X-ray - Knowledge

931:. A spark gap was typically connected to the high voltage side in parallel to the tube and used for diagnostic purposes. The spark gap allowed detecting the polarity of the sparks, measuring voltage by the length of the sparks thus determining the "hardness" of the vacuum of the tube, and it provided a load in the event the X-ray tube was disconnected. To detect the hardness of the tube, the spark gap was initially opened to the widest setting. While the coil was operating, the operator reduced the gap until sparks began to appear. A tube in which the spark gap began to spark at around 6.4 centimeters (2.5 in) was considered soft (low vacuum) and suitable for thin body parts such as hands and arms. A 13-centimeter (5 in) spark indicated the tube was suitable for shoulders and knees. An 18-to-23-centimeter (7 to 9 in) spark would indicate a higher vacuum suitable for imaging the abdomen of larger individuals. Since the spark gap was connected in parallel to the tube, the spark gap had to be opened until the sparking ceased to operate the tube for imaging. Exposure time for photographic plates was around half a minute for a hand to a couple of minutes for a thorax. The plates may have a small addition of fluorescent salt to reduce exposure times. 666: 643: 2972:

originate within the eye itself. Upon hearing this, Röntgen reviewed his record books and found he too had seen the effect. When placing an X-ray tube on the opposite side of a wooden door Röntgen had noted the same blue glow, seeming to emanate from the eye itself, but thought his observations to be spurious because he only saw the effect when he used one type of tube. Later he realized that the tube which had created the effect was the only one powerful enough to make the glow plainly visible and the experiment was thereafter readily repeatable. The knowledge that X-rays are actually faintly visible to the dark-adapted naked eye has largely been forgotten today; this is probably due to the desire not to repeat what would now be seen as a recklessly dangerous and potentially harmful experiment with

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be the equivalent to 2–3 years of background radiation to the whole body, or 4–5 years to the abdomen or chest, increasing the lifetime cancer risk between 1 per 1,000 to 1 per 10,000. This is compared to the roughly 40% chance of a US citizen developing cancer during their lifetime. For instance, the effective dose to the torso from a CT scan of the chest is about 5 mSv, and the absorbed dose is about 14 mGy. A head CT scan (1.5 mSv, 64 mGy) that is performed once with and once without contrast agent, would be equivalent to 40 years of background radiation to the head. Accurate estimation of effective doses due to CT is difficult with the estimation uncertainty range of about ±19% to ±32% for adult head scans depending upon the method used.

2720: 3591: 232: 2329: 739: 1161: 897: 576: 2753: 73: 619: 8576: 2599: 61: 11299: 1225: 2893: 1909: 2224: 2362: 1517:. The strength of these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays and the elemental composition of the material, but not much on chemical properties, since the X-ray photon energy is much higher than chemical binding energies. Photoabsorption or photoelectric absorption is the dominant interaction mechanism in the soft X-ray regime and for the lower hard X-ray energies. At higher energies, Compton scattering dominates. 11287: 2495: 1486: 1345: 419: 2700:

diagnostic imaging because this does not use radiation. If there is too much radiation exposure there could be harmful effects on the fetus or the reproductive organs of the mother. In the US, there are an estimated 62 million CT scans performed annually, including more than 4 million on children. Avoiding unnecessary X-rays (especially CT scans) reduces radiation dose and any associated cancer risk.

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Kβ. The frequencies of these lines depend on the material of the target and are therefore called characteristic lines. The Kα line usually has greater intensity than the Kβ one and is more desirable in diffraction experiments. Thus the Kβ line is filtered out by a filter. The filter is usually made of a metal having one proton less than the anode material (e.g. Ni filter for Cu anode or Nb filter for Mo anode).

2712:) accounted for 14% of total radiation exposure. By 2006, however, medical procedures in the United States were contributing much more ionizing radiation than was the case in the early 1980s. In 2006, medical exposure constituted nearly half of the total radiation exposure of the U.S. population from all sources. The increase is traceable to the growth in the use of medical imaging procedures, in particular 11311: 572:. He noticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 meter (3.3 ft) away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the screen glow. He found they could also pass through books and papers on his desk. Röntgen threw himself into investigating these unknown rays systematically. Two months after his initial discovery, he published his paper. 1049: 3579: 2439:, such as a knee, hip or shoulder replacement, is situated in the body with respect to the surrounding bone. This can be assessed in two dimensions from plain radiographs, or it can be assessed in three dimensions if a technique called '2D to 3D registration' is used. This technique purportedly negates projection errors associated with evaluating implant position from plain radiographs. 2653: 2136:; however, microscopic simulations have shown that the duration of electric field enhancement between two streamers is too short to produce a significant number of run-away electrons. Recently, it has been proposed that air perturbations in the vicinity of streamers can facilitate the production of run-away electrons and hence of X-rays from discharges. 78: 77: 74: 79: 1045:. It made possible the continuous emissions of X-rays. Modern X-ray tubes are based on this design, often employing the use of rotating targets which allow for significantly higher heat dissipation than static targets, further allowing higher quantity X-ray output for use in high-powered applications such as rotational CT scanners. 2380:, absorbs X-rays efficiently. This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones, making them clearly visible on the radiograph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue types are harder to see. 76: 1317:), defined as gamma radiation. This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by 2971:

While generally considered invisible to the human eye, in special circumstances X-rays can be visible. Brandes, in an experiment a short time after Röntgen's landmark 1895 paper, reported after dark adaptation and placing his eye close to an X-ray tube, seeing a faint "blue-gray" glow which seemed to

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interferometry, refraction-enhanced imaging, and X-ray interferometry. These methods provide higher contrast compared to normal absorption-based X-ray imaging, making it possible to distinguish from each other details that have almost similar density. A disadvantage is that these methods require more

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refers to a variety of techniques that use phase information of an X-ray beam to form the image. Due to its good sensitivity to density differences, it is especially useful for imaging soft tissues. It has become an important method for visualizing cellular and histological structures in a wide range

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Crookes tubes were unreliable. They had to contain a small quantity of gas (invariably air) as a current will not flow in such a tube if they are fully evacuated. However, as time passed, the X-rays caused the glass to absorb the gas, causing the tube to generate "harder" X-rays until it soon stopped

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Hall-Edwards developed a cancer (then called X-ray dermatitis) sufficiently advanced by 1904 to cause him to write papers and give public addresses on the dangers of X-rays. His left arm had to be amputated at the elbow in 1908, and four fingers on his right arm soon thereafter, leaving only a thumb.

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A photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the electron with which it interacts, thus ionizing the atom to which the electron was bound and producing a photoelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path. An outer electron will fill the vacant electron position and produce either a

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Medical science also used the motion picture to study human physiology. In 1913, a motion picture was made in Detroit showing a hard-boiled egg inside a human stomach. This early X-ray movie was recorded at a rate of one still image every four seconds. Dr Lewis Gregory Cole of New York was a pioneer

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reported hair loss after Dudley was X-rayed. A child who had been shot in the head was brought to the Vanderbilt laboratory in 1896. Before trying to find the bullet, an experiment was attempted, for which Dudley "with his characteristic devotion to science" volunteered. Daniel reported that 21 days

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material, within the tube. On 3 February 1896, Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the

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California, San Francisco Area Funeral Home Records, 1835–1979. Database with images. FamilySearch. Jacob Fleischman in the entry for Elizabeth Aschheim. 3 August 1905. Citing funeral home J.S. Godeau, San Francisco, San Francisco, California. Record book Vol. 06, p. 1–400, 1904–1906. San Francisco

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Dosage due to dental X-rays varies significantly depending on the procedure and the technology (film or digital). Depending on the procedure and the technology, a single dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 5 to 40 μSv. A full mouth series of X-rays may result in an exposure of up

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Medical X-rays are a significant source of human-made radiation exposure. In 1987, they accounted for 58% of exposure from human-made sources in the United States. Since human-made sources accounted for only 18% of the total radiation exposure, most of which came from natural sources (82%), medical

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that people are exposed to (depending upon location) every day over 10 days, while exposure from a dental X-ray is approximately equivalent to 1 day of environmental background radiation. Each such X-ray would add less than 1 per 1,000,000 to the lifetime cancer risk. An abdominal or chest CT would

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of X-rays at a few discrete frequencies, sometimes referred to as spectral lines. Usually, these are transitions from the upper shells to the K shell (called K lines), to the L shell (called L lines) and so on. If the transition is from 2p to 1s, it is called Kα, while if it is from 3p to 1s it is

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of the X-ray photon by an outer shell electron. Part of the energy of the photon is transferred to the scattering electron, thereby ionizing the atom and increasing the wavelength of the X-ray. The scattered photon can go in any direction, but a direction similar to the original direction is more

939:, a mineral that traps relatively large quantities of air within its structure. A small electrical heater heated the mica, causing it to release a small amount of air, thus restoring the tube's efficiency. However, the mica had a limited life, and the restoration process was difficult to control. 875:

also reported burns. Elihu Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an X-ray tube over a period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects were sometimes blamed for the damage including ultraviolet rays and (according to Tesla) ozone. Many physicians claimed there were no

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Starting in 1888, Philipp Lenard conducted experiments to see whether cathode rays could pass out of the Crookes tube into the air. He built a Crookes tube with a "window" at the end made of thin aluminium, facing the cathode so the cathode rays would strike it (later called a "Lenard tube"). He

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From the early 1920s through to the 1950s, X-ray machines were developed to assist in the fitting of shoes and were sold to commercial shoe stores. Concerns regarding the impact of frequent or poorly controlled use were expressed in the 1950s, leading to the practice's eventual end that decade.

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The risk of radiation is greater to a fetus, so in pregnant patients, the benefits of the investigation (X-ray) should be balanced with the potential hazards to the fetus. If there is 1 scan in 9 months, it can be harmful to the fetus. Therefore, women who are pregnant get ultrasounds as their

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below which there is no increased risk of cancer. However, this is under increasing doubt. Cancer risk can start at the exposure of 1100 mGy. It is estimated that the additional radiation from diagnostic X-rays will increase the average person's cumulative risk of getting cancer by age 75 by

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is limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge, so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV. When the electrons hit the target, X-rays are created by two different atomic processes:

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Röntgen immediately noticed X-rays could have medical applications. Along with his 28 December Physical-Medical Society submission, he sent a letter to physicians he knew around Europe (1 January 1896). News (and the creation of "shadowgrams") spread rapidly with Scottish electrical engineer

2347:. The first medical use was less than a month after his paper on the subject. Up to 2010, five billion medical imaging examinations had been conducted worldwide. Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States. 8234:

Monico L, Van der Snickt G, Janssens K, De Nolf W, Miliani C, Verbeeck J, et al. (February 2011). "Degradation process of lead chromate in paintings by Vincent van Gogh studied by means of synchrotron X-ray spectromicroscopy and related methods. 1. Artificially aged model samples".

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spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines. The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray tubes range from roughly 20 kV to 150 kV and thus the highest energies of the X-ray photons range from roughly 20 keV to 150 keV.

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to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source and a fluorescent screen, between which a patient is placed. However, modern fluoroscopes couple the screen to an

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of biological and medical studies. There are several technologies being used for X-ray phase-contrast imaging, all using different principles to convert phase variations in the X-rays emerging from an object into intensity variations. These include propagation-based phase contrast,

2585:) of cancer; it requires higher radiation doses than those received for imaging alone. X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower energy X-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the body such as brain, lung, prostate, and breast. 8262:

Monico L, Van der Snickt G, Janssens K, De Nolf W, Miliani C, Dik J, et al. (February 2011). "Degradation process of lead chromate in paintings by Vincent van Gogh studied by means of synchrotron X-ray spectromicroscopy and related methods. 2. Original paint layer samples".

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Röntgen discovered their medical use when he made a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said "I have seen my death."

1313:, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m (0.1 2868:(computed tomography), a process that uses X-ray equipment to produce three-dimensional representations of components both externally and internally. This is accomplished through computer processing of projection images of the scanned object in many directions. 444:'s Physical-Medical Society journal. This was the first paper written on X-rays. Röntgen referred to the radiation as "X", to indicate that it was an unknown type of radiation. Some early texts refer to them as Chi-rays, having interpreted "X" as the uppercase 1623:

for low photon energies and high atomic numbers is very strong. For soft tissue, photoabsorption dominates up to about 26 keV photon energy where Compton scattering takes over. For higher atomic number substances, this limit is higher. The high amount of

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Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15 keV in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate vacuum. This is likely to be the result of recombination of electrical charges produced by

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found that something came through, that would expose photographic plates and cause fluorescence. He measured the penetrating power of these rays through various materials. It has been suggested that at least some of these "Lenard rays" were actually X-rays.

356:. While developing the plates, Jennings noticed disks of unknown origin on some of the plates, but nobody could explain them, and they moved on. Only in 1896 they realized that they accidentally made an X-ray photograph (they didn't claim a discovery). 602:

alone, as many as 49 essays and 1044 articles about the new rays were published. This was probably a conservative estimate, if one considers that nearly every paper around the world extensively reported about the new discovery, with a magazine such as

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and several tens of MeV. In laboratory discharges with a gap size of approximately 1 meter length and a peak voltage of 1 MV, X-rays with a characteristic energy of 160 keV are observed. A possible explanation is the encounter of two

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and the U.S. government. Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used) increase the risk of developmental problems and cancer in those exposed. It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to

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placed between the skull and the head. The tube was fastened at the other side at a distance of one-half-inch from the hair." Beyond burns, hair loss, and cancer, X-rays can be linked to infertility in males based on the amount of radiation used.

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burned after his death, but this is a likely reconstruction by his biographers: Röntgen was investigating cathode rays from a Crookes tube which he had wrapped in black cardboard so that the visible light from the tube would not interfere, using a

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In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft) X-rays are unwanted, since they are totally absorbed by the body, increasing the radiation dose without contributing to the image. Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of aluminium, called an

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irradiated frogs and insects with X-rays, concluding that the rays "not only photograph, but also affect the living function". At around the same time, the zoological illustrator James Green began to use X-rays to examine fragile specimens.

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Arthur W. Goodspeed were making photographs of coins with electric sparks. On 22nd February after the end of their experiments two coins were left on a stack of photographic plates before Goodspeed demonstrated to Jennings the operation of

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conducted his "electric photography" experiments in 1891-1893 by photographing coins in the light of electric sparks, like Jennings and Goodspeed, he may have unknowingly generated and detected X-rays. His letter of

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dedicating as many as 23 articles to it in that year alone. Sensationalist reactions to the new discovery included publications linking the new kind of rays to occult and paranormal theories, such as telepathy.

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Each dot, called a reflection, in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of scattered X-rays passing through a crystal. The data can be used to determine the crystalline structure.

1184:, powered by a thermonuclear explosion) gave inconclusive results. For technical and political reasons, the overall project (including the X-ray laser) was defunded (though was later revived by the second 754:

Many experimenters, including Röntgen himself in his original experiments, came up with methods to view X-ray images "live" using some form of luminescent screen. Röntgen used a screen coated with barium

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operating. Larger and more frequently used tubes were provided with devices for restoring the air, known as "softeners". These often took the form of a small side tube that contained a small piece of

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in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate. On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards was also the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.

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and swallowing disorders). As of recent, modern fluoroscopy utilizes short bursts of x-rays, rather than a continuous beam, to effectively lower radiation exposure for both the patient and operator.

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image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms, they are also useful for determining crystal structures by

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in a futile attempt to save his life; in 1904, he became the first known death attributed to X-ray exposure. During the time the fluoroscope was being developed, Serbian American physicist

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or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different directions. These cross-sectional images can be combined into a

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has been injected into the blood vessels within this area. These two images are then digitally subtracted, leaving an image of only the iodinated contrast outlining the blood vessels. The

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image of the inside of the body. CT scans are a quicker and more cost effective imaging modality that can be used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines.

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The many applications of X-rays immediately generated enormous interest. Workshops began making specialized versions of Crookes tubes for generating X-rays and these first-generation

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0.6–3.0%. The amount of absorbed radiation depends upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved. CT and fluoroscopy entail higher doses of radiation than do plain X-rays.

970:. This idea was quickly applied to X-ray tubes, and hence heated-cathode X-ray tubes, called "Coolidge tubes", completely replaced the troublesome cold cathode tubes by about 1920. 1611:

is the energy of the incident photon. This rule is not valid close to inner shell electron binding energies where there are abrupt changes in interaction probability, so called

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tested all of the discharge tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the Puluj tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Puluj's inclusion of an oblique "target" of

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Upton AC (July 2003). "The state of the art in the 1990's: NCRP Report No. 136 on the scientific bases for linearity in the dose-response relationship for ionizing radiation".

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to capture the human skeleton in motion. In 1920, it was used to record the movements of tongue and teeth in the study of languages by the Institute of Phonetics in England.

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The first medical X-ray made in the United States was obtained using a discharge tube of Puluj's design. In January 1896, on reading of Röntgen's discovery, Frank Austin of

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Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient, with only about one percent of the electrical energy used by the tube converted into X-rays, and thus most of the

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by scientists, physicians, and inventors came many stories of burns, hair loss, and worse in technical journals of the time. In February 1896, Professor John Daniel and

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Biomedical Applications of Synchrotron Radiation: Proceedings of the 128th Course at the International School of Physics -Enrico Fermi- 12–22 July 1994, Varenna, Italy

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being the first after Röntgen to create an X-ray photograph (of a hand). Through February, there were 46 experimenters taking up the technique in North America alone.

1384:. In medical imaging, this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be used in 10842: 5913: 2738: 275:) undoubtedly radiated X-rays, because early researchers noticed effects that were attributable to them, as detailed below. Crookes tubes created free electrons by 3050:

However, the effect of ionizing radiation on matter (especially living tissue) is more closely related to the amount of energy deposited into them rather than the

2810:, a technique in which X-rays are generated within a specimen and detected. The outgoing energy of the X-ray can be used to identify the composition of the sample. 336:

Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays. He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement. He based it on the

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Financial incentives have been shown to have a significant impact on X-ray use with doctors who are paid a separate fee for each X-ray providing more X-rays.

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allowing the images to be recorded and played on a monitor. This method may use a contrast material. Examples include cardiac catheterization (to examine for

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of X-rays through the closely spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and then analysed to reveal the nature of that lattice. A related technique,

410:. After Röntgen identified the X-ray, Tesla began making X-ray images of his own using high voltages and tubes of his own design, as well as Crookes tubes. 2845:

X-ray spectromicroscopy has been used to analyse the reactions of pigments in paintings. For example, in analysing colour degradation in the paintings of

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Tesla's technical publications indicate that he invented and developed a single-electrode X-ray tube. Morton, William James and Hammer, Edwin W. (1896)

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Baganha, M. F.; Marques, M. A.; Botelho, M. F.; Teixeira, M. L.; Carvalheira, V.; Calisto, J.; Silva, A.; Fernandes, A.; Torres, M.; Brito, J. (1993).

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Chandra's image of the galaxy cluster Abell 2125 reveals a complex of several massive multimillion-degree-Celsius gas clouds in the process of merging.

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is the (obsolete) corresponding traditional unit, equal to 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rad = 1 gray.

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consumed by the tube is released as waste heat. When producing a usable flux of X-rays, the X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate the excess heat.

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for more specialized applications, such as when softer X-rays are needed as in mammography. In crystallography, a copper target is most common, with

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Using X-ray for inspection and quality control: the differences in the structures of the die and bond wires reveal the left chip to be counterfeit.

783:, one of his glassblowers. Dally had a habit of testing X-ray tubes on his own hands, developing a cancer in them so tenacious that both arms were 8298:

Ahi K, Anwar M (May 2016). "Advanced terahertz techniques for quality control and counterfeit detection". In Anwar MF, Crowe TW, Manzur T (eds.).

2119:. The underlying mechanism is the acceleration of electrons in lightning related electric fields and the subsequent production of photons through 1457:

X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal

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In August 1896, H. D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, suffered severe hand and chest burns from an X-ray demonstration. It was reported in

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and began studying them. He wrote an initial report "On a new kind of ray: A preliminary communication" and on 28 December 1895, submitted it to

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of the target atom. After that, electrons from higher energy levels fill the vacancies, and X-ray photons are emitted. This process produces an

2609: 715:(sciagraph is an obsolete name for an X-ray photograph), by Green and James H. Gardiner, with a foreword by Boulenger, was published in 1897. 11736: 9757: 2480:

or surgeon then compares the image obtained to normal anatomical images to determine whether there is any damage or blockage of the vessel.

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mechanism in the X-ray regime. Inelastic forward scattering gives rise to the refractive index, which for X-rays is only slightly below 1.

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was the most effective substance. In May 1896, he developed the first mass-produced live imaging device, his "Vitascope", later called the

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Berrington de González A, Darby S (January 2004). "Risk of cancer from diagnostic X-rays: estimates for the UK and 14 other countries".

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Davis TJ, Gao D, Gureyev TE, Stevenson AW, Wilkins SW (1995). "Phase-contrast imaging of weakly absorbing materials using hard X-rays".

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which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or

2005:: This is radiation given off by the electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric field near the nuclei. These X-rays have a 6460:"Angular distribution of Bremsstrahlung photons and of positrons for calculations of terrestrial gamma-ray flashes and positron beams" 4310: 1095:. The cars would allow for rapid X-ray imaging of wounded soldiers so battlefield surgeons could quickly and more accurately operate. 771:

started research soon after Röntgen's discovery and investigated materials' ability to fluoresce when exposed to X-rays, finding that

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Momose A, Takeda T, Itai Y, Hirano K (April 1996). "Phase-contrast X-ray computed tomography for observing biological soft tissues".

2472:) an initial image is taken of the anatomical region of interest. A second image is then taken of the same region after an iodinated 10587: 7687:

Caon M, Bibbo G, Pattison J (2000). "Monte Carlo calculated effective dose to teenage girls from computed tomography examinations".

2976:. It is not known what exact mechanism in the eye produces the visibility: it could be due to conventional detection (excitation of 582:(Hand with Rings): print of Wilhelm Röntgen's first "medical" X-ray, of his wife's hand, taken on 22 December 1895 and presented to 9415: 9362: 4368: 4066:"System of Electric Lighting". These differed from other X-ray tubes in having no target electrode and worked with the output of a 2741:

or EPT (as of 2015) along with other techniques are being researched as potential alternatives to X-rays for imaging applications.

1501:. The attenuation length is about four orders of magnitude longer for hard X-rays (right half) compared to soft X-rays (left half). 406:

noticed damaged film in his lab that seemed to be associated with Crookes tube experiments and began investigating this invisible,

7011:"Accuracy of total knee implant position assessment based on postoperative X-rays, registered to pre-operative CT-based 3D models" 4082:"Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen On a New Kind of Rays: translation of a paper read before the Würzburg Physical and Medical Society, 1895" 2040:. Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent 10798: 10638: 10577: 9034: 7480: 6307: 2996: 2980:

molecules in the retina), direct excitation of retinal nerve cells, or secondary detection via, for instance, X-ray induction of

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exposure, and it is the amount of radiation required to create one coulomb of charge of each polarity in one kilogram of matter.

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and led to many other reports of problems associated with X-rays being sent in to the publication. Many experimenters including

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Oakley, P. A., Navid Ehsani, N., & Harrison, D. E. (2020). 5 Reasons Why Scoliosis X-Rays Are Not Harmful. Dose-Response.

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Compton scattering is the predominant interaction between X-rays and soft tissue in medical imaging. Compton scattering is an

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Giles D, Hewitt D, Stewart A, Webb J (September 1956). "Malignant disease in childhood and diagnostic irradiation in utero".

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Donnelly LF (February 2005). "Reducing radiation dose associated with pediatric CT by decreasing unnecessary examinations".

759:. On 5 February 1896, live imaging devices were developed by both Italian scientist Enrico Salvioni (his "cryptoscope") and 11716: 11685: 11630: 10594: 9372: 9367: 8341: 7733:

Gregory KJ, Bibbo G, Pattison JE (August 2008). "On the Uncertainties in Effective Dose Estimates of Adult CT Head Scans".

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Hill R, Healy B, Holloway L, Kuncic Z, Thwaites D, Baldock C (March 2014). "Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry".

1927: 779:, which became the standard for medical X-ray examinations. Edison dropped X-ray research around 1903, before the death of 8064: 7349:

De Santis M, Cesari E, Nobili E, Straface G, Cavaliere AF, Caruso A (September 2007). "Radiation effects on development".

7241: 6280: 6253:. Center for X-ray Optics and Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 1 October 2009. Archived from 11349: 11315: 10511: 10057: 10022: 9445: 9430: 9299: 7190:

Thwaites DI, Tuohy JB (July 2006). "Back to the future: the history and development of the clinical linear accelerator".

3646: 2656: 2465: 6607:

Cooray V, Arevalo L, Rahman M, Dwyer J, Rassoul H (2009). "On the possible origin of X-rays in long laboratory sparks".

5745:

Wilkins SW, Gureyev TE, Gao D, Pogany A, Stevenson AW (1996). "Phase-contrast imaging using polychromatic hard X-rays".

1301:. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by 11665: 11209: 10793: 8324: 6247: 5002: 4944: 4351: 3770:"The History, Development and Impact of Computed Imaging in Neurological Diagnosis and Neurosurgery: CT, MRI, and DTI" 2928:

were popularized in the 1920s, banned in the US in the 1960s, in the UK in the 1970s, and later in continental Europe.

2719: 363:

noticed a flash of light from a fluorescent screen immediately before the covered tube he was switching on punctured.

11837: 11832: 9873: 9752: 8507: 6346: 4716: 3740: 2639: 2457:, is usually placed over the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum. This is called 2307: 795: 3124:(Gy). 1 Sv = 1 Gy. For the "effective dose" of X-rays, it is usually not equal to the Gray (Gy). 2288: 11731: 11103: 10968: 9503: 9347: 9326: 4864:"Visible Proofs: Forensic Views of the Body: Galleries: Cases: Could X-rays Have Saved President William McKinley?" 2937: 2874:

luggage scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of luggage for security threats before loading on aircraft.

2834:

alterations in the course of painting or by later restorers, and sometimes previous paintings on the support. Many

2562: 1446:

over the X-ray spectrum. This allows the photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to give sufficient

5418: 3590: 3034:(R) is an obsolete traditional unit of exposure, which represented the amount of radiation required to create one 2260: 1988:(X-ray electroluminescence): If the electron has enough energy, it can knock an orbital electron out of the inner 452:. The name X-rays stuck, although (over Röntgen's great objections) many of his colleagues suggested calling them 11046: 10880: 10482: 10360: 10017: 9878: 6185: 5875: 4863: 2823: 2372:

is the practice of producing two-dimensional images using X-ray radiation. Bones contain a high concentration of

2069: 818:

to Buffalo to find the stray bullet. It arrived but was not used. While the shooting itself had not been lethal,

652: 337: 2150:

X-ray detectors vary in shape and function depending on their purpose. Imaging detectors such as those used for

321:

through a partially evacuated glass tube, producing a glow created by X-rays. This work was further explored by

11036: 10885: 10343: 5991: 5314: 5246: 5131: 4851: 4682: 3105:, or, in other words, 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rem = 1 Sv. 2245: 1683:

likely, especially for high-energy X-rays. The probability for different scattering angles is described by the

5288: 5262: 4192:"Tomodensitometry and radioisotopic methods in the study of unilateral lung hyperlucencies of vascular origin" 2680:(CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5–2% with 2007 rates of CT usage. 135:. There is no universally accepted, strict definition of the bounds of the X-ray band. Roughly, X-rays have a 11797: 10810: 10643: 10067: 9995: 9377: 9342: 5392: 3664: 3174: 2931: 2691:

To place the increased risk in perspective, a plain chest X-ray will expose a person to the same amount from

2267: 598:

The discovery of X-rays generated significant interest. Röntgen's biographer Otto Glasser estimated that, in

5340: 1654:) in bones, together with their high density, is what makes them show up so clearly on medical radiographs. 11153: 10890: 10599: 10353: 9850: 9440: 9410: 9269: 9242: 3652: 3605: 1195: 1185: 1177: 708: 669:

Images by James Green, from "Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles" (1897), featuring (from left)

8475: 4178:

Rats have been trained to respond to signals consisting of very low doses of chi-ray directed to the head.

626:

apparatus, late 1800s. The Crookes tube is visible in center. The standing man is viewing his hand with a

11842: 11553: 11303: 11216: 11188: 11145: 11110: 10948: 10775: 10713: 10538: 10442: 10328: 9796: 9496: 9420: 9387: 9357: 9321: 9027: 8622: 2116: 2068:

X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other positive ions. The proton-induced X-ray emission or

1715:

Whenever charged particles (electrons or ions) of sufficient energy hit a material, X-rays are produced.

1667: 1173: 17: 11857: 6517:"Calculation of beams of positrons, neutrons, and protons associated with terrestrial gamma ray flashes" 6107: 6082: 3799:"Electrical Experiments Made in Order to Ascertain the Non-Conducting Power of a Perfect Vacuum, &c" 3539: 3501: 3462: 3433: 1261:. Due to their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects (e.g. in 1038: 928: 31:

This article is about the nature, production, and uses of the radiation. For the method of imaging, see

11785: 11640: 11613: 11137: 10996: 10675: 10193: 10150: 10002: 9466: 9306: 9194: 8617: 8159: 3482: 3117: 2724: 2274: 2107:

refers to that of the target atom. An overview of these cross sections is given in the same reference.

348: 344: 7100: 1970:

often being used when fluorescence from iron content in the sample might otherwise present a problem.

1076:

of the technique, which he called "serial radiography". In 1918, X-rays were used in association with

231: 186:

X-rays can penetrate many solid substances such as construction materials and living tissue, so X-ray

11670: 11523: 11291: 10973: 10582: 10365: 6419:

Paul H, Muhr J (1986). "Review of experimental cross sections for K-shell ionization by light ions".

4287: 3615: 2801: 2684: 2499: 1684: 1110: 699: 101: 3892:"The first radiation accident in America: a centennial account of the x-ray photograph made in 1890" 3089:

is the measure of the biological effect of radiation on human tissue. For X-rays it is equal to the

2328: 1125:, which gives a relatively stable view of the universe, the X-ray universe is unstable. It features 11847: 11827: 11822: 11608: 11518: 11382: 11221: 11063: 10963: 10875: 10084: 9970: 9930: 9742: 9133: 8917: 8530: 4593:

Grove AW (1 January 1997). "Röntgen's ghosts: photography, X-rays, and the Victorian imagination".

4401: 3831: 2925: 2369: 2356: 1692: 1381: 1229: 1189: 302: 8182: 2435:. One area where projectional radiographs are used extensively is in evaluating how an orthopedic 2256: 1435: 738: 11548: 11342: 11126: 11093: 11068: 10682: 10459: 10265: 10188: 10145: 10128: 10089: 10012: 8967: 6945: 6225: 5193: 4729: 4318: 3936: 3530: 3453: 3098: 2547: 2521: 2234: 2073: 799: 704: 314: 11051: 6856: 11789: 11700: 11374: 10958: 10245: 9789: 9435: 9284: 9020: 4647:

Feldman A (November 1989). "A sketch of the technical history of radiology from 1896 to 1920".

2813: 2683:

Experimental and epidemiological data currently do not support the proposition that there is a

2241: 1688: 1616: 1431: 1427: 1030:

performed crystallography experiments with X-rays emanating from various metals and formulated

1012: 985: 977:

discovered that X-rays could be scattered by gases, and that each element had a characteristic

839: 814:

and could not be found. A worried McKinley aide sent word to inventor Thomas Edison to rush an

780: 587: 553: 391: 40: 8314: 8208: 7714: 6334: 5366: 4992: 4961: 3862: 2991:

of the air molecules if the intensity of the X-ray beam is high enough. The beamline from the

2984:

in the eyeball with conventional retinal detection of the secondarily produced visible light.

2461:

the beam since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher energy (or harder) X-rays.

2343:

Since Röntgen's discovery that X-rays can identify bone structures, X-rays have been used for

638:. No precautions against radiation exposure are taken; its hazards were not known at the time. 11793: 11528: 11252: 10988: 10943: 10405: 10333: 10260: 10255: 10220: 10007: 9975: 9762: 9689: 9395: 9264: 9072: 7010: 5939: 4341: 3951: 3020: 2992: 2761: 2551: 2207: 2203: 2033: 1528: 1525:

The probability of a photoelectric absorption per unit mass is approximately proportional to

1466: 1282: 1209: 1016: 885: 843: 760: 310: 8488: 7935: 1309:. This definition has several problems: other processes can also generate these high-energy 11852: 11650: 11538: 11495: 11445: 11163: 10938: 10923: 10240: 10198: 10034: 9940: 9868: 9232: 9164: 9097: 8927: 8922: 8419: 7742: 7495: 7199: 7148: 6946:"Medical Radiation Exposure Of The U.S. Population Greatly Increased Since The Early 1980s" 6810: 6753: 6712: 6655: 6616: 6573: 6528: 6477: 6428: 6378: 6146: 5797: 5754: 5717: 5665: 4901: 4763: 4229:

Takahashi, K.; Case, B. W.; Dufresne, A.; Fraser, R.; Higashi, T.; Siemiatycki, J. (1994).

4137: 4095: 3641: 3038:

of charge of each polarity in one cubic centimeter of dry air. 1 roentgen =

2941: 2909: 2692: 2558: 2175: 2171: 2053: 2037: 1983: 1679: 1506: 1494: 1069: 947: 877: 764: 880:, an American X-ray pioneer, died from complications as a result of her work with X-rays. 8: 11767: 11645: 11558: 11262: 11073: 10858: 10452: 10320: 10298: 10123: 9980: 9747: 9709: 9542: 9184: 9159: 9138: 8962: 8957: 8932: 8912: 8663: 6893: 6891: 4430: 4405: 4395: 2951: 2713: 2677: 2566: 2542: 2513: 2507: 2473: 2045: 2006: 1514: 1443: 1262: 1065: 1042: 1008: 675: 646:

Surgical removal of a bullet whose location was diagnosed with X-rays (see inset) in 1897

521: 493: 367: 191: 86: 11726: 8423: 8300:

Terahertz Physics, Devices, and Systems X: Advanced Applications in Industry and Defense

7746: 7499: 7203: 7152: 6814: 6757: 6716: 6659: 6620: 6585: 6577: 6532: 6481: 6432: 6382: 6150: 5801: 5758: 5721: 5669: 4905: 4767: 4730:"Green, James (Zoological Artist), Sciagraphs of British batrachians and reptiles, 1897" 4141: 4099: 2727:, England. The maker's sticker states that it is equivalent to 2.24mm of lead at 150Kv. 1321:

generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by

1068:, England. Then in 1908, he had to have his left arm amputated because of the spread of 11762: 11583: 11563: 11543: 11427: 11335: 11242: 10978: 10815: 10742: 10553: 10203: 10173: 10157: 10140: 9784: 9674: 9622: 9572: 9519: 9425: 9204: 9169: 9102: 8952: 8800: 8773: 8683: 8668: 7876: 7851: 7700: 7618: 7570: 7545: 7519: 7461: 7418: 7331: 7223: 7172: 6831: 6798: 6774: 6741: 6676: 6643: 6589: 6493: 6467: 6394: 6108:

Bushberg, Jerrold T.; Seibert, J. Anthony; Leidholdt, Edwin M.; Boone, John M. (2002).

6083:

Bushberg, Jerrold T.; Seibert, J. Anthony; Leidholdt, Edwin M.; Boone, John M. (2002).

6057:

Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (9 May 2019).

5856: 5813: 5770: 5683: 5187: 5044: 5019: 4971: 4781: 4618: 4552:"A Cosmology of Invisible Fluids: Wireless, X-Rays, and Psychical Research Around 1900" 4532: 4263: 4231:"Relation between lung asbestos fibre burden and exposure indices based on job history" 4230: 4169: 3679: 3610: 3268: 3035: 3024: 2973: 2807: 2664: 2442: 2436: 2179: 2155: 2129: 1704: 1663: 1510: 1498: 1418:

the inside of visually opaque objects. The most often seen applications are in medical

1400: 1377: 1365: 1286: 1160: 1134: 909: 732: 635: 549: 545: 505: 481: 465: 461: 215: 207: 7789: 7646:. Radiological Society of North America (RSNA) and American College of Radiology (ACR) 7606: 7527: 7211: 7160: 6888: 6803:

Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences

6364:"Correlation between nanosecond X-ray flashes and stick–slip friction in peeling tape" 6158: 5446:"Marie Curie and her X-ray vehicles' contribution to World War I battlefield medicine" 4660: 1631: 735:

obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen's work.

433: 422: 109: 11655: 11533: 11470: 11435: 10310: 10103: 9990: 9965: 9903: 9860: 9704: 9699: 9694: 9537: 9473: 9405: 9400: 9227: 9199: 9092: 8808: 8804: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8383: 8320: 8280: 8252: 8214: 8141: 7988: 7941: 7916: 7881: 7793: 7758: 7610: 7575: 7511: 7453: 7449: 7410: 7366: 7323: 7288: 7215: 7164: 7120: 7072: 7040: 6991: 6921: 6877: 6836: 6779: 6681: 6440: 6342: 6313: 6286: 6193: 6113: 6088: 6022: 5997: 5970: 5945: 5881: 5848: 5687: 5393:"X-ray movies perfected. Will show motions of bones and joints of human body. (1918)" 5049: 4998: 4940: 4917: 4847: 4825: 4712: 4664: 4610: 4536: 4409: 4347: 4268: 4250: 4211: 4203: 4161: 4153: 4031: 4008: 3919: 3911: 3891: 3736: 3626: 3600: 3240: 3182: 2773: 2769: 2578: 2412: 2199: 2159: 2133: 2057: 1993: 1687:. The transferred energy can be directly obtained from the scattering angle from the 1620: 1451: 1439: 1396: 1257:. The intermediate range with photon energies of several keV is often referred to as 1061: 1057: 868: 803: 772: 746:, a medical journal. In the left a hand deformity, in the right same hand seen using 719: 659: 605: 537: 529: 525: 497: 203: 8302:. Vol. 9856. Society of Photographic Instrumentation Engineers. pp. 31–44. 8025: 7639: 7465: 7390: 7335: 7176: 6593: 6497: 6162: 5860: 4622: 4173: 3907: 896: 876:

effects from X-ray exposure at all. On 3 August 1905, in San Francisco, California,

68:

of a wine scene. Note the edges of hollow cylinders as compared to the solid candle.

11660: 11158: 10213: 10178: 9935: 9925: 9813: 9801: 9642: 9637: 9627: 9617: 9612: 9189: 9067: 8942: 8713: 8688: 8556: 8427: 8272: 8244: 8131: 8126: 8121: 8109: 8044: 7908: 7871: 7863: 7785: 7750: 7696: 7622: 7602: 7565: 7557: 7523: 7503: 7445: 7422: 7402: 7358: 7315: 7306:

Brenner DJ (2010). "Should we be concerned about the rapid increase in CT usage?".

7280: 7227: 7207: 7156: 7112: 6983: 6911: 6869: 6826: 6818: 6769: 6761: 6720: 6671: 6663: 6624: 6581: 6536: 6489: 6485: 6436: 6398: 6386: 6154: 5840: 5817: 5805: 5774: 5762: 5725: 5673: 5216: 5039: 5031: 4909: 4815: 4785: 4771: 4656: 4602: 4573: 4563: 4522: 4514: 4258: 4242: 4145: 4103: 4086: 3998: 3903: 3843: 3810: 3777: 2871: 2846: 2797: 2752: 2709: 2503: 2396: 2333: 2281: 1612: 1594: 1570: 1462: 1423: 1369: 1266: 1146: 1103: 1031: 1004: 963: 951: 685: 517: 513: 509: 489: 485: 371: 318: 199: 7666:"National Cancer Institute: Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) data" 6363: 4149: 2913: 11817: 11772: 11757: 11573: 11485: 11475: 11327: 11056: 11016: 10470: 10284: 10208: 10183: 10029: 9822: 9724: 9714: 9679: 9557: 9547: 9461: 9316: 9179: 9143: 9062: 8991: 8904: 8746: 8678: 8096: 8051: 8032: 7966: 7721: 5250: 4518: 3674: 3414: 3301: 3113: 3086: 3051: 3031: 2981: 2945: 2885: 2787: 2408: 2404: 2344: 2191: 1950:

to a high velocity. The high velocity electrons collide with a metal target, the

1490: 1415: 1084: 1023: 992: 982: 943: 905: 835: 815: 599: 541: 501: 473: 469: 457: 399: 381: 326: 306: 272: 248: 218:. Their generation and use is strictly controlled by public health authorities. 210:, and exposure to high intensities can be hazardous to health, causing damage to 113: 10548: 6873: 6628: 4568: 4551: 3798: 3101:(rem) is the traditional unit of equivalent dose. For X-rays it is equal to the 11620: 11578: 11568: 11490: 11480: 11450: 11011: 11006: 11001: 10751: 10658: 10627: 10609: 10133: 10039: 9985: 9950: 9883: 9830: 9684: 9577: 9562: 9552: 8937: 8721: 8068: 7912: 7546:"The Scoliosis Quandary: Are Radiation Exposures From Repeated X-Rays Harmful?" 7319: 7116: 7064: 6916: 6899: 6725: 6700: 6562:"Analyzing x-ray emissions from meter-scale negative discharges in ambient air" 4124:

Garcia, J.; Buchwald, N. A.; Feder, B. H.; Koelling, R. A.; Tedrow, L. (1964).

3595: 3583: 2879: 2732:

to 60 (digital) to 180 (film) μSv, for a yearly average of up to 400 μSv.

2617: 2187: 2145: 2026: 2001: 1989: 1922: 1659: 1392: 1373: 1361: 1325: 1306: 978: 974: 924: 756: 691: 618: 583: 569: 533: 477: 407: 360: 280: 256: 240: 11031: 7037:

Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography: Image Reconstruction from Projections

5600: 5574: 5548: 5496: 5470: 5221: 4820: 4803: 3953:

Illustrated Electrical Review: A Journal of Scientific and Electrical Progress

3847: 908:, which displayed continuous moving images. This image was used to argue that 11811: 11695: 11455: 11440: 11196: 10487: 9893: 9734: 9237: 8947: 8884: 8865: 8769: 8703: 8698: 8693: 7561: 7124: 6995: 6971: 5626: 5522: 4913: 4254: 4207: 4157: 4062: 4056: 3915: 3782: 3769: 3689: 3337: 3090: 3067: 3055: 2901: 2865: 2446: 2377: 2337: 2097: 2072:

is widely used as an analytical procedure. For high energies, the production

1588: 1447: 1246: 1200: 1034:

which relates the frequency of the X-rays to the atomic number of the metal.

1027: 864: 788: 768: 195: 8575: 7952:, data credited to NCRP (US National Committee on Radiation Protection) 1987 6900:"Radiation-reduction strategies in cardiac computed tomographic angiography" 6254: 5035: 2032:

A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely used in research is

1289:

of 600 eV (~2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer.

1180:

in the 1980s, but the only test of the device (a sort of laser "blaster" or

429: 301:

The earliest experimenter thought to have (unknowingly) produced X-rays was

11675: 11635: 11500: 10762: 9898: 9840: 9767: 9719: 9589: 9279: 9174: 9087: 9077: 8823: 8818: 8796: 8791: 8499: 8482: 8453: 8284: 8256: 8145: 7920: 7885: 7797: 7762: 7614: 7579: 7515: 7457: 7414: 7370: 7327: 7292: 7284: 7219: 7168: 7076: 7032: 6925: 6881: 6840: 6822: 6783: 6685: 5706:"Differential x-ray phase contrast imaging using a shearing interferometer" 5053: 4921: 4165: 4125: 4012: 3815: 3684: 3669: 3636: 3211: 2919: 2827: 2777: 2554: 2454: 2428: 2424: 2195: 2163: 2124: 1329: 1278: 1213: 1142: 1077: 996: 917: 872: 823: 623: 445: 437: 403: 353: 322: 268: 236: 176: 7271:

Hall EJ, Brenner DJ (May 2008). "Cancer risks from diagnostic radiology".

7101:"Fluoroscopy: basic science, optimal use, and patient/operator protection" 5852: 4829: 4668: 4614: 4272: 4215: 4191: 3923: 1056:

The use of X-rays for medical purposes (which developed into the field of

387:

Without Lens or Light, Photographs Taken With Plate and Object in Darkness

206:

and detecting weak points in construction materials). However X-rays are

11417: 11173: 10820: 10410: 9917: 9888: 9128: 8996: 8673: 8655: 8551: 7406: 6765: 6742:"High-Energy Emissions Induced by Air Density Fluctuations of Discharges" 6667: 6541: 5157: 4606: 4246: 4003: 3986: 3347: 3309: 3121: 3063: 2765: 2538: 2533: 2469: 2392: 2167: 2151: 2041: 1947: 1939: 1419: 1322: 1297:

There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and

1233: 1205: 1169: 1154: 1117:, has been allowing the exploration of the very violent processes in the 1092: 1088: 1000: 959: 955: 901: 848: 834:

With the widespread experimentation with X‑rays after their discovery in

776: 747: 727: 627: 565: 376: 260: 187: 128: 32: 8110:"First do no harm – The impact of financial incentives on dental X-rays" 7867: 7715:

Doses from Computed Tomography (CT) examinations in the UK – 2003 Review

6390: 4578: 4502: 3710: 2954:

is the use of high energy X-rays generated from a fission explosion (an

559:

There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because Röntgen had his

441: 294:

to a high enough velocity that they created X-rays when they struck the

290:

and 100 kV. This voltage accelerated the electrons coming from the

60: 11465: 11412: 10526: 9252: 9118: 8977: 8645: 8640: 8594: 8571: 8136: 7362: 5844: 4067: 3967:

Wyman T (Spring 2005). "Fernando Sanford and the Discovery of X-rays".

3658: 3395: 3102: 3078: 3008: 2988: 2934:

is used to track movement of bones based on the implantation of markers

2897: 2839: 2831: 2668: 2621: 2582: 2517: 2248: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2183: 1963: 1935: 1797: 1458: 1411: 1357: 1318: 1130: 784: 767:(his "Skiascope"), both using barium platinocyanide. American inventor 631: 276: 136: 124: 8276: 8248: 7845: 7843: 7841: 7754: 6987: 6203: 5891: 5730: 5705: 5678: 5653: 4527: 2892: 2794:, which deals with the study of X-ray emission from celestial objects. 2708:

American radiation exposure; medical procedures as a whole (including

1426:

scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry (e.g.

418: 11752: 11625: 11460: 11407: 11397: 11358: 11168: 10531: 10521: 9649: 9602: 9567: 9488: 8986: 8833: 8609: 8587: 8566: 8541: 8432: 8407: 6557: 6512: 6455: 6059:"Radiation – Quantities and Units of Ionizing Radiation: OSH Answers" 5809: 5766: 4776: 4751: 4108: 4081: 3980: 3978: 3192: 2977: 2791: 2477: 2420: 2400: 2384: 2194:

can be measured either by energy dispersive or wavelength dispersive

1724:

Characteristic X-ray emission lines for some common anode materials.

1406:

Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much

1389: 1298: 1224: 1181: 1150: 252: 148: 144: 140: 132: 65: 36: 11026: 8441: 7507: 6799:"Transforming X-ray detection with hybrid photon counting detectors" 5263:"X-ray movies show hard boiled egg fighting digestive organs (1913)" 5243: 5135: 4889: 4686: 2223: 2110: 1954:, creating the X-rays. In medical X-ray tubes the target is usually 1003:

of X-rays by crystals. This discovery, along with the early work of

11402: 11387: 11257: 10900: 10895: 10835: 10504: 10432: 10415: 10400: 10375: 10118: 9607: 9123: 9001: 8761: 8561: 8261: 8233: 7838: 7819: 7249: 3969:"Imprint", from the Associates of the Stanford University Libraries 3282: 2445:

is commonly used in the diagnoses of common oral problems, such as

2361: 1955: 1943: 1917: 1775: 1385: 1314: 1302: 1274: 1253:, while those with lower energy (and longer wavelength) are called 1236:. Different applications use different parts of the X-ray spectrum. 1118: 819: 560: 287: 264: 8054:. Dentalgentlecare.com (6 February 2008). Retrieved on 2011-05-05. 7963:"ANS / Public Information / Resources / Radiation Dose Calculator" 7937:

Health Risks from Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, BEIR 7 phase 2

6472: 3985:

Hrabak M, Padovan RS, Kralik M, Ozretic D, Potocki K (July 2008).

3975: 1908: 1249:

above 5–10 keV (below 0.2–0.1 nm wavelength) are called

456:. They are still referred to as such in many languages, including 11680: 11226: 11178: 11041: 11021: 10420: 10395: 9835: 9666: 9654: 9632: 9597: 9247: 8870: 8856: 6796: 5117:

Editor. (5 August 1905). Obituary Notice. Elizabeth Fleischmann.

4994:

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Early History of the Roentgen Rays

4343:

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the early history of the roentgen rays

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Though X-rays are otherwise invisible, it is possible to see the

2835: 2817: 2489: 2416: 2373: 1959: 1913: 1863: 1747: 1625: 1474: 923:

A typical early 20th-century medical X-ray system consisted of a

822:

had developed along the path of the bullet, and McKinley died of

811: 807: 291: 283: 9012: 7391:"Computed tomography—an increasing source of radiation exposure" 3987:"Scenes from the past: Nikola Tesla and the discovery of X-rays" 2494: 1114: 10830: 10825: 10805: 10785: 10770: 10653: 10390: 10370: 10338: 9082: 8894: 8889: 8879: 8851: 8846: 8841: 8812: 8741: 7009:

Van Haver A, Kolk S, DeBoodt S, Valkering K, Verdonk P (2018).

3757:. Vol. 1. United States: The Greystone Press. p. 394. 3631: 2959: 2958:) to compress nuclear fuel to the point of fusion ignition (an 2955: 2804:

in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects.

2432: 2060:

is sufficient for it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging.

1974: 1967: 1885: 1841: 1819: 1353: 1310: 967: 51: 47: 8377: 6930:

Of the 5 billion imaging investigations performed worldwide...

6897: 6561: 6516: 6459: 3937:

http://www.smj.org.sg/sites/default/files/3605/3605hdxray1.pdf

3066:(Gy), which has units of (joules/kilogram), is the SI unit of 1485: 1344: 11392: 11247: 11204: 10867: 10723: 10516: 10380: 8736: 7348: 7008: 6305: 4189: 3621: 3355: 3120:. For X-rays the "equivalent dose" is numerically equal to a 3071: 2816:

uses X-rays for inspection of industrial parts, particularly

2608:

deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

2324:

Patient undergoing an X-ray exam in a hospital radiology room

1951: 1497:, as well as a leveling off at higher photon energies due to 1122: 1048: 707:

first mentioned this work in a paper he delivered before the

436:

stumbled on X-rays while experimenting with Lenard tubes and

295: 156: 152: 7933: 6701:"Streamer properties and associated x-rays in perturbed air" 5419:"Talk is cheap? X-ray used by Institute of Phonetics (1920)" 4461:"'I Have Seen My Death': How the World Discovered the X-Ray" 3070:, and it is the amount of radiation required to deposit one 2415:, free air (from visceral perforations), and free fluid (in 2017:

So, the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous

1662:. These effects can be used for elemental detection through 10728: 10617: 10427: 10385: 8731: 8726: 8493:

A web for learning how X-rays can "see" inside the crystals

7592: 6898:

Roobottom CA, Mitchell G, Morgan-Hughes G (November 2010).

6555: 5315:"Homeopaths to show movies of body's organs at work (1915)" 5020:"Early victims of X-rays: a tribute and current perception" 4438: 4228: 4123: 3718: 2652: 2388: 1470: 1285:. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air; the 1138: 1126: 1091:

developed radiological cars to support soldiers injured in

936: 852: 723: 8183:"Scientists achieve X-ray vision with safe, visible light" 8035:. Doctorspiller.com (9 May 2007). Retrieved on 2011-05-05. 6361: 4397:

Naked to the Bone Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century

3984: 2922:, a method popular in the 1920s but now banned by the FDA. 267:

beams that were first observed in 1869. Many of the early

10701: 10565: 8751: 7107:. Imaging for Interventional Management of Chronic Pain. 6797:

Förster A, Brandstetter S, Schulze-Briese C (June 2019).

6698: 6644:"Electron acceleration during streamer collisions in air" 5703: 5095:

Public Library. San Francisco History and Archive Center.

3369: 3054:

generated. This measure of energy absorbed is called the

2781: 1489:

Attenuation length of X-rays in water showing the oxygen

1333: 999:, Paul Knipping, and Walter Friedrich first observed the 658:

The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by

211: 180: 8316:

Milady's Hair Removal Techniques: A Comprehensive Manual

6606: 6016: 5787: 2716:(CT), and to the growth in the use of nuclear medicine. 2383:

Projectional radiographs are useful in the detection of

1505:

X-rays interact with matter in three main ways, through

698:

In early 1896, several weeks after Röntgen's discovery,

226: 7138: 6228:. NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory. 9 December 2011 6058: 5744: 4844:

Eminent Lives in Twentieth-Century Science and Religion

2541:

is an imaging technique commonly used by physicians or

2419:). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as 1912:

Spectrum of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with a

7775: 6312:. US: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 116. 5989: 5830: 5017: 4937:

The South in the Building of the Nation: Biography A-J

2399:, which can be used to identify lung diseases such as 1634: 1597: 1573: 1531: 1399:. It is also used for material characterization using 750:. The authors named the technique Röntgen photography. 8227: 7849: 7105:

Techniques in Regional Anesthesia and Pain Management

6972:"Air and Gas in the Soft Tissues: A Radiologic Study" 6362:

Camara CG, Escobar JV, Hird JR, Putterman SJ (2008).

5209:"Structural biology: How proteins got their close-up" 2862:

Authentication and quality control of packaged items.

1450:

through the object and at the same time provide good

1336:, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays. 7732: 7543: 6857:"The first 50 years of military radiology 1895–1945" 6609:

Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics

6306:

Bushburg J, Seibert A, Leidholdt E, Boone J (2002).

6056: 5964: 4804:"The first clinical X-ray made in America—100 years" 2561:), embolization procedures (to stop bleeding during 884:

He died of cancer in 1926. His left hand is kept at

6739: 6641: 2912:, artistic use of X-rays, for example the works by 2391:as well as for detecting some disease processes in 2115:X-rays are also produced in lightning accompanying 2063: 920:or Crookes X-ray tubes were used until about 1920. 11357: 10251:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 7940:. National Academies Press. pp. 5, fig.PS–2. 7713:Shrimpton, P.C; Miller, H.C; Lewis, M.A; Dunn, M. 7544:Oakley PA, Ehsani NN, Harrison DE (1 April 2019). 6855: 5065: 5063: 5018:Sansare K, Khanna V, Karjodkar F (February 2011). 4317:. Medcyclopedia.com, GE Healthcare. Archived from 2581:and is largely used for the management (including 2516:(CT scanning) is a medical imaging modality where 2123:. This produces photons with energies of some few 1646: 1603: 1579: 1559: 1380:, while lower doses can give an increased risk of 27:Form of short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation 7852:""Doctor, will that x-ray harm my unborn child?"" 7850:Ratnapalan S, Bentur Y, Koren G (December 2008). 7686: 6699:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Babich LP, Neubert T (2018). 6112:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 38. 6087:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 42. 5969:. Vol. 1. US: Addison-Wesley. pp. 2–8. 5124: 4752:"Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles1" 3753:Caldwell, Wallace E.; Merrill, Edward H. (1964). 2888:use X-rays for inspecting the interior of trucks. 2111:Production in lightning and laboratory discharges 11809: 7478: 7384: 7382: 7380: 7137:Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry in 6041: 6017:Grupen C, Cowan G, Eidelman SD, Stroh T (2005). 5189:Electro-medical Instruments and their Management 3867:. US: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 182–186. 3074:of energy in one kilogram of any kind of matter. 3002: 2940:is a chemical analysis technique relying on the 2178:direct exposure hazard is often evaluated using 798:in an assassination attempt while attending the 259:. They were noticed by scientists investigating 8312: 7071:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 5104:Editor. (5 August 1905). Aschheim. Obituaries. 5060: 4963:Understanding Ionizing Radiation and Protection 3803:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 3752: 2013:is limited by the energy of incident electrons. 1465:to acquire high-resolution images, and also in 912:during the X-ray procedure would be negligible. 810:, another had lodged somewhere deep inside his 340:. However, he did not work with actual X-rays. 175:) and photon energies in the range of 100 6332: 6282:Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology 6183: 6044:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed 5873: 5704:David C, Nöhammer B, Solak H, Ziegler (2002). 4642: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4369:"Google doodle celebrates 115 years of X-rays" 796:U.S. President William McKinley was shot twice 713:Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles 11343: 10954:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 9504: 9028: 8515: 8382:. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 40–41. 8107: 7377: 7189: 6940: 6938: 6278: 6190:Soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation 5877:Soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation 5192:. Bemrose & Sons Ltd. Printers. pp. 3956:. Electrical Review Publishing Company. 1894. 3854: 3141: 2606:The examples and perspective in this section 2577:The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as 1414:. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to 1376:over a short period of time causes burns and 8529: 8367:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility ID11 8206: 7351:Birth Defects Research. Part C, Embryo Today 7062: 6642:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Neubert T (March 2017). 6521:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 6285:. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 15–20. 5071:"ISU Health Physics Radinf – First 50 Years" 4311:"W. C. Roentgen and the discovery of x-rays" 2395:. Some notable examples are the very common 263:produced by such tubes, which are energetic 7388: 7270: 6847: 5937: 5501:Telegraph (Brisbane, Qld. : 1872–1947) 5181: 5179: 4976:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4629: 4114:see also pp. 268 and 276 of the same issue. 3864:The Discharge of Electricity through Gasses 2826:, most often X-rays of paintings to reveal 2673:International Agency for Research on Cancer 2350: 1942:that uses a high voltage to accelerate the 1520: 826:due to bacterial infection six days later. 385:was duly published and an article entitled 11350: 11336: 9511: 9497: 9035: 9021: 8591: 8522: 8508: 7816:eMedicine Live online medical consultation 7479:Calabrese EJ, Baldwin LA (February 2003). 6935: 6740:Köhn C, Chanrion O, Neubert T (May 2018). 6355: 5651: 5579:Brisbane Telegraph (Qld. : 1948–1954) 3148: 3134: 2624:, or create a new section, as appropriate. 1718: 1480: 891: 279:of the residual air in the tube by a high 251:, X-rays were just a type of unidentified 104:. In many languages, it is referred to as 8431: 8378:Als-Nielsen, Jens; Mcmorrow, Des (2001). 8342:"Wilhelm Röntgen and the Invisible Light" 8135: 8125: 7875: 7707: 7569: 6969: 6915: 6830: 6773: 6724: 6675: 6540: 6510: 6471: 6453: 5729: 5677: 5527:Sunday Times (Perth, WA : 1902–1954) 5443: 5220: 5134:. Birmingham City Council. Archived from 5043: 4819: 4775: 4685:. Birmingham City Council. Archived from 4577: 4567: 4526: 4262: 4107: 4002: 3814: 3781: 3735:. Harvard University Press. 5th edition. 2640:Learn how and when to remove this message 2308:Learn how and when to remove this message 2162:, but are now mostly replaced by various 1973:The maximum energy of the produced X-ray 1920:. The smooth, continuous curve is due to 1493:at 540 eV, the energy dependence of 900:A patient being examined with a thoracic 744:"Nouvelle Iconographie de la Salpetrière" 214:, cancer, and at high dosages, burns and 120:to signify an unknown type of radiation. 10866: 8483:https://doi.org/10.1177/1559325820957797 8467:"La découverte des rayons X par Röntgen" 8454:"Index of Early Bremsstrahlung Articles" 8297: 8067:. Idaho State University. Archived from 7898: 7481:"Toxicology rethinks its central belief" 6418: 6309:The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging 6135:"RTAB: the Rayleigh scattering database" 6110:The essential physics of medical imaging 6085:The essential physics of medical imaging 5933: 5931: 5699: 5697: 5206: 5200: 5176: 4285: 3836:Transactions of the Faculty of Actuaries 3829: 2891: 2852: 2751: 2718: 2671:by both the World Health Organization's 2651: 2493: 2360: 2327: 2319: 1907: 1484: 1343: 1223: 1159: 1047: 895: 737: 664: 641: 617: 613: 574: 417: 230: 71: 59: 8306: 7812:"Pregnant Women and Radiation Exposure" 7634: 7632: 7305: 7063:Hermena, Shady; Young, Michael (2024), 6046:. US: Chemical Rubber Co. p. 2850. 5965:Feynman R, Leighton R, Sands M (1963). 5867: 4990: 4934: 4801: 4646: 4485: 4339: 4333: 4288:"The Nobel Prizes in Physics 1901–2000" 4235:Occupational and Environmental Medicine 4079: 3860: 3790: 3661:– 1897 British short silent comedy film 2999:is one example of such high intensity. 2997:European Synchrotron Radiation Facility 1962:(5%) and tungsten (95%), but sometimes 1240: 1216:, and high resolution X-ray detectors. 413: 14: 11810: 11691:Wireless electronic devices and health 10881:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 9518: 8464: 7901:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology 7640:"Radiation Dose in X-Ray and CT Exams" 7098: 7094: 7092: 7058: 7056: 7031: 6853: 6132: 5601:"X-ray shoe sets in S.A. 'controlled'" 5185: 4887: 4808:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology 4797: 4795: 4549: 4500: 4458: 4428: 4393: 4366: 4308: 4025: 3889: 3796: 3767: 3725: 3129:Ionizing radiation related quantities 2790:, which is an observational branch of 2749:Other notable uses of X-rays include: 2565:), and barium swallow (to examine for 2483: 2190:the person has been exposed to. X-ray 1698: 1305:, while gamma rays are emitted by the 1164:Phase-contrast X-ray image of a spider 11331: 11123: 10886:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 10295: 10282: 9492: 9016: 8503: 7934:US National Research Council (2006). 7435: 7389:Brenner DJ, Hall EJ (November 2007). 7065:"CT-scan Image Production Procedures" 7025: 6705:Plasma Sources Science and Technology 6566:Plasma Sources Science and Technology 5928: 5694: 5631:Canberra Times (ACT : 1926–1995) 5627:"Ban On Shoe X-ray Machines Resented" 5553:Biz (Fairfield, NSW : 1928–1972) 5289:"X-ray moving pictures latest (1913)" 4959: 4592: 4346:. Norman Publishing. pp. 10–15. 3966: 3946: 3944: 2764:in which the pattern produced by the 2336:of a female patient, demonstrating a 1673: 1615:. However, the general trend of high 829: 227:Pre-Röntgen observations and research 11717:List of civilian radiation accidents 11686:Wireless device radiation and health 11681:Biological dose units and quantities 11631:Electromagnetic radiation and health 11310: 10283: 8180: 7629: 6226:"X-ray Transition Energies Database" 5605:News (Adelaide, SA : 1923–1954) 5475:Warwick Daily News (Qld.: 1919–1954) 4722: 4028:Hydroenergy and Its Energy Potential 3809:. Royal Society of London: 272–278. 2592: 2468:, including the arteries and veins ( 2376:, which, due to its relatively high 2246:adding citations to reliable sources 2217: 1703:Rayleigh scattering is the dominant 89:explains medical imaging and X-rays. 10891:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 8348:. Oak Ridge Associated Universities 8213:. Tokyo: Kodansha. pp. 291–2. 8210:X-ray diffraction by macromolecules 8162:. Open University. 24 February 2011 7395:The New England Journal of Medicine 7099:Davros, William J. (1 April 2007). 7089: 7053: 6854:Thomas, Adrian M.K. (August 2007). 5880:. Cambridge University. p. 2. 5497:"T. C. BEIRNE'S X-RAY SHOE FITTING" 5341:"How X-Ray Movies Are Taken (1918)" 4939:. Pelican Publishing. p. 300. 4792: 4452: 4030:. Pinnacle Technology. p. 88. 3647:Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering 3618:– 1896 documentary radiography film 1958:or a more crack-resistant alloy of 1172:device was proposed as part of the 847:after taking a picture of Dudley's 806:. While one bullet only grazed his 630:screen. The seated man is taking a 359:Also in 1890, Roentgen's assistant 24: 11666:Radioactivity in the life sciences 10700: 9851:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 8574: 8108:Chalkley M, Listl S (March 2018). 8016:, Princeton University Press, 2010 7822:. 28 December 2008. Archived from 7701:10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a033172 6970:Rhinehart, D. A. (December 1931). 5993:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis 4997:. Norman Publishing. p. 294. 4126:"Sensitivity of the head to X-ray" 3941: 3733:Squire's Fundamentals of Radiology 2588: 2506:) slice – a modern application of 2365:Plain radiograph of the right knee 2132:and the production of high-energy 1368:, and therefore harmful to living 317:describing the effects of passing 25: 11869: 9874:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 9773:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 9042: 8400: 8339: 5990:L'Annunziata M, Abrade M (2003). 4661:10.1148/radiographics.9.6.2685937 4556:Canadian Journal of Communication 4290:. Stockholm: The Nobel Foundation 4060:, "Incandescent Electric Light". 2704:X-rays only accounted for 10% of 2413:bowel (or intestinal) obstruction 1204:sophisticated equipment, such as 622:Taking an X-ray image with early 35:. For the medical specialty, see 11309: 11298: 11297: 11285: 10974:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 8380:Elements of Modern X-Ray Physics 8371: 8360: 8333: 8291: 8200: 8174: 8160:"Using lasers instead of x-rays" 8152: 8101: 8083: 8057: 8038: 8019: 8006: 7981: 7955: 7927: 7892: 7804: 7769: 7726: 7680: 7658: 7586: 7537: 7472: 7450:10.1097/00004032-200307000-00005 7429: 7342: 7299: 7273:The British Journal of Radiology 7264: 7234: 7183: 7131: 7002: 6963: 5941:Physics for Diagnostic Radiology 5444:Jorgensen TJ (10 October 2017). 5319:The Central New Jersey Home News 3589: 3577: 3524: 3447: 3363: 3295: 3205: 3011:ability is called the exposure: 2938:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 2597: 2563:hemorrhoidal artery embolization 2222: 2208:hybrid photon counting detectors 2064:Production by fast positive ions 1348:Ionizing radiation hazard symbol 1232:, with wavelengths shorter than 1219: 1106:was developed during the 1950s. 10063:Historical stockpiles and tests 8418:(1369): 274–276. January 1896. 7668:. Seer.cancer.gov. 30 June 2010 7308:Reviews on Environmental Health 7192:Physics in Medicine and Biology 7141:Physics in Medicine and Biology 6790: 6733: 6692: 6635: 6600: 6549: 6504: 6447: 6412: 6326: 6299: 6272: 6240: 6218: 6177: 6139:Radiation Physics and Chemistry 6126: 6101: 6076: 6050: 6035: 6010: 5983: 5967:The Feynman Lectures on Physics 5958: 5906: 5824: 5781: 5738: 5654:"Phase-sensitive x-ray imaging" 5645: 5619: 5593: 5567: 5541: 5515: 5489: 5463: 5437: 5411: 5385: 5359: 5333: 5307: 5281: 5255: 5236: 5150: 5111: 5098: 5088: 5011: 4984: 4953: 4928: 4881: 4856: 4836: 4762:(1432): 539–540. 1 April 1897. 4744: 4701: 4675: 4586: 4543: 4494: 4479: 4422: 4387: 4360: 4302: 4286:Karlsson EB (9 February 2000). 4279: 4222: 4183: 4117: 4073: 4044: 4019: 3960: 3930: 3908:10.1148/radiology.181.3.1947073 2824:Radiography of cultural objects 2572: 2233:needs additional citations for 2213: 2070:particle-induced X-ray emission 1192:using different technologies). 929:cold cathode Crookes X-ray tube 653:Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton 634:of his hand by placing it on a 347:and associate professor of the 338:electromagnetic theory of light 298:or the glass wall of the tube. 10964:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 9846:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 8127:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2017.12.005 7689:Radiation Protection Dosimetry 6490:10.1016/j.atmosres.2013.03.012 6248:"X-Ray Data Booklet Table 1-3" 6192:. Cambridge University Press. 6042:Hodgman, Charles, ed. (1961). 5996:. Academic Press. p. 58. 5162:Engole the Elven for Knowledge 5024:Dento Maxillo Facial Radiology 3883: 3871: 3823: 3761: 3746: 3703: 2896:X-ray fine art photography of 2723:An X-ray protective window at 2527: 1934:X-rays can be generated by an 1722: 1469:to determine the positions of 1041:was invented the same year by 726:, used for holding samples of 202:(e.g., identification of some 131:rays and longer than those of 13: 1: 11292:Nuclear technology portal 8476:Röntgen's discovery of X-rays 8465:Samuel JJ (20 October 2013). 8014:Physics for Future Presidents 7989:"HOW DANGEROUS IS RADIATION?" 7790:10.1016/S0140-6736(56)91923-7 7607:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15433-0 6862:European Journal of Radiology 6586:10.1088/0963-0252/25/4/044002 6333:Emilio B, Ballerna A (1994). 6159:10.1016/S0969-806X(00)00290-5 6133:Kissel L (2 September 2000). 5944:. US: CRC Press. p. 12. 5581:. 28 February 1951. p. 7 5373:. 12 January 1919. p. 16 4846:, page 300, Peter Lang, 2009 4732:. Yale Centre for British Art 4459:Markel H (20 December 2012). 4150:10.1126/science.144.3625.1470 4080:Stanton A (23 January 1896). 3890:Walden, T L (December 1991). 3797:Morgan W (24 February 1785). 3696: 3665:X-ray absorption spectroscopy 3003:Units of measure and exposure 2966: 2932:Roentgen stereophotogrammetry 2744: 2117:terrestrial gamma-ray flashes 1710: 1339: 1332:, in the ranges of 6–20 1292: 1015:, gave birth to the field of 973:In about 1906, the physicist 552:. Röntgen received the first 108:, after the German scientist 11154:Field-reversed configuration 10764:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 7242:"11th Report on Carcinogens" 6746:Geophysical Research Letters 6648:Geophysical Research Letters 6560:, Van Deursen L (May 2016). 6441:10.1016/0370-1573(86)90149-3 6279:Whaites E, Cawson R (2002). 5425:. 2 January 1920. p. 13 5108:. San Francisco, California. 4519:10.1080/13688804.2011.602856 4503:"The Invisible Made Visible" 4501:Natale S (1 November 2011). 4435:The Electromagnetic Spectrum 4367:Arthur C (8 November 2010). 3830:Anderson JG (January 1945). 3653:Small-angle X-ray scattering 3606:Detective quantum efficiency 2464:To generate an image of the 2139: 1916:target, operated at 60 1196:Phase-contrast X-ray imaging 1178:Strategic Defense Initiative 1121:that produce X-rays. Unlike 709:Zoological Society of London 343:In early 1890, photographer 255:emanating from experimental 100:) are a form of high-energy 7: 11554:Cosmic background radiation 11111:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 10296: 10058:States with nuclear weapons 8623:Ultra-high-energy gamma ray 8319:. Thomson Delmar Learning. 8207:Kasai N, Kakudo, M (2005). 8181:Dent S (12 February 2015). 8114:Journal of Health Economics 7212:10.1088/0031-9155/51/13/R20 7161:10.1088/0031-9155/59/6/r183 6874:10.1016/j.ejrad.2007.05.024 6629:10.1016/j.jastp.2009.07.010 6145:(2). Lynn Kissel: 185–200. 5938:Denny PP, Heaton B (1999). 5607:. 27 April 1951. p. 12 5477:. 25 August 1921. p. 4 5399:. 7 January 1918. p. 7 5207:Stoddart C (1 March 2022). 4802:Spiegel PK (January 1995). 4711:. Nova Publishers. p. xxi. 4569:10.22230/cjc.2011v36n2a2368 4052:American Technical Book Co. 3832:"William Morgan and X-rays" 3715:Science Mission Directorate 3569: 3019:per kilogram (C/kg) is the 2886:domestic police departments 2685:threshold dose of radiation 2620:, discuss the issue on the 1668:Auger electron spectroscopy 1658:characteristic X-ray or an 1461:. This property is used in 733:gelatin photographic plates 568:screen painted with barium 432:, German physics professor 10: 11874: 11783: 11641:Lasers and aviation safety 11124: 10949:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 10073:Tests in the United States 9307:X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging 9195:Anomalous X-ray scattering 8618:Very-high-energy gamma ray 8478:(PDF; English translation) 7913:10.2214/ajr.184.2.01840655 7320:10.1515/REVEH.2010.25.1.63 7117:10.1053/j.trap.2007.02.005 7039:(2nd ed.). Springer. 6917:10.1016/j.crad.2010.04.021 5555:. 27 July 1955. p. 10 5471:"X-Rays for Fitting Boots" 5347:. 15 March 1918. p. 2 5295:. 22 June 1913. p. 32 4707:Kudriashov, Y. B. (2008). 4550:Natale S (4 August 2011). 4429:Sample S (27 March 2007). 3731:Novelline, Robert (1997). 2725:Birmingham Dental Hospital 2667:, and are classified as a 2531: 2487: 2354: 2143: 1364:. This makes it a type of 349:University of Pennsylvania 286:of anywhere between a few 247:Before their discovery in 221: 127:are shorter than those of 29: 11781: 11745: 11709: 11671:Radioactive contamination 11596: 11524:Electromagnetic radiation 11514: 11426: 11373: 11366: 11279: 11235: 11187: 11144: 11134: 11086: 11074:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 10987: 10969:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 10934: 10917: 10857: 10784: 10776:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 10750: 10741: 10693: 10673: 10626: 10608: 10564: 10469: 10451: 10319: 10306: 10291: 10278: 10233: 10166: 10111: 10102: 10050: 9958: 9949: 9916: 9859: 9821: 9812: 9733: 9665: 9588: 9530: 9526: 9454: 9386: 9335: 9220: 9213: 9152: 9111: 9050: 8976: 8903: 8832: 8760: 8712: 8654: 8631: 8608: 8537: 8446:The Cathode Ray Tube site 8346:Tales from the Atomic Age 7720:22 September 2011 at the 6341:. IOS Press. p. xv. 6021:. Springer. p. 109. 5633:. 26 June 1957. p. 4 5529:. 15 July 1928. p. 5 5503:. 17 July 1925. p. 8 5269:. 4 April 1913. p. 2 5249:28 September 2012 at the 5242:Birmingham City Council: 5222:10.1146/knowable-022822-1 5132:"Major John Hall-Edwards" 4821:10.2214/ajr.164.1.7998549 4683:"Major John Hall-Edwards" 3848:10.1017/s0071368600003001 3481: 3413: 3336: 3267: 3181: 2926:Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes 2842:show well in radiographs. 2802:electromagnetic radiation 2559:coronary artery blockages 2154:were originally based on 2056:. The intensity of X-ray 1741: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1111:Chandra X-ray Observatory 1060:) was pioneered by Major 742:1896 plaque published in 700:Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov 102:electromagnetic radiation 11838:IARC Group 1 carcinogens 11833:Electromagnetic spectrum 11784:See also the categories 11722:1996 Costa Rica accident 11383:Acoustic radiation force 10979:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 10595:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 9931:Electron-beam processing 9134:Synchrotron light source 8531:Electromagnetic spectrum 8313:Bickmore, Helen (2003). 8090:D.O.E. – About Radiation 7562:10.1177/1559325819852810 6726:10.1088/1361-6595/aaa5d8 5321:. 10 May 1915. p. 6 4914:10.1126/science.3.67.562 4402:Rutgers University Press 3783:10.1038/npre.2009.3267.4 2370:Projectional radiography 2357:Projectional radiography 2351:Projectional radiographs 2186:are used to measure the 2036:, which is generated by 1560:{\textstyle Z^{3}/E^{3}} 1521:Photoelectric absorption 1382:radiation-induced cancer 1230:electromagnetic spectrum 1190:National Missile Defense 1145:that build up layers of 586:of the Physik Institut, 151:in the range of 30 46:Not to be confused with 11696:Radiation heat-transfer 11549:Gravitational radiation 11094:Organic nuclear reactor 10266:Nuclear power phase-out 10189:Nuclear decommissioning 10129:Reactor-grade plutonium 9879:Targeted alpha-particle 9758:Accidents and incidents 9153:Interaction with matter 9112:Sources and instruments 8489:"X-ray Crystallography" 8408:"On a New Kind of Rays" 7556:(2): 1559325819852810. 7015:Orthopaedic Proceedings 6184:Attwood, David (1999). 5874:Attwood, David (1999). 5710:Applied Physics Letters 5244:Major John Hall-Edwards 5119:San Francisco Chronicle 4888:Daniel J (April 1896). 4595:Literature and Medicine 3112:(Sv) is the SI unit of 3099:Roentgen equivalent man 2739:Early photon tomography 2548:X-ray image intensifier 2166:detector types such as 1719:Production by electrons 1617:absorption coefficients 1481:Interaction with matter 1356:carry enough energy to 1228:X-rays are part of the 892:20th century and beyond 800:Pan American Exposition 705:George Albert Boulenger 315:Royal Society of London 112:, who discovered it in 11737:1990 Zaragoza accident 11732:1984 Moroccan accident 11701:Linear energy transfer 11375:Non-ionizing radiation 9285:Diffraction tomography 8579: 6823:10.1098/rsta.2018.0241 5106:San Francisco Examiner 4490:. Springfield: Thomas. 4400:. Camden, New Jersey: 4196:Acta Médica Portuguesa 3816:10.1098/rstl.1785.0014 3616:Macintyre's X-Ray Film 3531:röntgen equivalent man 3454:röntgen equivalent man 3007:The measure of X-rays 2944:, usually employed in 2904: 2858: 2814:Industrial radiography 2757: 2728: 2660: 2510: 2366: 2340: 2325: 2202:applications, such as 2054:triboelectric charging 1931: 1928:characteristic K lines 1689:conservation of energy 1648: 1605: 1581: 1561: 1502: 1432:industrial CT scanning 1428:industrial radiography 1349: 1237: 1165: 1078:motion picture cameras 1053: 1013:William Lawrence Bragg 986:Nobel Prize in Physics 913: 840:William Lofland Dudley 781:Clarence Madison Dally 751: 711:in May 1896. The book 695: 647: 639: 591: 588:University of Freiburg 554:Nobel Prize in Physics 425: 392:San Francisco Examiner 244: 110:Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen 90: 69: 41:X-ray (disambiguation) 39:. For other uses, see 11727:1987 Goiânia accident 11529:Synchrotron radiation 11519:Earth's energy budget 11501:Radioactive materials 11496:Particle accelerators 10256:Anti-nuclear movement 9396:X-ray crystallography 9265:Soft x-ray microscopy 9233:Panoramic radiography 9073:Synchrotron radiation 8578: 8095:27 April 2012 at the 8031:15 March 2007 at the 7533:on 12 September 2011. 6019:Astroparticle Physics 5652:Fitzgerald R (2000). 5549:"X-RAY SHOE FITTINGS" 5367:"X-ray movies (1919)" 5036:10.1259/dmfr/73488299 4315:Textbook of Radiology 2895: 2856: 2800:analysis, which uses 2762:X-ray crystallography 2755: 2722: 2663:X-rays are a form of 2655: 2497: 2466:cardiovascular system 2364: 2331: 2323: 2204:X-ray crystallography 2038:particle accelerators 2034:synchrotron radiation 1926:, and the spikes are 1911: 1685:Klein–Nishina formula 1649: 1606: 1582: 1562: 1488: 1467:X-ray crystallography 1434:) and research (e.g. 1347: 1283:X-ray crystallography 1227: 1174:Reagan Administration 1163: 1051: 1017:X-ray crystallography 899: 886:Birmingham University 844:Vanderbilt University 761:William Francis Magie 741: 668: 645: 621: 614:Advances in radiology 578: 421: 234: 139:ranging from 10 85: 63: 11798:Radiation protection 11651:Radiation protection 11539:Black-body radiation 11446:Background radiation 11361:(physics and health) 11164:Reversed field pinch 10959:Traveling-wave (TWR) 10443:Supercritical (SCWR) 9941:Gemstone irradiation 9165:Photoelectric effect 9098:Characteristic X-ray 8265:Analytical Chemistry 8237:Analytical Chemistry 8050:4 April 2007 at the 7407:10.1056/NEJMra072149 7285:10.1259/bjr/01948454 6766:10.1029/2018GL077788 6668:10.1002/2016GL072216 6615:(17–18): 1890–1898. 6542:10.1002/2014JD022229 6466:. 135–136: 432–465. 6464:Atmospheric Research 5575:"SHOE X-RAY DANGERS" 5345:Davis County Clipper 5138:on 28 September 2012 4960:Ce4Rt (March 2014). 4709:Radiation Biophysics 4689:on 28 September 2012 4607:10.1353/lm.1997.0016 4247:10.1136/oem.51.7.461 4004:10.1148/rg.284075206 3755:History of the World 3642:Reflection (physics) 2942:photoelectric effect 2910:fine art photography 2693:background radiation 2657:Abdominal radiograph 2618:improve this section 2567:esophageal disorders 2543:radiation therapists 2242:improve this article 2176:radiation protection 2172:flat panel detectors 1984:Characteristic X-ray 1680:inelastic scattering 1632: 1595: 1571: 1529: 1442:varies with several 1241:Soft and hard X-rays 1129:being torn apart by 988:for this discovery. 954:, the first kind of 948:John Ambrose Fleming 878:Elizabeth Fleischman 765:Princeton University 414:Discovery by Röntgen 194:(e.g., checking for 64:Natural color X-ray 11768:Radiation hardening 11710:Radiation incidents 11646:Medical radiography 11605:Radiation syndrome 11559:Cherenkov radiation 10329:Aqueous homogeneous 10124:Reprocessed uranium 9797:Safety and security 9185:Photodisintegration 9160:Rayleigh scattering 9139:Free-electron laser 8664:Extreme ultraviolet 8424:1896Natur..53R.274. 8120:(March 2018): 1–9. 7868:10.1503/cmaj.080247 7747:2008MedPh..35.3501G 7500:2003Natur.421..691C 7204:2006PMB....51R.343T 7153:2014PMB....59R.183H 6815:2019RSPTA.37780241F 6758:2018GeoRL..45.5194K 6717:2018PSST...27a5017K 6660:2017GeoRL..44.2604K 6621:2009JASTP..71.1890C 6578:2016PSST...25d4002K 6556:Kochkin P, Köhn C, 6533:2015JGRD..120.1620K 6482:2014AtmRe.135..432K 6433:1986PhR...135...47P 6391:10.1038/nature07378 6383:2008Natur.455.1089C 6377:(7216): 1089–1092. 6206:on 11 November 2012 6165:on 12 December 2011 6151:2000RaPC...59..185K 5894:on 11 November 2012 5802:1995Natur.373..595D 5759:1996Natur.384..335W 5722:2002ApPhL..81.3287D 5670:2000PhT....53g..23F 5158:"JOHN HALL-EDWARDS" 4935:Fleming WL (1909). 4906:1896Sci.....3..562D 4842:Nicolaas A. Rupke, 4768:1897Natur..55..539. 4488:Dr. W. C. Ro ̈ntgen 4142:1964Sci...144.1470G 4136:(3625): 1470–1472. 4100:1896Natur..53R.274. 4063:U.S. patent 454,622 4057:U.S. patent 514,170 3861:Thomson JJ (1903). 3155: 2952:Radiation implosion 2884:truck scanners and 2714:computed tomography 2678:computed tomography 2659:of a pregnant woman 2514:Computed tomography 2508:medical radiography 2484:Computed tomography 2411:, which can detect 2180:ionization chambers 2156:photographic plates 2076:is proportional to 2046:linear polarization 2009:. The frequency of 2007:continuous spectrum 1725: 1699:Rayleigh scattering 1515:Rayleigh scattering 1444:orders of magnitude 1277:used to refer to a 1263:medical radiography 1186:Bush Administration 1135:galactic collisions 1043:William D. Coolidge 1039:Coolidge X-ray tube 1009:William Henry Bragg 676:Pelophylax lessonae 590:, on 1 January 1896 556:for his discovery. 368:Stanford University 319:electrical currents 243:that emitted X-rays 192:medical diagnostics 147:, corresponding to 11843:Ionizing radiation 11763:Radioactive source 11584:Radiation exposure 11564:Askaryan radiation 11544:Particle radiation 11428:Ionizing radiation 11243:Dense plasma focus 10158:Actinide chemistry 9623:Isotope separation 9520:Nuclear technology 9426:X-ray reflectivity 9205:X-ray fluorescence 9170:Compton scattering 9103:High-energy X-rays 8669:Vacuum ultraviolet 8580: 8458:Shade Tree Physics 8071:on 7 November 2012 7826:on 23 January 2009 7363:10.1002/bdrc.20099 7252:on 9 December 2010 6904:Clinical Radiology 6809:(2147): 20180241. 5916:. Physics.nist.gov 5914:"Physics.nist.gov" 5845:10.1038/nm0496-473 5267:The News-Palladium 4991:Glasser O (1934). 4486:Glasser O (1958). 4394:Kevles BH (1996). 4340:Glasser O (1993). 4026:Chadda PK (2009). 3878:Wiedmann's Annalen 3680:X-ray reflectivity 3611:High-energy X-rays 3596:Physics portal 3584:Medical portal 3128: 3036:electrostatic unit 3025:ionizing radiation 2974:ionizing radiation 2905: 2859: 2808:X-ray fluorescence 2758: 2729: 2665:ionizing radiation 2661: 2518:tomographic images 2511: 2443:Dental radiography 2423:(which are rarely 2403:, lung cancer, or 2367: 2341: 2326: 2134:run-away electrons 1932: 1930:for rhodium atoms. 1723: 1705:elastic scattering 1674:Compton scattering 1664:X-ray spectroscopy 1644: 1621:penetration depths 1601: 1577: 1557: 1511:Compton scattering 1503: 1499:Compton scattering 1401:X-ray spectroscopy 1378:radiation sickness 1366:ionizing radiation 1360:atoms and disrupt 1350: 1287:attenuation length 1238: 1166: 1054: 914: 910:radiation exposure 830:Hazards discovered 752: 696: 648: 640: 636:photographic plate 592: 426: 370:physics professor 325:and his assistant 245: 216:radiation sickness 208:ionizing radiation 190:is widely used in 91: 70: 11805: 11804: 11786:Radiation effects 11656:Radiation therapy 11592: 11591: 11534:Thermal radiation 11471:Neutron radiation 11436:Radioactive decay 11325: 11324: 11275: 11274: 11271: 11270: 11222:Magnetized-target 11119: 11118: 11082: 11081: 10913: 10912: 10909: 10908: 10853: 10852: 10737: 10736: 10669: 10668: 10274: 10273: 10229: 10228: 10098: 10097: 10085:Weapon-free zones 9912: 9911: 9904:Radiopharmacology 9486: 9485: 9482: 9481: 9474:X-ray lithography 9406:Backscatter X-ray 9401:X-ray diffraction 9228:X-ray radiography 9200:X-ray diffraction 9093:Siegbahn notation 9010: 9009: 8714:Visible (optical) 8442:"Ion X-Ray tubes" 8389:978-0-471-49858-2 8277:10.1021/ac1025122 8249:10.1021/ac102424h 8220:978-3-540-25317-4 8012:Muller, Richard. 7947:978-0-309-09156-5 7862:(12): 1293–1296. 7755:10.1118/1.2952359 7644:RadiologyInfo.org 7601:(9406): 345–351. 7494:(6924): 691–692. 7401:(22): 2277–2284. 7246:Ntp.niehs.nih.gov 7198:(13): R343–R362. 7046:978-1-85233-617-2 6988:10.1148/17.6.1158 6752:(10): 5194–5203. 6319:978-0-683-30118-2 6292:978-0-443-07027-3 6199:978-0-521-65214-8 6119:978-0-683-30118-2 6094:978-0-683-30118-2 6028:978-3-540-25312-9 6003:978-0-12-436603-9 5976:978-0-201-02116-5 5951:978-0-7503-0591-4 5887:978-0-521-65214-8 5796:(6515): 595–598. 5753:(6607): 335–338. 5731:10.1063/1.1516611 5716:(17): 3287–3289. 5679:10.1063/1.1292471 5423:New Castle Herald 5213:Knowable Magazine 5186:Schall K (1905). 4415:978-0-8135-2358-3 4309:Peters P (1995). 4037:978-1-61820-149-2 3774:Nature Precedings 3768:Filler A (2009). 3627:Neutron radiation 3601:Backscatter X-ray 3567: 3566: 3538:100 erg⋅g × 3461:100 erg⋅g × 2798:X-ray microscopic 2774:Rosalind Franklin 2770:fiber diffraction 2650: 2649: 2642: 2579:radiation therapy 2522:three-dimensional 2318: 2317: 2310: 2292: 2210:are widely used. 2200:X-ray diffraction 2160:photographic film 2058:triboluminescence 1994:emission spectrum 1906: 1905: 1647:{\textstyle Z=20} 1440:penetration depth 1397:radiation therapy 1245:X-rays with high 1062:John Hall-Edwards 1058:radiation therapy 869:William J. Morton 867:at Edison's lab, 861:Electrical Review 804:Buffalo, New York 773:calcium tungstate 720:Dartmouth College 660:John Hall-Edwards 309:, he presented a 271:(invented around 204:chemical elements 106:Röntgen radiation 83: 16:(Redirected from 11865: 11746:Related articles 11661:Radiation damage 11486:Nuclear reactors 11371: 11370: 11352: 11345: 11338: 11329: 11328: 11313: 11312: 11301: 11300: 11290: 11289: 11288: 11200: 11159:Levitated dipole 11129: 11121: 11120: 11069:Helium gas (GFR) 10932: 10931: 10927: 10864: 10863: 10748: 10747: 10698: 10697: 10691: 10690: 10686: 10685: 10467: 10466: 10463: 10462: 10301: 10293: 10292: 10285:Nuclear reactors 10280: 10279: 10179:High-level (HLW) 10109: 10108: 9956: 9955: 9936:Food irradiation 9926:Atomic gardening 9819: 9818: 9802:Nuclear meltdown 9628:Nuclear material 9618:Fissile material 9613:Fertile material 9528: 9527: 9513: 9506: 9499: 9490: 9489: 9312:X-ray holography 9218: 9217: 9190:Radiation damage 9037: 9030: 9023: 9014: 9013: 8601: 8599: 8592: 8585: 8524: 8517: 8510: 8501: 8500: 8496: 8474: 8471:Bibnum Education 8461: 8460:. 12 April 2010. 8449: 8437: 8435: 8433:10.1038/053274b0 8394: 8393: 8375: 8369: 8364: 8358: 8357: 8355: 8353: 8337: 8331: 8330: 8310: 8304: 8303: 8295: 8289: 8288: 8271:(4): 1224–1231. 8260: 8243:(4): 1214–1223. 8231: 8225: 8224: 8204: 8198: 8197: 8195: 8193: 8178: 8172: 8171: 8169: 8167: 8156: 8150: 8149: 8139: 8129: 8105: 8099: 8087: 8081: 8080: 8078: 8076: 8061: 8055: 8042: 8036: 8023: 8017: 8010: 8004: 8003: 8001: 7999: 7985: 7979: 7978: 7976: 7974: 7965:. Archived from 7959: 7953: 7951: 7931: 7925: 7924: 7896: 7890: 7889: 7879: 7847: 7836: 7835: 7833: 7831: 7808: 7802: 7801: 7773: 7767: 7766: 7741:(8): 3501–3510. 7730: 7724: 7711: 7705: 7704: 7684: 7678: 7677: 7675: 7673: 7662: 7656: 7655: 7653: 7651: 7636: 7627: 7626: 7590: 7584: 7583: 7573: 7541: 7535: 7534: 7532: 7526:. Archived from 7485: 7476: 7470: 7469: 7433: 7427: 7426: 7386: 7375: 7374: 7346: 7340: 7339: 7303: 7297: 7296: 7279:(965): 362–378. 7268: 7262: 7261: 7259: 7257: 7248:. Archived from 7238: 7232: 7231: 7187: 7181: 7180: 7147:(6): R183–R231. 7135: 7129: 7128: 7096: 7087: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7060: 7051: 7050: 7029: 7023: 7022: 7006: 7000: 6999: 6982:(6): 1158–1170. 6967: 6961: 6960: 6958: 6956: 6942: 6933: 6932: 6919: 6895: 6886: 6885: 6859: 6851: 6845: 6844: 6834: 6794: 6788: 6787: 6777: 6737: 6731: 6730: 6728: 6696: 6690: 6689: 6679: 6654:(5): 2604–2613. 6639: 6633: 6632: 6604: 6598: 6597: 6553: 6547: 6546: 6544: 6527:(4): 1620–1635. 6508: 6502: 6501: 6475: 6451: 6445: 6444: 6416: 6410: 6409: 6407: 6405: 6368: 6359: 6353: 6352: 6330: 6324: 6323: 6303: 6297: 6296: 6276: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6265: 6260:on 23 April 2009 6259: 6252: 6244: 6238: 6237: 6235: 6233: 6222: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6211: 6202:. Archived from 6181: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6170: 6161:. Archived from 6130: 6124: 6123: 6105: 6099: 6098: 6080: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6069: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6039: 6033: 6032: 6014: 6008: 6007: 5987: 5981: 5980: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5935: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5921: 5910: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5899: 5890:. Archived from 5871: 5865: 5864: 5828: 5822: 5821: 5810:10.1038/373595a0 5785: 5779: 5778: 5767:10.1038/384335a0 5742: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5701: 5692: 5691: 5681: 5649: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5623: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5586: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5560: 5545: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5519: 5513: 5512: 5510: 5508: 5493: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5467: 5461: 5460: 5458: 5456: 5450:The Conversation 5441: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5430: 5415: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5389: 5383: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5354: 5352: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5285: 5279: 5278: 5276: 5274: 5259: 5253: 5240: 5234: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5224: 5204: 5198: 5197: 5183: 5174: 5173: 5171: 5169: 5154: 5148: 5147: 5145: 5143: 5128: 5122: 5115: 5109: 5102: 5096: 5092: 5086: 5085: 5083: 5081: 5075:Sites.Google.com 5067: 5058: 5057: 5047: 5015: 5009: 5008: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4975: 4967: 4957: 4951: 4950: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4885: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4874: 4860: 4854: 4840: 4834: 4833: 4823: 4799: 4790: 4789: 4779: 4777:10.1038/055539a0 4748: 4742: 4741: 4739: 4737: 4726: 4720: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4694: 4679: 4673: 4672: 4655:(6): 1113–1128. 4644: 4627: 4626: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4571: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4530: 4498: 4492: 4491: 4483: 4477: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4364: 4358: 4357: 4337: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4326: 4306: 4300: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4266: 4226: 4220: 4219: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4121: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4109:10.1038/053274b0 4077: 4071: 4065: 4059: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4023: 4017: 4016: 4006: 3997:(4): 1189–1192. 3982: 3973: 3972: 3964: 3958: 3957: 3948: 3939: 3934: 3928: 3927: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3869: 3868: 3858: 3852: 3851: 3827: 3821: 3820: 3818: 3794: 3788: 3787: 3785: 3765: 3759: 3758: 3750: 3744: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3707: 3594: 3593: 3582: 3581: 3580: 3390: 3388: 3332: 3330: 3319: 3317: 3262: 3261: 3258: 3234: 3225: 3223: 3156: 3150: 3143: 3136: 3127: 3045: 3043: 2883: 2882: 2872:Airport security 2776:to discover the 2710:nuclear medicine 2645: 2638: 2634: 2631: 2625: 2601: 2600: 2593: 2504:transverse plane 2334:chest radiograph 2313: 2306: 2302: 2299: 2293: 2291: 2250: 2226: 2218: 1726: 1653: 1651: 1650: 1645: 1613:absorption edges 1610: 1608: 1607: 1602: 1586: 1584: 1583: 1578: 1566: 1564: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1555: 1546: 1541: 1540: 1463:X-ray microscopy 1424:airport security 1386:cancer treatment 1267:airport security 1104:X-ray microscope 1070:X-ray dermatitis 1005:Paul Peter Ewald 964:electric current 952:thermionic diode 686:Zootoca vivipara 681:Lacerta vivipara 446:Greek letter Chi 389:appeared in the 372:Fernando Sanford 345:William Jennings 200:material science 183:, respectively. 174: 172: 166: 164: 87:William Coolidge 84: 55: 44: 21: 11873: 11872: 11868: 11867: 11866: 11864: 11863: 11862: 11858:Wilhelm Röntgen 11848:Medical physics 11828:1895 in science 11823:1895 in Germany 11808: 11807: 11806: 11801: 11800: 11777: 11773:Havana syndrome 11758:Nuclear physics 11741: 11705: 11598: 11588: 11574:Unruh radiation 11510: 11491:Nuclear weapons 11476:Nuclear fission 11422: 11362: 11356: 11326: 11321: 11286: 11284: 11267: 11231: 11198: 11183: 11140: 11130: 11125: 11115: 11078: 10983: 10928: 10921: 10920: 10905: 10849: 10780: 10755: 10733: 10705: 10687: 10680: 10679: 10678: 10665: 10631: 10622: 10604: 10569: 10560: 10474: 10457: 10456: 10455: 10447: 10361:Natural fission 10315: 10314: 10302: 10297: 10287: 10270: 10246:Nuclear weapons 10225: 10184:Low-level (LLW) 10162: 10094: 10046: 9945: 9908: 9855: 9808: 9729: 9661: 9584: 9522: 9517: 9487: 9478: 9462:X-ray astronomy 9450: 9382: 9331: 9317:X-ray telescope 9209: 9180:Photoionization 9148: 9144:X-ray nanoprobe 9107: 9063:Absorption edge 9051:Characteristics 9046: 9041: 9011: 9006: 8972: 8899: 8874: 8860: 8828: 8756: 8708: 8650: 8627: 8604: 8597: 8590: 8583: 8581: 8533: 8528: 8487: 8452: 8440: 8406: 8403: 8398: 8397: 8390: 8376: 8372: 8365: 8361: 8351: 8349: 8338: 8334: 8327: 8311: 8307: 8296: 8292: 8232: 8228: 8221: 8205: 8201: 8191: 8189: 8179: 8175: 8165: 8163: 8158: 8157: 8153: 8106: 8102: 8097:Wayback Machine 8088: 8084: 8074: 8072: 8065:"Dental X-Rays" 8063: 8062: 8058: 8052:Wayback Machine 8043: 8039: 8033:Wayback Machine 8024: 8020: 8011: 8007: 7997: 7995: 7993:PhyAst.Pitt.edu 7987: 7986: 7982: 7972: 7970: 7961: 7960: 7956: 7948: 7932: 7928: 7897: 7893: 7848: 7839: 7829: 7827: 7810: 7809: 7805: 7774: 7770: 7735:Medical Physics 7731: 7727: 7722:Wayback Machine 7712: 7708: 7685: 7681: 7671: 7669: 7664: 7663: 7659: 7649: 7647: 7638: 7637: 7630: 7591: 7587: 7542: 7538: 7530: 7508:10.1038/421691a 7483: 7477: 7473: 7434: 7430: 7387: 7378: 7347: 7343: 7304: 7300: 7269: 7265: 7255: 7253: 7240: 7239: 7235: 7188: 7184: 7136: 7132: 7097: 7090: 7081: 7079: 7061: 7054: 7047: 7030: 7026: 7007: 7003: 6968: 6964: 6954: 6952: 6944: 6943: 6936: 6910:(11): 859–867. 6896: 6889: 6852: 6848: 6795: 6791: 6738: 6734: 6697: 6693: 6640: 6636: 6605: 6601: 6554: 6550: 6509: 6505: 6452: 6448: 6421:Physics Reports 6417: 6413: 6403: 6401: 6366: 6360: 6356: 6349: 6331: 6327: 6320: 6304: 6300: 6293: 6277: 6273: 6263: 6261: 6257: 6250: 6246: 6245: 6241: 6231: 6229: 6224: 6223: 6219: 6209: 6207: 6200: 6182: 6178: 6168: 6166: 6131: 6127: 6120: 6106: 6102: 6095: 6081: 6077: 6067: 6065: 6055: 6051: 6040: 6036: 6029: 6015: 6011: 6004: 5988: 5984: 5977: 5963: 5959: 5952: 5936: 5929: 5919: 5917: 5912: 5911: 5907: 5897: 5895: 5888: 5872: 5868: 5833:Nature Medicine 5829: 5825: 5786: 5782: 5743: 5739: 5702: 5695: 5650: 5646: 5636: 5634: 5625: 5624: 5620: 5610: 5608: 5599: 5598: 5594: 5584: 5582: 5573: 5572: 5568: 5558: 5556: 5547: 5546: 5542: 5532: 5530: 5523:"THE PEDOSCOPE" 5521: 5520: 5516: 5506: 5504: 5495: 5494: 5490: 5480: 5478: 5469: 5468: 5464: 5454: 5452: 5442: 5438: 5428: 5426: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5402: 5400: 5391: 5390: 5386: 5376: 5374: 5371:Tampa Bay Times 5365: 5364: 5360: 5350: 5348: 5339: 5338: 5334: 5324: 5322: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5298: 5296: 5293:Chicago Tribune 5287: 5286: 5282: 5272: 5270: 5261: 5260: 5256: 5251:Wayback Machine 5241: 5237: 5227: 5225: 5205: 5201: 5184: 5177: 5167: 5165: 5156: 5155: 5151: 5141: 5139: 5130: 5129: 5125: 5116: 5112: 5103: 5099: 5093: 5089: 5079: 5077: 5069: 5068: 5061: 5016: 5012: 5005: 4989: 4985: 4969: 4968: 4958: 4954: 4947: 4933: 4929: 4900:(67): 562–563. 4886: 4882: 4872: 4870: 4862: 4861: 4857: 4841: 4837: 4800: 4793: 4750: 4749: 4745: 4735: 4733: 4728: 4727: 4723: 4706: 4702: 4692: 4690: 4681: 4680: 4676: 4645: 4630: 4591: 4587: 4548: 4544: 4499: 4495: 4484: 4480: 4470: 4468: 4457: 4453: 4443: 4441: 4427: 4423: 4416: 4392: 4388: 4378: 4376: 4365: 4361: 4354: 4338: 4334: 4324: 4322: 4307: 4303: 4293: 4291: 4284: 4280: 4227: 4223: 4188: 4184: 4122: 4118: 4094:(1369): 274–6. 4078: 4074: 4061: 4055: 4049: 4045: 4038: 4024: 4020: 3983: 3976: 3965: 3961: 3950: 3949: 3942: 3935: 3931: 3888: 3884: 3876: 3872: 3859: 3855: 3828: 3824: 3795: 3791: 3766: 3762: 3751: 3747: 3730: 3726: 3709: 3708: 3704: 3699: 3694: 3675:X-ray nanoprobe 3588: 3578: 3576: 3572: 3556: 3547: 3518: 3509: 3470: 3441: 3415:Equivalent dose 3403:100 erg⋅g 3386: 3384: 3328: 3326: 3315: 3313: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3232: 3221: 3219: 3154: 3114:equivalent dose 3087:equivalent dose 3041: 3039: 3005: 2982:phosphorescence 2969: 2946:surface science 2878: 2877: 2788:X-ray astronomy 2747: 2646: 2635: 2629: 2626: 2615: 2602: 2598: 2591: 2589:Adverse effects 2575: 2536: 2530: 2492: 2486: 2409:abdominal x-ray 2405:pulmonary edema 2389:skeletal system 2359: 2353: 2345:medical imaging 2314: 2303: 2297: 2294: 2251: 2249: 2239: 2227: 2216: 2148: 2142: 2113: 2106: 2095: 2088: 2082: 2066: 1770: 1764: 1758: 1751: 1735: 1730: 1721: 1713: 1701: 1676: 1633: 1630: 1629: 1619:and thus short 1596: 1593: 1592: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1536: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1526: 1523: 1507:photoabsorption 1495:photoabsorption 1491:absorption edge 1483: 1436:small animal CT 1362:molecular bonds 1342: 1295: 1247:photon energies 1243: 1222: 1212:X-ray sources, 962:that caused an 927:connected to a 894: 832: 731:broken bone on 616: 580:Hand mit Ringen 434:Wilhelm Röntgen 430:8 November 1895 423:Wilhelm Röntgen 416: 382:Physical Review 327:Michael Faraday 257:discharge tubes 229: 224: 170: 168: 162: 160: 72: 56: 45: 30: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11871: 11861: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11845: 11840: 11835: 11830: 11825: 11820: 11803: 11802: 11782: 11779: 11778: 11776: 11775: 11770: 11765: 11760: 11755: 11749: 11747: 11743: 11742: 11740: 11739: 11734: 11729: 11724: 11719: 11713: 11711: 11707: 11706: 11704: 11703: 11698: 11693: 11688: 11683: 11678: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11658: 11653: 11648: 11643: 11638: 11633: 11628: 11623: 11621:Health physics 11618: 11617: 11616: 11611: 11602: 11600: 11594: 11593: 11590: 11589: 11587: 11586: 11581: 11579:Dark radiation 11576: 11571: 11569:Bremsstrahlung 11566: 11561: 11556: 11551: 11546: 11541: 11536: 11531: 11526: 11521: 11515: 11512: 11511: 11509: 11508: 11503: 11498: 11493: 11488: 11483: 11481:Nuclear fusion 11478: 11473: 11468: 11463: 11458: 11453: 11451:Alpha particle 11448: 11443: 11438: 11432: 11430: 11424: 11423: 11421: 11420: 11415: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11390: 11385: 11379: 11377: 11368: 11364: 11363: 11355: 11354: 11347: 11340: 11332: 11323: 11322: 11320: 11319: 11307: 11295: 11280: 11277: 11276: 11273: 11272: 11269: 11268: 11266: 11265: 11260: 11255: 11253:Muon-catalyzed 11250: 11245: 11239: 11237: 11233: 11232: 11230: 11229: 11224: 11219: 11214: 11213: 11212: 11202: 11193: 11191: 11185: 11184: 11182: 11181: 11176: 11171: 11166: 11161: 11156: 11150: 11148: 11142: 11141: 11135: 11132: 11131: 11117: 11116: 11114: 11113: 11108: 11107: 11106: 11101: 11090: 11088: 11084: 11083: 11080: 11079: 11077: 11076: 11071: 11066: 11061: 11060: 11059: 11054: 11049: 11044: 11039: 11034: 11029: 11024: 11019: 11014: 11009: 11004: 10993: 10991: 10985: 10984: 10982: 10981: 10976: 10971: 10966: 10961: 10956: 10951: 10946: 10944:Integral (IFR) 10941: 10935: 10929: 10918: 10915: 10914: 10911: 10910: 10907: 10906: 10904: 10903: 10898: 10893: 10888: 10883: 10878: 10872: 10870: 10861: 10855: 10854: 10851: 10850: 10848: 10847: 10846: 10845: 10840: 10839: 10838: 10833: 10828: 10823: 10808: 10803: 10802: 10801: 10790: 10788: 10782: 10781: 10779: 10778: 10773: 10768: 10759: 10757: 10753: 10745: 10739: 10738: 10735: 10734: 10732: 10731: 10726: 10721: 10716: 10710: 10708: 10703: 10695: 10688: 10674: 10671: 10670: 10667: 10666: 10664: 10663: 10662: 10661: 10656: 10651: 10646: 10635: 10633: 10629: 10624: 10623: 10621: 10620: 10614: 10612: 10606: 10605: 10603: 10602: 10597: 10592: 10591: 10590: 10585: 10574: 10572: 10567: 10562: 10561: 10559: 10558: 10557: 10556: 10551: 10546: 10541: 10536: 10535: 10534: 10529: 10524: 10514: 10509: 10508: 10507: 10502: 10499: 10496: 10493: 10479: 10477: 10472: 10464: 10449: 10448: 10446: 10445: 10440: 10439: 10438: 10435: 10430: 10425: 10424: 10423: 10418: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10388: 10383: 10378: 10373: 10363: 10358: 10357: 10356: 10351: 10346: 10341: 10331: 10325: 10323: 10317: 10316: 10308: 10307: 10304: 10303: 10289: 10288: 10276: 10275: 10272: 10271: 10269: 10268: 10263: 10261:Uranium mining 10258: 10253: 10248: 10243: 10237: 10235: 10231: 10230: 10227: 10226: 10224: 10223: 10218: 10217: 10216: 10211: 10201: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10181: 10176: 10170: 10168: 10164: 10163: 10161: 10160: 10155: 10154: 10153: 10143: 10138: 10137: 10136: 10134:Minor actinide 10131: 10126: 10115: 10113: 10106: 10100: 10099: 10096: 10095: 10093: 10092: 10087: 10082: 10077: 10076: 10075: 10070: 10060: 10054: 10052: 10048: 10047: 10045: 10044: 10043: 10042: 10032: 10027: 10026: 10025: 10020: 10010: 10005: 10000: 9999: 9998: 9988: 9983: 9978: 9973: 9968: 9962: 9960: 9953: 9947: 9946: 9944: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9922: 9920: 9914: 9913: 9910: 9909: 9907: 9906: 9901: 9896: 9891: 9886: 9881: 9876: 9871: 9865: 9863: 9857: 9856: 9854: 9853: 9848: 9843: 9838: 9833: 9831:Autoradiograph 9827: 9825: 9816: 9810: 9809: 9807: 9806: 9805: 9804: 9794: 9793: 9792: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9770: 9765: 9760: 9755: 9750: 9745: 9739: 9737: 9731: 9730: 9728: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9671: 9669: 9663: 9662: 9660: 9659: 9658: 9657: 9652: 9647: 9646: 9645: 9640: 9625: 9620: 9615: 9610: 9605: 9600: 9594: 9592: 9586: 9585: 9583: 9582: 9581: 9580: 9575: 9565: 9560: 9555: 9553:Atomic nucleus 9550: 9545: 9540: 9534: 9532: 9524: 9523: 9516: 9515: 9508: 9501: 9493: 9484: 9483: 9480: 9479: 9477: 9476: 9471: 9470: 9469: 9458: 9456: 9452: 9451: 9449: 9448: 9443: 9438: 9433: 9428: 9423: 9418: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9392: 9390: 9384: 9383: 9381: 9380: 9375: 9370: 9365: 9360: 9355: 9350: 9345: 9339: 9337: 9333: 9332: 9330: 9329: 9324: 9319: 9314: 9309: 9304: 9303: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9261: 9260: 9255: 9245: 9240: 9235: 9230: 9224: 9222: 9215: 9211: 9210: 9208: 9207: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9187: 9182: 9177: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9156: 9154: 9150: 9149: 9147: 9146: 9141: 9136: 9131: 9126: 9121: 9115: 9113: 9109: 9108: 9106: 9105: 9100: 9095: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9075: 9070: 9065: 9060: 9054: 9052: 9048: 9047: 9040: 9039: 9032: 9025: 9017: 9008: 9007: 9005: 9004: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8983: 8981: 8974: 8973: 8971: 8970: 8965: 8960: 8955: 8950: 8945: 8940: 8935: 8930: 8925: 8920: 8915: 8909: 8907: 8901: 8900: 8898: 8897: 8892: 8887: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8838: 8836: 8830: 8829: 8827: 8826: 8821: 8816: 8794: 8789: 8766: 8764: 8758: 8757: 8755: 8754: 8749: 8744: 8739: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8718: 8716: 8710: 8709: 8707: 8706: 8701: 8696: 8691: 8686: 8681: 8676: 8671: 8666: 8660: 8658: 8652: 8651: 8649: 8648: 8643: 8637: 8635: 8629: 8628: 8626: 8625: 8620: 8614: 8612: 8606: 8605: 8603: 8602: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8538: 8535: 8534: 8527: 8526: 8519: 8512: 8504: 8498: 8497: 8485: 8479: 8462: 8450: 8438: 8402: 8401:External links 8399: 8396: 8395: 8388: 8370: 8359: 8332: 8326:978-1401815554 8325: 8305: 8290: 8226: 8219: 8199: 8173: 8151: 8100: 8082: 8056: 8037: 8018: 8005: 7980: 7969:on 16 May 2012 7954: 7946: 7926: 7907:(2): 655–657. 7891: 7837: 7803: 7768: 7725: 7706: 7695:(4): 445–448. 7679: 7657: 7628: 7585: 7536: 7471: 7438:Health Physics 7428: 7376: 7357:(3): 177–182. 7341: 7298: 7263: 7233: 7182: 7130: 7088: 7052: 7045: 7024: 7001: 6962: 6934: 6887: 6868:(2): 214–219. 6846: 6789: 6732: 6691: 6634: 6599: 6548: 6503: 6446: 6411: 6354: 6347: 6325: 6318: 6298: 6291: 6271: 6239: 6217: 6198: 6176: 6125: 6118: 6100: 6093: 6075: 6049: 6034: 6027: 6009: 6002: 5982: 5975: 5957: 5950: 5927: 5905: 5886: 5866: 5839:(4): 473–475. 5823: 5780: 5737: 5693: 5644: 5618: 5592: 5566: 5540: 5514: 5488: 5462: 5436: 5410: 5384: 5358: 5332: 5306: 5280: 5254: 5235: 5199: 5175: 5164:. 15 June 2018 5149: 5123: 5110: 5097: 5087: 5059: 5030:(2): 123–125. 5010: 5004:978-0930405229 5003: 4983: 4966:. p. 174. 4952: 4946:978-1589809468 4945: 4927: 4880: 4855: 4835: 4814:(1): 241–243. 4791: 4743: 4721: 4700: 4674: 4628: 4601:(2): 141–173. 4585: 4562:(2): 263–276. 4542: 4513:(4): 345–358. 4493: 4478: 4451: 4421: 4414: 4386: 4359: 4353:978-0930405229 4352: 4332: 4321:on 11 May 2008 4301: 4278: 4241:(7): 461–469. 4221: 4182: 4116: 4072: 4043: 4036: 4018: 3974: 3959: 3940: 3929: 3902:(3): 635–639. 3882: 3880:, Vol. XLVIII. 3870: 3853: 3822: 3789: 3760: 3745: 3724: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3586: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3565: 3564: 3563:0.010 Sv 3561: 3558: 3552: 3543: 3536: 3533: 3527: 3526: 3523: 3520: 3514: 3505: 3498: 3495: 3490: 3483:Effective dose 3479: 3478: 3477:0.010 Sv 3475: 3472: 3466: 3459: 3456: 3450: 3449: 3446: 3443: 3437: 3430: 3427: 3422: 3411: 3410: 3409:0.010 Gy 3407: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3392: 3391: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3366: 3365: 3362: 3359: 3353: 3350: 3345: 3334: 3333: 3324: 3321: 3307: 3304: 3298: 3297: 3294: 3291: 3288: 3285: 3276: 3265: 3264: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3237: 3236: 3229: 3226: 3217: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3201: 3198: 3195: 3190: 3179: 3178: 3172: 3169: 3166: 3163: 3160: 3153: 3152: 3145: 3138: 3130: 3126: 3125: 3118:effective dose 3116:, and also of 3106: 3083: 3082: 3075: 3048: 3047: 3028: 3004: 3001: 2968: 2965: 2964: 2963: 2949: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2916: 2908:X-ray art and 2890: 2889: 2880:Border control 2875: 2869: 2863: 2851: 2850: 2843: 2821: 2811: 2805: 2795: 2785: 2778:double helical 2772:, was used by 2746: 2743: 2648: 2647: 2630:September 2024 2612:of the subject 2610:worldwide view 2605: 2603: 2596: 2590: 2587: 2574: 2571: 2532:Main article: 2529: 2526: 2488:Main article: 2485: 2482: 2474:contrast agent 2355:Main article: 2352: 2349: 2316: 2315: 2230: 2228: 2221: 2215: 2212: 2188:radiation dose 2146:X-ray detector 2144:Main article: 2141: 2138: 2121:Bremsstrahlung 2112: 2109: 2104: 2096:refers to the 2093: 2086: 2080: 2065: 2062: 2027:electric power 2019:Bremsstrahlung 2015: 2014: 2011:Bremsstrahlung 2002:Bremsstrahlung 1998: 1990:electron shell 1946:released by a 1923:bremsstrahlung 1904: 1903: 1900: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1882: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1860: 1859: 1856: 1853: 1850: 1847: 1844: 1838: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1825: 1822: 1816: 1815: 1812: 1809: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1794: 1793: 1790: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1772: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1744: 1743: 1740: 1739:Photon energy 1737: 1732: 1720: 1717: 1712: 1709: 1700: 1697: 1675: 1672: 1660:Auger electron 1643: 1640: 1637: 1604:{\textstyle E} 1600: 1580:{\textstyle Z} 1576: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1539: 1535: 1522: 1519: 1482: 1479: 1454:in the image. 1374:radiation dose 1372:. A very high 1341: 1338: 1307:atomic nucleus 1294: 1291: 1242: 1239: 1221: 1218: 1113:, launched on 979:X-ray spectrum 975:Charles Barkla 958:. This used a 925:Ruhmkorff coil 893: 890: 831: 828: 757:platinocyanide 692:Lacerta agilis 671:Rana esculenta 615: 612: 584:Ludwig Zehnder 570:platinocyanide 415: 412: 408:radiant energy 377:6 January 1893 361:Ludwig Zehnder 303:William Morgan 241:discharge tube 228: 225: 223: 220: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11870: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11844: 11841: 11839: 11836: 11834: 11831: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11821: 11819: 11816: 11815: 11813: 11799: 11795: 11791: 11790:Radioactivity 11787: 11780: 11774: 11771: 11769: 11766: 11764: 11761: 11759: 11756: 11754: 11751: 11750: 11748: 11744: 11738: 11735: 11733: 11730: 11728: 11725: 11723: 11720: 11718: 11715: 11714: 11712: 11708: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11692: 11689: 11687: 11684: 11682: 11679: 11677: 11674: 11672: 11669: 11667: 11664: 11662: 11659: 11657: 11654: 11652: 11649: 11647: 11644: 11642: 11639: 11637: 11634: 11632: 11629: 11627: 11624: 11622: 11619: 11615: 11612: 11610: 11607: 11606: 11604: 11603: 11601: 11595: 11585: 11582: 11580: 11577: 11575: 11572: 11570: 11567: 11565: 11562: 11560: 11557: 11555: 11552: 11550: 11547: 11545: 11542: 11540: 11537: 11535: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11525: 11522: 11520: 11517: 11516: 11513: 11507: 11504: 11502: 11499: 11497: 11494: 11492: 11489: 11487: 11484: 11482: 11479: 11477: 11474: 11472: 11469: 11467: 11464: 11462: 11459: 11457: 11456:Beta particle 11454: 11452: 11449: 11447: 11444: 11442: 11441:Cluster decay 11439: 11437: 11434: 11433: 11431: 11429: 11425: 11419: 11416: 11414: 11411: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11384: 11381: 11380: 11378: 11376: 11372: 11369: 11367:Main articles 11365: 11360: 11353: 11348: 11346: 11341: 11339: 11334: 11333: 11330: 11318: 11317: 11308: 11306: 11305: 11296: 11294: 11293: 11282: 11281: 11278: 11264: 11261: 11259: 11256: 11254: 11251: 11249: 11246: 11244: 11241: 11240: 11238: 11234: 11228: 11225: 11223: 11220: 11218: 11215: 11211: 11210:electrostatic 11208: 11207: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11195: 11194: 11192: 11190: 11186: 11180: 11177: 11175: 11172: 11170: 11167: 11165: 11162: 11160: 11157: 11155: 11152: 11151: 11149: 11147: 11143: 11139: 11133: 11128: 11122: 11112: 11109: 11105: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11096: 11095: 11092: 11091: 11089: 11085: 11075: 11072: 11070: 11067: 11065: 11062: 11058: 11055: 11053: 11050: 11048: 11045: 11043: 11040: 11038: 11035: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11025: 11023: 11020: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11003: 11000: 10999: 10998: 10995: 10994: 10992: 10990: 10989:Generation IV 10986: 10980: 10977: 10975: 10972: 10970: 10967: 10965: 10962: 10960: 10957: 10955: 10952: 10950: 10947: 10945: 10942: 10940: 10939:Breeder (FBR) 10937: 10936: 10933: 10930: 10925: 10916: 10902: 10899: 10897: 10894: 10892: 10889: 10887: 10884: 10882: 10879: 10877: 10874: 10873: 10871: 10869: 10865: 10862: 10860: 10856: 10844: 10841: 10837: 10834: 10832: 10829: 10827: 10824: 10822: 10819: 10818: 10817: 10814: 10813: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10800: 10797: 10796: 10795: 10792: 10791: 10789: 10787: 10783: 10777: 10774: 10772: 10769: 10767: 10765: 10761: 10760: 10758: 10756: 10749: 10746: 10744: 10740: 10730: 10727: 10725: 10722: 10720: 10717: 10715: 10712: 10711: 10709: 10707: 10699: 10696: 10692: 10689: 10684: 10677: 10672: 10660: 10657: 10655: 10652: 10650: 10647: 10645: 10642: 10641: 10640: 10637: 10636: 10634: 10632: 10625: 10619: 10616: 10615: 10613: 10611: 10607: 10601: 10598: 10596: 10593: 10589: 10586: 10584: 10581: 10580: 10579: 10576: 10575: 10573: 10571: 10563: 10555: 10552: 10550: 10547: 10545: 10542: 10540: 10537: 10533: 10530: 10528: 10525: 10523: 10520: 10519: 10518: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10506: 10503: 10500: 10497: 10494: 10491: 10490: 10489: 10486: 10485: 10484: 10481: 10480: 10478: 10476: 10468: 10465: 10461: 10454: 10450: 10444: 10441: 10436: 10434: 10431: 10429: 10426: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10413: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10368: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10355: 10352: 10350: 10347: 10345: 10342: 10340: 10337: 10336: 10335: 10332: 10330: 10327: 10326: 10324: 10322: 10318: 10313: 10312: 10305: 10300: 10294: 10290: 10286: 10281: 10277: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10254: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10244: 10242: 10241:Nuclear power 10239: 10238: 10236: 10232: 10222: 10221:Transmutation 10219: 10215: 10212: 10210: 10207: 10206: 10205: 10202: 10200: 10197: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10185: 10182: 10180: 10177: 10175: 10172: 10171: 10169: 10165: 10159: 10156: 10152: 10149: 10148: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10125: 10122: 10121: 10120: 10117: 10116: 10114: 10110: 10107: 10105: 10101: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10065: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10055: 10053: 10049: 10041: 10038: 10037: 10036: 10033: 10031: 10028: 10024: 10021: 10019: 10018:high-altitude 10016: 10015: 10014: 10011: 10009: 10008:Proliferation 10006: 10004: 10001: 9997: 9994: 9993: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9974: 9972: 9969: 9967: 9964: 9963: 9961: 9957: 9954: 9952: 9948: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9923: 9921: 9919: 9915: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9895: 9894:Brachytherapy 9892: 9890: 9887: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9866: 9864: 9862: 9858: 9852: 9849: 9847: 9844: 9842: 9839: 9837: 9834: 9832: 9829: 9828: 9826: 9824: 9820: 9817: 9815: 9811: 9803: 9800: 9799: 9798: 9795: 9791: 9788: 9787: 9786: 9783: 9779: 9776: 9775: 9774: 9771: 9769: 9766: 9764: 9761: 9759: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9744: 9741: 9740: 9738: 9736: 9732: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9690:Cross section 9688: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9672: 9670: 9668: 9664: 9656: 9653: 9651: 9648: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9635: 9634: 9631: 9630: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9599: 9596: 9595: 9593: 9591: 9587: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9571: 9570: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9535: 9533: 9529: 9525: 9521: 9514: 9509: 9507: 9502: 9500: 9495: 9494: 9491: 9475: 9472: 9468: 9465: 9464: 9463: 9460: 9459: 9457: 9453: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9437: 9434: 9432: 9429: 9427: 9424: 9422: 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9393: 9391: 9389: 9385: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9366: 9364: 9361: 9359: 9356: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9340: 9338: 9334: 9328: 9325: 9323: 9320: 9318: 9315: 9313: 9310: 9308: 9305: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9287: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9250: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9238:Tomosynthesis 9236: 9234: 9231: 9229: 9226: 9225: 9223: 9219: 9216: 9212: 9206: 9203: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9186: 9183: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9157: 9155: 9151: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9116: 9114: 9110: 9104: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9076: 9074: 9071: 9069: 9068:Moseley's law 9066: 9064: 9061: 9059: 9056: 9055: 9053: 9049: 9045: 9044:X-ray science 9038: 9033: 9031: 9026: 9024: 9019: 9018: 9015: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8984: 8982: 8979: 8975: 8969: 8966: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8949: 8946: 8944: 8941: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8926: 8924: 8921: 8919: 8916: 8914: 8911: 8910: 8908: 8906: 8902: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8839: 8837: 8835: 8831: 8825: 8822: 8820: 8817: 8814: 8810: 8806: 8802: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8787: 8783: 8779: 8775: 8771: 8768: 8767: 8765: 8763: 8759: 8753: 8750: 8748: 8745: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8719: 8717: 8715: 8711: 8705: 8702: 8700: 8697: 8695: 8692: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8672: 8670: 8667: 8665: 8662: 8661: 8659: 8657: 8653: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8638: 8636: 8634: 8630: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8615: 8613: 8611: 8607: 8600: 8596: 8589: 8577: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8539: 8536: 8532: 8525: 8520: 8518: 8513: 8511: 8506: 8505: 8502: 8494: 8490: 8486: 8484: 8480: 8477: 8472: 8468: 8463: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8447: 8443: 8439: 8434: 8429: 8425: 8421: 8417: 8413: 8409: 8405: 8404: 8391: 8385: 8381: 8374: 8368: 8363: 8347: 8343: 8336: 8328: 8322: 8318: 8317: 8309: 8301: 8294: 8286: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8258: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8242: 8238: 8230: 8222: 8216: 8212: 8211: 8203: 8188: 8184: 8177: 8161: 8155: 8147: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8104: 8098: 8094: 8091: 8086: 8070: 8066: 8060: 8053: 8049: 8046: 8041: 8034: 8030: 8027: 8022: 8015: 8009: 7994: 7990: 7984: 7968: 7964: 7958: 7949: 7943: 7939: 7938: 7930: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7895: 7887: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7846: 7844: 7842: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7813: 7807: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7784:(6940): 447. 7783: 7779: 7772: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7736: 7729: 7723: 7719: 7716: 7710: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7690: 7683: 7667: 7661: 7645: 7641: 7635: 7633: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7596: 7589: 7581: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7563: 7559: 7555: 7551: 7550:Dose-Response 7547: 7540: 7529: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7482: 7475: 7467: 7463: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7439: 7432: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7408: 7404: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7385: 7383: 7381: 7372: 7368: 7364: 7360: 7356: 7352: 7345: 7337: 7333: 7329: 7325: 7321: 7317: 7313: 7309: 7302: 7294: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7274: 7267: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7237: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7193: 7186: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7154: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7134: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7102: 7095: 7093: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7059: 7057: 7048: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7028: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7005: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6966: 6951: 6947: 6941: 6939: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6894: 6892: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6858: 6850: 6842: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6793: 6785: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6736: 6727: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6711:(1): 015017. 6710: 6706: 6702: 6695: 6687: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6638: 6630: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6603: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6572:(4): 044002. 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6552: 6543: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6507: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6457: 6450: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6415: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6365: 6358: 6350: 6348:90-5199-248-3 6344: 6340: 6336: 6329: 6321: 6315: 6311: 6310: 6302: 6294: 6288: 6284: 6283: 6275: 6256: 6249: 6243: 6227: 6221: 6205: 6201: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6180: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6129: 6121: 6115: 6111: 6104: 6096: 6090: 6086: 6079: 6064: 6060: 6053: 6045: 6038: 6030: 6024: 6020: 6013: 6005: 5999: 5995: 5994: 5986: 5978: 5972: 5968: 5961: 5953: 5947: 5943: 5942: 5934: 5932: 5915: 5909: 5893: 5889: 5883: 5879: 5878: 5870: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5827: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5784: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5741: 5732: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5700: 5698: 5689: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5658:Physics Today 5655: 5648: 5632: 5628: 5622: 5606: 5602: 5596: 5580: 5576: 5570: 5554: 5550: 5544: 5528: 5524: 5518: 5502: 5498: 5492: 5476: 5472: 5466: 5451: 5447: 5440: 5424: 5420: 5414: 5398: 5394: 5388: 5372: 5368: 5362: 5346: 5342: 5336: 5320: 5316: 5310: 5294: 5290: 5284: 5268: 5264: 5258: 5252: 5248: 5245: 5239: 5223: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5203: 5195: 5191: 5190: 5182: 5180: 5163: 5159: 5153: 5137: 5133: 5127: 5120: 5114: 5107: 5101: 5091: 5076: 5072: 5066: 5064: 5055: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5014: 5006: 5000: 4996: 4995: 4987: 4979: 4973: 4965: 4964: 4956: 4948: 4942: 4938: 4931: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4884: 4869: 4865: 4859: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4839: 4831: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4798: 4796: 4787: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4747: 4731: 4725: 4718: 4717:9781600212802 4714: 4710: 4704: 4688: 4684: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4649:Radiographics 4643: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4589: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4538: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4507:Media History 4504: 4497: 4489: 4482: 4466: 4462: 4455: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4417: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4398: 4390: 4375:. Guardian US 4374: 4370: 4363: 4355: 4349: 4345: 4344: 4336: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4305: 4289: 4282: 4274: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4120: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4088: 4083: 4076: 4069: 4064: 4058: 4053: 4047: 4039: 4033: 4029: 4022: 4014: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3991:Radiographics 3988: 3981: 3979: 3970: 3963: 3955: 3954: 3947: 3945: 3938: 3933: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3886: 3879: 3874: 3866: 3865: 3857: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3826: 3817: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3793: 3784: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3756: 3749: 3742: 3741:0-674-83339-2 3738: 3734: 3728: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3706: 3702: 3691: 3690:X-ray welding 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3660: 3657: 3654: 3651: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3585: 3575: 3574: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3542: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3528: 3521: 3519: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3451: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3436: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3393: 3383: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3368: 3367: 3360: 3357: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3338:Absorbed dose 3335: 3325: 3322: 3311: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3253: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3242: 3239: 3238: 3230: 3227: 3218: 3215: 3213: 3210: 3209: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3173: 3170: 3167: 3164: 3161: 3158: 3157: 3151: 3146: 3144: 3139: 3137: 3132: 3131: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3095: 3094: 3092: 3091:absorbed dose 3088: 3080: 3076: 3073: 3069: 3068:absorbed dose 3065: 3061: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3056:absorbed dose 3053: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3013: 3012: 3010: 3000: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2950: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2921: 2917: 2915: 2914:Stane Jagodič 2911: 2907: 2906: 2903: 2902:Peter Dazeley 2899: 2894: 2887: 2881: 2876: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2866:Industrial CT 2864: 2861: 2860: 2855: 2848: 2844: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2815: 2812: 2809: 2806: 2803: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2780:structure of 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2760: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2733: 2726: 2721: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2701: 2697: 2694: 2689: 2686: 2681: 2679: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2658: 2654: 2644: 2641: 2633: 2623: 2619: 2613: 2611: 2604: 2595: 2594: 2586: 2584: 2580: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2544: 2540: 2535: 2525: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2496: 2491: 2481: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2450: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2429:kidney stones 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2381: 2379: 2378:atomic number 2375: 2371: 2363: 2358: 2348: 2346: 2339: 2338:hiatal hernia 2335: 2330: 2322: 2312: 2309: 2301: 2298:November 2017 2290: 2287: 2283: 2280: 2276: 2273: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2259: – 2258: 2254: 2253:Find sources: 2247: 2243: 2237: 2236: 2231:This section 2229: 2225: 2220: 2219: 2211: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2196:spectrometers 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2147: 2137: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2108: 2103: 2099: 2098:atomic number 2092: 2085: 2079: 2075: 2074:cross section 2071: 2061: 2059: 2055: 2049: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2028: 2023: 2020: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1985: 1981: 1980: 1979: 1976: 1971: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1929: 1925: 1924: 1919: 1915: 1910: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1879: 1876: 1873: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1861: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1839: 1835: 1832: 1829: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1817: 1813: 1810: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1795: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1773: 1766: 1760: 1754: 1752: 1746: 1745: 1727: 1716: 1708: 1706: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1681: 1671: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1655: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1627: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1598: 1590: 1589:atomic number 1574: 1552: 1548: 1543: 1537: 1533: 1518: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1478: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1346: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1275:metonymically 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1259:tender X-rays 1256: 1252: 1248: 1235: 1231: 1226: 1220:Energy ranges 1217: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1202: 1197: 1193: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1162: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1143:neutron stars 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1123:visible light 1120: 1116: 1112: 1107: 1105: 1100: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1081: 1079: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1050: 1046: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1033: 1032:Moseley's law 1029: 1028:Henry Moseley 1025: 1020: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 989: 987: 984: 981:. He won the 980: 976: 971: 969: 966:to flow in a 965: 961: 957: 953: 950:invented the 949: 945: 940: 938: 932: 930: 926: 921: 919: 911: 907: 903: 898: 889: 887: 881: 879: 874: 870: 866: 865:Elihu Thomson 862: 857: 854: 850: 845: 841: 837: 827: 825: 821: 817: 816:X-ray machine 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 792: 790: 789:Mihajlo Pupin 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 769:Thomas Edison 766: 762: 758: 749: 745: 740: 736: 734: 729: 725: 721: 716: 714: 710: 706: 701: 694: 693: 688: 687: 682: 678: 677: 672: 667: 663: 661: 656: 654: 644: 637: 633: 629: 625: 620: 611: 608: 607: 601: 596: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 571: 567: 562: 557: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 438:Crookes tubes 435: 431: 424: 420: 411: 409: 405: 401: 396: 394: 393: 388: 384: 383: 378: 373: 369: 364: 362: 357: 355: 354:Crookes tubes 350: 346: 341: 339: 334: 330: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 299: 297: 293: 289: 285: 282: 278: 274: 270: 269:Crookes tubes 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 242: 238: 235:Example of a 233: 219: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 184: 182: 178: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 121: 119: 116:and named it 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 88: 67: 62: 58: 53: 49: 42: 38: 34: 19: 11794:Radiobiology 11676:Radiobiology 11636:Laser safety 11505: 11314: 11302: 11283: 11263:Pyroelectric 11217:Laser-driven 10997:Sodium (SFR) 10924:fast-neutron 10763: 10309: 10199:Reprocessing 10080:WMD treaties 9899:Radiosurgery 9869:Fast-neutron 9841:Scintigraphy 9336:Spectroscopy 9280:Ptychography 9214:Applications 9175:Auger effect 9078:Water window 9057: 9043: 8632: 8582: 8546: 8492: 8473:(in French). 8470: 8457: 8445: 8415: 8411: 8379: 8373: 8362: 8350:. Retrieved 8345: 8335: 8315: 8308: 8299: 8293: 8268: 8264: 8240: 8236: 8229: 8209: 8202: 8190:. Retrieved 8186: 8176: 8164:. Retrieved 8154: 8117: 8113: 8103: 8085: 8073:. Retrieved 8069:the original 8059: 8045:X-Ray Safety 8040: 8021: 8013: 8008: 7996:. Retrieved 7992: 7983: 7971:. Retrieved 7967:the original 7957: 7936: 7929: 7904: 7900: 7894: 7859: 7855: 7828:. Retrieved 7824:the original 7815: 7806: 7781: 7777: 7771: 7738: 7734: 7728: 7709: 7692: 7688: 7682: 7670:. Retrieved 7660: 7648:. Retrieved 7643: 7598: 7594: 7588: 7553: 7549: 7539: 7528:the original 7491: 7487: 7474: 7444:(1): 15–22. 7441: 7437: 7431: 7398: 7394: 7354: 7350: 7344: 7314:(1): 63–68. 7311: 7307: 7301: 7276: 7272: 7266: 7254:. Retrieved 7250:the original 7245: 7236: 7195: 7191: 7185: 7144: 7140: 7133: 7111:(2): 44–54. 7108: 7104: 7080:, retrieved 7068: 7036: 7027: 7018: 7014: 7004: 6979: 6975: 6965: 6953:. Retrieved 6950:ScienceDaily 6949: 6929: 6907: 6903: 6865: 6861: 6849: 6806: 6802: 6792: 6749: 6745: 6735: 6708: 6704: 6694: 6651: 6647: 6637: 6612: 6608: 6602: 6569: 6565: 6551: 6524: 6520: 6506: 6463: 6449: 6427:(2): 47–97. 6424: 6420: 6414: 6402:. Retrieved 6374: 6370: 6357: 6338: 6328: 6308: 6301: 6281: 6274: 6262:. Retrieved 6255:the original 6242: 6230:. Retrieved 6220: 6208:. Retrieved 6204:the original 6189: 6179: 6167:. Retrieved 6163:the original 6142: 6138: 6128: 6109: 6103: 6084: 6078: 6066:. Retrieved 6062: 6052: 6043: 6037: 6018: 6012: 5992: 5985: 5966: 5960: 5940: 5918:. Retrieved 5908: 5896:. Retrieved 5892:the original 5876: 5869: 5836: 5832: 5826: 5793: 5789: 5783: 5750: 5746: 5740: 5713: 5709: 5664:(7): 23–26. 5661: 5657: 5647: 5635:. Retrieved 5630: 5621: 5609:. Retrieved 5604: 5595: 5583:. Retrieved 5578: 5569: 5557:. Retrieved 5552: 5543: 5531:. Retrieved 5526: 5517: 5505:. Retrieved 5500: 5491: 5479:. Retrieved 5474: 5465: 5453:. Retrieved 5449: 5439: 5427:. 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Retrieved 4281: 4238: 4234: 4224: 4202:(1): 19–24. 4199: 4195: 4185: 4177: 4133: 4129: 4119: 4091: 4085: 4075: 4051: 4046: 4027: 4021: 3994: 3990: 3968: 3962: 3952: 3932: 3899: 3895: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3863: 3856: 3839: 3835: 3825: 3806: 3802: 3792: 3773: 3763: 3754: 3748: 3732: 3727: 3714: 3705: 3685:X-ray vision 3670:X-ray marker 3637:Radiographer 3553: 3549: 3544: 3540: 3515: 3511: 3506: 3502: 3486: 3467: 3463: 3438: 3434: 3418: 3341: 3331:10 C/kg 3290:C⋅kg of air 3272: 3186: 3084: 3049: 3044:10 C/kg 3006: 2986: 2970: 2920:hair removal 2828:underdrawing 2748: 2737: 2734: 2730: 2705: 2702: 2698: 2690: 2682: 2662: 2636: 2627: 2607: 2576: 2573:Radiotherapy 2555:video camera 2537: 2512: 2463: 2458: 2455:X-ray filter 2451: 2441: 2382: 2368: 2342: 2304: 2295: 2285: 2278: 2271: 2264: 2252: 2240:Please help 2235:verification 2232: 2214:Medical uses 2168:image plates 2149: 2120: 2114: 2101: 2100:of the ion, 2090: 2083: 2077: 2067: 2050: 2031: 2024: 2018: 2016: 2010: 2000: 1982: 1972: 1933: 1921: 1742:Wavelength 1714: 1702: 1677: 1656: 1524: 1504: 1456: 1448:transmission 1405: 1351: 1330:radiotherapy 1296: 1279:radiographic 1270: 1269:). The term 1258: 1254: 1250: 1244: 1214:X-ray optics 1194: 1167: 1115:23 July 1999 1108: 1101: 1097: 1082: 1074: 1072:on his arm. 1055: 1036: 1021: 997:Max von Laue 990: 972: 941: 933: 922: 918:cold cathode 915: 882: 873:Nikola Tesla 860: 858: 833: 824:septic shock 793: 753: 743: 717: 712: 697: 690: 684: 680: 674: 670: 657: 649: 624:Crookes tube 604: 597: 593: 579: 558: 454:Röntgen rays 453: 449: 427: 404:Nikola Tesla 397: 390: 386: 380: 365: 358: 342: 335: 331: 323:Humphry Davy 300: 261:cathode rays 246: 239:, a type of 237:Crookes tube 196:broken bones 185: 179:to 100 122: 117: 105: 97: 93: 92: 57: 11853:Radiography 11418:Ultraviolet 11413:Radio waves 11174:Stellarator 11138:confinement 11032:Superphénix 10859:Molten-salt 10811:VHTR (HTGR) 10588:HW BLWR 250 10554:R4 Marviken 10483:Pressurized 10453:Heavy water 10437:many others 10366:Pressurized 10321:Light water 10023:underground 9981:Disarmament 9889:Tomotherapy 9884:Proton-beam 9748:Power plant 9710:Temperature 9543:Engineering 9129:Synchrotron 8997:Medium wave 8674:Lyman-alpha 8656:Ultraviolet 8595:wavelengths 8588:frequencies 8552:Ultraviolet 8137:2066/190628 6264:19 February 6232:19 February 5481:27 November 5455:23 February 5429:26 November 5403:26 November 5377:26 November 5351:26 November 5325:26 November 5299:26 November 5273:26 November 4868:NLM.NIH.gov 4736:24 November 4404:. pp. 4294:24 November 3842:: 219–221. 3235:10 Bq 3177:equivalent 3168:Derivation 2766:diffraction 2539:Fluoroscopy 2534:Fluoroscopy 2528:Fluoroscopy 2478:radiologist 2470:angiography 2397:chest X-ray 2393:soft tissue 2152:radiography 2042:collimation 1948:hot cathode 1940:vacuum tube 1420:radiography 1323:radioactive 1319:X-ray tubes 1255:soft X-rays 1251:hard X-rays 1206:synchrotron 1170:X-ray laser 1131:black holes 1093:World War I 1089:Marie Curie 1001:diffraction 960:hot cathode 956:vacuum tube 902:fluoroscope 777:fluoroscope 748:radiography 728:fluorescent 628:fluoroscope 566:fluorescent 188:radiography 155:to 30 149:frequencies 143:to 10 129:ultraviolet 125:wavelengths 118:X-radiation 98:X-radiation 33:Radiography 18:X-radiation 11812:Categories 11599:and health 11597:Radiation 11466:Cosmic ray 11199:(acoustic) 10816:PBR (PBMR) 10204:Spent fuel 10194:Repository 10174:Fuel cycle 10141:Activation 9918:Processing 9785:Propulsion 9743:by country 9675:Activation 9388:Scattering 9253:Helical CT 9119:X-ray tube 8978:Wavelength 8834:Microwaves 8646:Hard X-ray 8641:Soft X-ray 8610:Gamma rays 8542:Gamma rays 8352:11 October 8075:7 November 7998:24 January 7830:16 January 7672:8 November 7650:24 January 7256:8 November 7069:StatPearls 6955:24 January 6404:2 February 6210:4 November 6169:8 November 5920:8 November 5898:4 November 5637:5 November 5611:5 November 5585:5 November 5559:5 November 5533:5 November 5507:5 November 5168:27 October 5121:. Page 10. 5080:24 January 4873:24 January 4852:3631581203 4528:2134/19408 4444:3 December 4379:5 February 4068:Tesla coil 3697:References 3659:The X-Rays 3389:10 Gy 3248:10 s 3241:rutherford 2989:ionization 2967:Visibility 2898:needlefish 2840:lead white 2832:pentimenti 2745:Other uses 2669:carcinogen 2583:palliation 2425:radiopaque 2421:gallstones 2407:, and the 2268:newspapers 2184:dosimeters 2158:and later 1964:molybdenum 1936:X-ray tube 1711:Production 1459:microscope 1340:Properties 1299:gamma rays 1293:Gamma rays 1210:microfocus 1149:that then 1066:Birmingham 632:radiograph 522:Lithuanian 494:Portuguese 277:ionization 173:10 Hz 165:10 Hz 145:picometers 141:nanometers 137:wavelength 133:gamma rays 11753:Half-life 11626:Dosimetry 11461:Gamma ray 11408:Microwave 11398:Starlight 11359:Radiation 11169:Spheromak 10868:Fluorides 10532:IPHWR-700 10527:IPHWR-540 10522:IPHWR-220 10311:Moderator 9991:Explosion 9966:Arms race 9753:Economics 9705:Reflector 9700:Radiation 9695:Generator 9650:Plutonium 9603:Deuterium 9568:Radiation 9538:Chemistry 8992:Shortwave 8987:Microwave 8567:Microwave 8340:Frame P. 7125:1084-208X 7033:Herman GT 7021:(Supp 4). 6996:0033-8419 6976:Radiology 6473:1202.4879 6335:"Preface" 5688:121322301 4972:cite book 4537:142518799 4255:1351-0711 4208:0870-399X 4158:0036-8075 4054:, p. 68. 3916:0033-8419 3896:Radiology 3372:per gram 3263: Bq 3224:10 s 3193:becquerel 3159:Quantity 2978:rhodopsin 2792:astronomy 2622:talk page 2459:hardening 2401:pneumonia 2385:pathology 2140:Detectors 2130:streamers 1944:electrons 1412:scattered 1390:malignant 1303:electrons 1182:death ray 794:In 1901, 785:amputated 561:lab notes 550:Norwegian 546:Icelandic 506:Slovenian 482:Bulgarian 466:Ukrainian 462:Hungarian 288:kilovolts 253:radiation 153:petahertz 66:photogram 37:Radiology 11403:Sunlight 11388:Infrared 11304:Category 11258:Polywell 11189:Inertial 11146:Magnetic 10901:TMSR-LF1 10896:TMSR-500 10876:Fuji MSR 10836:THTR-300 10676:Graphite 10539:PHWR KWU 10505:ACR-1000 10433:IPWR-900 10416:ACPR1000 10411:HPR-1000 10401:CPR-1000 10376:APR-1400 10167:Disposal 10119:Actinide 10112:Products 9971:Delivery 9814:Medicine 9643:depleted 9638:enriched 9608:Helium-3 9573:ionizing 9124:Betatron 9002:Longwave 8762:Infrared 8562:Infrared 8285:21314202 8257:21314201 8187:Engadget 8146:29408150 8093:Archived 8048:Archived 8029:Archived 7921:15671393 7886:19047611 7820:Medscape 7798:13358242 7763:18777910 7718:Archived 7615:15070562 7580:31217755 7516:12610596 7466:13301920 7458:12852466 7415:18046031 7371:17963274 7336:17264651 7328:20429161 7293:18440940 7220:16790912 7177:18082594 7169:24584183 7082:20 April 7077:34662062 7035:(2009). 6926:20933639 6882:17629432 6841:31030653 6784:30034044 6686:28503005 6594:43609721 6515:(2015). 6511:Köhn C, 6498:10679475 6458:(2014). 6454:Köhn C, 6063:CCOHS.ca 5861:23523144 5247:Archived 5228:25 March 5142:23 April 5054:21239576 4922:17779817 4623:35604474 4471:23 March 4431:"X-Rays" 4174:44719943 4166:14171545 4013:18635636 3711:"X-Rays" 3570:See also 3525:SI unit 3448:SI unit 3364:SI unit 3296:SI unit 3283:kilogram 3269:Exposure 3206:SI unit 3183:Activity 3032:roentgen 3023:unit of 3009:ionizing 2995:at the 2847:van Gogh 2838:such as 2836:pigments 2616:You may 2447:cavities 2182:, while 2089:, where 1986:emission 1956:tungsten 1731:material 1693:momentum 1567:, where 1475:crystals 1452:contrast 1408:absorbed 1388:to kill 1234:UV light 1119:universe 820:gangrene 538:Georgian 530:Japanese 526:Albanian 498:Estonian 442:Würzburg 265:electron 157:exahertz 11614:chronic 11316:Commons 11227:Z-pinch 11197:Bubble 11179:Tokamak 11042:FBR-600 11022:CFR-600 11017:BN-1200 10683:coolant 10610:Organic 10495:CANDU 9 10492:CANDU 6 10460:coolant 10421:ACP1000 10396:CAP1400 10334:Boiling 10299:Fission 10146:Fission 10090:Weapons 10030:Warfare 10013:Testing 10003:History 9996:effects 9951:Weapons 9861:Therapy 9836:RadBall 9823:Imaging 9715:Thermal 9680:Capture 9667:Neutron 9655:Thorium 9633:Uranium 9598:Tritium 9578:braking 9558:Fission 9548:Physics 9531:Science 9467:History 9221:Imaging 8593:longer 8586:higher 8557:Visible 8420:Bibcode 8192:28 July 8166:28 July 7877:2585137 7743:Bibcode 7623:8516754 7571:6560808 7524:4419048 7496:Bibcode 7423:2760372 7228:7672187 7200:Bibcode 7149:Bibcode 6832:6501887 6811:Bibcode 6775:6049893 6754:Bibcode 6713:Bibcode 6677:5405581 6656:Bibcode 6617:Bibcode 6574:Bibcode 6558:Ebert U 6529:Bibcode 6513:Ebert U 6478:Bibcode 6456:Ebert U 6429:Bibcode 6399:4372536 6379:Bibcode 6147:Bibcode 5853:8597962 5818:4287341 5798:Bibcode 5775:4273199 5755:Bibcode 5718:Bibcode 5666:Bibcode 5397:The Sun 5045:3520298 4902:Bibcode 4894:Science 4830:7998549 4786:4054184 4764:Bibcode 4669:2685937 4615:9368224 4273:8044245 4264:1128015 4216:8475784 4138:Bibcode 4130:Science 4096:Bibcode 3971:: 5–15. 3924:1947073 3500:J⋅kg × 3493:sievert 3432:J⋅kg × 3425:sievert 3320:of air 3318: g 3302:röntgen 3279:coulomb 3165:Symbol 3110:sievert 3017:coulomb 2993:wiggler 2500:CT scan 2490:CT scan 2437:implant 2417:ascites 2387:of the 2374:calcium 2282:scholar 2257:"X-ray" 2192:spectra 2164:digital 1960:rhenium 1914:rhodium 1902:0.0455 1858:0.0497 1814:0.0632 1792:0.0184 1626:calcium 1587:is the 1438:). 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