693:
1598:
1140:
1757:
289:
720:, on the surface of the filter. An effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months, if the pretreatment is well designed, and produces water with a very low available nutrient level which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve. Very low nutrient levels allow water to be safely sent through distribution systems with very low disinfectant levels, thereby reducing consumer irritation over offensive levels of chlorine and chlorine by-products. Slow sand filters are not backwashed; they are maintained by having the top layer of sand scraped off when the flow is eventually obstructed by biological growth.
1731:, and other minerals in water can help to protect against nutritional deficiency. Demineralized water may also increase the risk from toxic metals because it more readily leaches materials from piping like lead and cadmium, which is prevented by dissolved minerals such as calcium and magnesium. Low-mineral water has been implicated in specific cases of lead poisoning in infants, when lead from pipes leached at especially high rates into the water. Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L optimum, and a total
543:
litres per square meter per hour). In general, sedimentation basin efficiency is not a function of detention time or depth of the basin. Although, basin depth must be sufficient so that water currents do not disturb the sludge and settled particle interactions are promoted. As particle concentrations in the settled water increase near the sludge surface on the bottom of the tank, settling velocities can increase due to collisions and agglomeration of particles. Typical detention times for sedimentation vary from 1.5 to 4 hours and basin depths vary from 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters).
440:
911:
535:, also called a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with low water velocities, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between the two processes does not permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins may be rectangular, where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer of water—that furthest from the sludge—exits.
3882:
1164:, and shadowing caused by the suspended solids. The main disadvantage to the use of UV radiation is that, like ozone treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water; therefore, it is sometimes necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary disinfection process. This is often done through the addition of chloramines, discussed above as a primary disinfectant. When used in this manner, chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the negative effects of chlorination.
1111:
disinfection, or ozonation, is an effective method to inactivate harmful protozoa that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is made by passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a "cold" electrical discharge. To use ozone as a disinfectant, it must be created on-site and added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the advantages of ozone include the production of fewer dangerous by-products and the absence of taste and odour problems (in comparison to
1959:
583:(DAF) is often used. After coagulation and flocculation processes, water flows to DAF tanks where air diffusers on the tank bottom create fine bubbles that attach to the floc resulting in a floating mass of concentrated floc. The floating floc blanket is removed from the surface and clarified water is withdrawn from the bottom of the DAF tank. Water supplies that are particularly vulnerable to unicellular algae blooms and supplies with low turbidity and high colour often employ DAF.
705:
1618:
606:
630:
1801:
425:) may be added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water (above pH 7.0) does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the water. The ability of water to precipitate calcium carbonate to protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood of toxic metals being dissolved in water is a function of pH, mineral content, temperature, alkalinity and calcium concentration.
2071:
1013:, releases chlorine on contact with water. Handling the solid, however, requires more routine human contact through opening bags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or bleach, which are more easily automated. The generation of liquid sodium hypochlorite is inexpensive and also safer than the use of gas or solid chlorine. Chlorine levels up to 4 milligrams per litre (4 parts per million) are considered safe in drinking water.
4195:
1378:. This is the "fur" that builds up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water and in fact increases their concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, water that is boiled and then stored for any length of time may acquire new pathogens.
549:, inclined flat plates or tubes can be added to traditional sedimentation basins to improve particle removal performance. Inclined plates and tubes drastically increase the surface area available for particles to be removed in concert with Hazen's original theory. The amount of ground surface area occupied by a sedimentation basin with inclined plates or tubes can be far smaller than a conventional sedimentation basin.
1419:. The vapour contacts a cool surface where it condenses as a liquid. Because the solutes are not normally vaporised, they remain in the boiling solution. Even distillation does not completely purify water, because of contaminants with similar boiling points and droplets of unvapourised liquid carried with the steam. However, 99.9% pure water can be obtained by distillation.
1955:. Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlorination of the water to stem the epidemic. His installation fed a concentrated solution of chloride of lime to the water being treated. The chlorination of the water supply helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlorination was continued until 1911 when a new water supply was instituted.
633:
632:
637:
636:
631:
515:
chemicals are added followed by flocculation basins (detention times range from 15 to 45 minutes) where low energy inputs turn large paddles or other gentle mixing devices to enhance the formation of floc. In fact, coagulation and flocculation processes are ongoing once the metal salt coagulants are added.
638:
1998:
a very fine capillary canal, and fitted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the amount of water required. The chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fifteen minutes the water is absolutely safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts.
2018:
in a linen bag to treat water. For many decades, Lyster's method remained the standard for U.S. ground forces in the field and in camps, implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag (also spelled Lister Bag). The bag was made of canvas and could hold 36 gallons of water. It was porous and held
1403:
are excellent anti-bacterial material and can decompose toxic halo-organic compounds such as pesticides into non-toxic organic products. Filtered water must be used soon after it is filtered, as the low amount of remaining microbes may proliferate over time. In general, these home filters remove over
542:
showed that the efficiency of a sedimentation process was a function of the particle settling velocity, the flow through the tank and the surface area of tank. Sedimentation tanks are typically designed within a range of overflow rates of 0.5 to 1.0 gallons per minute per square foot (or 1250 to 2500
1997:
It occurred to me that chlorine gas might be found satisfactory ... if suitable means could be found for using it.... The next important question was how to render the gas portable. This might be accomplished in two ways: By liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron vessels, having a jet with
1883:
companies in London, including minimum standards of water quality for the first time. The Act "made provision for securing the supply to the
Metropolis of pure and wholesome water", and required that all water be "effectually filtered" from 31 December 1855. This was followed up with legislation for
1686:
Many municipalities have moved from free chlorine to chloramine as a disinfection agent. However, chloramine appears to be a corrosive agent in some water systems. Chloramine can dissolve the "protective" film inside older service lines, leading to the leaching of lead into residential spigots. This
570:
A subcategory of sedimentation is the removal of particulates by entrapment in a layer of suspended floc as the water is forced upward. The major advantage of floc blanket clarifiers is that they occupy a smaller footprint than conventional sedimentation. The disadvantages are that particle removal
301:
The goals of the treatment are to remove unwanted constituents in the water and to make it safe to drink or fit for a specific purpose in industry or medical applications. Widely varied techniques are available to remove contaminants like fine solids, micro-organisms and some dissolved inorganic and
1230:
Portable water purification devices and methods are available for disinfection and treatment in emergencies or in remote locations. Disinfection is the primary goal, since aesthetic considerations such as taste, odour, appearance, and trace chemical contamination do not affect the short-term safety
1126:
has accepted ozone as being safe; and it is applied as an anti-microbiological agent for the treatment, storage, and processing of foods. However, although fewer by-products are formed by ozonation, it has been discovered that ozone reacts with bromide ions in water to produce concentrations of the
518:
Organic polymers were developed in the 1960s as aids to coagulants and, in some cases, as replacements for the inorganic metal salt coagulants. Synthetic organic polymers are high molecular weight compounds that carry negative, positive or neutral charges. When organic polymers are added to water
1037:
in the UK. The formation of THMs and haloacetic acids may be minimised by the effective removal of as many organics from the water as possible prior to chlorine addition. Although chlorine is effective in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against pathogenic protozoa that form cysts in
715:
may be used where there is sufficient land and space, as the water flows very slowly through the filters. These filters rely on biological treatment processes for their action rather than physical filtration. They are carefully constructed using graded layers of sand, with the coarsest sand, along
625:
above the sand. The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to taste and odour. The space between sand particles is larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to
514:
In the literature, there is much debate and confusion over the usage of the terms coagulation and flocculation: Where does coagulation end and flocculation begin? In water purification plants, there is usually a high energy, rapid mix unit process (detention time in seconds) whereby the coagulant
490:
cause several simultaneous chemical and physical interactions on and among the particles. Within seconds, negative charges on the particles are neutralised by inorganic coagulants. Also within seconds, metal hydroxide precipitates of the iron and aluminium ions begin to form. These precipitates
2055:
disease each year. The WHO estimates that 94% of these diarrhoeal disease cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe water. Simple techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and for storing it in safe
1491:
uses microorganisms to remove waste products from a contaminated area. Since 1991 bioremediation has been a suggested tactic to remove impurities such as alkanes, perchlorates, and metals. Bioremediation has seen success because perchlorates are highly soluble, making them difficult to remove.
1258:
Water conditioning: This is a method of reducing the effects of hard water. In water systems subject to heating hardness salts can be deposited as the decomposition of bicarbonate ions creates carbonate ions that precipitate out of solution. Water with high concentrations of hardness salts can be
732:, natural sediments in a riverbank are used to provide the first stage of contaminant filtration. While typically not clean enough to be used directly for drinking water, the water gained from the associated extraction wells is much less problematic than river water taken directly from the river.
1479:
to reduce the concentrations of targeted contaminants. ISCO is accomplished by injecting or otherwise introducing oxidizers into the contaminated medium (soil or groundwater) to destroy contaminants. It can be used to remediate a variety of organic compounds, including some that are resistant to
660:. This contaminated water can be disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by mixing with the raw water entering the plant although this is often considered poor practice since it re-introduces an elevated concentration of bacteria into the raw water.
791:
use polymer membranes with chemically formed microscopic pores that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. The type of membrane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive the water through and what sizes of micro-organisms can be filtered out.
1110:
is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidising agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe and in a few municipalities in the United States and Canada. Ozone
561:
is formed on the floor of the tank which must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge generated is significant, often 3 to 5 per cent of the total volume of water to be treated. The cost of treating and disposing of the sludge can impact the operating cost of a water treatment plant. The
889:
allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity deionised water is produced continuously, similar to ion-exchange treatment. Complete removal of ions from water is possible if the right
760:
Membrane filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment when it is desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or before discharging the water into a river that is used by towns further downstream. They are widely used in industry, particularly for beverage
318:
Pumping and containment – The majority of water must be pumped from its source or directed into pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the water, this physical infrastructure must be made from appropriate materials and constructed so that accidental contamination does not
1832:, John Gibb, installed an experimental filter, selling his unwanted surplus to the public. This method was refined in the following two decades by engineers working for private water companies, and it culminated in the first treated public water supply in the world, installed by engineer
914:
Pumps used to add required amounts of chemicals to the clear water at a water purification plant before distribution. From left to right: sodium hypochlorite for disinfection, zinc orthophosphate as a corrosion inhibitor, sodium hydroxide for pH adjustment, and fluoride for tooth decay
1457:
Carbon dioxide or other low molecular weight gas can be mixed with contaminated water at high pressure and low temperature to exothermically form gas hydrate crystals. Hydrate may be separated by centrifuge or sedimentation. Water can be released from the hydrate crystals by heating.
635:
50:), but water purification may also be carried out for a variety of other purposes, including medical, pharmacological, chemical, and industrial applications. The history of water purification includes a wide variety of methods. The methods used include physical processes such as
216:: Typically located in the headwaters of river systems, upland reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and may be surrounded by a protective zone to restrict the opportunities for contamination. Bacteria and pathogen levels are usually low, but some bacteria,
1083:
is becoming more common as a disinfectant. Although chloramine is not as strong an oxidant, it provides a longer-lasting residual than free chlorine because of its lower redox potential compared to free chlorine. It also does not readily form THMs or haloacetic acids
1445:. Contaminants are left on the other side of the membrane. Reverse osmosis is theoretically the most thorough method of large scale water purification available, although perfect semi-permeable membranes are difficult to create. Unless membranes are well-maintained,
1365:
of water is not required, since heat resistant microbes do not affect intestines. The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start expiring at temperatures greater than 60 °C (140 °F). Though the
329:) – The first step in purifying surface water is to remove large debris such as sticks, leaves, rubbish and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent purification steps. Most deep groundwater does not need screening before other purification steps.
3375:
Reece, R.J. (1907). "Report on the
Epidemic of Enteric Fever in the City of Lincoln, 1904-5." In Thirty-Fifth Annual Report of the Local Government Board, 1905-6: Supplement Containing the Report of the Medical Officer for 1905-6. London:Local Government
1131:. Bromide can be found in fresh water supplies in sufficient concentrations to produce (after ozonation) more than 10 parts per billion (ppb) of bromate—the maximum contaminant level established by the USEPA. Ozone disinfection is also energy intensive.
1065:, which is a by-product regulated to low allowable levels in the United States. Chlorine dioxide can be supplied as an aqueous solution and added to water to avoid gas handling problems; chlorine dioxide gas accumulations may spontaneously detonate.
2019:
up by ropes, purifying water with the help of calcium hypochlorite solution. Each bag had a faucet attached, which was used to flush water for testing, as well as dispensing for use. This became the basis for present day systems of municipal water
208:
is practised (a process in which river water is injected into an aquifer to store the water in times of plenty so that it is available in times of drought), the groundwater may require additional treatment depending on applicable state and federal
1394:
is commonly used in municipal regions with organic contamination, taste or odors. Many household water filters and fish tanks use activated carbon filters to purify water. Household filters for drinking water sometimes contain silver as metallic
1739:/L. At water hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones, arthrosis, and arthropathies have been observed. Additionally, desalination processes can increase the risk of bacterial contamination.
1016:
All forms of chlorine are widely used, despite their respective drawbacks. One drawback is that chlorine from any source reacts with natural organic compounds in the water to form potentially harmful chemical by-products. These by-products,
1429:
membrane. Evaporated water passes from the hot side through pores in the membrane forming a stream of cold pure water on the other side. The difference in vapour pressure between the hot and cold side helps to push water molecules through.
347:
Pre-chlorination – In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to minimise the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the potential adverse quality effects (see chlorine below), this has largely been
2176:
1115:). No residual ozone is left in the water. In the absence of a residual disinfectant in the water, chlorine or chloramine may be added throughout a distribution system to remove any potential pathogens in the distribution piping.
663:
Some water treatment plants employ pressure filters. These work on the same principle as rapid gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is forced through it under pressure.
510:
Aluminum hydroxides are formed within a fairly narrow pH range, typically: 5.5 to about 7.7. Iron (III) hydroxides can form over a larger pH range including pH levels lower than are effective for alum, typically: 5.0 to 8.5.
3679:
1936:) to water to render it "germ-free." Two other investigators confirmed Traube's findings and published their papers in 1895. Early attempts at implementing water chlorination at a water treatment plant were made in 1893 in
1328:
Other popular methods for purifying water, especially for local private supplies are listed below. In some countries some of these methods are used for large scale municipal supplies. Particularly important are distillation
716:
with some gravel, at the bottom and the finest sand at the top. Drains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection. Filtration depends on the development of a thin biological layer, called the zoogleal layer or
1009:, which is a relatively inexpensive solution used in household bleach that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. Chlorine solutions can be generated on site by electrolyzing common salt solutions. A solid form,
626:
sand particles. Effective filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog.
656:) to remove embedded or unwanted particles. Prior to this step, compressed air may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter media to aid the backwashing process; this is known as
1404:
90% of the chlorine in a glass of treated water. These filters must be periodically replaced otherwise the bacterial content of the water may actually increase due to the growth of bacteria within the filter unit.
1267:. Several other methods of industrial and residential water treatment are claimed (without general scientific acceptance) to include the use of magnetic and/or electrical fields reducing the effects of hard water.
499:. Amorphous metal hydroxides are known as "floc". Large, amorphous aluminium and iron (III) hydroxides adsorb and enmesh particles in suspension and facilitate the removal of particles by subsequent processes of
1871:
and statistical proof to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. His data convinced the local council to disable the water pump, which promptly ended the outbreak.
1531:) is a common disinfectant that can purify water. It is typically produced at chemical plants and transported to the contaminated water. An alternative approach employs a gold-palladium catalyst to synthesize
634:
926:
which pass through the filters and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro-organisms in the storage and distribution systems. Possible pathogens include
2649:
1703:
Distillation removes all minerals from water, and the membrane methods of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration remove most to all minerals. This results in demineralised water which is not considered ideal
1884:
the mandatory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a worldwide precedent for similar state public health interventions across Europe. The
447:
One of the first steps in most conventional water purification processes is the addition of chemicals to assist in the removal of particles suspended in water. Particles can be inorganic such as
397:
can be added to raise the pH during water purification processes. Lime addition increases the calcium ion concentration, thus raising the water hardness. For highly acidic waters, forced draft
107:
are typically set by governments or by international standards. These standards usually include minimum and maximum concentrations of contaminants, depending on the intended use of the water.
1840:
in London in 1829. This installation provided filtered water for every resident of the area, and the network design was widely copied throughout the United
Kingdom in the ensuing decades.
2183:
1370:
with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect disinfection. In areas where the water is "hard" (that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes the
562:
sedimentation basin may be equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean its bottom, or the basin can be periodically taken out of service and cleaned manually.
309:
The processes below are the ones commonly used in water purification plants. Some or most may not be used depending on the scale of the plant and quality of the raw (source) water.
1307:
Fluoride
Removal: Although fluoride is added to water in many areas, some areas of the world have excessive levels of natural fluoride in the source water. Excessive levels can be
3676:
2617:
1005:
that rapidly kills many harmful micro-organisms. Because chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This problem is avoided by the use of
1742:
Manufacturers of home water distillers claim the opposite—that minerals in water are the cause of many diseases, and that most beneficial minerals come from food, not water.
239:
and low land reservoirs: Low land surface waters will have a significant bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of dissolved constituents.
306:. The choice of method will depend on the quality of the water being treated, the cost of the treatment process and the quality standards expected of the processed water.
3398:
Fuller, George W. (1909). "Description of the
Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir."
1843:
The practice of water treatment soon became mainstream and common, and the virtues of the system were made starkly apparent after the investigations of the physician
1708:. The World Health Organization has investigated the health effects of demineralised water since 1980. Experiments in humans found that demineralised water increased
255:
which collect water from the atmosphere can be used especially in areas with significant dry seasons and in areas which experience fog even when there is little rain.
519:
with particulates, the high molecular weight compounds adsorb onto particle surfaces and through interparticle bridging coalesce with other particles to form floc.
1792:
to observe for the first time small material particles that lay suspended in the water, laying the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens.
2657:
1300:, United States of America. Radium can be removed by ion exchange, or by water conditioning. The back flush or sludge that is produced is, however, a low-level
1095:
to the water after adding chlorine. The chlorine and ammonia react to form chloramine. Water distribution systems disinfected with chloramines may experience
895:
3355:
2763:
2334:
Nair, Abhilash T.; Ahammed, M. Mansoor; Davra, Komal (1 August 2014). "Influence of operating parameters on the performance of a household slow sand filter".
1156:(UV) is very effective at inactivating cysts, in low turbidity water. UV light's disinfection effectiveness decreases as turbidity increases, a result of the
3456:
3574:
3711:
1061:
is a faster-acting disinfectant than elemental chlorine. It is relatively rarely used because in some circumstances it may create excessive amounts of
336:
for periods between a few days and many months to allow natural biological purification to take place. This is especially important if treatment is by
245:
is a new technology that can provide high quality drinking water by extracting water from the air by cooling the air and thus condensing water vapour.
303:
373:
can have pH values that range from 7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can have widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of the
3107:
152:
and rock layers naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity and often, it does not require additional treatment besides adding
122:—considered safe for all practical purposes in the 19th century—must now be tested before determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed.
2094:
1628:
168:
quality (i.e., pathogenic bacteria or the pathogenic protozoa are typically absent), but the water may be rich in dissolved solids, especially
971:. After the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage – often called a contact tank or
2429:
Neemann, Jeff; Hulsey, Robert; Rexing, David; Wert, Eric (2004). "Controlling
Bromate Formation During Ozonation with Chlorine and Ammonia".
1399:. If water is held in the carbon block for longer periods, microorganisms can grow inside which results in fouling and contamination. Silver
1030:
1176:
2844:
John P Osegovic; John
Ellington; Leslie Brazel; Brian Blake‐Collins; Miguel Mike DeJesus; Kathryn Sheps; Shelli Tatro; Michael Max (2009).
1986:
Over the next few years, chlorine disinfection using chloride of lime were rapidly installed in drinking water systems around the world.
1896:. Automatic pressure filters, where the water is forced under pressure through the filtration system, were innovated in 1899 in England.
692:
340:. Storage reservoirs also provide a buffer against short periods of drought or to allow water supply to be maintained during transitory
3941:
3915:
2624:
1989:
The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was developed by a
British officer in the
1597:
922:
is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and by adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill any
2563:
1263:, producing calcium carbonate of very high purity. The precipitated calcium carbonate is traditionally sold to the manufacturers of
2104:
1277:
rocks), the water may be capable of dissolving lead from any lead pipes that it is carried in. The addition of small quantities of
118:
filter are not sufficient for treating all possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source. Even natural
2011:
1552:
from ambient hydrogen and oxygen atoms at the use site. The latter was reported to be faster and 10 times more potent at killing
1251:. Fluoride is usually added after the disinfection process. In the U.S., fluoridation is usually accomplished by the addition of
597:
After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc.
130:, while expensive, are the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of purification.
46:. The goal is to produce water that is fit for specific purposes. Most water is purified and disinfected for human consumption (
3704:
2089:
1982:) at doses of 0.2 to 0.35 ppm. The treatment process was conceived by John L. Leal and the chlorination plant was designed by
1751:
1311:
or cause undesirable cosmetic effects such as staining of teeth. Methods of reducing fluoride levels is through treatment with
1157:
1139:
401:
can be an effective way to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved carbon dioxide from the water. Making the water alkaline helps
3613:
3531:
3498:
3276:
3177:
2375:
2251:
1285:
slightly both assist in greatly reducing plumbo-solvency by creating insoluble lead salts on the inner surfaces of the pipes.
3481:
1970:
The first continuous use of chlorine in the United States for disinfection took place in 1908 at
Boonton Reservoir (on the
1194:
can also be used as disinfectants. However, chlorine in water is over three times more effective as a disinfectant against
2244:
4230:
148:: The water emerging from some deep ground water may have fallen as rain many tens, hundreds, or thousands of years ago.
2067:
The global water purification market is worth 22 billion dollars. Home water filters and purifiers in India are common.
4017:
3014:
1848:
1817:
1367:
1148:
79:
1921:
that had helped spread the cholera outbreak. William Soper also used chlorinated lime to treat the sewage produced by
3926:
3697:
3636:
2954:
2304:
2278:
2160:
1885:
1662:
1123:
409:
processes work effectively and also helps to minimise the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and from lead
279:: Freshwater bodies that are open to the atmosphere and are not designated as groundwater are termed surface waters.
3108:"Health risks from drinking demineralised water. Rolling revision of the WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality"
2970:
Coates, John D.; Achenbach, Laurie A. (1 July 2004). "Microbial perchlorate reduction: rocket-fuelled metabolism".
1493:
1273:
reduction: In areas with naturally acidic waters of low conductivity (i.e. surface rainfall in upland mountains of
1776:. Although his experiment did not succeed, it marked the beginning of a new interest in the field. The fathers of
1756:
4007:
3931:
3904:
3784:
3754:
3604:
Eaton, Andrew D.; Greenberg, Arnold E.; Rice, Eugene W.; Clesceri, Lenore S.; Franson, Mary Ann H., eds. (2005).
2929:
Hatzinger, P. B.; Diebold, J.; Yates, C. A.; Cramer, R. J. (1 January 2006). Gu, Baohua; Coates, John D. (eds.).
500:
55:
2010:, gave the first practical demonstration of this in 1910. Shortly thereafter, Major William J. L. Lyster of the
1118:
Ozone has been used in drinking water plants since 1906 where the first industrial ozonation plant was built in
3671:
1888:
was formed at the same time, water filtration was adopted throughout the country, and new water intakes on the
571:
efficiency can be highly variable depending on changes in influent water quality and influent water flow rate.
127:
17:
2391:
680:
They are reasonably strong and so can withstand pressure differences across them of typically 2–5 atmospheres.
646:
To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal direction (called
3135:
1962:
Manual-control chlorinator for the liquefaction of chlorine for water purification, early 20th century. From
652:
402:
288:
1167:
Over 2 million people in 28 developing countries use Solar
Disinfection for daily drinking water treatment.
747:. For drinking water, membrane filters can remove virtually all particles larger than 0.2 μm—including
42:
is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases from
1362:
886:
1859:
had not yet been developed, Snow's observations led him to discount the prevailing theory. His 1855 essay
1390:
with a high surface area. It adsorbs many compounds including many toxic compounds. Water passing through
3789:
3385:
Leal, John L. (1909). "The Sterilization Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company at Boonton, N.J."
2109:
1349:(about 100 °C or 212 F at sea level), is the oldest and most effective way since it eliminates most
1225:
1209:
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242:
100:, viruses, and fungi as well as reduce the concentration of a range of dissolved and particulate matter.
4185:
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in pipe fittings. Sufficient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of water to iron pipes. Acid (
4215:
4142:
4127:
3860:
3744:
3490:
3247:
2032:
1876:
3228:
2540:"Recommendations for using fluoride to prevent and control dental decay caries in the United States"
30:
This article is about treatment of natural water sources (mainly). For treatment of wastewater, see
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4076:
3845:
3830:
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3720:
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A visual inspection cannot determine if water is of appropriate quality. Simple procedures such as
3855:
3840:
3825:
1975:
1781:
1760:
Drawing of an apparatus for studying the chemical analysis of mineral waters in a book from 1799.
1640:
1592:
1580:
1476:
1442:
1085:
774:
580:
3207:
1292:, a radioactive chemical element. Typical sources include many groundwater sources north of the
1099:, as ammonia is a nutrient for bacterial growth, with nitrates being generated as a by-product.
765:). However no filtration can remove substances that are actually dissolved in the water such as
4122:
3850:
3819:
3809:
3734:
3514:
2938:
2036:
1990:
1978:. Chlorination was achieved by controlled additions of dilute solutions of chloride of lime (
1905:
1856:
1809:
1676:
1252:
468:
86:
3293:
2323:. Cincinnati, OH: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1990. EPA/625/4-89/023.
1259:
treated with soda ash (sodium carbonate) which precipitates out the excess salts, through the
523:
is a popular cationic (positively charged) organic polymer used in water purification plants.
439:
4034:
4001:
3870:
3266:
3040:
2843:
2040:
1910:
1844:
1805:
910:
3649:
Overview and detailed information on US regulatory program and related drinking water topics
3060:"Changes in Blood Lead Levels Associated with Use of Chloramines in Water Treatment Systems"
2930:
2208:
1863:
conclusively demonstrated the role of the water supply in spreading the cholera epidemic in
1636:
200:
content of this water to make it acceptable for drinking, cooking, and laundry use. Primary
4172:
4102:
4092:
4029:
3965:
3779:
3749:
2845:
2778:
2155:. Denver: AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Association. pp. 376–378.
2015:
1979:
1933:
1868:
1010:
434:
248:
205:
164:, or may be extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground water is generally of very high
123:
119:
31:
2571:
2321:"Technologies for Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities"
2320:
1422:
Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) passes heated seawater along the surface of a
8:
4157:
4152:
4107:
4066:
3996:
2890:"Thermodynamic targeting of microbial perchlorate reduction by selective electron donors"
2057:
2007:
2003:
1396:
1006:
878:
788:
740:
333:
2782:
902:. A water recovery of 99% is possible if the concentrate stream is fed to the RO inlet.
3975:
3957:
3910:
3865:
3835:
3084:
3059:
2995:
2794:
2587:
2464:
2446:
2442:
2415:
Neumann, H. (1981). "Bacteriological safety of hot tap water in developing countries."
2245:
https://www.accessengineeringlibrary.com/content/book/9780071630115?implicit-login=true
2119:
1240:
1112:
984:
799:
487:
89:
75:
3646:
3442:
2515:
2491:"Comparison of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine as Disinfectants for Swimming Pool Water"
2490:
1579:, and over 10 times more effective than chlorine The catalytic reaction also produces
4022:
3899:
3632:
3609:
3527:
3494:
3272:
3089:
2987:
2950:
2931:
2911:
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2707:
2551:
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1829:
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1507:
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872:
868:
834:
614:
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479:
418:
414:
213:
63:
2999:
2450:
4117:
4071:
4038:
4012:
3986:
3936:
3920:
3774:
3769:
3739:
3438:
3079:
3071:
2979:
2942:
2901:
2786:
2697:
2510:
2502:
2438:
2343:
1983:
1952:
1948:
1680:
1554:
1391:
1387:
1196:
1058:
998:
864:
712:
708:
A profile of layers of gravel, sand and fine sand used in a slow sand filter plant.
618:
394:
337:
161:
115:
67:
3881:
3185:
2726:
2506:
2428:
4137:
4112:
3980:
3970:
3683:
3457:"Disinfecting Water in a Lyster Bag – Communicable Diseases and Field Sanitation"
2365:
2294:
2150:
2129:
2124:
2114:
2099:
1893:
1438:
1046:
1040:
1022:
961:
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807:
785:
755:
729:
697:
622:
492:
386:
341:
270:
3309:
An Act to make better Provision respecting the Supply of Water to the Metropolis
3152:
85:
Water purification can reduce the concentration of particulate matter including
4061:
4043:
3814:
3794:
3759:
1971:
1944:, England was the first to have its entire water supply treated with chlorine.
1764:
The first experiments into water filtration were made in the 17th century. Sir
1732:
1705:
1488:
1293:
1270:
1074:
1018:
967:
899:
844:
532:
398:
374:
252:
47:
2863:
2790:
4209:
3799:
3764:
3323:
Public Water-Supplies: Requirements, Resources, and the Construction of Works
3058:
Miranda, M. L.; Kim, D.; Hull, A. P.; Paul, C. J.; Galeano, M. A. O. (2006).
2946:
2061:
2056:
containers could save a huge number of lives each year. Reducing deaths from
1958:
1929:
1852:
1765:
1709:
1608:) are often used in water purification plants to detect acute water pollution
1601:
1346:
1096:
945:
860:
762:
422:
325:
276:
188:
through which the water has flowed, other ions may also be present including
104:
4199:
4162:
4081:
3689:
3672:
Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water – Camping, Hiking and Travel (CDC)
3093:
2991:
2915:
2906:
2889:
2740:
2711:
2555:
1951:
and a contaminated water supply led to a serious typhoid fever epidemic in
1880:
1828:
to purify the water supply dates to 1804, when the owner of a bleachery in
1785:
1769:
1412:
1400:
1330:
1179:(X-rays, gamma rays, and electron beams) has been used to sterilise water.
1026:
919:
795:
717:
704:
674:
Filters out virtually all particles larger than their specified pore sizes.
592:
504:
496:
406:
266:
258:
201:
139:
71:
59:
2537:
2524:
1855:
that stated that diseases were caused by noxious "bad airs". Although the
4097:
3575:"12% of urban India relies on bottled water, 1 in 4 homes has a purifier"
3427:"A Chemical Method of Sterilizing Water Without Affecting its Potability"
3015:"Researchers develop cheap, simple, on-demand water disinfection process"
2075:
1825:
1773:
1717:
1713:
1423:
1371:
1248:
1153:
539:
193:
157:
145:
2347:
1204:, and over six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of
700:) into the ground at the Water purification plant Káraný, Czech Republic
605:
2983:
2048:
1789:
1777:
1692:
1264:
1161:
1080:
994:
972:
933:
848:
766:
557:
As particles settle to the bottom of a sedimentation basin, a layer of
520:
225:
51:
483:
4167:
3890:
3075:
2149:
McGuire, Michael J.; McLain, Jennifer Lara; Obolensky, Alexa (2002).
2070:
2052:
1941:
1800:
1736:
1724:
1720:
1354:
1316:
1278:
923:
882:
856:
829:
ions. Ion-exchange resins are also used to remove toxic ions such as
826:
815:
472:
382:
370:
197:
181:
169:
3426:
3264:
2764:"Nanomaterials and Water Purification: Opportunities and Challenges"
2564:"CDC Releases New Guidelines on Fluoride Use to Prevent Tooth Decay"
1475:(ISCO) is an advanced oxidation process. It is used for soil and/or
1143:
Cutaway model of UV disinfection unit used in water treatment plants
677:
They are quite thin and so liquids flow through them fairly rapidly.
3548:"Water Purifier Market Size, Share & Growth | Report till 2029"
2741:"Is it true that you can't make a decent cup of tea up a mountain?"
2702:
2685:
2044:
1914:
1350:
1334:
1297:
1244:
1062:
1002:
990:
956:
951:
671:
Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand filters can.
579:
When particles to be removed do not settle out of solution easily,
464:
390:
362:
262:
217:
189:
165:
153:
93:
3619:
1499:
include field studies conducted in Maryland and the US Southwest.
806:-packed columns to replace unwanted ions. The most common case is
4194:
3991:
3240:
1937:
1922:
1813:
1728:
1679:
in the United States of America, became contaminated with excess
1426:
1274:
1201:
1187:
1128:
1092:
939:
928:
852:
838:
830:
811:
803:
780:
770:
749:
617:. Water moves vertically through sand which often has a layer of
460:
378:
185:
177:
173:
111:
3523:
2727:"OA Guide to Water Purification, The Backpacker's Field Manual"
2686:"Water Disinfection for International and Wilderness Travelers"
2074:
Control room and schematics of the water purification plant of
1889:
1416:
1358:
1289:
1205:
1191:
822:
744:
558:
410:
366:
1993:, Vincent B. Nesfield, in 1903. According to his own account:
1441:
involves mechanical pressure applied to force water through a
491:
combine into larger particles under natural processes such as
160:
as secondary disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs,
3325:(1st ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 493.
2296:
Integrated Design and Operation of Water Treatment Facilities
1627:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
1446:
1107:
890:
conditions are met. The water is normally pre-treated with a
495:
and through induced mixing which is sometimes referred to as
456:
236:
221:
97:
43:
3606:
Standard Methods For the Examination of Water and Wastewater
2618:"Water fluoridation: a manual for engineers and technicians"
3320:
3153:"Water Distillers – Water Distillation – Myths, Facts, etc"
2928:
2862:
Wilson, John T. Jr; Wilson, Barbara H. (15 December 1987),
1918:
1864:
1119:
1091:
It is possible to convert chlorine to chloramine by adding
452:
448:
149:
3603:
2888:
Van Trump, James Ian; Coates, John D. (18 December 2008).
1947:
Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a faulty
989:
The most common disinfection method involves some form of
3113:. World Health Organization, Geneva. 2004. Archived from
818:
2718:
3660:
2761:
1282:
358:
229:
2148:
1323:
743:
are widely used for filtering both drinking water and
224:
will be present. Where uplands are forested or peaty,
4183:
3629:
Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science
2820:"Puretec Industrial Water | What is Reverse Osmosis?"
471:. Inorganic and organic particles contribute to the
3483:
Combating Waterborne Diseases at the Household Level
3265:
Gunn, S. William A. & Masellis, Michele (2007).
3129:
3127:
2865:
Biodegradation of halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons
2363:
2051:
and hygiene, while 1.8 million people die from
1932:
formally proposed the addition of chloride of lime (
1255:, which decomposes in water, yielding fluoride ions.
531:
Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter the
3608:(21 ed.). American Public Health Association.
3208:"The Use of the Microscope in Water Filter History"
2538:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001).
2488:
2367:
Ion exchange materials: properties and applications
1687:can result in harmful exposure, including elevated
228:can colour the water. Many upland sources have low
196:. There may be a requirement to reduce the iron or
78:; and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as
3686:– U.S. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
3668:– Consumer Guide to Drinking Water in the US (EPA)
3573:
3057:
1683:(lye) when its treatment equipment malfunctioned.
332:Storage – Water from rivers may also be stored in
304:environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants
3124:
2679:
2677:
2675:
2489:Koski TA, Stuart LS, Ortenzio LF (1 March 1966).
1449:and other life forms can colonise the membranes.
1288:Radium Removal: Some groundwater sources contain
4207:
3136:"Health risks from drinking demineralised water"
2333:
1053:
975:– to allow the disinfecting action to complete.
3677:Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 141
3424:
2969:
2887:
2431:Journal of the American Water Works Association
1234:
1182:
642:A demo of backwashing on the left filter column
428:
3268:Concepts and Practice of Humanitarian Medicine
2846:"Hydrates for Gypsum Stack Water Purification"
2683:
2672:
2095:List of water supply and sanitation by country
2047:are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate
1735:(adding magnesium and calcium) of 2 to 4
1247:is added to water with the goal of preventing
1219:
781:Removal of ions and other dissolved substances
683:They can be cleaned (back flushed) and reused.
3705:
3041:"Mysterious Glitch Poisons Town Water Supply"
2623:. Centers for Disease Control. Archived from
1625:The examples and perspective in this article
1583:(ROS) that bind and degrade other compounds.
1031:United States Environmental Protection Agency
1029:in large quantities and are regulated by the
696:Slow "artificial" filtration (a variation of
552:
478:The addition of inorganic coagulants such as
3719:
3389:American Water Works Association. pp. 100–9.
3291:
2861:
2762:Savage, Nora; Mamadou S. Diallo (May 2005).
2265:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2043:; 88% of the 4 billion annual cases of
1374:ions, resulting in partial precipitation as
898:, and with gas transfer membranes to remove
3321:Turneaure, F.E. & H.L. Russell (1901).
2411:
2409:
2359:
2357:
1586:
1134:
821:replacing them with benign (soap friendly)
609:Cutaway view of a typical rapid sand filter
443:Station for complex water treatment SKO-10K
3712:
3698:
3627:Masters, Gilbert M.; Ela, Wendell (2008).
3626:
3133:
2595:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2568:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2336:Water Science and Technology: Water Supply
2288:
2286:
2269:Crittenden, John C., et al., eds. (2005).
1851:. Snow was sceptical of the then-dominant
1361:or impurities. For human health, complete
574:
565:
385:). If the water is acidic (lower than 7),
292:Typical drinking water treatment processes
3083:
2905:
2701:
2615:
2514:
2299:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 74–75.
2256:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2152:Information Collection Rule Data Analysis
1663:Learn how and when to remove this message
381:and the influence of contaminant inputs (
27:Process of removing impurities from water
3805:Environmentally healthy community design
2406:
2354:
2292:
2271:Water Treatment: Principles and Design.
2105:Organisms involved in water purification
2069:
1957:
1799:
1772:sea water by passing the flow through a
1755:
1596:
1415:involves boiling water to produce water
1138:
978:
909:
703:
691:
628:
604:
438:
287:
3572:Sharma, Harikishan (29 November 2019).
3038:
2283:
1861:On the Mode of Communication of Cholera
1386:Granular activated carbon is a form of
885:and a negative electrode. Ion-exchange
14:
4208:
3666:"Water On Tap: What You Need To Know."
3571:
3223:
3221:
2724:
2313:
2293:Kawamura, Susumu (14 September 2000).
2226:
2090:History of water supply and sanitation
1752:History of water supply and sanitation
1698:
1593:Distilled water § Health concerns
735:
3693:
2883:
2881:
1899:
1170:
1102:
881:: Water is passed between a positive
600:
3298:. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 290.
3012:
2243:. 6th Edition. New York:McGraw-Hill.
1611:
1502:
1461:
1200:than an equivalent concentration of
687:
613:The most common type of filter is a
3248:"History of the Chelsea Waterworks"
3218:
1675:In April 2007, the water supply of
1324:Other water purification techniques
133:
24:
3942:waste-water treatment technologies
3596:
3449:
2878:
2650:"Magnetic Water Treatment Devices"
2443:10.1002/j.1551-8833.2004.tb10542.x
1974:), which served as the supply for
1940:, Germany and in 1897 the city of
1913:was the first to successfully use
1849:1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
1452:
1433:
1149:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
723:
25:
4242:
3927:agricultural wastewater treatment
3654:
3647:"Ground Water and Drinking Water"
3338:Journal of the Sanitary Institute
3336:"Typhoid Epidemic at Maidstone".
3064:Environmental Health Perspectives
1917:to disinfect the water supply in
1906:Water chlorination § History
1886:Metropolitan Commission of Sewers
1879:introduced the regulation of the
1483:
1124:U.S. Food and Drug Administration
1068:
4193:
3880:
3661:American Water Works Association
3522:. World Health Organization and
3516:Water for Life: Making it Happen
3039:Poulsen, Kevin (26 April 2007).
2273:2nd Edition. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley.
2213:American Water Works Association
2006:, Professor of Chemistry at the
1616:
526:
352:
4008:List of energy storage projects
3932:industrial wastewater treatment
3785:Environmental impact assessment
3755:Environmental impact assessment
3618:. Also available on CD-ROM and
3565:
3540:
3507:
3474:
3418:
3405:
3392:
3379:
3369:
3348:
3329:
3314:
3302:
3285:
3258:
3200:
3170:
3145:
3100:
3051:
3032:
3013:Micu, Alexandre (2 July 2021).
3006:
2963:
2922:
2855:
2837:
2812:
2755:
2733:
2642:
2609:
2580:
2570:. 9 August 2007. Archived from
2531:
2482:
2457:
2422:
2384:
2239:Edzwald, James K., ed. (2011).
1407:
905:
312:
62:; biological processes such as
3631:. Hoboken, NJ: Prentice Hall.
3413:Clean Water and How to Get It.
3356:"A miracle for public health?"
2327:
2201:
2169:
2142:
2064:goal in developing countries.
2041:improved drinking water supply
1928:In a paper published in 1894,
1795:
1357:disease, but it cannot remove
1208:. Iodine is commonly used for
871:out of solution utilising the
486:) or iron (III) salts such as
344:incidents in the source river.
13:
1:
3443:10.1016/s0033-3506(02)80142-1
2507:10.1128/AEM.14.2.276-279.1966
2364:Zagorodni, Andrei A. (2007).
2136:
1381:
1212:, and bromine is common as a
1054:Chlorine dioxide disinfection
586:
70:; chemical processes such as
3230:Filtration of water supplies
3178:"Minerals in Drinking Water"
2392:"Disinfection with Chlorine"
2177:"Aeration and gas stripping"
1824:The first documented use of
1235:Additional treatment options
1183:Bromination and iodinisation
859:ions) is treated with lime (
429:Coagulation and flocculation
283:
243:Atmospheric water generation
204:may also be required. Where
7:
3790:Environmental impact design
3552:fortunebusinessinsights.com
3295:L'histoire des vaccinations
3236:, World Health Organization
2972:Nature Reviews Microbiology
2241:Water Quality and Treatment
2110:Portable water purification
2082:
1639:, discuss the issue on the
1226:Portable water purification
1220:Portable water purification
1210:portable water purification
1035:Drinking Water Inspectorate
798:: Ion-exchange systems use
103:The standards for drinking
10:
4247:
4231:Industrial water treatment
4148:High-performance buildings
3311:, (15 & 16 Vict. C.84)
2851:. AIChE Annual Convention.
2469:Center for Disease Control
1903:
1838:Chelsea Waterworks Company
1788:, used the newly invented
1749:
1745:
1590:
1340:
1223:
1214:swimming pool disinfectant
1146:
1072:
982:
590:
553:Sludge storage and removal
432:
137:
114:or the use of a household
68:biologically active carbon
29:
4143:Heat recovery ventilation
4128:Environmental remediation
4053:
3956:
3889:
3878:
3745:Climate smart agriculture
3727:
3491:World Health Organization
2791:10.1007/s11051-005-7523-5
2039:people lack access to an
2033:World Health Organization
2026:
993:or its compounds such as
894:unit to remove non-ionic
810:consisting of removal of
232:which require adjustment.
4133:Glass in green buildings
4077:sustainable architecture
3721:Environmental technology
3425:Nesfield, V. B. (1902).
3271:. Springer. p. 87.
3212:History of Water Filters
2947:10.1007/0-387-31113-0_14
2937:. Springer US. pp.
2597:(Report). September 1993
1587:Safety and controversies
1492:Example applications of
1135:Ultraviolet disinfection
296:
128:microbiological analysis
3682:8 February 2009 at the
3415:New York:Wiley. p. 102.
2684:Backer, Howard (2002).
2012:Army Medical Department
1976:Jersey City, New Jersey
1892:were established above
1818:London epidemic of 1854
1782:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
1712:and the elimination of
1581:reactive oxygen species
1477:groundwater remediation
1443:semi-permeable membrane
1368:boiling point decreases
1337:) and reverse osmosis.
1281:ion and increasing the
1086:disinfection byproducts
1001:. Chlorine is a strong
931:, bacteria, including
845:Precipitative softening
761:preparation (including
581:dissolved air flotation
575:Dissolved air flotation
566:Floc blanket clarifiers
4123:Environmental movement
3820:Sustainability science
3810:Public interest design
3735:Appropriate technology
3411:Hazen, Allen. (1916).
2907:10.1038/ismej.2008.119
2079:
2000:
1991:Indian Medical Service
1967:
1857:germ theory of disease
1821:
1761:
1677:Spencer, Massachusetts
1609:
1345:Bringing water to its
1253:hexafluorosilicic acid
1144:
916:
709:
701:
643:
610:
469:natural organic matter
444:
302:organic materials, or
293:
4002:hydrogen technologies
3916:Solid waste treatment
3292:Bazin, Hervé (2008).
3157:Naturalsolutions1.com
2725:Curtis, Rick (1998).
2073:
1995:
1984:George Warren Fuller.
1966:by Joseph Race, 1918.
1964:Chlorination of Water
1961:
1803:
1759:
1750:Further information:
1600:
1591:Further information:
1495:Dechloromonas agitata
1142:
1127:suspected carcinogen
979:Chlorine disinfection
913:
707:
695:
641:
608:
475:and colour of water.
442:
291:
138:Further information:
4173:Water heat recycling
4103:Efficient energy use
4093:Conservation biology
4030:Sustainable lighting
3966:Efficient energy use
3780:Environmental Design
3750:Environmental design
3461:armymedical.tpub.com
3344:: 388. October 1897.
3188:on 30 September 2010
2654:Penn State Extension
2495:Applied Microbiology
2465:"Solar Disinfection"
2031:According to a 2007
2016:calcium hypochlorite
1980:calcium hypochlorite
1934:calcium hypochlorite
1877:Metropolis Water Act
1869:dot distribution map
1867:, with the use of a
1645:create a new article
1637:improve this article
1480:natural degradation
1011:calcium hypochlorite
896:organic contaminants
435:Particle aggregation
361:close to 7 (neither
249:Rainwater harvesting
206:groundwater recharge
32:wastewater treatment
4158:Nature conservation
4153:Land rehabilitation
4108:Energy conservation
3997:carbon-neutral fuel
3905:dispersion modeling
3134:Kozisek F. (2004).
3120:on 7 February 2006.
2783:2005JNR.....7..331S
2771:J. Nanoparticle Res
2588:Fluoridation census
2348:10.2166/ws.2014.021
2058:waterborne diseases
2014:used a solution of
2008:Army Medical School
2004:Carl Rogers Darnall
1699:Demineralized water
1606:Oncorhynchus mykiss
1397:silver nanoparticle
1231:of drinking water.
1007:sodium hypochlorite
879:Electrodeionization
863:) and/or soda-ash (
736:Membrane filtration
533:sedimentation basin
455:or organic such as
334:bankside reservoirs
184:. Depending on the
3976:Energy development
3958:Sustainable energy
3947:water purification
3911:Industrial ecology
3580:The Indian Express
3182:Aquatechnology.net
2984:10.1038/nrmicro926
2616:Reeves TG (1986).
2120:Water conservation
2080:
2035:(WHO) report, 1.1
1968:
1925:patients in 1879.
1900:Water chlorination
1822:
1762:
1691:. Lead is a known
1610:
1473:chemical oxidation
1241:Water fluoridation
1177:ionizing radiation
1171:Ionizing radiation
1145:
1103:Ozone disinfection
985:Water chlorination
917:
800:ion-exchange resin
710:
702:
644:
611:
601:Rapid sand filters
547:Lamella clarifiers
488:iron(III) chloride
445:
294:
40:Water purification
4181:
4180:
4018:commercialization
3615:978-0-87553-047-5
3533:978-92-4-156293-5
3500:978-92-4-159522-3
3402:AWWA. pp. 110–34.
3278:978-0-387-72264-1
2660:on 15 August 2017
2630:on 7 October 2008
2377:978-0-08-044552-6
2252:978-0-07-163011-5
2209:"Water Knowledge"
2045:diarrheal disease
1830:Paisley, Scotland
1716:, with decreased
1689:blood lead levels
1673:
1672:
1665:
1647:, as appropriate.
1508:Hydrogen peroxide
1503:Hydrogen peroxide
1376:calcium carbonate
1313:activated alumina
1302:radioactive waste
1261:common-ion effect
1154:Ultraviolet light
1025:(HAAs), are both
873:common-ion effect
869:calcium carbonate
867:) to precipitate
847:: Water rich in
841:and many others.
713:Slow sand filters
688:Slow sand filters
639:
615:rapid sand filter
480:aluminium sulfate
419:hydrochloric acid
357:Pure water has a
338:slow sand filters
212:Upland lakes and
80:ultraviolet light
64:slow sand filters
16:(Redirected from
4238:
4216:Water technology
4198:
4197:
4189:
4118:Energy recycling
4039:electric vehicle
4013:Renewable energy
3987:alternative fuel
3937:sewage treatment
3921:Waste management
3884:
3775:Energy recycling
3770:Electric vehicle
3740:Clean technology
3714:
3707:
3700:
3691:
3690:
3642:
3623:
3622:by subscription.
3591:
3590:
3588:
3586:
3577:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3521:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3493:. 2007. Part 1.
3488:
3478:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3422:
3416:
3409:
3403:
3396:
3390:
3383:
3377:
3373:
3367:
3366:
3364:
3362:
3352:
3346:
3345:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3299:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3262:
3256:
3255:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3225:
3216:
3215:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3193:
3184:. Archived from
3174:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3131:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3112:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3087:
3076:10.1289/ehp.9432
3055:
3049:
3048:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3010:
3004:
3003:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2936:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2909:
2894:The ISME Journal
2885:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2824:puretecwater.com
2816:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2777:(4–5): 331–342.
2768:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2705:
2681:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2656:. Archived from
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2629:
2622:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2592:
2584:
2578:
2575:
2574:on 8 March 2008.
2559:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2518:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2426:
2420:
2413:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2361:
2352:
2351:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2290:
2281:
2267:
2254:
2237:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2188:
2182:. Archived from
2181:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2146:
2002:U.S. Army Major
1953:Lincoln, England
1949:slow sand filter
1804:Original map by
1681:sodium hydroxide
1668:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1648:
1620:
1619:
1612:
1578:
1577:
1576:
1568:
1567:
1558:than commercial
1555:Escherichia coli
1551:
1550:
1549:
1541:
1540:
1530:
1529:
1528:
1520:
1519:
1392:activated carbon
1388:activated carbon
1243:: in many areas
1197:Escherichia coli
1059:Chlorine dioxide
1023:haloacetic acids
999:chlorine dioxide
865:sodium carbonate
741:Membrane filters
640:
619:activated carbon
395:sodium hydroxide
162:artesian springs
134:Sources of water
116:activated carbon
21:
4246:
4245:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4226:Water treatment
4221:Water pollution
4206:
4205:
4204:
4192:
4184:
4182:
4177:
4138:Green computing
4113:Energy recovery
4049:
3981:Energy recovery
3971:Electrification
3952:
3898:Air pollution (
3885:
3876:
3723:
3718:
3684:Wayback Machine
3657:
3652:
3639:
3616:
3599:
3597:Further reading
3594:
3584:
3582:
3570:
3566:
3556:
3554:
3546:
3545:
3541:
3534:
3519:
3513:
3512:
3508:
3501:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3475:
3465:
3463:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3423:
3419:
3410:
3406:
3397:
3393:
3384:
3380:
3374:
3370:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3349:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3319:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3290:
3286:
3279:
3263:
3259:
3246:
3245:
3241:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3219:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3191:
3189:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3161:
3159:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3138:
3132:
3125:
3117:
3110:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3056:
3052:
3037:
3033:
3023:
3021:
3011:
3007:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2927:
2923:
2886:
2879:
2870:
2868:
2860:
2856:
2848:
2842:
2838:
2828:
2826:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2803:
2801:
2766:
2760:
2756:
2746:
2744:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2729:. Random House.
2723:
2719:
2690:Clin Infect Dis
2682:
2673:
2663:
2661:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2620:
2614:
2610:
2600:
2598:
2590:
2586:
2585:
2581:
2562:
2550:(RR-14): 1–42.
2544:MMWR Recomm Rep
2536:
2532:
2487:
2483:
2473:
2471:
2463:
2462:
2458:
2427:
2423:
2419:Rep.84:812–814.
2414:
2407:
2397:
2395:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2362:
2355:
2332:
2328:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2291:
2284:
2268:
2257:
2238:
2227:
2217:
2215:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2192:
2190:
2189:on 12 July 2014
2186:
2179:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2130:Water treatment
2125:Water recycling
2115:Water softening
2100:Microfiltration
2085:
2029:
1908:
1902:
1894:Teddington Lock
1798:
1754:
1748:
1723:concentration.
1701:
1669:
1658:
1652:
1649:
1634:
1621:
1617:
1595:
1589:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1532:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1505:
1486:
1467:
1455:
1453:Crystallization
1439:Reverse osmosis
1436:
1434:Reverse osmosis
1410:
1384:
1359:chemical toxins
1343:
1326:
1237:
1228:
1222:
1185:
1173:
1151:
1137:
1105:
1077:
1071:
1056:
1047:Cryptosporidium
1041:Giardia lamblia
1019:trihalomethanes
987:
981:
962:Giardia lamblia
908:
892:reverse osmosis
808:water softening
786:Ultrafiltration
783:
756:Cryptosporidium
738:
730:bank filtration
726:
724:Bank filtration
698:bank filtration
690:
629:
623:anthracite coal
603:
595:
589:
577:
568:
555:
529:
493:Brownian motion
437:
431:
355:
315:
299:
286:
271:reverse osmosis
166:bacteriological
142:
136:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4244:
4234:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4203:
4202:
4179:
4178:
4176:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4057:
4055:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4047:
4044:hybrid vehicle
4041:
4035:Transportation
4032:
4027:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4010:
4005:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3962:
3960:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3950:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3902:
3895:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3874:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3822:
3817:
3815:Sustainability
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3795:Green building
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3760:Eco-innovation
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3731:
3729:
3725:
3724:
3717:
3716:
3709:
3702:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3674:
3669:
3663:
3656:
3655:External links
3653:
3651:
3650:
3643:
3637:
3624:
3614:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3564:
3539:
3532:
3506:
3499:
3473:
3448:
3417:
3404:
3391:
3378:
3368:
3347:
3328:
3313:
3301:
3284:
3277:
3257:
3239:
3217:
3199:
3169:
3144:
3123:
3099:
3070:(2): 221–225.
3050:
3031:
3005:
2978:(7): 569–580.
2962:
2955:
2921:
2900:(4): 466–476.
2877:
2854:
2836:
2811:
2754:
2732:
2717:
2703:10.1086/324747
2696:(3): 355–364.
2671:
2641:
2608:
2579:
2577:
2576:
2530:
2501:(2): 276–279.
2481:
2456:
2421:
2405:
2383:
2376:
2353:
2342:(4): 643–649.
2326:
2312:
2305:
2282:
2255:
2225:
2200:
2168:
2161:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2028:
2025:
1972:Rockaway River
1901:
1898:
1797:
1794:
1747:
1744:
1733:water hardness
1706:drinking water
1700:
1697:
1671:
1670:
1631:of the subject
1629:worldwide view
1624:
1622:
1615:
1588:
1585:
1573:
1564:
1546:
1537:
1525:
1516:
1504:
1501:
1489:Bioremediation
1485:
1484:Bioremediation
1482:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1435:
1432:
1409:
1406:
1383:
1380:
1342:
1339:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1305:
1294:Illinois River
1286:
1271:Plumbosolvency
1268:
1256:
1236:
1233:
1224:Main article:
1221:
1218:
1184:
1181:
1172:
1169:
1147:Main article:
1136:
1133:
1122:, France. The
1104:
1101:
1075:Chloramination
1073:Main article:
1070:
1069:Chloramination
1067:
1055:
1052:
1038:water such as
1033:(EPA) and the
983:Main article:
980:
977:
968:cryptosporidia
907:
904:
900:carbon dioxide
782:
779:
737:
734:
725:
722:
689:
686:
685:
684:
681:
678:
675:
672:
602:
599:
588:
585:
576:
573:
567:
564:
554:
551:
528:
525:
430:
427:
375:drainage basin
354:
351:
350:
349:
345:
330:
320:
314:
311:
298:
295:
285:
282:
281:
280:
274:
256:
253:fog collection
246:
240:
233:
210:
135:
132:
48:drinking water
26:
18:Water purifier
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4243:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4211:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4190:
4187:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4088:
4087:New Classical
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3963:
3961:
3959:
3955:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3883:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3861:refurbishment
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:Sustainable (
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3800:Green vehicle
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3765:Ecotechnology
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3715:
3710:
3708:
3703:
3701:
3696:
3695:
3692:
3685:
3681:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3638:9780131481930
3634:
3630:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3611:
3607:
3602:
3601:
3581:
3576:
3568:
3553:
3549:
3543:
3535:
3529:
3525:
3518:
3517:
3510:
3502:
3496:
3492:
3485:
3484:
3477:
3462:
3458:
3452:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3431:Public Health
3428:
3421:
3414:
3408:
3401:
3395:
3388:
3382:
3372:
3357:
3351:
3343:
3339:
3332:
3324:
3317:
3310:
3305:
3297:
3296:
3288:
3280:
3274:
3270:
3269:
3261:
3253:
3249:
3243:
3232:
3231:
3224:
3222:
3213:
3209:
3203:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3173:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3137:
3130:
3128:
3116:
3109:
3103:
3095:
3091:
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2743:. physics.org
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2417:Public Health
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2062:public health
2059:
2054:
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2042:
2038:
2034:
2024:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
1999:
1994:
1992:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1930:Moritz Traube
1926:
1924:
1920:
1916:
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1895:
1891:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1870:
1866:
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1858:
1854:
1853:miasma theory
1850:
1846:
1841:
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1835:
1834:James Simpson
1831:
1827:
1819:
1816:cases in the
1815:
1811:
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1793:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1768:attempted to
1767:
1766:Francis Bacon
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1602:Rainbow trout
1599:
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1401:nanoparticles
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1393:
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1364:
1363:sterilisation
1360:
1356:
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1348:
1347:boiling point
1338:
1336:
1332:
1319:filter media.
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1299:
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1100:
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1097:nitrification
1094:
1089:
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1048:
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1024:
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903:
901:
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884:
880:
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861:calcium oxide
858:
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527:Sedimentation
524:
522:
516:
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506:
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501:sedimentation
498:
494:
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485:
481:
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474:
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462:
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423:sulfuric acid
420:
416:
415:carbonic acid
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
353:pH adjustment
348:discontinued.
346:
343:
339:
335:
331:
328:
327:
326:screen filter
321:
317:
316:
310:
307:
305:
290:
278:
277:Surface water
275:
272:
268:
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260:
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247:
244:
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4082:New Urbanism
4054:Conservation
3946:
3846:food systems
3831:architecture
3628:
3605:
3583:. Retrieved
3579:
3567:
3555:. Retrieved
3551:
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3466:25 September
3464:. Retrieved
3460:
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3371:
3359:. Retrieved
3350:
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3186:the original
3181:
3172:
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3115:the original
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2774:
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2745:. Retrieved
2735:
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2658:the original
2653:
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2625:the original
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2572:the original
2567:
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2533:
2498:
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2484:
2472:. Retrieved
2468:
2459:
2437:(2): 26–29.
2434:
2430:
2424:
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2396:. Retrieved
2386:
2370:. Elsevier.
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2216:. Retrieved
2212:
2203:
2191:. Retrieved
2184:the original
2171:
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2066:
2030:
2021:purification
2020:
2001:
1996:
1988:
1969:
1963:
1946:
1927:
1909:
1881:water supply
1874:
1860:
1842:
1826:sand filters
1823:
1808:showing the
1786:Robert Hooke
1763:
1741:
1714:electrolytes
1702:
1685:
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1659:
1650:
1626:
1605:
1553:
1506:
1494:
1487:
1470:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1437:
1421:
1413:Distillation
1411:
1408:Distillation
1385:
1344:
1331:desalination
1327:
1229:
1195:
1186:
1174:
1166:
1152:
1117:
1113:chlorination
1106:
1090:
1078:
1057:
1045:
1039:
1027:carcinogenic
1015:
988:
966:
960:
959:, including
950:
944:
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920:Disinfection
918:
906:Disinfection
877:
843:
796:Ion exchange
794:
784:
754:
748:
739:
727:
718:Schmutzdecke
711:
667:Advantages:
666:
662:
658:air scouring
657:
651:
648:backflushing
647:
645:
612:
596:
593:Water filter
578:
569:
556:
545:
537:
530:
517:
513:
509:
497:flocculation
477:
459:, bacteria,
446:
407:flocculation
356:
323:
313:Pretreatment
308:
300:
267:distillation
259:Desalination
209:regulations.
202:disinfection
140:Water supply
120:spring water
109:
102:
96:, bacteria,
84:
76:chlorination
72:flocculation
60:distillation
39:
38:
36:
4098:Ecoforestry
3856:procurement
3841:development
3826:agriculture
3400:Proceedings
3387:Proceedings
3361:17 December
3192:18 February
3162:18 February
3019:ZME Science
2933:Perchlorate
2871:17 November
2634:10 December
2601:29 December
2474:11 February
2398:11 February
2076:Lac de Bret
2060:is a major
1847:during the
1796:Sand filter
1774:sand filter
1718:blood serum
1424:hydrophobic
1372:bicarbonate
1249:tooth decay
1079:The use of
1021:(THMs) and
915:prevention.
775:heavy metal
653:backwashing
540:Allen Hazen
403:coagulation
399:degasifiers
322:Screening (
226:humic acids
194:bicarbonate
158:chloramines
146:Groundwater
4210:Categories
4067:insulation
4060:Building (
4023:transition
3866:technology
3851:industries
3585:12 January
3557:12 January
2747:2 November
2137:References
2053:diarrhoeal
2049:sanitation
1904:See also:
1790:microscope
1778:microscopy
1770:desalinate
1693:neurotoxin
1653:April 2011
1497:strain CKB
1382:Adsorption
1355:intestinal
1265:toothpaste
1162:scattering
1158:absorption
1081:chloramine
995:chloramine
973:clear well
965:and other
934:Salmonella
767:phosphates
591:See also:
587:Filtration
521:PolyDADMAC
505:filtration
433:See also:
214:reservoirs
170:carbonates
52:filtration
4168:Recycling
3891:Pollution
3871:transport
3437:: 601–3.
3024:15 August
2799:136561598
2664:15 August
1942:Maidstone
1911:John Snow
1845:John Snow
1806:John Snow
1725:Magnesium
1721:potassium
1641:talk page
1465:oxidation
1317:bone char
1279:phosphate
1175:Like UV,
924:pathogens
887:membranes
883:electrode
857:magnesium
789:membranes
538:In 1904,
473:turbidity
383:acid rain
371:Sea water
342:pollution
324:see also
284:Treatment
198:manganese
182:magnesium
94:parasites
90:particles
87:suspended
3680:Archived
3526:. 2005.
3252:ucla.edu
3094:17384768
3000:21600794
2992:15197392
2916:19092865
2712:11774083
2556:11521913
2451:94346527
2083:See also
1915:chlorine
1836:for the
1810:clusters
1710:diuresis
1635:You may
1353:causing
1351:microbes
1335:seawater
1298:Illinois
1245:fluoride
1063:chlorite
991:chlorine
957:protozoa
952:Shigella
849:hardness
833:, lead,
771:nitrates
465:protozoa
391:soda ash
363:alkaline
263:seawater
235:Rivers,
218:protozoa
190:chloride
174:sulfates
154:chlorine
124:Chemical
4072:natural
3992:biofuel
3925:Water (
3900:control
3728:General
3085:1817676
2779:Bibcode
2525:4959984
2218:29 June
2193:29 June
2037:billion
1938:Hamburg
1923:typhoid
1814:cholera
1746:History
1729:calcium
1471:In situ
1463:In situ
1427:polymer
1341:Thermal
1275:igneous
1202:bromine
1188:Bromine
1129:bromate
1093:ammonia
1003:oxidant
940:Cholera
929:viruses
853:calcium
839:arsenic
835:mercury
831:nitrite
804:zeolite
750:Giardia
461:viruses
379:aquifer
178:calcium
112:boiling
4186:Portal
3985:Fuel (
3836:design
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1890:Thames
1417:vapour
1290:radium
1206:iodine
1192:iodine
955:, and
777:ions.
745:sewage
559:sludge
411:solder
367:acidic
319:occur.
237:canals
192:, and
186:strata
58:, and
4200:Water
4062:green
3645:EPA.
3520:(PDF)
3487:(PDF)
3234:(PDF)
3139:(PDF)
3118:(PDF)
3111:(PDF)
3045:Wired
2996:S2CID
2849:(PDF)
2795:S2CID
2767:(PDF)
2628:(PDF)
2621:(PDF)
2591:(PDF)
2447:S2CID
2394:. CDC
2187:(PDF)
2180:(PDF)
1643:, or
1447:algae
1309:toxic
1108:Ozone
802:- or
457:algae
393:, or
297:Goals
222:algae
98:algae
44:water
3633:ISBN
3610:ISBN
3587:2023
3559:2023
3528:ISBN
3495:ISBN
3468:2021
3363:2012
3273:ISBN
3194:2011
3164:2011
3090:PMID
3026:2021
2988:PMID
2951:ISBN
2912:PMID
2873:2016
2831:2021
2806:2011
2749:2012
2708:PMID
2666:2017
2636:2008
2603:2008
2552:PMID
2521:PMID
2476:2018
2400:2018
2372:ISBN
2301:ISBN
2275:ISBN
2248:ISBN
2220:2017
2195:2017
2157:ISBN
1919:Soho
1875:The
1865:Soho
1784:and
1737:mmol
1315:and
1190:and
1120:Nice
1044:and
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855:and
819:ions
814:and
773:and
753:and
503:and
484:alum
482:(or
467:and
453:silt
451:and
449:clay
405:and
387:lime
365:nor
180:and
172:and
150:Soil
126:and
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3072:doi
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