject to the Holy Office in Rome and acted with the full authority of the pope. He enjoyed the judicial power of a

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the Venetian government. A shift in the international balance of power also favoured his cause. The deaths in quick succession of King

634:, imprisonment, galley service, whipping, exposure in a pillory, or worse on the basis of the nature of the crime and of the offender. 327:

The inquisitor, as judge-delegate of the pope, was responsible for conducting the trial and for ascertaining heresy. He was ideally a

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witnesses, an arrest warrant for the accused individual was issued in the name of the inquisition, but only with the approval of the

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The Venetian Holy Office convened regularly on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays in the Church of Saint Theodore, attached to the

2733: 2128: 760:. Furthermore, the inquisition was allowed to send inspectors to bookshops and printing houses to confiscate unauthorized books. 237: 646:, whether transient or resident, maintained important commercial contacts throughout the Mediterranean, particularly within the 417:

families who maintained close ties with the papal court and often enjoyed ecclesiastical preferments in the form of offices and

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in 1532, Caraffa lamented the diffusion of heresy in Venice and its territories, noting specifically the presence of itinerant

2544: 2180: 2296: 2534: 2166: 2121: 717: 101: 2728: 2633: 2161: 2107: 2063: 209:, largely on the basis of his personal experiences in Venice. He had taken refuge in the city in 1527, following the 622: 332: 279:(sages over heresy) on 22 April 1547. These Venetian officials, described as "honest, discreet, and Catholic men" ( 222: 2842: 2765: 2230: 2082: 2047: 2031: 2015: 1953: 269:, and the league were no longer practicable. Prudence dictated greater support for the empire and the Church. 202:

social disorder, subversion of authority, and even the wrath of God for those governments that tolerated sin.

2509: 2195: 833: 407:, responsible for state security, or former ambassadors of the republic to Rome. Excluded were the so-called 254: 2832: 2718: 2592: 2514: 485: 809:

Discorso dell'origine, forma, leggi ed uso dell'Uffizio dell'Inquisizione nella città e dominio di Venezia

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Discorso dell'origine, forma, leggi ed uso dell'Uffizio dell'Inquisizione nella città e dominio di Venezia

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most often with a plea of insanity. Some defendants simply threw themselves upon the mercy of the court.

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Representing the interests of the state and defending the rights and privileges of Venice were the three

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in 1509, a defeat that was interpreted as divine punishment for the moral dissolution of the Venetians.

2628: 2587: 2524: 2420: 2240: 1969:

Del Col, Andrea, 'L'inquisizione romana e il potere politico nella repubblica di Venezia (1540-1560)',

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in 1547. Already in July 1548, some 1,400 books were publicly burned, mostly in Saint Mark's Square.

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Santarelli, Daniele, 'Eresia, Riforma e Inquisizione nella Repubblica di Venezia nel Cinquecento',

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recommended public burnings but prohibited the clergy from carrying out any sentence of death. See

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who acted as his deputy. Although the inquisitor was nominated by the pope, a formal grant of the

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The creation of the Roman Inquisition was strongly advocated by Cardinal Gian Pietro Carafa, later

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This article is about the ecclesiastic tribunal in Venice. For the Venetian State Inquisition, see

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into Venice's territories. The council's decree, with the relative clauses, was inserted into the

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The Venetian Holy Office operated its own cells inside the New Prisons, near Saint Mark's Square.

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The Venetian Holy Office consisted of six members, three clerical and three lay, plus staff.

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received. Some of the denunciations concerned individuals who had spoken out against the

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L'inquisizione religiosa nella repubblica di Venezia: ricerche storiche e raffronti

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L'Archivio di Stato di Venezia, indice generale, storico, descrittivo ed analitico

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to assist the doge in cases of heresy are first mentioned in the coronation oath,

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strengthened the position of the Church's principal ally, the Holy Roman Emperor

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of at least 40 years of age, and it was desirable that he also be qualified in

79: 68:, as the supreme judicial authority, was ultimately responsible for repressing 65: 32: 856:, normally a Franciscan or Dominican friar, who served as inquisitor, and the 232:

The task of reaching a compromise between the Church and the republic fell to

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proceedings of the inquisition, and the inquisitor, appointed directly by the

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Guida alle magistrature: elementi per la conoscenza della Repubblica veneta

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Grendler, Paul, 'The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press, 1540–1605',

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The Venetian Holy Office initially made use of the debtors' prison for the

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had jurisdiction in virtue of their offices. The doge, in concert with the

69: 39:), was the tribunal established jointly by the Venetian government and the 319: 784: 352: 116:, retained judicial authority with regard to sentencing, which included 723: 521: 246: 132: 858: 351:, for his intransigence. From that date, the inquisitor, since 1289 a 159: 2760: 2348: 2113: 852:

The local inquisitions typically consisted of the diocesan bishop, a

727:, the license needed to legally print any book. Fines, issued by the 684: 655: 577: 545: 537: 288: 880: 662: 605: 418: 198: 796: 692: 671: 651: 470: 462: 450: 2362: 2259: 2008:

Venice's Hidden Enemies: Italian Heretics in a Renaissance City

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The Church of Saint Theodore, seat of the Venetian Holy Office

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Grendler, 'The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press...'

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Grendler, 'The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press...'

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Grendler, 'The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press...'

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Grendler, 'The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press...'

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Grendler, 'The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press...'

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Grendler, 'The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press...'

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The Jews of Europe and the Inquisition of Venice 1550–1670

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that provided low-interest loans to the poor, whereas the

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that articulated punishable crimes. Specific magistrates

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L'inquisizione a Venezia: eretici e processi 1548–1674

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as the administrator for the Venetian government. See

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L'inquisizione religiosa nella repubblica di Venezia

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L’inquisizione religiosa nella repubblica di Venezia

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L'inquisizione religiosa nella repubblica di Venezia

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From a Christian perspective, the Jews who had been

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as part of the Catholic Church's efforts to repress

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