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no difficulty in distinguishing between the particular ('white' or 'horse') and the abstract ('whiteness' or 'horseness'). In
Chinese, however, as the written characters are ideographic and pictorial and lack all inflection, there is no possible way, as far as the form of individual words is concerned, of distinguishing between abstract and concrete terms. Thus in Chinese the word designating a particular horse and that designating the universal, 'horseness,' are written and pronounced in the same way. Similarly with other terms, so that such words as 'horse' and 'white', being used to designate both the concrete particular and the abstract universal, thus hold two values.
372:
challenging, this paradox serves as an entry point for more profound philosophical explorations rather than being a straightforward result of
Chinese grammar. Essentially, this paradox explores the ways in which human categorize and conceptualize "things" in minds and through language. The fact that all white horses are indeed horses does not imply that the term "horses" refers exclusively to white horses (it also includes horses of other colors, such as brown and black.). This paradox emphasizes the importance of the precision required in the language use and reveals how the complexity of language can lead to unexpected confusions.
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262:'horse.' If what one wants does not differ, then how is it that yellow or black horses are acceptable in one case and unacceptable in the other case? It is clear that acceptable and unacceptable are mutually contrary. Hence, yellow and black horses are the same, one can respond that there are horses, but one cannot respond that there are white horses. Thus, it is evident that white horses are not horses.
421:), versus "a white horse is not a member of the set of horses" (obviously false). The Advocate in the dialogue is asserting a lack of identity between horses and white horses, while the Objector is interpreting the Advocate's statement as a claim that the category of horses does not include white ones.
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Strictly speaking, names or terms are divided into those that are abstract and those that are concrete. The abstract term denotes the universal, the concrete term the particular. The particular is the denotation, and the universal the connotation, of the term. In western inflected languages there is
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said, 'There is no difference between our pronouncing a white horse to be white and our pronouncing a white man to be white. But is there no difference between the regard with which we acknowledge the age of an old horse and that with which we acknowledge the age of an old man? And what is it which
231:
text contains only six of the recorded fourteen original chapters. Parts of the dialogue are dislocated and a small number of words are theorized to have been lost early in the text's transmission history. Thus, some commentators and translators rearrange some sentences for clarity. The dialogue is
261:
Advocate: If one wants horses, that extends to yellow or black horses. But if one wants white horses, that does not extend to yellow or black horses. Suppose that white horses were horses. Then what one wants would be the same. If what one wants were the same, then 'white' would not differ from
539:
To use an attribute to show that attributes are not attributes is not as good as using a nonattribute to show that attributes are not attributes. To use a horse to show that a horse is not a horse is not as good as using a non-horse to show that a horse is not a horse, Heaven and earth are one
371:
A common misunderstanding is that this paradox arises due to the lack of articles in the
Chinese language. However, it is not exclusively associated with Chinese and can emerge in other languages as well. While the absence of articles in Chinese can make the interpretation of phrases more
469:
However, there are recent histories of
Chinese philosophy that do not subscribe to Feng's interpretation. Other contemporary philosophers and sinologists who have analyzed the dialogue include A. C. Graham, Chad Hansen, Cristoph Harbsmeier, Kirill Ole Thompson, and Bryan W. Van Norden.
257:
Objector: If there are white horses, one cannot say that there are no horses. If one cannot say that there are no horses, doesn't that mean that there are horses? For there to be white horses is for there to be horses. How could it be that the white ones are not horses?
253:
Advocate: "Horse" is that by means of which one names the shape. "White" is that by means of which one names the color. What names the color is not what names the shape. Hence, one may say "white horse is not horse."
563:'white' has different connotations whether one is using it to refer to a graying person (who is worthy of respect because of his or her age) or a white horse (which should be treated like any other animal):
496:, which lists and criticizes the paradoxes of Gongsun Long as "perversions of reason and sense", explains "'A white horse is not a horse' because the name diverges from the shape."
602:
433:('Can it be that ...?'). This dialogue could be an attempted proof that a white horse is not a horse, or a question if such a statement is possible, or both.
1186:
Zhōu Chāngzhōng 周昌忠 (2020). "The 'Discourse on the White Horse': A Concrete
Analytical Philosophy of Language – with a Coda on the Authenticity of the Received
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1190:" [Translated by Zhang Yuheng, Yves Trachsel, Lisa Indraccolo, and Rafael Suter]. In Rafael Suter; Lisa Indraccolo; Wolfgang Behr (eds.).
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Beyond the inherent semantic ambiguities of "A white horse is not a horse," the first line of the White Horse
Dialogue obscurely asks
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is a debate between two unnamed speakers on a proposition often translated as 'a white horse is not a horse'. It appears in the
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In the
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be true, given a certain interpretation. He might acknowledge that, in another interpretation, 'a white horse
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is called righteousness? The fact of a man's being old? Or the fact of our giving honor to his age?'
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This dialogue continues with deliberations over colored and colorless horses and whether
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suggests that "the
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In other words, the expression "white horse is not horse" is ambiguous between "
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Harbsmeier, Christoph (1998). "Language and Logic in
Traditional China". In
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Other early "a white horse is not a horse" references are found in the
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Hansen, Chad (1976). "Mass Nouns and 'A White Horse Is Not a Horse'".
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1171:. Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. pp. 211–221, 275–287.
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1149:(2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. pp. 363–368.
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Thompson, Kirill Ole (1995). "When a 'White Horse' Is Not a 'Horse
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The Chinese Classics: A Translation, Vol. II: The Works of Mencius
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Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China
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212:. The purported author, also known as "Master Gongsun Long" (
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1194:. Welten Ostasiens, vol. 28. De Gruyter. pp. 87–113.
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Studies in Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature
227:. Most of Gongsun's writings have been lost; the received
1157:(2011). "Language and Paradox in the 'School of Names'".
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1230:(2003 ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.
1161:. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. pp. 102–119.
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chapters discuss "white horse"-related concepts of:
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337:'solid; true, actual; fact, reality', the abstract
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1062:(2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
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1163:(Includes a section titled "On the White Horse".)
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540:attribute; the ten thousand things are one horse.
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1092:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1939 .
1043:Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 7 Part I
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1159:Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy
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1060:Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy
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513:) mock Gongsun Long, and another (
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1141:(2005). "On the White Horse". In
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346:'finger; pointing; designation;
1145:; Van Norden, Bryan W. (eds.).
836:A History of Chinese Philosophy
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458:A History of Chinese Philosophy
1220:(1964). Watson, Burton (ed.).
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155:white horse {is not} horse
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383:"Is a member of the
319:'white; whiteness',
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33:White Horse Dialogue
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1473:Free choice paradox
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981:Im, Manyul (2007).
679:, pp. 134–138.
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1926:Prisoner's dilemma
1612:Heat death paradox
1600:Unexpected hanging
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1483:Kleene–Rosser
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1479:
1476:
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1471:
1469:
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1461:
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1436:
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1407:Theseus' ship
1405:
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1393:
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1380:
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1367:Mere addition
1365:
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1305:Philosophical
1303:
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1261:
1257:
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1209:9783110587814
1205:
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1178:9789629967772
1174:
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1069:9780872207806
1065:
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1026:
1022:
1020:9780472100200
1016:
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984:
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978:
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936:
934:9780791404492
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
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895:
894:
888:
884:
881:(2): 128–152.
880:
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853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
828:
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801:
797:
796:Watson (1964)
792:
786:
782:
781:Graham (1990)
777:
770:
765:
759:, p. 140
758:
757:Hansen (1983)
754:
753:Hansen (1976)
749:
743:
739:
738:Graham (1990)
735:
734:Graham (1989)
730:
724:, p. 206
723:
718:
712:, p. 111
711:
706:
704:
697:
693:
692:Graham (1990)
688:
686:
678:
677:Graham (1965)
673:
666:
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623:
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554:) notes that
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375:According to
373:
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60:
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46:
44:
40:
36:
31:
19:
1916:Preparedness
1748:Productivity
1728:Mandeville's
1520:Opposite Day
1448:Burali-Forti
1443:Bhartrhari's
1259:
1222:
1191:
1187:
1168:
1158:
1146:
1114:
1110:
1090:Legge, James
1085:
1059:
1042:
1010:
990:
986:
957:
951:
924:
892:
878:
874:
865:
835:
832:Fung, Yu-lan
811:Legge (1895)
806:
791:
776:
764:
748:
729:
717:
672:
660:
596:
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377:A. C. Graham
374:
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209:
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191:Gongsun Long
186:
174:
172:
164:
161:
157:
154:
151:
147:
139:
131:
123:
95:Hanyu Pinyin
1846:Condorcet's
1698:Giffen good
1658:Competition
1412:White horse
1387:Omnipotence
993:: 167–185.
840:Bodde, Derk
740:, pp.
665:Zhou (2020)
454:Feng Youlan
415:white horse
403:white horse
292:white horse
1979:Categories
1921:Prevention
1911:Parrondo's
1901:Navigation
1886:Inventor's
1881:Hedgehog's
1841:Chainstore
1824:Population
1819:New states
1753:Prosperity
1733:Mayfield's
1575:Entailment
1555:Barbershop
1468:Epimenides
1098:1041789022
875:Asia Major
813:, p.
798:, p.
783:, p.
694:, p.
631:References
505:chapters (
407:synonymous
361:particular
1985:Dialogues
1936:Willpower
1931:Tolerance
1906:Newcomb's
1871:Fredkin's
1758:Scitovsky
1678:Edgeworth
1673:Easterlin
1638:Antitrust
1535:Russell's
1530:Richard's
1503:Pinocchio
1458:Crocodile
1377:Newcomb's
1347:Goodman's
1342:Free will
1327:Epicurean
1298:paradoxes
1260:CText.org
1236:559127601
1078:440608439
834:(1953) .
636:Citations
598:Zhanguoce
348:universal
207:eponymous
101:báimǎ lùn
1964:Category
1861:Ellsberg
1713:Leontief
1693:Gibson's
1688:European
1683:Ellsberg
1653:Braess's
1648:Bertrand
1626:Economic
1560:Catch-22
1540:Socratic
1382:Nihilism
1352:Hedonism
1312:Analysis
1296:Notable
1218:Zhuangzi
1058:(2005).
943:21043695
923:(1990).
913:19554332
889:(1989).
862:(1965).
609:See also
578:Hanfeizi
502:Zhuangzi
445:a horse.
269:"2: 白馬論"
265:—
163:—
1866:Fenno's
1831:Arrow's
1814:Alabama
1804:Abilene
1783:Tullock
1738:Metzler
1580:Lottery
1570:Drinker
1513:Yablo's
1508:Quine's
1463:Curry's
1426:Logical
1402:Sorites
1392:Preface
1372:Moore's
1357:Liberal
1332:Fiction
1131:1399790
1040:(ed.).
1029:8590314
974:1398188
852:3583254
824:Sources
742:125–126
595:), and
568:Mencius
405:is not
223:in the
152:白 馬 非 馬
1773:Thrift
1743:Plenty
1718:Lerner
1708:Jevons
1703:Icarus
1633:Allais
1595:Ross's
1433:Barber
1417:Zeno's
1362:Meno's
1234:
1206:
1175:
1129:
1096:
1076:
1066:
1027:
1017:
972:
941:
931:
911:
901:
850:
547:Mengzi
297:Other
140:is not
1876:Green
1856:Downs
1788:Value
1723:Lucas
1590:Raven
1498:No-no
1453:Court
1438:Berry
1127:JSTOR
1107:'
970:JSTOR
871:(PDF)
493:Liezi
439:could
419:horse
411:horse
409:with
390:"; or
385:class
288:horse
284:white
185:text
148:horse
132:horse
124:white
1954:List
1778:Toil
1493:Card
1488:Liar
1232:OCLC
1204:ISBN
1173:ISBN
1094:OCLC
1074:OCLC
1064:ISBN
1025:OCLC
1015:ISBN
939:OCLC
929:ISBN
909:OCLC
899:ISBN
848:OCLC
603:19.2
588:Mozi
544:The
509:and
499:Two
321:ming
303:jian
286:and
274:公孫龍子
173:The
1253:白馬論
1196:doi
1119:doi
1109:".
995:doi
987:Dao
962:doi
815:398
696:334
605:).
593:11B
585:),
556:bai
552:6A4
519:zhi
456:'s
339:zhi
330:shi
312:bai
214:fl.
177:in
63:白马论
49:白馬論
1981::
1258:,
1202:.
1125:.
1115:45
1113:.
1072:.
1054:;
1023:.
989:.
985:.
968:.
958:26
956:.
937:.
907:.
879:11
877:.
873:.
846:.
842:.
800:35
785:80
755:;
702:^
684:^
644:^
583:32
528:ma
511:33
507:17
460::
449:"
443:is
397:".
352:wu
294:.
271:,
1608:"
1604:"
1289:e
1282:t
1275:v
1238:.
1212:.
1198::
1181:.
1133:.
1121::
1100:.
1080:.
1031:.
1001:.
997::
991:6
976:.
964::
945:.
915:.
854:.
601:(
591:(
581:(
560:白
550:(
532:馬
523:指
515:2
447:'
430:乎
427:可
395:x
388:x
356:物
343:指
334:實
325:名
316:白
307:堅
145:馬
137:非
129:馬
121:白
20:)
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