Water supply and sanitation in Argentina

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Argentina. First, the provincial government conducted a series of meetings with municipalities and user organizations to discuss the benefits and risks of the concession before it was bid out. This process of consultations was continued by the private concessionaire after the contract was awarded. Second, the government decided from the onset that water and sanitation services in the poor province could not be financed entirely through tariff revenues. It thus decided to finance much of the investments to be undertaken by the private concessionaire with public grants, in addition to providing consumption subsidies. Third, the regulatory agency allowed the concessionaire to provide services at a lower standard in remote or isolated areas that were deemed unprofitable at conventional service standards. Fourth, the provincial regulatory agency granted tariff increases before and even after the 2001 economic crisis. These tariff increases were lower than it would have been necessary without subsidies or flexible service standards. And fifth, the government "ignored the traditional paradigm of only permitting companies with significant previous experience in water supply and sanitation to compete in the bidding process". This provision had favored a few large multinational water firms in other bidding processes. In Salta, however, the bid was won by the Argentinean construction, power and toll road enterprise MECON S.A. which signed a technical assistance contract with the Brazilian

209:, in the case of 14 through regulatory agencies that have some limited autonomy from the government. Overall, however, responsibilities are not always clearly defined, and institutions are often weak, subject to political interference and lacking enforcement powers. The various national institutions with policy-setting responsibilities in the sector are not always well coordinated. There is no coherent national policy in terms of sector financing, subsidies, tariffs and service standards. The federal structure of the country and the dispersion of sector responsibilities between and within various levels of government make the development of a coherent sector policy all the more difficult. 560:, during the 13 year-duration of its concession it extended access to water to 2 million people and access to sanitation to 1 million people, despite the economic crisis. Between 2003 and 2005 alone about 100,000 inhabitants of poor neighborhoods and slums are said to have been connected through a "participatory management model" piloted by Aguas Argentinas. Aspects of the model have been adopted by the government to extend services to another 400,000 people in La Matanza in the province of Buenos Aires in the project "Water plus work" ("Aguas más trabajo"). 31: 1952: 237:, the private concession in Buenos Aires extended access to water to 2 million people and access to sanitation to 1 million people, despite a freeze in tariffs imposed by the government in 2001 in violation of the concession agreement. The government argues that the concessionaire did not fully comply with its obligations concerning expansion and quality, saying that the supplied water had high levels of nitrate, pressure obligations were not kept and scheduled works were not carried out. 549:

after the peso devaluation. Solanes points out that without this practice companies may seek financing in local capital markets to avoid currency fluctuations. He also argues that the needs of the poor were not addressed in the concession. No subsidies were provided for the poor and the tariff system did not encourage expansion of coverage to poor areas, since new connections were often unaffordable and new users also had to pay the costs of expanding the network.

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survey data, finding that in the 1991-1997 period child mortality fell 5 to 7 percent more in areas that privatized compared to those that remained under public or cooperative management. It also found that the effect was largest in poorest areas (24%). The authors estimate that the main reason is the massive expansion of access to water, which was concentrated in poorer areas that did not receive services before private sector participation was introduced.

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supplied water had high levels of nitrate, pressure obligations were not kept and scheduled waterworks were not executed by the concessionaire. On the other hand, proponents of private participation state that a freeze in tariffs at the time of the devaluation of the Peso during the Argentinean economic crisis in 2001 substantially reduced the real value of tariff revenues and thus made it difficult to achieve the original targets.

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their self-financing capacity has disappeared. Service providers thus are almost entirely dependent on federal transfers for investment financing. Roughly two-thirds of provincial water and sanitation spending over the period has come from general transfers from the federal government, the remainder coming from various programs directed specifically to the sector, including for flood protection and water resources management.

173:, 21% of the total population remains without access to house connections and 52% of the urban population do not have access to sewerage. The responsibility for operating and maintaining water and sanitation services rests with 19 provincial water and sewer companies, more than 100 municipalities and more than 950 cooperatives, the latter operating primarily in small towns. Among the largest water and sewer companies are 623:, a decentralized agency under the Ministry of Public Works, provides financing and technical assistance to service providers. As an advisor to the Ministry of Public Works it de facto influences sector policies. ENOHSA has also been given the faculty to directly execute infrastructure works. There has been some confusion between its position as conceding power (in the 651: 662:

former OSN tariff system. It estimates the consumption of each user according to characteristics such as dwelling size, location of residence and type of dwelling. The second tariff system contains a fixed charge and a variable part which is based on metered consumption. This latter method was made possible by the extensive introduction of

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responsibilities. In most cases, they act as supervisors of private concession contracts, not covering public and cooperative service providers. This autonomy of provinces resulted in a highly heterogeneous system of water supply and sanitation. Moreover, it hinders to create an overview of the situation at the national level.

476:, as part of one of the world's largest privatization programs covering a range of sectors, water and sanitation concessions with the private sector were signed in 28% of the country's municipalities covering 60% of the population. The highest profile concession was signed in 1993 with a consortium led by the French firm 233:

privatization on child mortality based on household survey data, finding that child mortality fell 5 to 7 percent more in areas that privatized compared to those that remained under public or cooperative management. The authors estimate that the main reason is the massive expansion of access to water. According to

369: 738:: The US$ 190 million loan approved on May 18, 2006 finances flood protection (94%) as well as general water and sanitation sector (2%) in the city of Buenos Aires through the protection of the city's critical infrastructure and the introduction of risk management into the government investment program. 636:

Provision of water and sanitation supply in Argentina is organized on a municipal or provincial basis by around 1,650 public, cooperative and private entities of various forms. 14 service providers are provincial (Argentina has 23 provinces), but do not necessarily serve the entire province. Some are

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plants discharging to the Arenales River was not functioning. In June 2008 the company was accused of not having complied with contractual targets for the installation of meters, water pressure, continuity of supply, drinking water quality norms, and of applying excessive interests on late payments.

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The private concession led to a substantial increase in access to water and sanitation from the time of concession award in 1999 to 2005. It also provided a significant decrease in service interruptions and improved customer service. 13 more municipalities joined the concession contract after it had

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concession) and as policy-maker for the overall sector. There is no coherent national policy in terms of sector financing, subsidies, tariffs and service standards. Nor is there a sector law for water and sanitation. The federal structure of the country and the dispersion of sector responsibilities

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While most other private water concessions in Argentina were rescinded in the years after the 2001 economic crisis, the Salta concession has been upheld until 2009 despite a number of problems. In February 2008 the regulatory agency initiated penal proceedings against the concessionaire because one

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So far there has been no comprehensive, objective assessment of the impact of private sector participation in water supply and sanitation in Argentina. However, there has been some partial evidence. For example, a 2002 study assessed the impact of privatization on child mortality based on household

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Between 1991 and 1999, as part of one of the world's largest privatization programs covering a range of sectors, water and sanitation concessions with the private sector were signed covering 28% of the country's municipalities and 60% of the population. The highest profile concession was signed in

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Most service providers barely recover operation and maintenance costs and have no capacity to self-finance investments. While private operators were able to achieve higher levels of cost recovery and to substantially expand services before the crisis, since 2002 their tariffs have been frozen and

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In 2000, the Argentinean water and sanitation tariff levels were high, given the low quality of services. According to the Panamerican Health Organization (PAHO), the mean tariff for water and sanitation was US$ 0.79 per m3. There are two different tariff systems. The first method is based on the

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initiated the reform of its water sector in 1996. At the same time many other Argentinean provinces and municipalities brought in the private sector to improve water and sanitation services. While Salta also followed this approach, the process differed somewhat from the one in many other parts of

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In addition, the inexperienced regulatory agency was repeatedly bypassed when decisions were taken, for example in the renegotiation of the contract in 1997. In that way, ETOSS was further weakened. The concession contract authorized Aguas Argentinas to demand dollars at the old 1:1 exchange rate

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decentralized the provision of water and sanitation services in the main cities served by OSN, except for the metropolitan area of Buenos Aires where OSN continued to provide services. In other cities OSN transferred its responsibilities to provincial governments. Each province chose its model of

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The most frequent water-related diseases in Argentina are acute gastrointestinal diseases, paratyphoid, typhoid fever and intestinal parasitosis. Diarrhea is one of the most pressing health problems. . Hepatitis ("A" and those not specified) has a strong incidence, with 30,661 notifications being

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In Argentina, in 2015, 99% of the population had access to "special" water, 98.9% in urban areas and 99.9% in rural areas. Still, in 2015, around 390 thousand lacked access to "improved" water. Regarding access to "improved" sanitation it includes 96% of the population, 96% and 98%, in urban and

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in 2002, the tariffs did not increase but converted 1 to 1 to the devalued peso, resulting in various contract renegotiations. This decision worsened the financial situation of the suppliers. The lack of financial resources results in problems concerning even in maintaining the supply system.

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Critics argue that the concessionaire failed to achieve the targets set under the concession contract. When the government rescinded the concession in March 2006, it argued that Aguas Argentinas did not comply with obligations concerning expansion and quality. According to the government, the

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Provinces have responsibility for setting rules and policies in the sector for their area. Institutions are weak, subject to political interference and lacking in enforcement powers. 14 out of 23 provinces have regulatory bodies, but they often have limited capacity and unclear institutional

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The concessionaire did invest much more than its public predecessor and achieved substantial increases in access to water and sewerage. According to the Argentinean economist Sebastian Galiani, the public company OSN had invested only US$ 25m per year between 1983 and 1993, while the private

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The impact of private sector participation in water and sanitation is a controversial topic. While the public perception of the mostly international concessionaires is overwhelmingly negative in Argentina, some studies show positive impacts. For example, a 2002 study assessed the impact of

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in 2002 tariffs have been frozen and the self-financing capacity of utilities has disappeared. Roughly two-thirds of provincial water and sanitation spending since 2002 has come from general transfers from the federal government, the remainder coming from various national programs directed

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loaned Agua y Saneamientos Argentinos S.A. (AySA) $ 80 million to help modernize water and wastewater infrastructure in Buenos Aires through a project meant to expand a sewage network, a wastewater treatment facility, and a water treatment plant. The initiative will minimize the risk of

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The available information in the concession contract about the state of the existing infrastructure was so poor, that the Argentinean government denied taking responsibility for it. This lack of information could have let the bidder to accept the contract in the expectation of future

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The largest and best-known case of private sector participation in the Argentine water and sanitation sector was the Buenos Aires concession, signed in 1993 and revoked in 2006. Its impact remains controversial and in early 2008 an arbitration case was still pending with the

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The financing will be used to expand the wastewater treatment plant Las Catonas, which will serve 350 000 people. A new sewage network will also be built across the city, serving about 24 000 persons. The new infrastructure will help safeguard the environment and reduce

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multi-municipal, some serve a single municipality and others parts of a municipality. There are at least 990 mostly smaller cooperative service providers in Argentina, making Argentina the country in Latin America where this form of service provision is most prevalent.

707:: Approved on January 31, 2007 in the amount of US$ 240 million, the loan will address specific problems of irrigation, drainage, as well as low access to water and sanitation in the northern provinces of Jujuy, Catamarca, Santiago del Estero, Tucumán, and Chaco. 1940: 594:, governor of the Province, terminated the concession contract because of non-compliance and created a transition unit to provide services until a state company would be created whose shares would be held by the Province (90%) and workers (10%). 2002: 666:, which was included in many concession contracts in the 1990s. The average household expenditure for water supply and sanitation in 2002 was 2.6%, ranging from 2.1% in the highest (wealthiest) quintile to 3.5% in the lowest (poorest) one. 1388: 1054: 2315: 2407: 492:, many concessions were renegotiated. Some were even terminated and the responsibility for service provision reverted to public entities, as it was the case in Buenos Aires where the newly created public enterprise 2356: 395:

varies among the Argentinean regions. According to the Pan American Health Organization, at the national level 10% of the collected wastewater was being treated in 2000. Whereas in many regional capitals, such as

380:

In urban areas of Argentina, service is generally continuous and of potable quality. However, water rationing occurs in some cities during the summer months, and drinking water quality is sometimes sub-standard.

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Concerning sanitation, existing sewage collection systems are insufficient to handle the increasing flows as a growing number of households connect to the sewer systems, leading to frequent sewer overflows.

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2532: 2290: 2027: 168:

is characterized by relatively low tariffs, mostly reasonable service quality, low levels of metering and high levels of consumption for those with access to services. At the same time, according to the

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One factor which may have caused the cancellation of the concession contract was the precipitate preparation. Alcazar et al. list some features of the concession which indicate an overhasty process:

726:: The US$ 270 million loan was approved on June 28, 2007 and finances 40% sewerage and 16% flood protection for the highly vulnerable and low-income communities in the Province of Buenos Aires. 2517: 2512: 2397: 2012: 1997: 1977: 2542: 2502: 2447: 2442: 2422: 2417: 2402: 2382: 2377: 2372: 1992: 2527: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2457: 2052: 461:(OSN) was in charge of providing water and sewer services in the main cities, while in smaller cities it was the responsibility of provincial governments, municipalities and cooperatives. 500:

announced that it is interested in increasing its control of the provincial water utility "Obras Sanitarias de Mendoza", of which it owns 20%, buying another 20% from Saur International.

1904: 611:

Despite recent progress in clarifying responsibilities, the institutional framework at the national level still lacks coherence and coordination among federal actors is weak. The

741: 735: 729: 723: 744:: The US$ 267 million loan approved on February 15, 2006 finances infrastructure services in sewerage (30%) and flood protection (5%) in the Province of Buenos Aires. 713:: Approved on September 25, 2006 in the amount of US$ 180 million the program will partly finance water and/or sewerage systems for communities up to 50,000 in Argentina. 519: 342: 360:(CIPPEC) or Center for Implementation of Public Policies for Equity and Growth, the increase of coverage between 1991 and 2001 was lower in the poorest provinces. 1341: 1294: 1247: 2497: 957:

Galiani, Sebastian; Gertler, Paul; Schargrodsky, Ernesto (2002-08-31). "Water for Life: The Impact of the Privatization of Water Services on Child Mortality".

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and promote public health by boosting access to sanitation, particularly for low-income and vulnerable individuals in the region. It will assist to keep

2706: 2737: 2547: 1935: 1925: 1517: 436:, there was practically no treatment at all, resulting in serious environmental problems. However, in 2008 a bidding process was launched to build a 2645: 2552: 886: 2557: 1890: 1751: 1644: 2467: 2270: 1930: 732:: The US$ 175 million loan approved on April 3, 2006 finances water (27%), sanitation (27%), and sewerage (14%) projects in Argentina. 2280: 2097: 2092: 1987: 808: 2605: 2351: 2148: 2102: 2590: 2158: 2153: 2067: 1193: 2716: 2635: 2610: 2341: 2285: 2195: 2173: 1122: 2696: 2681: 2620: 2562: 2492: 2310: 2260: 2250: 2163: 2132: 2112: 2017: 803: 19: 185:, and Aguas Cordobesas SA, all of them now publicly owned. In 2008 there were still a few private concessions, such as Aguas de 2711: 2686: 2666: 2625: 2432: 2412: 2387: 2320: 2245: 2185: 2117: 2087: 2077: 2072: 2062: 2042: 2037: 1967: 798: 581:

been signed in order to share in its benefits, bringing the total number of municipalities served by the concessionaire to 56.

2691: 2671: 2640: 2630: 2585: 2580: 2537: 2507: 2437: 2427: 2305: 2275: 2230: 2220: 2200: 2127: 2122: 2082: 1972: 683: 537:, Tripartite Entity for Sanitary Services) lacked experience, since it was founded quickly as part of the concession process. 485: 246:

rural areas, respectively. Approximately, 1.5 million of people were still without access to "improved" sanitation, in 2015.

222: 198: 1467: 690:

Cutting off water services for non-payment is prohibited in Argentina based on a common interpretation of the constitution.

2676: 2615: 2522: 2452: 2325: 2300: 2215: 2190: 2178: 2168: 2107: 2047: 2032: 2022: 2007: 1982: 1775: 1668: 1534: 930: 905: 2701: 2595: 2255: 2240: 2210: 2205: 2057: 628:

between and within various levels of government make the development of a coherent sector policy all the more difficult.

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registered nationwide in 1997, evidencing marked increases in coincidence with areas of low socioeconomic development.

1798: 1691: 1535:"Infrastructure in Latin America: Recent evolution and key challenges. (Seven country briefs) -C.B. 1/7: Argentina" 931:"Infrastructure in Latin America: Recent evolution and key challenges. (Seven country briefs) -C.B. 1/7: Argentina" 906:"Infrastructure in Latin America: Recent evolution and key challenges. (Seven country briefs) -C.B. 1/7: Argentina" 813: 710: 704: 458: 786: 863:"Evaluación de los Servicios de Agua Potable y Saneamiento 2000 en las Américas - Argentina - Informe Analítico" 818: 553:

concessionaire Aguas Argentinas increased investments to around US$ 200 m per year between 1993 and 2000.

174: 1585:"Toward a Social Policy for Argentina's Infrastructure Sectors: Evaluating the Past and Exploring the Future" 557: 477: 234: 214: 496:

took over the responsibility for service provision in 2006. At the beginning of 2008, the government of the

2742: 1823: 1716: 1609: 1559: 1752:"Argentina's metropolitan area to improve drinking water and sanitation services with IDB support | IADB" 1645:"Argentina's metropolitan area to improve drinking water and sanitation services with IDB support | IADB" 1143: 1872: 1001: 860: 862: 1844: 1737: 1630: 1372: 1325: 1278: 778: 749: 679: 1077: 405: 384:

In Buenos Aires, in 2008 there were two water treatment plants and a new one was about to begin.

1225: 1121:(in Spanish). Centro de Implementación de Políticas Públicas para la Equidad y el Crecimiento ( 544:

Instead of creating a new and more transparent tariff system, the old one was adopted from OSN.

206: 1411: 1147: 1026: 983: 1831: 1724: 1617: 1359: 1312: 1265: 962: 413: 274: 409: 401: 586: 481: 437: 429: 392: 218: 178: 1200: 8: 1882: 754: 591: 465: 421: 307: 1115: 44:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

397: 190: 1490:

Aguas de Salta denunciada penalmente por vertido de líquidos cloacales al río Arenales

1412:"Water for Life: The Impact of the Privatization of Water Services on Child Mortality" 1027:"Water for Life: The Impact of the Privatization of Water Services on Child Mortality" 843: 489: 1389:"Efficiency, Equity, and Liberalisation of Water Services in Buenos Aires, Argentina" 1055:"Efficiency, Equity, and Liberalisation of Water Services in Buenos Aires, Argentina" 970: 958: 880: 770: 766: 182: 663: 574: 1501: 1489: 497: 186: 1951: 1560:"Ten Years of Water Service Reform in Latin America: Toward an Anglo-French Model" 225:, many concessions were renegotiated. Many were terminated, as it was the case in 1111: 861:

Pan American Health Organization (PAHO); World Health Organization (WHO) (2000).

433: 1116:"El desigual acceso a los servicios de agua corriente y cloacas en la Argentina" 944:, p. 64. Primary data are from a regional survey undertaken by PAHO/WHO in 2000. 1532: 928: 903: 762: 569: 358:

Centro de Implementación de Políticas Públicas para la Equidad y el Crecimiento

2731: 1399:(22). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): 158–164. 1065:(22). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): 124–148. 758: 189:

SA, which is majority-owned by Argentine investors, and Obras Sanitarias de

1877: 891:, Situación de la prestación de los servicios de agua potable y saneamiento 785:

and decreasing the flow of untreated effluents into surface waterways. The

624: 473: 469:

service provision (municipal, public enterprises, cooperatives or others).

226: 563: 1409: 1024: 956: 368: 1410:

Galiani, Sebastian; Gertler, Paul; Schargrodsky, Ernesto (2002-08-31).

1342:"The Buenos Aires Water Concession. Policy Research Working Paper 2311" 1295:"The Buenos Aires Water Concession. Policy Research Working Paper 2311" 1248:"The Buenos Aires Water Concession. Policy Research Working Paper 2311" 1025:

Galiani, Sebastian; Gertler, Paul; Schargrodsky, Ernesto (2002-08-31).

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WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

63: 1109: 705:

AR-L1015 : Water Infrastructure: Northern Provinces Development

71: 1518:

Salta rescinde contrato de concesión y constituye sanitaria estatal

612: 1513: 1142: 711:

AR-L1034 : PEF:AR-L1031 Potable Water and Sanitation Program

597: 1502:

Santos Jacinto Dávalos:Por la re-estatización del agua de Salta

782: 350: 1776:"BNamericas - Buenos Aires water utility readies major inv..." 1669:"BNamericas - Buenos Aires water utility readies major inv..." 742:

Infrastructure Project for the Province of Buenos Aires (APL1)

724:

Infrastructure Project for the Province of Buenos Aires (APL2)

1533:

World Bank/Interamerican Development Bank (IDB) (July 2005).

929:

World Bank/Interamerican Development Bank (IDB) (July 2005).

904:

World Bank/Interamerican Development Bank (IDB) (July 2005).

616: 417: 1865:

Water supply and sanitation provider in Greater Buenos Aires

1339: 1292: 1245: 620: 617:

Ministry of Federal Planning, Public Investment and Services

1873:

Government of Argentina page on Water Supply and Sanitation

177:(AYSA) and Aguas Bonarenses S.A. (ABSA), both operating in 1912: 1864: 1799:"BNamericas - Aguas y Saneamientos Argentinos S.A. (AySA)" 1692:"BNamericas - Aguas y Saneamientos Argentinos S.A. (AySA)" 1172:"AySA licita obras de cloaca y agua por $ 2.200 millones" 520:

International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes

343:

Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

1194:"Informe nacional sobre la gestión del agua en Argentina" 503: 424:, most of the wastewater was treated, in the two largest 346: 170: 650: 621:

National Agency for Water and Sanitation Works (ENOHSA)

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An example of local private sector participation: Salta

1048: 1046: 619:

which approves them. Within this policy framework the

1465: 1380: 535:

Ente Tripartito de Obras de Servicios de Saneamiento

1941:

Responsibilities in Latin America and the Caribbean

1223: 1043: 1466:Saltiel, Gustavo; Maywah, Nicole (February 2007). 996: 994: 698: 452: 108:Average urban water and sanitation tariff (US$ /m) 1468:"Argentina: The Salta Public-Private Partnership" 1002:"Argentine government website on Public Services" 166:Drinking water supply and sanitation in Argentina 2729: 680:linkage of the Argentinean peso to the US-Dollar 991: 1878:Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation 598:Responsibility for water supply and sanitation 512: 472:Between 1991 and 1999 under the government of 213:1993 with a consortium led by the French firm 1898: 1340:Alcázar, L.; Abdala, A.; Shirley, M. (2000). 1293:Alcázar, L.; Abdala, A.; Shirley, M. (2000). 1246:Alcázar, L.; Abdala, A.; Shirley, M. (2000). 323:Sewerage (2006 JMP survey & census data) 1434: 885:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 809:Water supply problems in Caleta Olivia 2014 457:From 1880 until 1980, the national utility 1905: 1891: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1226:"El Gobierno busca reestatizar 20% de OSM" 1020: 1018: 70: 1165: 1163: 952: 950: 2738:Water supply and sanitation in Argentina 1822:Bank, European Investment (2023-02-23). 1715:Bank, European Investment (2023-02-23). 1608:Bank, European Investment (2023-02-23). 1528: 1526: 1191: 736:Urban Flood Prevention and Drainage APL1 649: 602: 367: 111:0.48 (water) and 0.31 (sewerage) in 2000 1454: 1386: 1052: 1015: 899: 897: 804:Water resources management in Argentina 20:Water resources management in Argentina 2730: 1913:Water supply and sanitation by country 1582: 1557: 1160: 947: 856: 854: 852: 799:Water supply and sanitation in Mendoza 504:Impact of private sector participation 464:In 1980 the military government under 92:Sanitation coverage (broad definition) 1886: 1523: 1169: 839: 837: 835: 482:the metropolitan area of Buenos Aires 1821: 1714: 1607: 894: 640: 631: 24: 849: 693: 13: 1224:Los Andes Newspaper (2008-01-09). 832: 363: 129:Decentralization to municipalities 14: 2754: 1855: 1347:. Washington D.C.: The World Bank 1300:. Washington D.C.: The World Bank 1253:. Washington D.C.: The World Bank 1174:(in Spanish). El Clarín Newspaper 1144:Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 789:is helping to fund this project. 522:(ICSID) of the World Bank Group. 443: 205:Services are regulated by the 23 145:Responsibility for policy setting 84:Water coverage (broad definition) 2003:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1950: 1110:Maceira, Daniel; Kremer, Pedro; 730:Basic Municipal Services Project 669: 615:proposes sector policies to the 29: 1815: 1791: 1768: 1744: 1708: 1684: 1661: 1637: 1601: 1583:Foster, Vivien (October 2004). 1576: 1558:Foster, Vivien (January 2005). 1551: 1507: 1494: 1483: 1428: 1403: 1333: 1286: 1239: 1217: 1185: 1136: 1103: 1094: 787:Inter-American Development Bank 699:Inter-American Development Bank 656:Aguas y Saneamientos Argentinos 494:Aguas y Saneamientos Argentinos 453:History and recent developments 62:Water supply and sanitation in 1437:"Argentinean official website" 1393:Industry, Services & Trade 1070: 1059:Industry, Services & Trade 922: 819:Agua y Saneamientos Argentinos 577:State public utility SANEPAR. 175:Agua y Saneamientos Argentinos 153: 137:Water and sanitation regulator 1: 1824:"The Clean Oceans Initiative" 1717:"The Clean Oceans Initiative" 1610:"The Clean Oceans Initiative" 1170:Rossi, Antonio (2008-02-07). 825: 814:Obras Sanitarias de la Nación 717: 533:The regulatory agency ETOSS ( 459:Obras Sanitarias de la Nación 356:According to a study by the 202:specifically to the sector. 7: 1078:"WASHwatch.org - Argentina" 792: 513:The Buenos Aires concession 116:Share of household metering 10: 2759: 1192:Calcagno, Alberto (2000). 645: 488:, under the government of 199:Argentine financial crisis 156:of urban service providers 17: 2654: 2573: 2365: 2334: 2141: 1960: 1947: 1918: 303: 270: 240: 217:for the central parts of 152: 144: 136: 128: 123: 115: 107: 99: 91: 83: 78: 69: 38:This article needs to be 1387:Solanes, Miguel (2006). 1053:Solanes, Miguel (2006). 779:greenhouse gas emissions 750:European Investment Bank 613:Ministry of Public Works 181:, Aguas Provinciales de 148:Ministry of Public Works 18:Not to be confused with 684:serious economic crisis 682:was abandoned due to a 440:plant in Buenos Aires. 132:Substantial, since 1980 2393:Bosnia and Herzegovina 1839:Cite journal requires 1732:Cite journal requires 1625:Cite journal requires 1367:Cite journal requires 1320:Cite journal requires 1273:Cite journal requires 658: 377: 755:waterborne infections 653: 603:Policy and regulation 371: 275:Improved water source 2316:United Arab Emirates 1443:on December 15, 2007 1148:"The World Factbook" 587:wastewater treatment 486:2001 economic crisis 438:wastewater treatment 393:wastewater treatment 223:2001 economic crisis 219:Greater Buenos Aires 179:Greater Buenos Aires 100:Continuity of supply 2743:Health in Argentina 2707:Trinidad and Tobago 2498:Republic of Ireland 592:Juan Manuel Urtubey 498:Province of Mendoza 466:Jorge Rafael Videla 308:Improved sanitation 140:At provincial level 66: 2601:Dominican Republic 1936:Sub-Saharan Africa 1435:Suez Environment. 1004:(in Spanish). 2005 659: 568:The government of 378: 372:Map of Argentina. 290:Piped on premises 61: 2725: 2724: 2553:England and Wales 978:Missing or empty 846:, 2010 Estimates. 771:Reconquista River 767:plastic pollution 641:Financial aspects 632:Service provision 336: 335: 163: 162: 103:Mostly continuous 59: 58: 2750: 2558:Northern Ireland 2357:Papua New Guinea 1955: 1954: 1907: 1900: 1893: 1884: 1883: 1871: 1863: 1849: 1848: 1842: 1837: 1835: 1827: 1819: 1813: 1812: 1810: 1809: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1786: 1785: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1763: 1762: 1748: 1742: 1741: 1735: 1730: 1728: 1720: 1712: 1706: 1705: 1703: 1702: 1688: 1682: 1681: 1679: 1678: 1665: 1659: 1658: 1656: 1655: 1641: 1635: 1634: 1628: 1623: 1621: 1613: 1605: 1599: 1597: 1595: 1594: 1589: 1580: 1574: 1572: 1570: 1569: 1564: 1555: 1549: 1547: 1545: 1544: 1539: 1530: 1521: 1511: 1505: 1498: 1492: 1487: 1481: 1480: 1478: 1477: 1472: 1463: 1452: 1451: 1449: 1448: 1439:. Archived from 1432: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1421: 1416: 1407: 1401: 1400: 1384: 1378: 1376: 1370: 1365: 1363: 1355: 1353: 1352: 1346: 1337: 1331: 1329: 1323: 1318: 1316: 1308: 1306: 1305: 1299: 1290: 1284: 1282: 1276: 1271: 1269: 1261: 1259: 1258: 1252: 1243: 1237: 1236: 1234: 1233: 1221: 1215: 1214: 1212: 1211: 1205: 1199:. Archived from 1198: 1189: 1183: 1182: 1180: 1179: 1167: 1158: 1157: 1155: 1154: 1140: 1134: 1133: 1131: 1130: 1120: 1112:Finucane, Hilary 1107: 1101: 1098: 1092: 1091: 1089: 1088: 1074: 1068: 1066: 1050: 1041: 1039: 1037: 1036: 1031: 1022: 1013: 1012: 1010: 1009: 998: 989: 987: 981: 976: 974: 966: 954: 945: 943: 941: 940: 935: 926: 920: 918: 916: 915: 910: 901: 892: 890: 884: 876: 874: 873: 867: 858: 847: 841: 694:External support 428:of the country, 263:the population) 258:the population) 249: 248: 155: 74: 67: 60: 54: 51: 45: 33: 32: 25: 2758: 2757: 2753: 2752: 2751: 2749: 2748: 2747: 2728: 2727: 2726: 2721: 2650: 2569: 2473:North Macedonia 2361: 2330: 2137: 1956: 1949: 1945: 1914: 1911: 1869: 1861: 1858: 1853: 1852: 1840: 1838: 1829: 1828: 1820: 1816: 1807: 1805: 1797: 1796: 1792: 1783: 1781: 1774: 1773: 1769: 1760: 1758: 1750: 1749: 1745: 1733: 1731: 1722: 1721: 1713: 1709: 1700: 1698: 1690: 1689: 1685: 1676: 1674: 1667: 1666: 1662: 1653: 1651: 1643: 1642: 1638: 1626: 1624: 1615: 1614: 1606: 1602: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1581: 1577: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1556: 1552: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1531: 1524: 1512: 1508: 1504:, June 15, 2008 1499: 1495: 1488: 1484: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1464: 1455: 1446: 1444: 1433: 1429: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1408: 1404: 1385: 1381: 1368: 1366: 1357: 1356: 1350: 1348: 1344: 1338: 1334: 1321: 1319: 1310: 1309: 1303: 1301: 1297: 1291: 1287: 1274: 1272: 1263: 1262: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1244: 1240: 1231: 1229: 1222: 1218: 1209: 1207: 1203: 1196: 1190: 1186: 1177: 1175: 1168: 1161: 1152: 1150: 1141: 1137: 1128: 1126: 1118: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1086: 1084: 1076: 1075: 1071: 1051: 1044: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1023: 1016: 1007: 1005: 1000: 999: 992: 979: 977: 968: 967: 955: 948: 938: 936: 933: 927: 923: 913: 911: 908: 902: 895: 878: 877: 871: 869: 865: 859: 850: 842: 833: 828: 795: 720: 701: 696: 672: 648: 643: 634: 605: 600: 566: 515: 506: 490:Néstor Kirchner 455: 446: 366: 364:Service quality 262: 257: 243: 55: 49: 46: 43: 34: 30: 23: 12: 11: 5: 2756: 2746: 2745: 2740: 2723: 2722: 2720: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2658: 2656: 2652: 2651: 2649: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2628: 2623: 2618: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2583: 2577: 2575: 2571: 2570: 2568: 2567: 2566: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2548:United Kingdom 2545: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2408:Czech Republic 2405: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2375: 2369: 2367: 2363: 2362: 2360: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2338: 2336: 2332: 2331: 2329: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2268: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2218: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2182: 2181: 2176: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2151: 2145: 2143: 2139: 2138: 2136: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2105: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2040: 2035: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2015: 2010: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1980: 1975: 1970: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1957: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1943: 1938: 1933: 1928: 1926:European Union 1922: 1920: 1916: 1915: 1910: 1909: 1902: 1895: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1875: 1867: 1857: 1856:External links 1854: 1851: 1850: 1841:|journal= 1814: 1803:BNamericas.com 1790: 1779:BNamericas.com 1767: 1743: 1734:|journal= 1707: 1696:BNamericas.com 1683: 1672:BNamericas.com 1660: 1636: 1627:|journal= 1600: 1575: 1550: 1522: 1520:, May 25, 2009 1506: 1493: 1482: 1453: 1427: 1402: 1379: 1369:|journal= 1332: 1322:|journal= 1285: 1275:|journal= 1238: 1216: 1184: 1159: 1146:(2007-02-12). 1135: 1102: 1093: 1069: 1042: 1014: 990: 946: 921: 893: 848: 830: 829: 827: 824: 823: 822: 816: 811: 806: 801: 794: 791: 763:Atlantic Ocean 746: 745: 739: 733: 727: 719: 716: 715: 714: 708: 700: 697: 695: 692: 671: 668: 664:water metering 647: 644: 642: 639: 633: 630: 604: 601: 599: 596: 570:Salta Province 565: 562: 546: 545: 542: 541:renegotiation. 538: 514: 511: 505: 502: 454: 451: 445: 444:Health Impacts 442: 365: 362: 334: 333: 330: 327: 324: 320: 319: 316: 313: 310: 305: 301: 300: 297: 294: 291: 287: 286: 283: 280: 277: 272: 268: 267: 264: 259: 254: 252: 242: 239: 161: 160: 157: 150: 149: 146: 142: 141: 138: 134: 133: 130: 126: 125: 121: 120: 117: 113: 112: 109: 105: 104: 101: 97: 96: 93: 89: 88: 85: 81: 80: 76: 75: 57: 56: 37: 35: 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2755: 2744: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2735: 2733: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2659: 2657: 2655:South America 2653: 2647: 2646:United States 2644: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2632: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2587: 2584: 2582: 2579: 2578: 2576: 2574:North America 2572: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2550: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 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1082:washwatch.org 1079: 1073: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1049: 1047: 1028: 1021: 1019: 1003: 997: 995: 985: 972: 964: 960: 953: 951: 932: 925: 907: 900: 898: 888: 882: 864: 857: 855: 853: 845: 840: 838: 836: 831: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 796: 790: 788: 784: 781:by recycling 780: 774: 772: 768: 764: 760: 759:microplastics 756: 751: 743: 740: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 721: 712: 709: 706: 703: 702: 691: 688: 685: 681: 676: 670:Cost recovery 667: 665: 657: 652: 638: 629: 626: 622: 618: 614: 609: 595: 593: 588: 582: 578: 576: 571: 561: 559: 556:According to 554: 550: 543: 539: 536: 532: 531: 530: 527: 523: 521: 510: 501: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 470: 467: 462: 460: 450: 441: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 394: 391:The level of 389: 385: 382: 375: 370: 361: 359: 354: 352: 348: 344: 340: 331: 328: 325: 322: 321: 317: 314: 311: 309: 306: 302: 298: 295: 292: 289: 288: 284: 281: 278: 276: 273: 269: 265: 260: 256:Urban (92% of 255: 253: 251: 250: 247: 238: 236: 230: 228: 224: 220: 216: 210: 208: 203: 200: 194: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 167: 158: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 77: 73: 68: 65: 53: 41: 36: 27: 26: 21: 16: 2661: 2281:Saudi Arabia 2098:South Africa 2093:Sierra Leone 1988:Burkina Faso 1870:(in Spanish) 1862:(in Spanish) 1832:cite journal 1817: 1806:. Retrieved 1802: 1793: 1782:. Retrieved 1778: 1770: 1759:. Retrieved 1756:www.iadb.org 1755: 1746: 1725:cite journal 1710: 1699:. Retrieved 1695: 1686: 1675:. Retrieved 1671: 1663: 1652:. Retrieved 1649:www.iadb.org 1648: 1639: 1618:cite journal 1603: 1591:. Retrieved 1578: 1566:. Retrieved 1553: 1541:. Retrieved 1509: 1496: 1485: 1474:. Retrieved 1445:. Retrieved 1441:the original 1430: 1418:. Retrieved 1405: 1396: 1392: 1382: 1360:cite journal 1349:. Retrieved 1335: 1313:cite journal 1302:. Retrieved 1288: 1266:cite journal 1255:. Retrieved 1241: 1230:. Retrieved 1228:(in Spanish) 1219: 1208:. Retrieved 1201:the original 1187: 1176:. Retrieved 1151:. Retrieved 1138: 1127:. Retrieved 1105: 1096: 1085:. Retrieved 1081: 1072: 1062: 1058: 1033:. Retrieved 1006:. Retrieved 937:. Retrieved 924: 912:. Retrieved 870:. Retrieved 868:(in Spanish) 775: 765:by reducing 747: 689: 677: 673: 660: 655: 635: 625:Buenos Aires 610: 606: 590:In May 2009 583: 579: 567: 555: 551: 547: 534: 528: 524: 516: 507: 493: 484:. After the 474:Carlos Menem 471: 463: 456: 447: 430:Buenos Aires 390: 386: 383: 379: 373: 357: 355: 338: 337: 261:Rural (8% of 244: 231: 227:Buenos Aires 221:. After the 211: 204: 195: 165: 164: 124:Institutions 47: 39: 15: 2606:El Salvador 2533:Switzerland 2468:Netherlands 2352:New Zealand 2335:Australasia 2291:South Korea 2271:Philippines 2149:Afghanistan 2103:South Sudan 2028:Ivory Coast 761:out of the 426:urban areas 304:Sanitation 2732:Categories 2591:Costa Rica 2347:East Timor 2236:Kyrgyzstan 2226:Kazakhstan 2159:Bangladesh 2154:Azerbaijan 2068:Mozambique 1808:2023-02-23 1784:2023-02-23 1761:2023-02-23 1701:2023-02-23 1677:2023-02-23 1654:2023-02-23 1593:2008-02-18 1568:2008-02-18 1543:2008-02-18 1500:Iruya.com: 1476:2008-03-20 1447:2008-02-18 1420:2008-02-14 1351:2008-04-16 1304:2008-04-16 1283:, p. 20-23 1257:2008-04-16 1232:2008-02-14 1210:2024-04-22 1178:2008-02-14 1153:2008-02-18 1129:2008-02-14 1087:2017-04-12 1035:2008-02-14 1008:2008-02-14 980:|url= 939:2008-02-18 914:2008-02-18 872:2008-02-14 826:References 718:World Bank 87:97% (2010) 2717:Venezuela 2662:Argentina 2636:Nicaragua 2611:Guatemala 2463:Lithuania 2342:Australia 2296:Sri Lanka 2286:Singapore 2266:Palestine 2196:Indonesia 2174:Hong Kong 1919:By region 678:When the 654:Bills of 229:in 2006. 207:Provinces 64:Argentina 50:June 2016 2697:Paraguay 2682:Colombia 2621:Honduras 2563:Scotland 2518:Slovenia 2513:Slovakia 2493:Portugal 2398:Bulgaria 2311:Thailand 2261:Pakistan 2251:Malaysia 2164:Cambodia 2133:Zimbabwe 2113:Tanzania 2018:Ethiopia 2013:Eswatini 1998:Cameroon 1978:Botswana 1114:(2007). 1067:, p. 168 971:cite web 881:cite web 793:See also 422:San Juan 183:Santa Fe 2712:Uruguay 2687:Ecuador 2667:Bolivia 2626:Jamaica 2543:Ukraine 2503:Romania 2448:Iceland 2443:Hungary 2433:Germany 2423:Finland 2418:Estonia 2413:Denmark 2403:Croatia 2388:Belgium 2383:Austria 2378:Armenia 2373:Albania 2321:Vietnam 2246:Lebanon 2186:Georgia 2118:Tunisia 2088:Senegal 2078:Nigeria 2073:Namibia 2063:Morocco 2043:Liberia 2038:Lesotho 1993:Burundi 1968:Algeria 1598:, p. 53 1548:, p. 69 1425:, p. 15 1377:, p. 37 1330:, p. 41 919:, p. 65 769:in the 646:Tariffs 585:of its 434:Rosario 410:Neuquén 406:Tucumán 402:Córdoba 398:Mendoza 193:(OSM). 191:Mendoza 40:updated 2692:Guyana 2672:Brazil 2641:Panama 2631:Mexico 2586:Canada 2581:Belize 2538:Turkey 2528:Sweden 2508:Russia 2488:Poland 2483:Serbia 2478:Norway 2458:Latvia 2438:Greece 2428:France 2366:Europe 2306:Taiwan 2276:Russia 2231:Kuwait 2221:Jordan 2201:Israel 2128:Zambia 2123:Uganda 2083:Rwanda 2053:Malawi 1973:Angola 1961:Africa 1573:, p. 3 1123:CIPPEC 1040:, p. 1 988:, p. 9 963:648048 961: 821:(AySA) 783:biogas 575:Paraná 376:: CIA 374:Source 351:UNICEF 339:Source 271:Water 266:Total 241:Access 2677:Chile 2616:Haiti 2523:Spain 2453:Italy 2326:Yemen 2301:Syria 2216:Japan 2191:India 2179:Macau 2169:China 2108:Sudan 2048:Libya 2033:Kenya 2023:Ghana 2008:Egypt 1983:Benin 1588:(PDF) 1563:(PDF) 1538:(PDF) 1514:Télam 1471:(PDF) 1415:(PDF) 1345:(PDF) 1298:(PDF) 1251:(PDF) 1204:(PDF) 1197:(PDF) 1119:(PDF) 1030:(PDF) 934:(PDF) 909:(PDF) 866:(PDF) 418:Salta 414:Jujuy 187:Salta 159:1,650 2702:Peru 2596:Cuba 2256:Oman 2241:Laos 2211:Iraq 2206:Iran 2142:Asia 2058:Mali 1845:help 1738:help 1631:help 1397:2006 1373:help 1326:help 1279:help 1063:2006 984:help 959:SSRN 887:link 748:The 558:Suez 480:for 478:Suez 432:and 420:and 332:44% 326:48% 318:90% 315:77% 312:91% 299:80% 296:45% 293:83% 285:97% 282:80% 279:98% 235:Suez 215:Suez 79:Data 844:JMP 773:. 347:WHO 345:of 329:5% 171:WHO 154:No. 119:Low 95:90% 2734:: 1836:: 1834:}} 1830:{{ 1801:. 1754:. 1729:: 1727:}} 1723:{{ 1694:. 1647:. 1622:: 1620:}} 1616:{{ 1525:^ 1456:^ 1395:. 1391:. 1364:: 1362:}} 1358:{{ 1317:: 1315:}} 1311:{{ 1270:: 1268:}} 1264:{{ 1162:^ 1080:. 1061:. 1057:. 1045:^ 1017:^ 993:^ 975:: 973:}} 969:{{ 949:^ 896:^ 883:}} 879:{{ 851:^ 834:^ 416:, 412:, 408:, 404:, 400:, 353:. 341:: 1906:e 1899:t 1892:v 1847:) 1843:( 1826:. 1811:. 1787:. 1764:. 1740:) 1736:( 1719:. 1704:. 1680:. 1657:. 1633:) 1629:( 1612:. 1596:. 1571:. 1546:. 1516:: 1479:. 1450:. 1423:. 1375:) 1371:( 1354:. 1328:) 1324:( 1307:. 1281:) 1277:( 1260:. 1235:. 1213:. 1181:. 1156:. 1132:. 1125:) 1090:. 1038:. 1011:. 986:) 982:( 965:. 942:. 917:. 889:) 875:. 349:/ 52:) 48:( 42:. 22:.

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