Great Purge - Knowledge

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Stalin's paranoia and used terror to enhance their own position. Peter Whitewood examines the first purge, directed at the Army, and comes up with a third interpretation that Stalin and other top leaders believing that they were always surrounded by capitalist enemies, always worried about the vulnerability and loyalty of the Red Army. It was not a ploy—Stalin truly believed it. "Stalin attacked the Red Army because he seriously misperceived a serious security threat"; thus "Stalin seems to have genuinely believed that foreign‐backed enemies had infiltrated the ranks and managed to organize a conspiracy at the very heart of the Red Army." The purge hit deeply from June 1937 and November 1938, removing 35,000; many were executed. Experience in carrying out the purge facilitated purging other key elements in the wider Soviet polity. Historians often cite the disruption as factors in the Red Army's disastrous military performance during the German invasion.

4440: 3889: 3900: 4540: 4307: 1924:. The assassination, in December 1934, led to an investigation that revealed a network of party members supposedly working against Stalin, including several of Stalin's rivals. Many of those arrested after Kirov's murder, high-ranking party officials among them, also confessed plans to kill Stalin himself. The validity of these confessions is debated by historians, but there is consensus that Kirov's death was the flashpoint at which Stalin decided to take action and begin the purges. Some later historians came to believe that Stalin arranged the murder, or at least that there was sufficient evidence to reach such a conclusion. Kirov was a staunch Stalin loyalist, but Stalin may have viewed him as a potential rival because of his emerging popularity among the moderates. The 4472: 585: 4255:

sometimes gave instructions concerning certain individuals. In one instance, he told Yezhov "Isn't it time to squeeze this gentleman and force him to report on his dirty little business? Where is he: in a prison or a hotel?" In another, while reviewing one of Yezhov's lists, he added to M. I. Baranov's name, "beat, beat!" Stalin also signed 357 lists in 1937 and 1938 authorizing executions of some 40,000 people, and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot, this was 7.4% of those executed legally. While reviewing one such list, Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers the names now of the

4200: 4354:, Serdyuk, Mironov, Rudenko, and Semichastny. The hard work resulted in two massive reports, which detailed the mechanism of falsification of the show-trials against Bukharin, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and many others. The commission based its findings in large part on eyewitness testimonies of former NKVD workers and victims of repressions, and on many documents. The commission recommended rehabilitating every accused with the exceptions of Radek and Yagoda, because Radek's materials required some further checking, and Yagoda was a criminal and one of the falsifiers of the trials (though most of the charges against him had to be dropped too, he was not a "spy", etc.). The commission stated: 4224: 1804: 4492: 6634:"Despite the fact that the combined firepower of the Red Army was greater than that of the Germans, the Purges had effectively crippled it by destroying the officer corps. This was the decisive element which persuaded Hitler to attack in 1941. At the Nuremberg trial, Marshal Keitel testified that many German generals had warned Hitler not to attack Russia, arguing that the Red Army was a formidable opponent. Rejecting these Hitler gave Keitel his main reason 'The first-class high-ranking officers were wiped out by Stalin in 1937, and the new generation cannot yet provide the brains they need.'" 4528: 4108: 1893: 2462:) and civilian Communist Party members. Seeking to fulfill the quotas, the police rounded up people in markets and train stations, with the purpose of arresting "social outcasts". Local units of the NKVD, in order to meet their "casework minimums" and force confessions out of arrestees worked long uninterrupted shifts during which they interrogated, tortured and beat the prisoners. In many cases those arrested were forced to sign blank pages which were later filled in with a fabricated confession by the interrogators. 4452: 3448:

red-blue-and-yellow bruises with the strap and the pain was so intense that it felt as if boiling water was being poured on these sensitive areas. I howled and wept from the pain. I incriminated myself in the hope that by telling them lies I could end the ordeal. When I lay down on the cot and fell asleep, after 18 hours of interrogation, in order to go back in an hour's time for more, I was woken up by my own groaning and because I was jerking about like a patient in the last stages of typhoid fever.

12838: 1461: 2200: 2751: 2739: 12850: 11663: 4587:"The present purge draws between Bolshevism and Stalinism not simply a bloody line but a whole river of blood. The annihilation of all the older generation of Bolsheviks, an important part of the middle generation which participated in the civil war, and that part of the youth that took up most seriously the Bolshevik traditions, shows not only a political but a thoroughly physical incompatibility between Bolshevism and Stalinism. How can this not be seen?". 1751: 3835: 4127:

confessions extracted by torture. Khrushchev later claimed in his memoirs that he had initiated the process, overcoming objections and protests from the rest of Party leadership, but the transcripts belie this, although they show differences of opinion regarding the contents. Starting from 1954, some of the convictions were overturned. Mikhail Tukhachevsky and other generals convicted in the Trial of Red Army Generals were declared innocent ("

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point make it clear that the number shot in the two worst purge years was more likely in the hundreds of thousands than in the millions." According to historian Corrina Kuhr, 700,000 people were executed during the Great Purge out of the 2.5 million who were arrested. Professor Nérard François-Xavier estimates the same number of people who were sentenced to death; however, he states that 1.3 million people were arrested.

3673: 2826: 2426: 1800:, as well as the massive and uncontrolled migration of millions of peasants into cities. The threat of war heightened Stalin's and generally Soviet perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the potential source of an uprising in case of invasion. Stalin began to plan for the preventive elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical "fifth column of wreckers, terrorists and spies." 10204: 3102: 2651: 2302: 3090: 136: 2925:, 60% of German exiles in the Soviet Union were liquidated during the Stalinist terror, and a higher proportion of the KPD Politburo membership had died in the Soviet Union than had died in Nazi Germany. Weitz also noted that hundreds of German citizens, the majority of whom were Communists, were handed over to the Gestapo from Stalin's administration. Many Jewish figures such as 36: 3490:. (Stalin received lessons twice a week from 1925 to 1928, but he found it difficult to master even some of the basic ideas. Stalin developed enduring hostility toward German idealistic philosophy, which he called "the aristocratic reaction to the French Revolution".) Sten eventually became a member of an underground opposition group, and this group later joined the 4277:

begun. Stalin may have failed to anticipate the catastrophic excesses of the NKVD under Yezhov. Stalin also objected to the large numbers of people that Yezhov was purging. For example, when Yezhov announced that 200,000 party members were expelled, Stalin interrupted him, said that they were "very many" and suggested instead to only expel 30,000 and 600 former

4160:, and 2,000 unofficially killed in non-article 58 shootings; whereas the total estimate of deaths brought about by Soviet repression during the Great Purge ranges from 950,000 to 1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention and those who died shortly after being released from the Gulag, as a result of their treatment therein. There were also 2226:, is the most famous of the Soviet show trials, because of persons involved and the scope of charges which tied together all loose threads from earlier trials. Meant to be the culmination of previous trials, it included 21 defendants alleged to belong to the "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites", supposedly led by Nikolai Bukharin, the former chairman of the 1777:(USSR). Various established figures in Lenin's government attempted to succeed him. By 1928, Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, had triumphed over his opponents and gained control of the party. Initially, Stalin's leadership was widely accepted; his main political adversary, Trotsky, was forced into exile in 1929, and Stalin's doctrine of " 2511: 2534:. The women were sentenced to forced labour for 5 or 10 years. Their minor children were put in orphanages. All possessions were confiscated. Extended families were purposely left with nothing to live on, which usually sealed their fate as well, affecting up to 200,000–250,000 people of Polish background depending on the size of their families. 1940:, participants in the repression as members of the Politburo, maintained this justification throughout the purge; they each signed many death lists. Stalin believed war was imminent, threatened both by an explicitly hostile Germany and an expansionist Japan. The Soviet press portrayed the country as threatened from within by fascist spies. 2184:

friends, and intellectual friendship is stronger than other friendships. I knew that Bukharin was in the same state of upheaval as myself. That is why I did not want to deliver him bound hand and foot to the People's Commissariat of Home Affairs. Just as in relation to our other cadres, I wanted Bukharin himself to lay down his arms.

2014: 2293:, the Bukharin trial marked their final break with communism, and even turned the first three into fervent anti-communists eventually. To them, Bukharin's confession symbolized the depredations of communism, which not only destroyed its sons but also conscripted them in self-destruction and individual abnegation. 4058:

also reported on the executions. He called them in 1941 "the great purges", and described how over four years they affected "the top fourth or fifth, to estimate it conservatively, of the Party itself, of the Army, Navy, and Air Force leaders and then of the new Bolshevik intelligentsia, the foremost

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Political prisoners already serving a sentence in the Gulag camps were also executed in large numbers. NKVD Order no. 00447 also targeted "the most vicious and stubborn anti-Soviet elements in camps", they were all "to be put into the first category"—that is, shot. NKVD Order no. 00447 decreed 10,000

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In early 1937, poet Pavel Nikolayevich Vasiliev is said to have defended Nikolai Bukharin as "a man of the highest nobility and the conscience of peasant Russia" at the time of his denunciation at the Pyatakov Trial (Second Moscow Trial) and damned other writers then signing the routine condemnations

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At first, it was thought 25–50% of Red Army officers had been purged; the true figure is now known to be in the area of 3.7–7.7%. This discrepancy was the result of a systematic underestimation of the true size of the Red Army officer corps, and it was overlooked that most of those purged were merely

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The result was a curious mix of fulsome confessions (of being a "degenerate fascist" working for "restoration of capitalism") and subtle criticisms of the trial. One observer noted that after disproving several charges against him, Bukharin "proceeded to demolish or rather showed he could very easily

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and Vyacheslav Molotov later claimed that Bukharin was never tortured, but it is now known that his interrogators were given the order "beating permitted", and were under great pressure to extract confession out of the "star" defendant. Bukharin initially held out for three months, but threats to his

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In the new form of Party organization, the Politburo, and Stalin in particular, were the sole dispensers of ideology. This required the elimination of all Marxists with different views, especially those among the prestigious "old guard" of revolutionaries. As the purges began, the government (through

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According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research pokes "rather large holes in the traditional story" weaved by Conquest and others. His findings, while not exonerating Stalin or the Soviet state, dispel the notion that the bloodletting was merely the result of Stalin attempting to

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should be abandoned, it failed to fully rehabilitate the victims of the three Moscow trials, although the final report does contain an admission that the accusations have not been proven during the trials and "evidence" had been produced by lies, blackmail, and "use of physical influence". Bukharin,

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to spy for France. In the final interrogation, he retracted his confession and wrote letters to the prosecutor's office stating that he had implicated innocent people, but to no avail. Babel was tried before an NKVD troika and convicted of simultaneously spying for the French, Austrians and Trotsky,

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and believe that representatives of these minorities were killed not because of their ethnicity, but because of their possible relations to countries hostile to the USSR and fear of disloyalty in the case of an invasion. Nevertheless, little proof exists to suggest that Russia's and Stalin's alleged

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By 1929, Stalin had defeated his political opponents and gained full control over the party. He organized a committee to begin the process of industrialization of the Soviet Union. Backlash against industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture escalated, which prompted Stalin to increase

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It is quite possible that Yezhov misled Stalin about the aspects of the purge process. Many people at the time, and also a few subsequent commentators, surmised that the Great Purge wasn't started by Stalin's initiative, so the idea got about that the process was entirely out of control once it had

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and Oleg V. Naumov, "popular estimates of executions in the great purges vary from 500,000 to 7 million." However, according to them, "the archival evidence from the secret police rejects the astronomically high estimates often given for the number of terror victims" and "the data available at this

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for three years, but this proved to be a temporary reprieve. In May 1938, he was arrested again for "counter-revolutionary activities". On 2 August 1938, Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in correction camps and died on 27 December 1938 at a transit camp near Vladivostok. Pasternak himself was

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After the interrogations the files were submitted to NKVD troikas, which pronounced the verdicts in the absence of the accused. During a half-day-long session a troika went through several hundred cases, delivering either a death sentence or a sentence to the Gulag labor camps. Death sentences were

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On 2 July 1937, in a top secret order to regional Party and NKVD chiefs Stalin instructed them to produce the estimated number of "kulaks" and "criminals" in their districts. These individuals were to be arrested and executed, or sent to the gulag camps. The party chiefs complied and produced these

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I feel guilty of one thing more: even after admitting my guilt and exposing the organisation, I stubbornly refused to give evidence about Bukharin. I knew that Bukharin's situation was just as hopeless as my own, because our guilt, if not juridically, then in essence, was the same. But we are close

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testified that there was a "third organization separate from the cadres which had passed through school," as well as "semi-Trotskyites, quarter-Trotskyites, one-eighth-Trotskyites, people who helped us, not knowing of the terrorist organization but sympathizing with us, people who from liberalism,

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The Great Purge has provoked numerous debates about its purpose, scale, and mechanisms. According to one interpretation, Stalin's regime had to maintain its citizens in a state of fear and uncertainty to stay in power (Brzezinski, 1958). Robert Conquest emphasized Stalin's paranoia, focused on the

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The purge of the army was claimed to be supported by German-forged documents (said to have been correspondence between Marshal Tukhachevsky and members of the German high command). The claim is unsupported by facts, as by the time the documents were supposedly created, two people from the eight in

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However, a large number of people were arrested at random in sweeps, on the basis of denunciations or because they were related to, were friends with or knew people already arrested. Engineers, peasants, railwaymen, and other types of workers were arrested during the "Kulak Operation" based on the

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Between 1936 and 1938, three very large Moscow trials of former senior Communist Party leaders were held, in which they were accused of conspiring with fascist and capitalist powers to assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the Soviet Union and restore capitalism. These trials were

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elected Kirov to the central committee with only three votes against, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 292 votes against. After Kirov's assassination, the NKVD charged the ever-growing group of former oppositionists with Kirov's murder as well as a growing list of other offenses,

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Stalin committed a very grave crime against the Communist party, the socialist state, Soviet people and worldwide revolutionary movement...Together with Stalin, the responsibility for the abuse of law, mass unwarranted repressions and death of many thousands of wholly innocent people also lies on

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Stalin undoubtedly caused many innocent people to be executed, but it seems likely that he thought many of them guilty of crimes against the state and felt that the execution of others would act as a deterrent to the guilty. He signed the papers and insisted on documentation. Hitler, by contrast,

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Although the trials of former Soviet leaders were widely publicized, the hundreds of thousands of other arrests and executions were not. These became known in the West only as a few former gulag inmates reached the West with their stories. Not only did foreign correspondents from the West fail to

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made up the majority of victims, with 18,000 being killed in the terror. Other victims were nobility and political and academic figures, along with some ordinary workers and herders. Mass graves containing hundreds of executed Buddhist monks and civilians have been discovered as recently as 2003.

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minorities arrested during the Great Purge were executed while those sentenced during the Kulak Operation had only a 50% chance of being executed, (though this may have been due to the Gulag camp's lack of space in the late stages of the Purge rather than deliberate discrimination in sentencing).

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A distinctive feature of the Great Purge was that, for the first time, members of the ruling party were included on a massive scale as victims of the repression. In addition to ordinary citizens, prominent members of the Communist Party were also targets for the purges. The purge of the Party was

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So what was the motivation behind the Terror? The answers required a lot more digging, but it gradually became clearer that the violence of the late 1930s was driven by fear. Most Bolsheviks, Stalin among them, believed that the revolutions of 1789, 1848 and 1871 had failed because their leaders

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was flexibility: first, the numbers—the so-called limit—could be easily increased; second, it was left entirely to the NKVD officers whether a particular prisoner was to be shot or sent to the prison camps; third, the time-limits set for the completion of single operations were extended time and

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Two major lines of interpretation have emerged among historians. One argues that the purges reflected Stalin's ambitions, his paranoia, and his inner drive to increase his power and eliminate potential rivals. Revisionist historians explain the purges by theorizing that rival factions exploited

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to find work. At the height of the Terror, American immigrants besieged the US embassy, begging for passports so they could leave the Soviet Union. They were turned away by embassy officials, only to be arrested on the pavement outside by lurking NKVD agents. Many were subsequently shot dead at

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The Yezhovshchina or Stalin's Great Terror The precise end result of these operations is difficult to establish, but the total of the condemnations is estimated at roughly 1,300,000 of which 700,000 were sentenced to death, most of the others were sentenced to ten years in the camps (document

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states "theories about the elemental, spontaneous nature of the terror, about a loss of central control over the course of mass repression, and about the role of regional leaders in initiating the terror are simply not supported by the historical record". Besides signing Yezhov's lists, Stalin

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the Leninist and Stalinist purges (1918–1956), in which the 1936–1938 purge may have been simply the one that got the most attention from people in a position to record its magnitude for posterity—the intelligentsia—by directly targeting them, whereas several other waves of the ongoing flow of

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Poles comprised 12.5% of those who were killed during the Great Terror, while comprising only 0.4% of the population. Overall, national minorities targeted in these campaigns composed 36% of the victims of the Great Purge, despite being only 1.6% of the Soviet Union's population. 74% of ethnic

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was the largest of this kind. The Polish operation claimed the largest number of the NKVD victims: 143,810 arrests and 111,091 executions according to records. Snyder estimates that at least eighty-five thousand of them were ethnic Poles. The remainder were 'suspected' of being Polish, without

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and others, the methods used to extract the confessions are known: such tortures as repeated beatings, simulated drownings, making prisoners stand or go without sleep for days on end, and threats to arrest and execute the prisoners' families. For example, Kamenev's teenage son was arrested and

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congress in February 1956 (which was made public a month later), Khrushchev referred to the purges as an "abuse of power" by Stalin which resulted in enormous harm to the country. In the same speech, he recognized that many of the victims were innocent and were convicted on the basis of false

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Concerning diaspora minorities, the vast majority of whom were Soviet citizens and whose ancestors had resided for decades and sometimes centuries in the Soviet Union and Russian Empire, "this designation absolutized their cross-border ethnicities as the only salient aspect of their identity,

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and reconstruction of the Soviet economy in the late 1920s, veteran Bolsheviks no longer thought necessary the "temporary" wartime dictatorship, which had passed from Lenin to Stalin. Stalin's opponents inside the Communist Party chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption.

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The investigators began to use force on me, a sick 65-year-old man. I was made to lie face down and beaten on the soles of my feet and my spine with a rubber strap ... For the next few days, when those parts of my legs were covered with extensive internal hemorrhaging, they again beat the

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The victims were executed at night, either in prisons, in the cellars of NKVD headquarters, or in a secluded area, usually a forest. The NKVD officers shot prisoners in the head using pistols. Other methods of dispatching victims were used on an experimental basis. In Moscow, the use of

3433:, and supplied him with information about the situation in the USSR. There is no doubt that Gide used this information in his book attacking the USSR." Pilnyak was tried on 21 April 1938. In the proceeding that lasted 15 minutes, he was condemned to death and executed shortly afterward. 1728:, who headed the NKVD during the purge years. Scholars estimate the death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million. Despite the end of the Great Purge, the widespread surveillance and atmosphere of mistrust continued for decades. Similar purges took place 1713:, and Soviet citizens of Polish origin, who were subjected to forced deportation and extreme repression. Throughout the purge, the NKVD sought to strengthen control over civilians through fear, and frequently used imprisonment, torture, violent interrogation, and executions during its 4291:

posits that while the 'purposive deaths' caused by Hitler constitute 'murder', those caused under Stalin fall into the category of 'execution', although in terms of "causing death by criminal neglect and ruthlessness (...) Stalin probably exceeded Hitler". Wheatcroft elaborates:

2344:. His confessions were somewhat different from others in that while he pleaded guilty to "sum total of crimes", he denied knowledge when it came to specific crimes. Some astute observers noted that he would allow only what was in written confession and refuse to go any further. 2327:

young wife and infant son, combined with "methods of physical influence" wore him down. But when he read his confession amended and corrected personally by Stalin, he withdrew his whole confession. The examination started all over again, with a double team of interrogators.

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The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and

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Zinoviev and Kamenev demanded, as a condition for "confessing", a direct guarantee from the Politburo that their lives and that of their families and followers would be spared. This offer was accepted, but when they were taken to the alleged Politburo meeting, only Stalin,

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Rykov, Zinoviev, and others were still seen as political opponents, and though the charges against them were obviously false, they could not have been rehabilitated because "for many years they headed the anti-Soviet struggle against the building of socialism in USSR".

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and many lower-level victims were also declared innocent in the 1950s. Nikolai Bukharin and others convicted in the Moscow Trials were not rehabilitated until as late as 1988. Leon Trotsky, considered a major player in the Russian Revolution and a major contributor to

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took the position that evidence of the camps should be ignored so the French proletariat would not be discouraged. A series of legal actions ensued at which definitive evidence was presented that established the validity of the former labor camp inmates' testimony.

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demolish the whole case." He continued by saying that "the confession of the accused is not essential. The confession of the accused is a medieval principle of jurisprudence" in a trial that was based solely on confessions. He finished his last plea with the words:

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On the first day of trial, Krestinsky caused a sensation when he repudiated his written confession and pleaded not guilty to all the charges. However, he changed his plea the next day after "special measures", which dislocated his left shoulder among other things.

2694:(then equivalent to four-star generals), 13 of 15 army commanders (then equivalent to three-star generals), eight of nine admirals (the purge fell heavily on the Navy, who were suspected of exploiting their opportunities for foreign contacts), 50 of 57 army 2149:

That while confessions are necessarily entitled to the most serious consideration, the confessions themselves contain such inherent improbabilities as to convince the Commission that they do not represent the truth, irrespective of any means used to obtain

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Even previously sympathetic observers who had accepted the earlier trials found it more difficult to accept these new allegations as they became ever more absurd, and the purge expanded to include almost every living Old Bolshevik leader except Stalin and

1877:, as well as the majority of Lenin's Politburo, for disagreements in policy. The NKVD attacked the supporters, friends, and family of these "heretical" Marxists, whether they lived in Russia or not. The NKVD nearly annihilated Trotsky's family before 4062:

Evidence and the results of research began to appear after Stalin's death. This revealed the full enormity of the Purges. The first of these sources were the revelations of Nikita Khrushchev, which particularly affected the American editors of the

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wanted to be rid of the Jews and communists simply because they were Jews and communists. He was not concerned about making any pretence at legality. He was careful not to sign anything on this matter and was equally insistent on no documentation.

3476:, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus under Stalin and subsequently head of the NKVD, further pressured Iashvili with the alternatives of denouncing Tabidze or being arrested and tortured by the NKVD, Iashvili killed himself. 2153:

That Trotsky never instructed any of the accused or witnesses in the Moscow trials to enter into agreements with foreign powers against the Soviet Union that Trotsky never recommended, plotted, or attempted the restoration of capitalism in the

4539: 4439: 3472:, shot himself with a hunting gun in the building of the Writers' Union. He witnessed and was even forced to participate in public trials that ousted many of his associates from the Writers' Union, effectively condemning them to death. When 2422:

fact that they worked for or near important strategic sites and factories where work accidents had occurred due to "frantic rhythms and plans". During this period the NKVD reopened these cases and relabeled them as "sabotage" or "wrecking."

2418:, participants in peasant rebellions, members of the clergy, persons deprived of voting rights, former members of non-Bolshevik parties, ordinary criminals, like thieves, known to the police and various other "socially harmful elements". 2050:

that opposed Stalin, although its activities were exaggerated. Among other accusations, they were incriminated with the assassination of Kirov and plotting to kill Stalin. After confessing to the charges, all were sentenced to death and

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establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin. The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an exaggerated fear of counterrevolution:

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the Tukhachevsky group were already imprisoned, and by the time the document was said to reach Stalin the purging process was already underway. However the actual evidence introduced at trial was obtained from forced confessions.

1822:. In 1933, for example, the Party expelled some 400,000 people. But from 1936 until 1953, the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment, and often execution. 1952:. As the Russian Civil War drew to a close, this campaign was relaxed although the secret police did remain active. From 1924 to 1928, the mass repression – including incarceration in the Gulag system – dropped significantly. 10326: 4183:

were of individuals who had received this sentence. Despite this, the lower figure did roughly confirm Conquest's original 1968 estimate of 700,000 "legal" executions and in the preface to the 40th anniversary edition of

2066:, and were accused of plotting with Trotsky, who was said to be conspiring with Germany. Thirteen of the defendants were eventually executed by shooting and the rest received sentences in labor camps where they soon died. 2542:. The officials were mandated to arrest and execute a specific number of so-called "counter-revolutionaries", compiled by administration using various statistics but also telephone books with names sounding non-Russian. 1915:

By 1934, several of Stalin's rivals, such as Trotsky, began calling for Stalin's removal and attempted to break his control over the party. In this atmosphere of doubt and suspicion, the popular high-ranking official

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Moscow show trial of "Old Bolsheviks", and analyzed the carefully planned and systematic destruction of the Communist Party. Some others view the Great Purge as a crucial moment, or rather the culmination, of a vast

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broke out amid the purge. Sheng received assistance from the NKVD. Sheng and the Soviets alleged a massive Trotskyist conspiracy and a "Fascist Trotskyite plot" to destroy the Soviet Union. The Soviet Consul General

2116:. Although the hearings were obviously conducted with a view to proving Trotsky's innocence, they brought to light evidence which established that some of the specific charges made at the trials could not be true. 2112:, commonly known as the Dewey Commission, was set up in the United States by supporters of Trotsky, to establish the truth about the trials. The commission was headed by the noted American philosopher and educator 4338:. They were given the task to investigate the materials concerning Bukharin, Rykov, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and others. The commission worked in 1956–1957. While stating that the accusations against Tukhachevsky 3006:

While being the most visible part, the trials and executions of the former Bolshevik leaders were only a minor aspect of the purges. A series of documents discovered in the Central Committee archives in 1992 by

1736:. While the Soviet government desired to put Trotsky on trial during the purge, his exile prevented this. Trotsky survived the purge, though he would be assassinated in 1940 by the NKVD on the orders of Stalin. 3401:(Stalin jotted down in Bukharin's letter with feigned indignation: "Who gave them the right to arrest Mandelstam?"), Stalin instructed NKVD to "isolate but preserve" him, and Mandelstam was "merely" exiled to 2264:

The fact that Yagoda was one of the accused showed the speed at which the purges were consuming their own. It was now alleged that Bukharin and others sought to assassinate Lenin and Stalin from 1918, murder

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In 2007, one such site, the Butovo firing range near Moscow, was turned into a shrine to the victims of Stalinism. Between August 1937 and October 1938, more than 20,000 people were shot and buried there.

2277:. No other crime of the Stalin years so captivated Western intellectuals as the trial and execution of Bukharin, who was a Marxist theorist of international standing. For some prominent communists such as 1947:

onward, Lenin had used repression against perceived and legitimate enemies of the Bolsheviks as a systematic method of instilling fear and facilitating control over the population in a campaign called the

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development research was judged un-Marxist, 27 astronomers disappeared between 1936 and 1938. The Meteorological Office was violently purged as early as 1933 for failing to predict weather harmful to the

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he monstrousness of my crime is immeasurable especially in the new stage of struggle of the U.S.S.R. May this trial be the last severe lesson, and may the great might of the U.S.S.R. become clear to all.

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highly publicized and extensively covered by the outside world, which was mesmerized by the spectacle of Lenin's closest associates confessing to most outrageous crimes and begging for death sentences:

4059:

technicians, managers, supervisors, scientists". Knickerbocker also wrote about dekulakization: "It is a conservative estimate to say that some 5,000,000 ... died at once, or within a few years."

2608:

wrote "In Ukraine 1937 began in 1933", referring to the earlier Soviet political repressions in Ukraine. There was also deadly persecution of Ukrainian cultural elites, who are referred to as the

112: 3934: 3413:

was arrested in May 1939, and according to his confession paper (which contained a blood stain) he "confessed" to being a member of a Trotskyist organization and being recruited by French writer

2398:

The following categories appear to have been on index-cards, catalogues of suspects assembled over the years by the NKVD and were systematically tracked down: "ex-kulaks" previously deported to "

3581:

was arrested in 1938, and accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists". He was executed on 4 October 1938. Another Esperanto writer

2440:, including active parishioners, was nearly annihilated: 85% of the 35,000 members of the clergy were arrested. Particularly vulnerable to repression were also the so-called "special settlers" ( 2447:

Common criminals such as thieves, "violators of the passport regime", etc. were also dealt with in a summary way. In Moscow, for example, nearly one third of the 20,765 persons executed on the

1960:. The kulaks responded by destroying crop yields and other acts of sabotage against the Soviet government. The food shortage led to a mass famine across the USSR and slowed the Five Year Plan. 3265:, was a Soviet economist, chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy and Professor of the Agricultural Academy in Moscow but was eventually executed on fabricated charges in 1938. 3643:, an expert on East Asian languages, was arrested by the NKVD on the charge of being a "Japanese spy". On 27 November 1937 he was executed, along with his Japanese wife Isoko Mantani-Nevsky. 1841:

This opposition to current leadership may have accumulated substantial support among the working class by attacking the privileges and luxuries the state offered to its high-paid elite. The

4389:("openness and transparency") it became possible not only to speak about the Great Terror but to begin locating the killing grounds of 1937–1938 and identifying those who lay buried there. 1964:

accompanied by the purge of the whole society. Soviet historians organize the Great Purge into three corresponding trials. The following events are used for the demarcation of the period:

10219: – Transcript of Nikolai Bukharin's testimonies and last plea; from "The Case of the Anti-Soviet Block of Rights and Trotskyites", Red Star Press, 1973, pp. 369–439, 767–79 4363:

Molotov stated "We would have been complete idiots if we had taken the reports at their face value. We were not idiots." and that "the cases were reviewed and some people were released"

2395:, former members of political parties other than the communist party, etc.). They were to be executed or sent to Gulag prison camps extrajudicially, under the decisions of NKVD troikas. 11118: 9091:

Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gabor T.; Zemskov, Viktor N. (October 1993). "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence".

2444:) who were under permanent police surveillance and constituted a huge pool of potential "enemies" to draw on. At least 100,000 of them were arrested in the course of the Great Terror. 4215:

saying "The report written by that commission member…says that 1,370,000 arrests were made in the 1930s. That's too many. I responded that the figures should be thoroughly reviewed".

2223: 2194: 1991: 11757: 2616:

sufficient proof of their disloyalty and sufficient justification for their arrest and execution" (Martin, 2001: 338). Some scholars have called the national operations of the NKVD

4022:, with respect to the trials of former leaders, some Western observers were unintentionally or intentionally ignorant of the fraudulent nature of the charges and evidence, notably 10605: 2038:

The first trial was of 16 members of the so-called "Trotskyite-Kamenevite-Zinovievite-Leftist-Counter-Revolutionary Bloc," held in August 1936, at which the chief defendants were

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immediately enforceable. The executions were carried out at night, either in prisons or in secluded areas run by the NKVD and located as a rule on the outskirts of major cities.

2469:

The "Kulak Operation" was the largest single campaign of repression in 1937–38, with 669,929 people arrested and 376,202 executed, more than half the total of known executions.

4648:

reports that the purge was not intended to subdue the Soviet masses, many of whom helped enact the purge, but to deal with opposition to Stalin's rule among the Soviet elites.

4403:

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, many more mass graves filled with executed victims of the terror were discovered and turned into memorial sites. Some, such as the

2624:

called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal". However, he does not consider the Great Purge entirely genocidal because it also targeted political opponents.

654: 9713: 5387: 12161: 12144: 10289: 2581:, ethnic Poles constituted the largest group of victims in the Great Terror, comprising less than 0.5% of the country's population but comprising 12.5% of those executed. 1581: 1178: 4619:, which dealt with counter-revolutionary crimes. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was often largely replaced with summary proceedings by 1861:

participated, and which later led to both of their deaths. Stalin enforced a ban on party factions and banned those party members who had opposed him, effectively ending

12191: 10457: 10422: 10418: 1925: 4897: 3765:, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, and proceeded to execute tens of thousands of people accused of having ties to "pro-Japanese spy rings". Buddhist 8960: 619: 3989:

When the relatives of those who had been executed in 1937–1938 inquired about their fate, they were told by NKVD that their arrested relatives had been sentenced to "

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communists that perished in his prison camps along with the thousands of German communists that were handed over from Stalin to the Gestapo after the signing of the

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Purging the elites; adopting plans for the mass repressions against the "social base" of the potential aggressors, starting of purging the "elites" from opposition.

2545:

The Polish Operation of the NKVD served as a model for a series of similar NKVD secret decrees targeting a number of the Soviet Union's diaspora nationalities: the

2077:

It is now known that the confessions were given only after great psychological pressure and torture had been applied to the defendants. From the accounts of former

11219: 11177: 10620: 10356: 10295: 4667: 4120: 2645: 1648:. Soviet politicians who opposed or criticized Stalin were removed from office and imprisoned or executed by the NKVD. Eventually, the purges were expanded to the 551: 4697: 4626:

Valentin Berezhkov, who became Stalin's interpreter in 1941, suggests parallels in his memoir between Hitler's inner party purge and Stalin's mass repressions of

3284:, founder of the Computing Institute in 1919 and was noted for his specialism in applied celestial mechanics before the Second World War. He was executed in 1941. 1825:

The political purge was primarily an effort by Stalin to eliminate challenge from past and potential opposition groups, including the left and right wings led by

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report on the purges, but in many Western nations (especially France), attempts were made to silence or discredit these witnesses; according to Robert Conquest,

4491: 12654: 12154: 11358: 2577:. Of the operations against national minorities, it was the largest one, second only to the "Kulak Operation" in terms of the number of victims. According to 11621: 3967:, were just as huge and just as devoid of justice but were more successfully swallowed into oblivion in the popular memory of the (surviving) Soviet public. 3868:

Mass repressions against "kulaks", "dangerous" ethnic minorities, family members of oppositionists, military officers, saboteurs in agriculture and industry.

2890:

argued that Stalin had destroyed thousands of foreign communists capable of leading socialist change in their respective countries. He referenced 600 active

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viewed the excessive violence characteristic of the mass purges as an ideological differentiation between Stalinism and Bolshevism. He summarised his view:

2127:

in December 1935 to "receive terrorist instructions" from Trotsky. The Dewey Commission established that no such flight had taken place. Another defendant,

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hadn't adequately anticipated the ferocity of the counter-revolutionary reaction from the establishment. They were determined not to make the same mistake.

3570:

was arrested on a charge of his alleged participation in the "Japanese-SR Terrorist Subversive Espionage Organization". He was executed on 12 October 1937.

2987:

who lived until the Great Purge, Stalin himself was the only one who remained in the Soviet Union, alive. Four of the other five were executed; the fifth,

2980: 1956:

police presence in rural areas. Soviet authorities increased repression against the kulaks (i.e., wealthy peasants that owned farmland) in a policy called

425: 2359:

and others wrote to Stalin seeking clemency for Bukharin, but all the leading defendants were executed except Rakovsky and two others (who were killed in

1781:" became enshrined party policy. However, in the early 1930s, party officials began to lose faith in his leadership, largely due to the human cost of the 12139: 12091: 2596:

Timothy Snyder attributes 300,000 deaths during the Great Purge to "national terror" including ethnic minorities and Ukrainian "kulaks" who had survived

4527: 4314:

At least two Soviet commissions investigated the show-trials after Stalin's death. The first was headed by Molotov and included Voroshilov, Kaganovich,

11636: 11616: 11090: 3534:, was executed on 27 October 1937. He created a classification of Russian dialects that served as a base for modern scientific linguistic nomenclature. 3747:

executions for this contingent, but at least three times more were shot in the course of the secret mass operation, the majority in March–April 1938.

12909: 12388: 11626: 10710: 6600: 1745: 402: 387: 127: 4570:, much of the Great Purge was directed against the widespread banditry and criminal activity which was occurring in the Soviet Union at the time. 3457:

was arrested on 10 October 1937 on a charge of treason and was tortured in prison. In a bitter humor, he named only the 18th-century Georgian poet

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was arrested on 28 October 1937 for counter-revolutionary activities, spying and terrorism. One report alleged that "he held secret meetings with

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Official figures put the total number of documentable executions during the years 1937 and 1938 at 681,692, in addition to 116,000 deaths in the

4078: 893: 4881:

According to latest estimates 2,5 million people were arrested and 700,000 of them shot. These figures are based on reliable archival materials

4048:. While "Communist Parties everywhere simply transmitted the Soviet line", some of the most critical reporting also came from the left, notably 2454:

To carry out the mass arrests, the 25,000 officers of the State Security personnel of NKVD were complemented with units of ordinary police, and

584: 2261:, said in his memoirs that Bukharin told him that he formed a secret bloc with Zinoviev and Kamenev in order to remove Stalin from leadership. 916: 9841: 3974:, arrested in April 1938 and shot (or died from torture) in February 1939 (his wife, G. A. Yegorova, was shot in August 1938); Army Commander 3970:

In some cases, high military command arrested under Yezhov were later executed under Beria. Some examples include Marshal of the Soviet Union

12086: 11699: 11611: 10675: 10536: 7174: 7147: 6345:

Dyck, Kirsten (2022). "Holodomor and Holocaust memory in competition and cooperation". In Cox, John M.; Khoury, Amal; Minslow, Sarah (eds.).

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campaign started at the beginning of the 1930s (Hagenloh, 2000; Shearer, 2003; Werth, 2003). According to an October 1993 study published in

2627:

Some scholars, however, focus on the security dilemma in the border areas suggesting the need to secure the ethnic integrity of Soviet space

450: 445: 3874:

Stopping of mass operations, abolishing of many organs of extrajudicial executions, repressions against some organizers of mass repressions.

3271:, Soviet economist and ranked among the most influential contributors to the classical Marxist tradition. He is noted for his seminal work, 1652:

and military high command, which had a disastrous effect on the military. The campaigns also affected many other categories of the society:

11752: 11101: 10381: 10377: 6371:"The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 4692: 4172: 3990: 2131:, confessed to taking part in the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, at a time when he had already been in prison for a year. 544: 525: 440: 435: 430: 3993:" (десять лет без права переписки). When these ten-year periods elapsed in 1947–1948 but the arrested did not appear, the relatives asked 2995:

in 1940. Of the seven members elected to the Politburo between the October Revolution and Lenin's death in 1924, four were executed, one (

12271: 12241: 10733: 10336: 6099:"The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n°00447 (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 5043: 4682: 1118: 954: 859: 715: 232: 202: 6869: 6788: 4400:

in the White Sea, and erected next to KGB headquarters in Moscow as a memorial to all "the victims of political repression" since 1917.

12528: 12488: 12398: 12209: 11725: 11159: 10983: 1105: 411: 7340: 6242:

Sundström, Olle; Kotljarchuk, Andrej (2017). "Introduction: the problem of ethnic and religious minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union".

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Anti-Soviet 'Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites' Heard before the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the U.S.S.R., Verbatim Report

2146:

That the conduct of the Moscow Trials was such as to convince any unprejudiced person that no attempt was made to ascertain the truth.

1720:

In 1938, Stalin reversed his stance on the purges, criticized the NKVD for carrying out mass executions, and oversaw the execution of

12516: 12411: 12283: 12069: 10743: 10715: 7719: 1762: 1482: 702: 697: 472: 7421: 3888: 3486:, philosopher and deputy head of the Marx-Engels Institute, was Stalin's private tutor when Stalin was trying hard to study Hegel's 1982: 12964: 12421: 12338: 12231: 11388: 11045: 10685: 10351: 8703: 846: 482: 373: 7773: 6761: 5249: 12361: 12168: 12035: 10958: 10907: 10269: 4451: 4372: 3625:

executive producer for the Soviet film monopoly from 1930 to 1937, was executed as a "traitor" in 1938, following a purge of the

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lists within days, with figures which roughly corresponded to the individuals who were already under secret police surveillance.

816: 757: 537: 515: 7367: 2330:

Bukharin's confession in particular became subject of much debate among Western observers, inspiring Koestler's acclaimed novel

12974: 12904: 12059: 11904: 11136: 11003: 10962: 10615: 10541: 10452: 10346: 7985: 7692: 6921:"Kurapaty (1937–1941): NKVD Mass Killings in Soviet Belarus | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 4672: 4561: 4396:

in Belarus were the site of a clash between demonstrators and the police. In 1990, a boulder stone was brought from the former

3899: 2612:. Statistics of Ukraine's Ministry of Foreign Affairs indicate that about 200,000 victims of the Great Purge were Ukrainians. 2399: 1302: 1297: 1024: 614: 7492: 7465: 6842: 6064: 4306: 3494:

which was led by Leon Trotsky. In 1937, Sten was seized on the direct order of Stalin, who declared him one of the chiefs of "

12546: 12047: 12013: 12001: 11996: 11887: 10168: 10131:—— "In the shadow of the war: Bolshevik perceptions of polish subversive and military threats to the Soviet Union, 1920–32." 10050: 10029: 10008: 9986: 9964: 9945: 9923: 9901: 9854: 9821: 9800: 9781: 9759: 9736: 9224: 9137: 8740: 8713: 8686: 7995: 7968: 7783: 7756: 7746: 7729: 7702: 7657: 7583: 7556: 7529: 7519: 7502: 7475: 7448: 7404: 7377: 7350: 7323: 7296: 7184: 7157: 7130: 7103: 6879: 6852: 6825: 6815: 6798: 6771: 6744: 6717: 6690: 6663: 6354: 5259: 5232: 4702: 1171: 926: 752: 12473: 8964: 8128: 7573: 7313: 6447: 6388:"The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study" 6145: 2721:

disagreed, arguing that the Red Army was less effective after its intellectual leadership had been eliminated in the purge.

1287: 12583: 12351: 10447: 10442: 10386: 9127: 7958: 7673: 6734: 6207: 5533: 5222: 4902: 3978:, arrested July 1938 and shot February 1939; Flagman Konstantin Dushenov, arrested May 1938 and shot February 1940; Komkor 3549: 1969: 1793: 1475: 728: 568: 342: 7239: 6166:О фашистско-повстанческой, шпионской, диверсионной, пораженческой и террористической деятельности польской разведки в СССР 3563:, considered by many to be the most important Ukrainian theater director of the 20th century, was shot on 3 November 1937. 2138:. Its conclusions asserted the innocence of all those condemned in the Moscow Trials. In its summary, the commission wrote 12979: 12463: 12129: 12076: 12064: 11153: 10897: 10815: 10680: 10499: 9721:

Rehabilitation: As It Happened. Documents of the CPSU CC Presidium and Other Materials. Vol. 2, February 1956–Early 1980s

9055: 7647: 6387: 4712: 4687: 4123: 3440:

was arrested in 1939 and shot in February 1940 for "spying" for Japanese and British intelligence. His wife, the actress

3406:

nearly purged, but Stalin is said to have crossed Pasternak's name off the list, saying "Don't touch this cloud dweller."

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began affecting civilian life. The purge reached its peak between September 1936 and August 1938 under the leadership of

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The second trial in January 1937 involved 17 lesser figures known as the "anti-Soviet Trotskyite-centre" which included

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The Great Purge was denounced by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev following Stalin's death. In his secret speech to the

3994: 3329:, who oversaw Soviet construction projects and nationalization of the chemical industry. Bogdanov was executed in 1939. 3133: 2911: 1292: 1210: 1146: 692: 7438: 7093: 6478: 12894: 12889: 12884: 12763: 12714: 12647: 12458: 12186: 11788: 11692: 11338: 11069: 8730: 7674:"Yuri Gastev, Russian dissident and human rights activist; at 65 – The Boston Globe (Boston, MA) | HighBeam Research" 5875:

Not guilty : report of the Commission of Inquiry Into the Charges Made Against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials

3756: 2869: 2807: 2432:, one of the remaining leaders of the White movement, was kidnapped by the NKVD in 1937 and executed 19 months later. 1729: 1126: 465: 72: 7120: 5156: 4938: 3921:

In the summer of 1938, Yezhov was relieved from his post as head of the NKVD and was eventually tried and executed.

2851: 12924: 12793: 12781: 12605: 12595: 12551: 12366: 12042: 11991: 11874: 11343: 10860: 10341: 8978: 8170: 7394: 6405: 4250:

Historians with archival access have confirmed that Stalin was intimately involved in the purge. Russian historian

1156: 460: 107: 10236: 9216:

At Stalin's side : his interpreter's memoirs from the October Revolution to the fall of the dictator's empire

7342:

An Economic Inquiry into the Nonlinear Behaviors of Nations: Dynamic Developments and the Origins of Civilizations

5507: 5481: 3011:

demonstrate that there were limits for arrests and executions as for all other activities in the planned economy.

2086:

charged with terrorism. After months of such interrogation, the defendants were driven to despair and exhaustion.

12798: 12786: 12642: 12627: 12541: 12443: 12025: 11845: 11363: 10850: 10845: 10825: 10773: 10489: 9664:"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest" 8617: 8610: 7203:

Sharma, Hari Prasad; Sen, Subir K. (2006). "Shubnikov: A case of non-recognition in superconductivity research".

5686: 4199: 3694: 2535: 2495:

was carried out from 1937 through 1938 targeting specific nationalities within the Soviet Union, on the order of

1227: 794: 314:

Elimination of political opponents, consolidation of power, fear of counterrevolution, fear of party infiltration

9938:

Two Lectures: Stalin's Great Terror: Origins and Consequences – Leon Trotsky and the Fate of Marxism in the USSR

9214: 3386:

had futilely pleaded for his case prior to his eventual execution due to accusations of working as a German spy.

3232:

considered the "Soviet founding father of Soviet low-temperature physics" He was known for the discovery of the

3217:. He was removed from his formal positions in 1935 and perished in prison in 1943 following his conflicts with 2269:

by poison, partition the USSR and hand its territories to Germany, Japan, and Great Britain, and other charges.

12739: 12719: 12416: 12030: 11855: 11783: 11408: 11312: 10953: 10820: 10139: 8598: 8573: 7924: 7870: 6980: 6964: 6289: 5649: 4566: 4188:, Conquest claimed that he had been "correct on the vital matter—the numbers put to death: about one million". 3762: 3702: 3578: 2836: 2789: 1797: 1705:. Many died at the penal labor camps of starvation, disease, exposure, and overwork. The NKVD targeted certain 1374: 1083: 1046: 477: 362: 352: 165: 6370: 4171:, a practice of falsification for lowering the execution numbers was disguising executions with the sentence " 3721:

Victims of the terror included American immigrants to the Soviet Union who had emigrated at the height of the

2991:, had been forced into exile outside the Soviet Union in 1929, but was assassinated in Mexico by Soviet agent 12934: 12929: 12919: 12810: 12637: 12501: 12453: 12214: 12008: 11882: 11865: 10933: 10830: 8452:"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence" 4914: 4616: 3640: 1921: 1442: 1412: 1407: 94: 17: 6109: 6098: 5275: 12954: 12949: 12914: 12406: 12081: 11976: 11777: 11685: 11588: 11353: 11015: 10865: 10778: 10504: 10494: 10467: 10208: 8159:

Allen S. Whiting and General Sheng Shicai. "Sinkiang: Pawn or Pivot?" Michigan State University Press, 1958

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regarded the Moscow trials "as the prelude to the destruction of an entire generation of revolutionaries".

4223: 3971: 3611: 3527: 3375: 3233: 2938: 2926: 2785: 2706:

expelled from the Party. Thirty percent of officers purged in 1937–1939 were allowed to return to service.

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was issued, directed against "ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" (such as former officials of the

2082: 1706: 1427: 1277: 1093: 1088: 1068: 911: 906: 867: 821: 809: 784: 774: 743: 733: 420: 54: 3944:

Michael Parrish argues that while the Great Terror ended in 1938, a lesser terror continued in the 1940s.

1792:

From 1930 onwards, the Party and police officials feared the "social disorder" caused by the upheavals of

12959: 12687: 12669: 12435: 12293: 12254: 12221: 11911: 11899: 11815: 11717: 11035: 10690: 10462: 10437: 10413: 10321: 10262: 10119: 9413: 4677: 4430: 3938: 3826: 3337: 3035: 2948:, in which the NKVD oversaw purges of anti-Stalinist elements in the Spanish Republican forces including 2895: 2691: 2675: 2655: 2492: 2478: 1803: 1714: 1417: 1402: 1397: 1036: 1031: 972: 779: 576: 510: 46: 8934: 3941:

and suspended implementation of death sentences. The decree signaled the end of massive Soviet purges.

1686:

headed by Stalin. Hundreds of thousands of victims were accused of various political crimes (espionage,

12682: 12659: 12632: 11648: 11378: 11368: 11333: 10870: 10526: 10241: 10228: 10059:

Watt, Donald Cameron. "Who plotted against whom? Stalin's purge of the soviet high command revisited."

8761: 8459: 7013: 3491: 2903: 2250: 2047: 1850: 1267: 1237: 6707: 5356:

Shearer, David. 2003. "Social Disorder, Mass Repression and the NKVD During the 1930s." pp. 85–117 in

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There was also a secret trial before a military tribunal of a group of Red Army commanders, including

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as "pornographic scrawls on the margins of Russian literature". He was promptly shot on 16 July 1937.

3072: 2915: 2907: 2891: 455: 12692: 6920: 6034:

Report by Viscount Chilston (British ambassador) to Viscount Halifax, No. 141, Moscow, 21 March 1938

12805: 11373: 11209: 11125: 11062: 10855: 10738: 10695: 10655: 9860: 8590: 7916: 7887: 6992: 2360: 1778: 1666:)—and professionals. As the scope of the purge widened, the omnipresent suspicion of saboteurs and 1633: 1056: 723: 8172:

Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949

8042: 7799: 2941:, spent twenty five years in Stalin's prisons and concentrations camps after the purges in 1937. 12054: 11583: 11187: 11076: 10943: 10810: 9501: 9171: 9153: 8849: 8204: 7122:

Covariant Loop Quantum Gravity: An Elementary Introduction to Quantum Gravity and Spinfoam Theory

4445:"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988 4128: 4090: 3983: 3817:

were among the 435 alleged conspirators in the plot. Xinjiang came under virtual Soviet control.

3296: 2847: 2778: 2632: 2437: 2368: 2227: 1687: 1609: 1520: 1200: 877: 672: 9011: 8614: 7027: 5906: 5401: 4036:, who reported, "proof ... beyond reasonable doubt to justify the verdict of treason"; and 3444:, was murdered in her apartment. In a letter to Molotov dated 13 January 1940, Meyerhold wrote: 3318:. Gerasimovich was arrested along with 13 other astronomers and was personally executed in 1938. 1932:

Another justification for the purge was to remove any possible "fifth column" in case of a war.

12734: 12326: 12264: 11666: 11575: 10670: 10556: 10255: 9624: 8011: 4977:

James Harris, "Encircled by Enemies: Stalin's Perceptions of the Capitalist World, 1918–1941,"

4662: 3945: 3914:. He was posthumously removed from pictures, such as here where he stood next to Joseph Stalin. 3690: 3237: 2934: 2459: 2411: 10214: 8765: 8361: 6119: 5830: 1698:, conspiracies to prepare uprisings and coups). They were executed by shooting or sent to the 12853: 11825: 11562: 11107: 11096: 11030: 10610: 10331: 10067: 9568: 8565: 8525: 8071:

American Communists and Radicals Executed by Soviet Political Police and Buried at Sandarmokh

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Automation and Autonomy: Labour, Capital and Machines in the Artificial Intelligence Industry

7008: 6545: 6150:["The Polish operation" NKVD 1937–1938] (in Russian). НИПЦ «Мемориал». Archived from 5251:

Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia

4791: 4750: 4288: 3950: 3509: 3341: 3168: 2337: 1862: 1695: 1667: 1073: 872: 10242:"Documenting the Death Toll: Research into the Mass Murder of Foreigners in Moscow, 1937–38" 9719:

A. Artizov, Yu. Sigachev, I. Shevchuk, V. Khlopov under editorship of acad. A. N. Yakovlev.

4425:

In August 2021, a mass grave containing between 5,000 and 8,000 skeletons was discovered in

4175:" which almost always meant execution. All of the bodies identified from the mass graves at 4107: 3796:

province in China launched his own purge in 1937 to coincide with Stalin's Great Purge. The

2175:

By the "third organization," he meant the last remaining former opposition group called the

12939: 12874: 12615: 12478: 12298: 12096: 11810: 11514: 11442: 11383: 11294: 11249: 10926: 10427: 10408: 9258: 7251: 7058: 7049:

Bronstein, Matvei (2011). "Republication of: Quantum theory of weak gravitational fields".

6939: 5429: 3960: 3948:(a Soviet Army officer who became a prisoner for a decade in the Gulag system) presents in 3651: 3626: 3210: 3060: 3023: 2659: 2609: 2531: 2388: 2070: 1870: 1782: 1755: 1679: 1364: 1220: 1078: 1051: 941: 936: 921: 789: 12702: 9409: 3982:, arrested August 1938 and shot March 1939. All the aforementioned have been posthumously 2257:

asserts that Bukharin was not involved. Differently from Broué, one of his former allies,

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as well as "membership in a terrorist organization". On 27 January 1940, he was shot in

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Whitewood, Peter. "The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38."

10096: 9694: 9640: 9108: 9050: 8996: 8901: 8476: 8209: 7628: 7220: 7074: 6428: 5757: 5361: 5344: 5339:

Hagenloh, Paul. 2000. "Socially Harmful Elements and the Great Terror." pp. 286–307 in

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about their fate again and this time were told that the arrested died in imprisonment.

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This article is about the 1936–1938 Soviet purge. For political purges in general, see

9875: 9182: 8111: 6510:

Cahiers du monde russe. Russie – Empire russe – Union soviétique et États indépendants

5315: 3034:, or their deputies) those arrested along national lines. A characteristic of all the 12817: 12757: 12536: 12322: 12018: 11820: 11805: 11747: 11593: 11224: 11025: 10948: 10665: 10509: 10432: 10403: 10164: 10071: 10046: 10040: 10025: 10004: 9996: 9982: 9974: 9960: 9941: 9919: 9897: 9850: 9817: 9796: 9777: 9755: 9732: 9698: 9686: 9648: 9629: 9610: 9591: 9572: 9537: 9505: 9482: 9460: 9441: 9419: 9395: 9374: 9368: 9353: 9220: 9133: 9019: 8909: 8801: 8771: 8736: 8709: 8682: 8658: 8594: 8569: 8529: 8451: 8418: 8367: 8176: 7991: 7964: 7920: 7866: 7779: 7752: 7725: 7698: 7653: 7620: 7579: 7552: 7525: 7498: 7471: 7444: 7400: 7373: 7346: 7319: 7292: 7267: 7212: 7180: 7153: 7126: 7099: 7078: 6996: 6976: 6960: 6943:

article (October 28, 1990, p. 2). Later, it was cited by several sources, including:

6900: 6875: 6848: 6821: 6794: 6767: 6740: 6713: 6686: 6659: 6640: 6527: 6484: 6350: 6325: 6285: 6252: 5888: 5878: 5761: 5749: 5645: 5579: 5539: 5255: 5228: 5195: 5104: 5001: 4860: 4608: 4592: 4382: 4259: 3930: 3906: 3730:. In addition, 141 American Communists of Finnish origin were executed and buried at 3606: 3589: 3582: 3156: 3145: 3015: 3008: 2979:, or in Lenin's Soviet government, were executed. Out of six members of the original 2899: 2843: 2372: 2290: 2199: 2110:

Commission of Inquiry into the Charges Made against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials

1834: 1618: 1437: 1369: 1349: 1314: 1309: 1205: 1041: 992: 967: 962: 931: 667: 505: 217: 10840: 6432: 6245:

Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union: New Dimensions of Research

5224:

Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat

4818: 4346:

The second commission largely worked from 1961 to 1963 and was headed by Shvernik ("

3856:

Reforming the security organizations, adopting official plans on purging the elites.

3523:

was arrested in 1933 for contradicting Soviet ideology. He was shot in October 1937.

2992: 2906:

became victims of Stalinist terror. Repressive measures were also enforced upon the

1882: 11538: 11530: 11348: 11306: 11280: 11169: 11040: 11020: 10993: 10753: 10514: 10088: 9678: 9523: 9474: 9100: 8468: 8062: 7612: 7259: 7066: 6952: 6517: 6505: 6420: 6065:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)" 5741: 5725: 5531: 5388:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)" 5187: 5084: 4852: 4806: 4657: 4378: 4323: 4270: 4240: 4136: 4033: 4007: 3735: 3722: 3650:

was executed on 3 November 1937. He is considered to be one of the lead figures of

3633: 3618: 3531: 3499: 3371: 3256: 3188: 3031: 2968:, a left-wing academic and translator along with many members of the POUM faction. 2930: 2742: 2589: 2515: 2378: 2332: 2305: 2215: 2176: 2103: 2046:, two of the most prominent former party leaders, who had indeed been members of a 2039: 2027: 1937: 1896: 1886: 1858: 1846: 1830: 1557: 1511: 1282: 1252: 901: 887: 804: 609: 489: 295: 291: 9714:

Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union § Terror, famine and the Gulag

8138: 8116:

Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe

5745: 5661: 4517:

A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of

3937:) and the subsequent order of the NKVD undersigned by Beria cancelled most of the 3414: 12729: 11942: 11894: 11800: 11482: 11274: 11192: 10988: 10917: 10748: 10593: 10583: 10372: 10237:

Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)

10072:"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45" 10019: 9811: 9769: 9551: 9533: 9389: 9350:

The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB

9077: 8795: 8676: 8621: 6944: 6319: 6151: 5573: 4995: 4991: 4600: 4574: 4204: 4168: 4015: 3922: 3813:, Mahmud Sijan, the official leader of the Xinjiang province Huang Han-chang and 3802: 3602:, seen as one of the founders of modern Yakut literature, died in prison in 1939. 3473: 3461:

as his accomplice in anti-Soviet activities. He was executed on 16 December 1937.

3454: 3398: 3390: 3383: 3288: 3198: 3192: 3118: 3082: 3000: 2671: 2663: 2539: 2323: 2286: 2274: 2159:

The commission concluded: "We therefore find the Moscow Trials to be frame-ups."

2128: 2120: 1975:

1937, introduction of NKVD troikas for implementation of "revolutionary justice."

1622: 1604: 1354: 1344: 1242: 882: 831: 279: 90: 10001:

Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine

9729:

Enemies within the Gates?: The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934–1939

9253: 8875: 8522:

The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939

8267: 7677: 6211: 5965:

De Lenine à Staline. Dix ans au service de l'Internationale communiste 1921–1931

5877:. 1859–1952. New York: Sam Sloan and Ishi Press International. pp. 154–55. 5191: 5070:"The Impact of the Great Purges on the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs" 5028: 4810: 4422:, an official but controversial recognition of the crimes of the Soviet regime. 2254: 12749: 12677: 11957: 11947: 11606: 11598: 11403: 11328: 11244: 11204: 10763: 10758: 10700: 9911: 7987:

Russian Academicians and the Revolution: Combining Professionalism and Politics

6984: 6349:. Routledge studies in modern history. London New York: Routledge. p. 31. 6315: 6271: 5575:

Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933–1938

5129:

Goldman, W. (2005). "Stalinist Terror and Democracy: The 1937 Union Campaign".

4627: 4419: 4331: 4327: 4315: 4251: 4244: 4141: 4023: 3964: 3911: 3599: 3541: 3520: 3505: 3465: 3419: 3394: 3333: 3326: 3303: 3218: 3214: 3044: 3027: 2996: 2621: 2597: 2578: 2496: 2429: 2407: 2392: 2356: 2243: 2211: 1957: 1766: 1725: 1721: 1671: 1653: 1645: 1637: 1573: 1334: 1272: 1014: 1007: 997: 631: 347: 275: 271: 10222: 10092: 9682: 9254:"Historian James Harris says Russian archives show we've misunderstood Stalin" 7616: 7070: 6682:

Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State

6079:

L'ivrogne et la marchande de fleurs. Autopsie d'un meurtre de masse, 1937–1938

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to his circle of friends in 1934. After intervention by Nikolai Bukharin and

3359: 3349: 3281: 3229: 2922: 2887: 2530:

The wives and children of those arrested and executed were dealt with by the

2367:, was sent to a labor camp, but she survived to see her husband posthumously 2282: 2278: 2207: 2059: 2004: 1904: 1842: 1710: 1641: 1584: 1432: 1359: 1339: 1247: 1019: 767: 682: 337: 263: 103: 8070: 6522: 3430: 2134:

The Dewey Commission later published its findings in a 422-page book titled

12493: 12314: 11708: 11554: 11450: 11269: 11010: 10795: 10705: 10566: 10189: 9871: 9690: 9519: 8066: 6635: 4580: 4482: 4433:. The graves are believed to date back to the late 1930s during the purge. 4132: 4100: 4069: 4050: 3789: 3783: 3698: 3513: 3367: 3363: 3356: 3195:

was arrested, accused of fictional "terroristic" activity and shot in 1938.

3129: 2988: 2714: 2231: 2019: 1917: 1900: 1854: 1826: 1807: 1774: 1770: 1596: 303: 157: 9457:

On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics

8415:

On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics

4856: 4698:

Orphans in the Soviet Union#Children of "enemies of the people", 1937–1945

3468:, having earlier been forced to denounce several of his associates as the 12318: 12310: 11932: 11916: 11830: 11287: 11113: 8388: 7548:

Soviet Atomic Project, The: How The Soviet Union Obtained The Atomic Bomb

6281: 4620: 4282: 4112: 4041: 3545: 3537: 3410: 3345: 3268: 3094: 3064: 3019: 2965: 2933:

were arrested in 1937 by the NKVD and turned over to the German Gestapo.

2687: 2605: 2574: 2364: 2266: 2043: 2023: 1257: 1136: 987: 977: 636: 227: 10109:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

9281:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

8982: 7224: 6208:"Zapomniane ludobójstwo stalinowskie (The forgotten Stalinist genocide)" 5728:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

4872: 4840: 3935:

Decree about Arrests, Prosecutor Supervision and Course of Investigation

1874: 12346: 11264: 10912: 10598: 10477: 9112: 8587:

Stalin's Loyal Executioner: People's Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895–1940

8480: 6276: 5543: 5358:

Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union,

5096: 4707: 4546: 4278: 3975: 3831:

The Great Purge of 1936–1938 can be roughly divided into four periods:

3814: 3731: 3592:

was arrested and executed for "subversive writing" on 24 November 1937.

3560: 3495: 3307: 3202: 2972: 2957: 2949: 2883: 2792: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2558: 2415: 2168: 2113: 2055: 1949: 1750: 1702: 1161: 836: 677: 604: 382: 283: 190: 11677: 10100: 9588:

Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union

9213:

Berezhkov, V. M. (Valentin Mikhaĭlovich); Mikheyev, Sergei M. (1994).

7632: 7600: 7263: 5926:

British Embassy Report: Viscount Chilston to Mr. Eden, 6 February 1937

5207: 5175: 3609:, responsible for creating the synopsis for Sergei Prokofiev's ballet 1978:

1937, passage of Article 58-14 about "counter-revolutionary sabotage."

1885:

was part of an assassination task force put together by Special Agent

1636:

and secret police of the USSR. Starting in 1936, the NKVD under chief

1632:(People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs), which functioned as the 982: 12566: 12561: 12383: 12276: 12106: 11767: 10892: 10783: 10640: 10578: 10124:—— "Subversion in the Red Army and the Military Purge of 1937–1938." 8897: 8628: 4898:"The Levashovo cemetery and the Great Terror in the Leningrad region" 4717: 4310:

Opening of monument to victims of political repressions, Moscow, 1990

3926: 3834: 3810: 3806: 3574: 3487: 3185: 3068: 2953: 2699: 2601: 2554: 2519: 2309: 1232: 738: 599: 357: 141: 9104: 8472: 8133: 7315:

Managing Technological Innovation: Competitive Advantage from Change

5662:"Gulag History, Structure and Size: A View From the Secret Archives" 5088: 4841:"Children of 'Enemies of The People' as Victims of the Great Purges" 3113: 2854:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 2767: 2363:

in 1941). Despite the promise to spare his family, Bukharin's wife,

2206:

chiefs responsible for conducting mass repressions (left to right):

12556: 12101: 11835: 11795: 10835: 10546: 7575:

Hammer and Rifle: The Militarization of the Soviet Union, 1926–1933

6656:

Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years

6424: 6375:

nkvd-mass-secret-national-operations-august-1937-november-1938.html

4458: 4404: 4393: 4386: 4263: 4180: 3793: 3706: 3483: 3222: 3152: 2683: 2617: 2566: 2562: 2550: 2455: 1691: 1649: 1614: 1131: 826: 237: 222: 194: 161: 7775:

Ensnared between Hitler and Stalin: Refugee Scientists in the USSR

7601:"Alexei Gastev and the Soviet Controversy over Taylorism, 1918-24" 7423:

The Official Record of the United States Department of Agriculture

3636:

was convicted as a "Japanese spy" and executed on 2 February 1938.

3140: 3077: 2584: 1818:" in Soviet political slang was an abbreviation of the expression 12448: 11952: 10571: 10396: 10391: 10151: 9843:

Crimes against humanity under communist regimes – Research review

8850:"Pictorial essay: Death trenches bear witness to Stalin's purges" 8012:"In memory of the scientist : Durnovo, Nikolai Nikolayevich" 7649:

The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927–1932

6103:

nkvd-mass-secret-operation-n-00447-august-1937-november-1938.html

4612: 4518: 3683: 3658: 3553: 3172: 2425: 2403: 10247: 8961:"Jewish Cemeteries, Synagogues, and Mass Grave Sites in Ukraine" 7863:

A Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror

5705: 5462: 4603:, a great number of accusations, notably those presented at the 3761:

During the late 1930s, Stalin dispatched NKVD operatives to the

3672: 2713:

The purge had a significant effect on German decision making in

10203: 7399:. (Cottons Gardens, E2 8DN), Pluto Press Limited. p. 239. 5111: 4549:

burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia

4429:, Ukraine, during exploration works for a planned expansion of 4381:

and similar organisations across the Soviet Union at a time of

4256: 3595: 3458: 3292: 3206: 3125: 3101: 2718: 2650: 2631:

neighboring capitalistic enemy states. They stress the role of

2604:

famine that had been used to kill millions in the early 1930s.

2570: 2301: 198: 8819: 8817: 7440:

The Reception of David Ricardo in Continental Europe and Japan

6324:(4th revised ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 5907:"The Case of Leon Trotsky (Report of Dewey Commission – 1937)" 4533:

A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia

3925:

succeeded him as head. On 17 November 1938, a joint decree of

3221:. The controversy would also contribute to a wider decline in 2698:

commanders, 154 out of 186 division commanders, 16 of 16 army

1810:, in 1929, shortly before being driven out of the Soviet Union 254:

system (official figures) 700,000 to 1.2 million (estimated)

12371: 12249: 10790: 9916:

Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity)

8341: 7095:

Advances in the Interplay Between Quantum and Gravity Physics

5976: 5974: 5597: 5595: 5430:"The "Bloc" of the Oppositions against Stalin (January 1980)" 4876: 4502: 4462: 4426: 4157: 3842: 3089: 2945: 2695: 2546: 2218:. All three were themselves eventually arrested and executed. 1815: 1699: 1661: 1657: 1592: 397: 251: 135: 86: 10290:

General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

9894:

Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia

8450:

Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993).

8363:

Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind

7748:

Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences

6973:

Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia

4162:

16,500 to 50,000 deaths in the deportation of Soviet Koreans

3366:

in 1934. He was also the sibling of prominent mathematician

2636:

prejudices played a central causal role in the Great Purge.

12483: 12259: 9046:"Critics Scoff as Kremlin Erects Monument to the Repressed" 8814: 8305: 8295: 8293: 8278: 8080: 6899:. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 364–72. 6130: 6128: 4408: 4266: 3845: 3766: 3160: 2961: 2203: 2195:

Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"

2124: 2078: 1629: 267: 10244:

by Barry McLoughlin, American Historical Association, 1999

9565:

The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s

9012:"Former Killing Ground Becomes Shrine to Stalin's Victims" 8729:

Dashpu̇rėv, Danzankhorloogiĭn; Soni, Sharad Kumar (1992).

8702:

Kotkin, Stephen; Elleman, Bruce Allen (12 February 2015).

8508:

The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition

8495:

The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition

8417:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 244–45. 6763:

On the Eve: The Jews of Europe Before the Second World War

6616: 6045:

Report of Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet

6016: 5971: 5592: 2717:: many German generals opposed an invasion of Russia, but 181:(2 years, 3 months, 4 weeks and 1 day) 12468: 12288: 8632: 8236: 6925:

kurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings-soviet-belarus.html

6871:

Russia's International Relations in the Twentieth Century

6709:

Marxism and the Philosophy of Science: A Critical History

2510: 2414:), former tsarist civil servants, former officers of the 2142:

Independent of extrinsic evidence, the Commission finds:

10327:

Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War

10296:

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union

9479:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

9305:

For a critique of Whitewood see Alexander Hill, review,

9194: 8431: 8329: 8317: 8290: 8022: 7929: 7694:

Comprehending the Complexity of Countries: The Way Ahead

6957:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

6125: 5642:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

5624: 5622: 5532:

People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. (1938).

5136: 4939:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Party Purge" 4668:

Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin

4418:

On 30 October 2017, President Vladimir Putin opened the

4146:

Rehabilitation: The Political Processes of the 1930s–50s

3848:(1937–1938), later himself arrested and executed in 1939 2678:. Only Budyonny and Voroshilov survived the Great Purge. 2646:

Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization

9415:

The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression

9325: 9090: 8449: 7885: 7751:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 3460. 7437:

Faccarello, Gilbert; Izumo, Masashi (3 February 2014).

6575: 6563: 6004: 5992: 5929: 5810: 5798: 5786: 5360:

edited by B. McLaughlin and K. McDermott. Basingstoke:

3047:

to kill the victims during their transportation to the

2222:

The third and final trial, in March 1938, known as the

1929:

including treason, terrorism, sabotage, and espionage.

1773:

opened in the Communist Party, the ruling party in the

11359:

List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin

9233: 9172:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)" 9154:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)" 8248: 8224: 8092: 7852:

The Independent, "The History of Hell", 8 January 1995

7098:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 440. 7092:

Bergmann, Peter G.; Sabbata, V. de (6 December 2012).

5845: 4958: 4956: 4269:

in Mongolia to be liquidated but the political leader

3498:

idealists". On 19 June 1937, Sten was put to death in

3393:

was arrested for reciting his famous anti-Stalin poem

3213:

such as the law of homologous series in variation and

8202: 6143: 5989:

Bertram David Wolfe, "Breaking with communism", p. 10

5857: 5619: 5276:"Leon Trotsky – Exile and assassination | Britannica" 4211:

The Soviets themselves made their own estimates with

3701:, who both organized large-scale murderous purges in 2253:

led by Trotsky and with zinovievites really existed,

2172:

from a Fronde against the Party, gave us this help."

1541: 1525: 800:

Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina

10806:

Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization

10042:

The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia

9219:. Secaucus, NJ : Carol Pub. Group. p. 10. 6241: 6218: 5607: 5044:"Rethinking Stalin's Purge of the Red Army, 1937–38" 4262:

got rid of? No one." Stalin had ordered for 100,000

2472: 2451:

were charged with a non-political criminal offence.

9607:

The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953

9585: 8359: 8168: 7176:

The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography

7149:

The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography

6043:Tucker, Robert. "Block of Rights and Trotskyites." 5711: 4973: 4971: 4953: 4301: 3179:Those who perished during the Great Purge include: 1640:began the removal of the central party leadership, 11091:Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia 9840:Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). 9839: 9631:The Gulag Archipelago, 1918–1956: In Three Volumes 9628: 8902:"Wary of its past, Russia ignores mass grave site" 8648:. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1999, p. 470 8353: 6937:This information was published first in 1990 in a 5538:. People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. 5390:. Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network. 5157:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge" 2956:factions. Notable cases involved the execution of 1678:. The campaigns were carried out according to the 973:50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide protests 10148:Rehabilitation: Political Trials of the 1930s–50s 10144:Реабилитация. Политические процессы 30–50-х годов 9212: 8615:Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited 8563:Master of the House: Stalin and His Inner Circle. 7420:Agriculture, United States Department of (1925). 6503: 3255:and developed the business cycle theory known as 2898:. Rogovin also noted that sixteen members of the 2179:, led by Bukharin, whom he implicated by saying: 2009: 1746:Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1595:also sought to remove the remaining influence of 128:purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 12970:Persecution of intellectuals in the Soviet Union 12866: 12557:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences 9774:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties 9348:Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2000) . 6210:. Gliwicki klub Fondy. Czytelnia. Archived from 6093: 6091: 6089: 6087: 5572:Getty, John Arch; Getty, John Archibald (1987). 4968: 4144:, was never rehabilitated by the USSR. The book 4020:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties 11199:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 9529:In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage 9438:The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia 9347: 9318:Roger R. Reese, "Stalin Attacks the Red Army." 7778:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 1–376. 7721:Groups and Analysis: The Legacy of Hermann Weyl 7436: 7369:Reconstructing Lenin: An Intellectual Biography 7091: 6817:The End of the Spanish Civil War: Alicante 1939 6205: 5468: 4990: 4895: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4597:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 2371:a half-century later by the Soviet state under 2162: 1660:—especially those lending out money or wealth ( 89:. For the period of the French Revolution, see 49:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling 8728: 8205:"«Большой террор»: 1937–1938. Краткая хроника" 8075:In Denial: Historians, Communism and Espionage 8040: 7848: 7846: 7844: 7118: 6867: 6504:Kuromiya, Hiroaki; Pepłoński, Andrzej (2009). 6214:on 23 March 2012 – via Internet Archive. 5831:"The British Stalinists and the Moscow Trials" 5508:"Who Killed Kirov? 'The Crime of the Century'" 4032:, a Russian speaker; the American Ambassador, 3741: 3167:. He was accused of being a Japanese spy, and 11693: 10774:Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour 10676:Aggravation of class struggle under socialism 10537:Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance 10263: 9918:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 9645:Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941 8701: 8175:. Cambridge: CUP Archive. pp. 151, 376. 7426:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 3. 7198: 7196: 6403: 6084: 5922: 5920: 5176:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" 4792:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" 4554: 4411:, are said to contain up to 200,000 corpses. 4377:In the late 1980s, with the formation of the 1551: 1535: 1483: 545: 250:681,692 executions and 116,000 deaths in the 144:searching through the exhumed victims of the 10224:Actual video footage from Third Moscow Trial 10186:Eternal Memory: Voices from the Great Terror 10021:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 9623: 9586:McLoughlin, Barry; McDermott, Kevin (2002). 9498:The Great Fear: Stalin's Terror of the 1930s 9191:, p. 121 which cites his secret speech. 8935:"Stalin-era mass grave yields tons of bones" 8242: 8207:["Great Terror": Brief Chronology]. 8129:"RTÉ News: Mass grave uncovered in Mongolia" 7125:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–7. 6277:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 6190:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 4936: 4896:François-Xavier, Nérard (27 February 2009). 4774: 4693:Family members of traitors to the Motherland 4366: 4173:10 years without the right of correspondence 4151: 3991:10 years without the right of correspondence 2379:"Ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" 10734:1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi 9518: 9454: 9418:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 9043: 8519: 8510:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. xvi 8497:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. 287 8412: 8386: 8366:. Reynal & Hitchcock. pp. 133–34. 8086: 7886:Tarkhan-Mouravi, George (19 January 1997). 7841: 7838:Robert C. Tucker, "Stalin in Power", p. 445 7792: 7744: 7724:. Cambridge University Press. p. 318. 7419: 7119:Rovelli, Carlo; Vidotto, Francesca (2015). 6868:Kocho-Williams, Alastair (4 January 2013). 6759: 6685:. Princeton University Press. p. 280. 6055: 6053: 4545:The monumental slab at the entrance to the 4103:on a 1963 postage stamp of the Soviet Union 3464:Tabidze's lifelong friend and fellow poet, 2755:Nikita Khrushchev speech during Great purge 1869:the NKVD) shot Bolshevik heroes, including 1644:, government officials, and regional party 1562: 11700: 11686: 11160:Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR 10270: 10256: 10066: 10038: 9973: 9748:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis 9661: 9009: 8823: 8800:. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. 7652:. Princeton University Press. p. 47. 7578:. University Press of Kansas. p. 72. 7237: 7193: 6989:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis 6472: 6470: 6468: 6251:. Södertörn Academic Studies. p. 16. 5917: 5571: 4630:, military commanders and intellectuals. 4392:In 1988, for instance, the mass graves at 4111:Monument to victims of the repressions in 3352:, emigre and eventual political dissident. 3277:. Rubin was arrested and executed in 1937. 3018:and in camera by extrajudicial organs—the 2999:) committed suicide, and two (Molotov and 2975:who had played prominent roles during the 2743:Soviet woman speech during the Great purge 1587:'s campaign to consolidate power over the 1490: 1476: 552: 538: 134: 10744:National delimitation in the Soviet Union 10716:Backwardness brings on beatings by others 9888: 9473: 9459:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 9125: 8896: 8876:"Mass grave found at Ukrainian monastery" 8770:. Harvard University Press. p. 369. 7956: 7947:Roy Medvedev, "Let history judge", p. 438 7771: 7463: 7202: 7048: 6847:. Harvard University Press. p. 212. 6813: 6732: 6521: 6201: 6199: 6183: 6181: 6179: 6177: 6175: 5628: 5041: 4131:") in 1957. The former Politburo members 3716: 3121:'s photo, taken at the time of his arrest 2870:Learn how and when to remove this message 2808:Learn how and when to remove this message 1845:seemed to vindicate Stalin's suspicions. 1628:The purges were largely conducted by the 73:Learn how and when to remove this message 12910:Political repression in the Soviet Union 10686:Great Construction Projects of Communism 10163:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 10158: 10138: 10003:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9768: 9731:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9647:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9639: 9562: 9550: 9408: 9387: 9366: 9331: 9200: 9188: 9078:"Stalin-era mass grave found in Ukraine" 8839:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, pp. 276, 294 8585:Marc Jansen, Nikita Vasilʹevich Petrov. 8520:Getty, J. Arch; Naumov, Oleg V. (2010). 8437: 8347: 8335: 8323: 8311: 8299: 8284: 8098: 8028: 7935: 7881: 7879: 7800:"Biography of Osip Emilevich Mandelstam" 7772:Zimmerman, David K. (21 December 2022). 7490: 7240:"On seven decades of antiferromagnetism" 6622: 6606: 6581: 6569: 6448:"The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact" 6406:"The origins of Soviet ethnic cleansing" 6314: 6224: 6137: 6050: 6022: 6010: 5998: 5962: 5935: 5851: 5816: 5804: 5792: 5601: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5370: 5299: 5117: 5067: 4984: 4920: 4891: 4889: 4305: 4222: 4198: 4106: 4094: 3833: 3750: 3344:of labour in the Soviet Union. His son, 3151: 3139: 3124: 3112: 3100: 3088: 3076: 2649: 2583: 2509: 2424: 2402:" in inhospitable parts of the country ( 2300: 2296: 2198: 2013: 1891: 1849:was working with the even larger secret 1802: 1749: 11707: 11102:Alleged 19 August 1939 speech 9954: 9932: 9910: 9809: 9776:(Revised ed.). London: Macmillan. 9604: 8760: 8254: 8230: 7690: 7544: 7517: 7284: 6844:Comrades!: A History of World Communism 6840: 6705: 6653: 6476: 6465: 5723: 5254:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7. 5221:Shearer, David R. (11 September 2023). 5220: 4997:Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion 4683:History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953) 4373:Mass graves from Soviet mass executions 3773: 3323:Supreme Council of the National Economy 3240:. He also one of the first to discover 3215:centres of origins of cultivated plants 3136:politician, later arrested and executed 3026:and the two-man dvoiki (NKVD Commissar 2944:External purges were also conducted in 2538:were conducted on a quota system using 2246:, recently disgraced head of the NKVD. 1889:, under the personal orders of Stalin. 14: 12867: 11726:Index of Soviet Union–related articles 11137:Dialectical and Historical Materialism 10161:A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia 10017: 9995: 9745: 9495: 9251: 9239: 8756: 8754: 8752: 8735:. South Asian Publishers. p. 44. 8732:Reign of Terror in Mongolia, 1920-1990 8674: 8631:. Vol. 59, No. 4, June 2007, 663–693. 8016:National academy of Science of Belarus 7645: 7598: 7392: 7365: 7172: 7145: 6894: 6445: 6390:by Karol Karski, Case Western Reserve 6196: 6187: 6172: 6147:"Польская операция" НКВД 1937–1938 гг. 5828: 5822: 5734:The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 5556: 5486:The National WWII Museum | New Orleans 5247: 5173: 5154: 4962: 4834: 4832: 4789: 4673:Index of Soviet Union-related articles 4227:A list from the Great Purge signed by 3508:, Soviet historian and founder of the 2702:, and 25 of 28 army corps commissars. 1025:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 615:Russian Social Democratic Labour Party 27:1936–1938 campaign in the Soviet Union 11681: 10251: 9870: 9793:The Red Army and the Second World War 9726: 9432: 9373:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9129:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 9044:MacFarquhar, Neil (30 October 2017). 8790: 7960:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 7876: 7571: 7494:History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia 7318:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. 6820:. Pen and Sword History. p. 81. 6786: 6736:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 6678: 6237: 6235: 6233: 6115: 5950:Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution 5872: 5687:"The First Five Year Plan, 1928–1932" 5613: 5423: 5421: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5382: 5367: 5227:. Taylor & Francis. p. vii. 5142: 4886: 4703:Mass killings under communist regimes 3559:Ukrainian theater and movie director 3291:who among the key founders of Soviet 3022:sentenced indigenous "enemies" under 2188: 1556: 927:Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution 11220:22nd Congress of the Communist Party 11178:20th Congress of the Communist Party 10621:19th Congress of the Communist Party 10458:18th Congress of the Communist Party 10423:17th Congress of the Communist Party 9830: 9790: 9037: 8979:"Bykivnia between Hitler and Stalin" 7983: 7717: 7646:Graham, Loren R. (8 December 2015). 7312:Betz, Frederick (22 February 2011). 7311: 6814:Whitehead, Jonathan (4 April 2024). 6344: 5456:Stalin: Paradoxes of Power 1878–1928 4903:Paris Institute of Political Studies 4838: 4046:Soviet Communism: A New Civilization 4000: 3963:of 1928–1933's collectivization and 3939:NKVD orders of systematic repression 3516:. Arrested and put to death in 1938. 3321:Soviet engineer and chairman of the 2819: 2790:adding citations to reliable sources 2761: 2639: 29: 11154:Marxism and Problems of Linguistics 10378:Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928) 10116:Slavonic & East European Review 9590:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 9394:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 9126:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 8749: 8579: 8196: 8043:"Nightmare in the workers paradise" 7957:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 7676:. 18 September 2017. Archived from 7338: 7238:Kharchenko, N. F. (1 August 2005). 7030:(in Finnish). Parliament of Finland 6787:Sakwa, Richard (12 November 2012). 6766:. Simon and Schuster. p. 395. 6733:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 6706:Sheehan, Helena (23 January 2018). 6654:Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (2021). 6347:Denial: the final stage of genocide 6206:Michał Jasiński (27 October 2010). 5829:Redman, Joseph (March–April 1958). 5482:"Trotsky's Struggle against Stalin" 5248:Nelson, Todd H. (16 October 2019). 4829: 4713:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan 4688:Armenian victims of the Great Purge 4285:which "would be a bigger victory". 3615:, was executed on 21 November 1937. 3209:that made several contributions to 3132:; (1885–1937) Finnish educator and 3081:1938 NKVD arrest photo of the poet 2487:Armenian victims of the Great Purge 2483:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan 2097: 1794:forced collectivization of peasants 1589:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 24: 11301:Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism 11120:The History of the Communist Party 10939:Soviet offensive plans controversy 10904:Ideological repression in science 10448:1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang 10061:Journal of Soviet Military Studies 9835:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 9707: 9010:Kishkovsky, Sophia (8 June 2007). 8797:Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives 8552:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, p. 285 7551:(109 ed.). World Scientific. 7366:Krausz, Tamás (27 February 2015). 7051:General Relativity and Gravitation 6609:, pp. 198–89 (a Soviet book, 6446:Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). 6230: 5777: 5691:Special Collections & Archives 5453: 5412: 5293: 4617:Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code 4615:, and on loose interpretations of 3512:. He had been an old associate of 3370:who made various contributions to 3299:. Kleymyonov was executed in 1938. 3259:. Kondratiev was executed in 1938. 1147:Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan 693:Treaty on the Creation of the USSR 25: 12991: 11339:Generalissimo of the Soviet Union 11070:Marxism and the National Question 10277: 10196: 9813:Stalinism: The Essential Readings 8705:Mongolia in the Twentieth Century 7913:The Making of the Georgian Nation 7745:Ben-Menahem, Ari (6 March 2009). 7691:Kuijper, Hans (18 January 2022). 7518:Chertok, Boris Evseevich (2005). 7464:Steinhoff, James (21 June 2021). 7339:Guo, Rongxing (6 February 2017). 7285:Shifman, Misha (28 August 2015). 7179:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. 7152:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. 6760:Wasserstein, Bernard (May 2012). 6712:. Verso Books. pp. 416–417. 6613:by Nikulin, pp. 189–94 is cited). 6595:European Dictatorships 1918–1945, 6059: 5947: 5427: 5042:Whitewood, Peter (13 June 2016). 4723: 4501:victims of Stalinist repression, 4359:Molotov, Kaganovich, Malenkov.... 4084: 3757:Stalinist repressions in Mongolia 3738:were also shot and buried there. 3244:. Shubnikov was executed in 1937. 3054: 2473:Campaigns targeting nationalities 1603:was popularized by the historian 12849: 12848: 12836: 11662: 11661: 10979:Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina 10443:Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 10202: 9816:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 9391:The Great Terror: A Reassessment 9312: 9299: 9286: 9273: 9245: 9206: 9164: 9146: 9119: 9084: 9070: 9003: 8989: 8971: 8953: 8927: 8890: 8868: 8842: 8829: 8784: 8722: 8695: 8668: 8651: 8638: 8604: 8555: 8542: 8513: 8500: 8487: 8443: 8406: 8389:"On Leaving the Communist Party" 8387:Howard Fast (16 November 1957). 8380: 8260: 8162: 8153: 8121: 8104: 8056: 8041:Tim Tzouliadis (2 August 2008). 8034: 8004: 7977: 7950: 7941: 7905: 7855: 7832: 7817: 7765: 7738: 7718:Tent, Katrin (16 October 2008). 7711: 7697:. Springer Nature. p. 164. 7684: 7666: 7639: 7592: 7565: 7545:Pondrom, Lee G. (25 July 2018). 7538: 7511: 7484: 7457: 7430: 7413: 7386: 7359: 7332: 7305: 7291:. World Scientific. p. 19. 7278: 7231: 7173:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). 7166: 7146:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). 7139: 7112: 7085: 7042: 7020: 6931: 6913: 6679:Weitz, Eric D. (13 April 2021). 6305:, Basic Books, 2010, pp. 411–12 4909:translated in Werth, 2006: 143). 4538: 4526: 4510: 4490: 4470: 4450: 4438: 4302:Soviet investigation commissions 4218: 3898: 3887: 3682: 3671: 3588:Playwright and avant-garde poet 3274:Essays on Marx's Theory of Value 2964:and former government minister, 2824: 2766: 2749: 2737: 1998: 1682:, often by direct orders of the 1459: 1211:End of communist rule in Hungary 1157:Estonian Sovereignty Declaration 583: 34: 12965:Persecution by the Soviet Union 11364:Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin 10500:Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact 10490:Occupation of the Baltic states 9810:Hoffman, David L., ed. (2003). 9609:. Westport, CT: Praeger Press. 7491:Lankford, John (7 March 2013). 7470:. Springer Nature. p. 55. 7443:. Routledge. pp. 203–204. 6888: 6861: 6834: 6807: 6790:Soviet Politics: In Perspective 6780: 6753: 6726: 6699: 6672: 6647: 6628: 6587: 6538: 6497: 6439: 6397: 6381: 6363: 6338: 6308: 6295: 6265: 6071: 6037: 6028: 5983: 5956: 5941: 5899: 5866: 5768: 5717: 5712:McLoughlin & McDermott 2002 5679: 5654: 5634: 5565: 5550: 5525: 5500: 5474: 5447: 5394: 5350: 5333: 5308: 5268: 5241: 5214: 5167: 5148: 5123: 5061: 5048:University Press of Kansas Blog 5035: 4164:which correspond to the purge. 3695:National University of Mongolia 3585:was executed on 3 October 1938. 2777:needs additional citations for 2536:National operations of the NKVD 2430:Yevgeny-Ludvig Karlovich Miller 2123:testified that he had flown to 1787:collectivization of agriculture 1228:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 795:Occupation of the Baltic states 203:religious activists and leaders 179:19 July 1936 – 17 November 1938 9795:, Cambridge University Press, 9252:Harris, James (26 July 2016). 9093:The American Historical Review 8137:. 14 June 2003. Archived from 7984:Tolz, Vera (13 October 1997). 6658:. Mehring Books. p. 380. 5724:Harward, Grant (2 July 2016). 5578:. Cambridge University Press. 5131:The American Historical Review 5021: 4930: 4567:The American Historical Review 2724: 2514:Polish-born Soviet politician 2010:First and second Moscow trials 1881:him in Mexico; the NKVD agent 1833:, respectively. Following the 1047:Mozambican War of Independence 744:Kazakhstan famine of 1932–1933 526:Ukrainian language suppression 13: 1: 12975:Massacres in the Soviet Union 12905:Political and cultural purges 12389:Political abuse of psychiatry 12181:Congress of People's Deputies 11205:Gomulka thaw (Polish October) 11016:1946–1947 Soviet famine 10589:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 9957:1937: Stalin's Year of Terror 9132:. Verso Books. p. 1370. 8681:. Monsudar Pub. p. 322. 8675:Baabar, Bat-Ėrdėniĭn (1999). 8528:. pp. xiv, 243, 590–91. 8203:N.G. Okhotin; A.B. Roginsky. 7963:. Verso Books. p. 1206. 6949:KGB: The State Within a State 6739:. Verso Books. p. 1443. 6413:The Journal of Modern History 6134:Snyder 2010, pp. 103–04. 5746:10.1080/13518046.2016.1200397 5031:– via Internet Archive. 4763: 4073:, who, following the lead of 3287:Soviet engineer and inventor 3225:research in the Soviet Union. 3144:Paleontologist and geologist 2971:Eventually almost all of the 1739: 1106:Death and funeral of Brezhnev 388:Purges of the Communist Party 95:Great Terror (disambiguation) 11354:1956 Georgian demonstrations 10133:Journal of Strategic Studies 9849:. Forum for Living History. 9455:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017). 9292:Ronald Grigor Suny, review, 8413:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017). 8360:Knickerbocker, H.R. (1941). 8169:Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). 7911:Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994), 7888:"70 years of Soviet Georgia" 6392:Journal of International Law 4979:Journal of Strategic Studies 4768: 4099:Posthumously rehabilitated, 3954:his view of the timeline of 3853:October 1936 – February 1937 3566:Russian writer and explorer 3374:. He had contributed to the 3163:in the USSR and co-invented 2939:Communist Party of Palestine 2927:Alexander Weissberg-Cybulski 2656:Marshals of the Soviet Union 2504:Polish Operation of the NKVD 2163:Implication of the Rightists 912:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 907:1956 Georgian demonstrations 868:East German uprising of 1953 810:Soviet invasion of Manchuria 7: 12552:Academy of Medical Sciences 11369:Stalin Monument in Budapest 11036:Night of the Murdered Poets 10954:Allegations of antisemitism 10691:Engineers of the human soul 10438:Soviet invasion of Xinjiang 10414:Sino-Soviet conflict (1929) 9831:Ilic, Melanie, ed. (2006). 9746:Colton, Timothy J. (1998). 9635:. New York: Harper and Row. 9370:Stalin and the Kirov Murder 9283:(2015) Quoting pp. 12, 276. 8663:Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy 7599:Bailes, Kendall E. (1977). 6483:. Oxford University Press. 6477:Naimark, Norman M. (2016). 6192:. Basic Books. p. 104. 6144:Н.В.Петров, А.Б.Рогинский. 5469:Andrew & Mitrokhin 2000 5192:10.1080/0966813022000017177 5068:Uldricks, Teddy J. (1977). 4811:10.1080/0966813022000017177 4678:Timeline of the Great Purge 4651: 4431:Odesa International Airport 3827:Timeline of the Great Purge 3820: 3763:Mongolian People's Republic 3742:Executions of Gulag inmates 3340:and pioneering theorist of 3338:Central Institute of Labour 3036:mass operations of the NKVD 3014:The victims were convicted 2850:the claims made and adding 2493:mass operations of the NKVD 2479:Mass operations of the NKVD 2336:and philosophical essay by 1542: 1526: 1037:Angolan War of Independence 894:"On the Cult of Personality 847:Death and funeral of Stalin 577:History of the Soviet Union 166:Mongolian People's Republic 10: 12996: 12980:Ethnic cleansing in Europe 11409:Stalin Bloc – For the USSR 11379:Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori 10527:Soviet atomic bomb project 9882:Harcourt Brace and Company 9727:Chase, William J. (2001). 9711: 9625:Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. 9563:Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2007). 9340: 9320:Military History Quarterly 9307:American Historical Review 8708:. Routledge. p. 112. 8506:Robert Conquest, Preface, 8460:American Historical Review 8118:, London, 2002, pp. 155–68 7892:rolfgross.dreamhosters.com 7524:. NASA. pp. 164–165. 7497:. Routledge. p. 365. 7372:. NYU Press. p. 417. 7014:Two Hundred Years Together 5980:Corey Robin, "Fear", p. 96 4555:Historical interpretations 4370: 4088: 4054:. The American journalist 3824: 3777: 3754: 3492:Bloc of Soviet Oppositions 3362:had fled persecution from 3348:became a prominent Soviet 3085:, who died in a labor camp 3058: 3030:and Main State Prosecutor 2904:Communist Party of Germany 2643: 2476: 2192: 2101: 2018:Bolshevik revolutionaries 2002: 1743: 1238:First Nagorno-Karabakh War 822:Soviet famine of 1946–1947 734:Soviet famine of 1932–1933 703:Death and funeral of Lenin 353:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 84: 12880:1930s in the Soviet Union 12830: 12774: 12748: 12668: 12591: 12582: 12527: 12434: 12397: 12337: 12240: 12202: 12122: 11984: 11975: 11925: 11873: 11864: 11716: 11657: 11574: 11435: 11417: 11389:Places named after Stalin 11374:Stalin Monument in Prague 11321: 11233: 11168: 11054: 10898:Repressions in Azerbaijan 10724: 10633: 10616:1950 legislative election 10542:1946 legislative election 10453:1937 legislative election 10365: 10314: 10305: 10285: 10184:Pultz, David, dir. 1997. 10093:10.1080/09668139608412415 10034:– via Google Books. 10024:. New York: Basic Books. 9833:Stalin's Terror Revisited 9683:10.1080/09668130050143860 9605:Parrish, Michael (1996). 9352:. New York: Basic Books. 9309:(2017) 122#5 pp. 1713–14. 8906:Christian Science Monitor 8665:(New York, 1991), p. 210. 7617:10.1080/09668137708411134 7345:. Springer. p. 164. 7071:10.1007/s10714-011-1285-4 6874:. Routledge. p. 60. 6793:. Routledge. p. 43. 6480:Genocide: A World History 5863:Snyder 2010, p. 137. 5783:Rogovin (1998), pp. 36–38 5774:Rogovin (1998), pp. 17–18 5341:Stalinism: New Directions 5000:. ABC-CLIO. p. 110. 4611:, often obtained through 4367:Mass graves and memorials 4152:Number of people executed 3548:on 11 November 1937. The 3238:type-II superconductivity 3109:at the time of his arrest 3093:The NKVD photo of writer 2748: 2736: 2731: 2658:in November 1935. (l–r): 2520:1932–33 famine in Ukraine 1987:1937, the military purge. 1680:general line of the party 1552: 1536: 1515: 310: 259: 246: 208: 185: 171: 153: 133: 125: 120: 12895:1938 in the Soviet Union 12890:1937 in the Soviet Union 12885:1936 in the Soviet Union 11210:Soviet Nonconformist Art 11126:1936 Soviet Constitution 10779:Soviet famine of 1932–33 10739:1907 Tiflis bank robbery 10711:Transformation of nature 10696:1936 Soviet Constitution 10656:Socialism in One Country 10495:German–Soviet Axis talks 10159:—— (2004) . 10039:Tzouliadis, Tim (2008). 9791:Hill, Alexander (2017), 9388:—— (2008) . 8591:Hoover Institution Press 8110:Christopher Kaplonski, " 7990:. Springer. p. 48. 7917:Indiana University Press 7572:Stone, David R. (2000). 6993:Harvard University Press 6895:Freeze, Gregory (2009). 6841:Service, Robert (2007). 6188:Snyder, Timothy (2010). 6146: 5302:Behind the Moscow Trials 5174:Ellman, Michael (2002). 4790:Ellman, Michael (2002). 3865:July 1937 – October 1938 3376:Herglotz–Noether theorem 3314:who was director of the 3251:was a proponent for the 3234:Shubnikov–de Haas effect 3201:was a prominent Russian 3169:extrajudicially executed 1820:purge of the Party ranks 1779:socialism in one country 1582:Soviet General Secretary 1298:independence declaration 1069:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 1057:South African Border War 724:Socialism in one country 12925:Massacres in Uzbekistan 12843:Soviet Union portal 11334:Iosif Stalin locomotive 11077:Foundations of Leninism 11063:Anarchism or Socialism? 10944:Hitler Youth Conspiracy 10811:NKVD prisoner massacres 10463:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 10352:Death and state funeral 10178: 10018:—— (2010). 9955:—— (1998). 9662:—— (2000). 9502:Oxford University Press 9367:—— (1987). 8620:14 October 2007 at the 8268:"Московский мартиролог" 8112:Thirty thousand bullets 8087:Haynes & Klehr 2003 7393:Rosmer, Alfred (1971). 7244:Low Temperature Physics 6523:10.4000/monderusse.9736 5644:, 2007, Knopf, 720 pp. 5161:McNair Scholars Journal 5120:, pp. 250, 257–58. 5029:"Tokaev Comrade X 1956" 4943:McNair Scholars Journal 4481:memorial cemetery near 4091:Rehabilitation (Soviet) 4051:The Manchester Guardian 3841:; (1896–1939) chief of 3646:Ukrainian drama writer 3556:is named after Chavain. 3297:Gas Dynamics Laboratory 3228:Experimental physicist 2921:According to historian 2688:Military Maritime Fleet 2633:international relations 2518:, a contributor to the 2361:NKVD prisoner massacres 2228:Communist International 2224:Trial of the Twenty-One 1668:counter-revolutionaries 1558:[(j)ɪˈʐofɕːɪnə] 1466:Soviet Union portal 1201:Fall of the Berlin Wall 1167:Lithuanian independence 878:1954 transfer of Crimea 780:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 673:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 108:Infobox civilian attack 101: 12735:Stalinist architecture 12489:Science and technology 12399:Ideological repression 12327:Soviet Airborne Forces 12265:Destruction battalions 11542:(second father-in-law) 10796:Murder of Sergey Kirov 10671:Stalinist architecture 10557:Turkish Straits crisis 10140:Yakovlev, Alexander N. 10118:93.2 (2015): 286–314. 9496:Harris, James (2017). 9440:. London: Allen Lane. 9080:. BBC. 26 August 2021. 7865:. Enigma Books, 2003. 7288:Physics In A Mad World 6404:Martin, Terry (1998). 6077:Werth, Nicolas. 2009. 5300:Schatman, Max (1938). 5155:Homkes, Brett (2004). 4845:Cahiers du Monde russe 4839:Kuhr, Corinna (1998). 4663:Anti-Rightist Campaign 4641: 4589: 4361: 4311: 4299: 4247: 4208: 4116: 4104: 3946:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 3878: 3849: 3788:The pro-Soviet leader 3717:Western émigré victims 3691:Khorloogiin Choibalsan 3577:writer and translator 3450: 3176: 3149: 3137: 3122: 3110: 3098: 3086: 3051:has been documented. 2935:Joseph Berger-Barzilai 2690:removed three of five 2679: 2593: 2523: 2460:Young Communist League 2433: 2410:, Kazakhstan, and the 2354: 2316: 2219: 2186: 2157: 2030: 1912: 1811: 1758: 1591:and Soviet state. The 1121:: Decline and collapse 412:Ideological repression 113:considered for merging 93:. For other uses, see 12517:List of metro systems 12070:Collective leadership 11563:William Wesley Peters 11108:Falsifiers of History 11031:Rootless cosmopolitan 10337:Rule as Soviet leader 9981:. London: Routledge. 9569:Yale University Press 8985:on 23 September 2020. 8967:on 23 September 2020. 8792:Getty, John Archibald 8566:Yale University Press 8526:Yale University Press 7826:Collecting Mandelstam 7680:on 18 September 2017. 7009:Alexandr Solzhenitsyn 6611:Marshal Tukhachevskiy 5963:Humbert-Droz, Jules. 4937:Brett Homkes (2004). 4857:10.3406/cmr.1998.2520 4751:30 September killings 4636: 4585: 4461:mass grave site near 4356: 4309: 4294: 4289:Stephen G. Wheatcroft 4226: 4202: 4110: 4098: 3951:The Gulag Archipelago 3837: 3751:Mongolian Great Purge 3510:Marx-Engels Institute 3470:enemies of the people 3445: 3342:scientific management 3155: 3143: 3128: 3116: 3104: 3097:made after his arrest 3092: 3080: 3073:Korets–Landau leaflet 2653: 2644:Further information: 2587: 2513: 2428: 2387:On 30 July 1937, the 2350: 2338:Maurice Merleau-Ponty 2304: 2297:Bukharin's confession 2202: 2181: 2167:In the second trial, 2140: 2017: 1895: 1863:democratic centralism 1806: 1753: 1696:anti-Soviet agitation 1613:, whose title was an 1543:Tridtsat' sed'moy god 1530:), also known as the 873:Virgin Lands campaign 698:National delimitation 189:Political opponents, 12935:Massacres in Armenia 12930:Massacres in Belarus 12920:Massacres in Ukraine 12479:Net material product 12422:Censorship of images 12339:Political repression 12299:Soviet Border Troops 12232:First Deputy Premier 11816:1965 economic reform 11811:Soviet space program 11584:Stalin's house, Gori 11515:Yevgeny Dzhugashvili 11443:Besarion Jughashvili 11384:Batumi Stalin Museum 11295:Nineteen Eighty-Four 11046:Censorship of images 10725:Crimes, repressions, 10428:1931 Menshevik Trial 10409:First five-year plan 10216:The Case of Bukharin 10211:at Wikimedia Commons 10128:67.1 (2015): 102–22. 9890:Merridale, Catherine 9877:Assignment in Utopia 9296:(2018) 80#1: 177–79. 9259:History News Network 8997:"War Stats Redirect" 8644:Getty & Naumov, 8350:, pp. 465, 467. 6969:Merridale, Catherine 6940:Komsomolskaya Pravda 6081:. Paris: Tallandier. 5873:Dewey, John (2008). 5557:Knight, Amy (1999). 5512:www.wilsoncenter.org 5347:. London: Routledge. 4745:Khmer Rouge genocide 4740:Hungarian Revolution 4599:", and to historian 4407:killing fields near 4273:resisted the order. 3961:first five-year plan 3959:purges, such as the 3871:November 1938 – 1939 3774:Xinjiang Great Purge 3652:Executed Renaissance 3627:Soviet film industry 3540:poet and playwright 3532:Durnovo noble family 3211:agricultural science 3061:Executed Renaissance 3024:NKVD Order No. 00447 2937:, co-founder of the 2786:improve this article 2660:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 2610:Executed Renaissance 2532:NKVD Order No. 00486 2389:NKVD Order No. 00447 2071:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 1871:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 1783:first five-year plan 1756:NKVD Order No. 00447 1293:Ukrainian revolution 1221:German reunification 1179:Latvian independence 1094:1984 Olympic boycott 1089:1980 Olympic boycott 1079:1980 Summer Olympics 1052:Mozambican Civil War 942:Cuban Missile Crisis 922:Peaceful coexistence 790:Operation Barbarossa 521:Repressions of Poles 516:Population transfers 374:Political repression 12955:Mass murder in 1938 12950:Mass murder in 1937 12915:Massacres in Russia 12547:Academy of Sciences 12362:Population transfer 12306:Soviet Armed Forces 12169:Congress of Soviets 12150:Presidium/Politburo 12114:Soviet anti-Zionism 11963:West Siberian Plain 11841:Revolutions of 1989 11778:Great Patriotic War 11763:New Economic Policy 11576:Stalin's residences 11523:Galina Dzhugashvili 11507:Svetlana Alliluyeva 11491:Nadezhda Alliluyeva 11418:Cultural depictions 11260:Anti-Stalinist left 11215:Shvernik Commission 11183:Pospelov Commission 10959:Population transfer 10934:1941 Red Army purge 10908:Suppressed research 10562:First Indochina War 10505:Great Patriotic War 10483:Moscow Peace Treaty 10347:Cult of personality 10126:Europe-Asia Studies 10080:Europe-Asia Studies 10068:Wheatcroft, Stephen 10045:. London: Penguin. 9896:. London: Penguin. 9671:Europe-Asia Studies 9322:27.1 (2014): 38–45. 8900:(10 October 2002). 8767:Stalin: A Biography 8678:History of Mongolia 8625:Europe–Asia Studies 8561:Oleg V. Khlevniuk. 7915:(2nd ed.), p. 272. 7256:2005LTP....31..633K 7063:2012GReGr..44..267B 6154:on 15 February 2017 5726:"Whitewood, Peter, 5488:. 12 September 2018 5180:Europe-Asia Studies 5145:, pp. 227–315. 4799:Europe-Asia Studies 4730:Cultural Revolution 4398:Solovki prison camp 4348:Shvernik Commission 4203:Memorial events in 4065:Communist Party USA 4056:H. R. Knickerbocker 3798:Xinjiang War (1937) 3780:Xinjiang War (1937) 3728:Butovo firing range 3605:Russian dramaturge 3316:Pulkovo Observatory 3253:New Economic Policy 3148:, executed in 1938. 3049:Butovo firing range 2449:Butovo firing range 2400:special settlements 2342:Humanism and Terror 2048:Conspiratorial Bloc 1983:second Moscow trial 1926:1934 Party Congress 1798:famine of 1932–1933 1216:Romanian Revolution 1196:Peaceful Revolution 1191:Pan-European Picnic 1186:Revolutions of 1989 1127:Invasion of Grenada 1003:Cambodian Civil War 957:: Era of Stagnation 842:First Indochina War 817:Soviet deportations 785:Great Patriotic War 758:Cultural Revolution 688:New Economic Policy 642:February Revolution 511:National operations 403:Punitive psychiatry 330:Economic repression 325:in the Soviet Union 12960:Soviet phraseology 12192:Military Collegium 12060:Capital punishment 11938:Caucasus Mountains 11851:Post-Soviet states 11731:Russian Revolution 11547:Alexander Svanidze 11475:Konstantin Kuzakov 11467:Yakov Dzhugashvili 11426:Apocalypse: Stalin 11399:Stalin Peace Prize 11394:State Stalin Prize 11097:"Ten Blows" speech 11084:Dizzy with Success 10994:Operation "Priboi" 10974:Operation "Lentil" 10927:1937 Soviet Census 10606:Sino-Soviet Treaty 10520:Potsdam Conference 10473:Invasion of Poland 10107:Whitewood, Peter. 10063:3.1 (1990): 46–65. 9975:Rosefielde, Steven 9912:Naimark, Norman M. 9866:on 24 August 2010. 9410:Courtois, Stéphane 9058:on 3 February 2024 9051:The New York Times 9016:The New York Times 8646:The Road to Terror 8314:, pp. 472–74. 8287:, pp. 472–73. 7521:Rockets and People 6985:Colton, Timothy J. 6516:(50/2–3): 647–70. 6506:"The Great Terror" 6321:Ukraine: A History 6105:. 19 January 2016. 6025:, pp. 364–35. 5640:Robert Gellately, 5604:, pp. 122–38. 5561:. Hill & Wang. 5362:Palgrave MacMillan 5280:www.britannica.com 4734:Great Leap Forward 4646:Robert W. Thurston 4609:forced confessions 4605:Moscow show trials 4562:social engineering 4312: 4248: 4213:Vyacheslav Molotov 4209: 4117: 4105: 4075:The New York Times 4029:The New York Times 3850: 3697:, and portrait of 3568:Maximilian Kravkov 3438:Vsevolod Meyerhold 3380:special relativity 3312:Boris Gerasimovich 3263:Valerian Obolensky 3249:Nikolai Kondratiev 3242:antiferromagnetism 3177: 3159:, who popularized 3150: 3138: 3123: 3111: 3107:Vsevolod Meyerhold 3099: 3087: 2985:October Revolution 2977:Russian Revolution 2896:German-Soviet Pact 2835:possibly contains 2680: 2668:Kliment Voroshilov 2594: 2592:, executed in 1938 2524: 2522:, executed in 1939 2434: 2317: 2259:Jules Humbert-Droz 2251:an Opposition Bloc 2240:Nikolai Krestinsky 2236:Christian Rakovsky 2220: 2189:Third Moscow trial 2092:Kliment Voroshilov 2064:Grigory Sokolnikov 2031: 1992:third Moscow trial 1970:first Moscow trial 1945:October Revolution 1934:Vyacheslav Molotov 1913: 1907:(and his daughter 1812: 1796:and the resulting 1759: 1448:Post-Soviet states 1152:Singing Revolution 1142:Chernobyl disaster 1062:Rhodesian Bush War 663:October Revolution 300:Kliment Voroshilov 288:Vyacheslav Molotov 218:Summary executions 146:Vinnytsia massacre 53:You can assist by 12862: 12861: 12826: 12825: 12818:Hammer and sickle 12760:and their groups 12758:Soviet dissidents 12537:Communist Academy 12454:Economic planning 12430: 12429: 12323:Soviet Air Forces 12242:Security services 12162:General Secretary 12145:Central Committee 12087:Political parties 12019:Brezhnev Doctrine 12014:Foreign relations 11971: 11970: 11912:Autonomous okrugs 11826:Soviet–Afghan War 11806:Sino-Soviet split 11748:Russian Civil War 11675: 11674: 11632:Kholodnaya Rechka 11329:Iosif Stalin tank 11250:Lenin's Testament 11225:Era of Stagnation 11026:Mingrelian Affair 11004:Forced settlement 10989:Operation "North" 10949:Soviet war crimes 10727:and controversies 10666:Socialist realism 10629: 10628: 10611:Tito–Stalin split 10510:Tehran Conference 10433:Spanish Civil War 10404:Chinese Civil War 10207:Media related to 10170:978-0-300-10322-9 10052:978-1-59420-168-4 10031:978-0-465-00239-9 10010:978-0-300-10670-1 9988:978-0-415-77757-5 9966:978-0-929087-77-1 9959:. Mehring Books. 9947:978-0-929087-83-2 9940:. Mehring books. 9925:978-0-691-14784-0 9903:978-0-14-200063-2 9856:978-91-977487-2-8 9823:978-0-631-22890-5 9802:978-1-1070-2079-5 9783:978-0-02-527560-7 9761:978-0-674-58749-6 9738:978-0-300-08242-5 9567:. New Haven, CT: 9520:Haynes, John Earl 9475:Gellately, Robert 9279:Peter Whitewood, 9226:978-1-55972-212-4 9139:978-1-78168-721-5 8837:Molotov Remembers 8742:978-1-881318-15-6 8715:978-1-317-46010-7 8688:978-99929-0-038-3 8659:Dmitri Volkogonov 8550:Molotov Remembers 8493:Robert Conquest, 8243:Solzhenitsyn 1973 7997:978-1-349-25840-6 7970:978-1-78168-721-5 7785:978-1-4875-4366-2 7758:978-3-540-68831-0 7731:978-0-521-71788-5 7704:978-981-16-4709-3 7659:978-1-4008-7551-1 7585:978-0-7006-1037-2 7558:978-981-323-557-1 7531:978-0-16-073239-3 7504:978-1-136-50834-9 7477:978-3-030-71689-9 7450:978-1-317-81995-0 7406:978-0-902818-11-8 7379:978-1-58367-449-9 7352:978-3-319-48772-4 7325:978-0-470-54782-3 7298:978-981-4619-31-8 7264:10.1063/1.2008126 7211:(11): 1576–1578. 7186:978-1-136-59369-7 7159:978-1-136-59369-7 7132:978-1-107-06962-6 7105:978-94-010-0347-6 6975:. Penguin Books. 6953:Gellately, Robert 6897:Russia: A History 6881:978-1-136-15747-9 6854:978-0-674-02530-1 6827:978-1-3990-6395-1 6800:978-1-134-90996-4 6773:978-1-4165-9427-7 6746:978-1-78168-721-5 6719:978-1-78663-426-9 6692:978-0-691-22812-9 6665:978-1-893638-97-6 6641:Let History Judge 6625:, p. 200–02. 6356:978-1-003-01070-8 5471:, pp. 86–87. 5454:Kotkin, Stephen, 5386:(15 April 2019). 5261:978-1-4985-9153-9 5234:978-1-000-95544-6 5133:, 110(5), 1427–53 4595:'s 1956 speech, " 4593:Nikita Khrushchev 4260:Ivan the Terrible 4252:Oleg V. Khlevniuk 4018:in his 1968 book 4001:Western reactions 3972:Alexander Yegorov 3931:Central Committee 3907:Damnatio memoriae 3859:March – June 1937 3736:Finnish Canadians 3639:Russian linguist 3607:Adrian Piotrovsky 3590:Nikolay Oleynikov 3583:Vladimir Varankin 3526:Russian linguist 3436:Theatre director 3247:Soviet economist 3157:Vasili Oshchepkov 3146:Dmitrii Mushketov 3134:Social Democratic 3105:Theatre director 3009:Vladimir Bukovsky 2900:Central committee 2880: 2879: 2872: 2837:original research 2818: 2817: 2810: 2760: 2759: 2682:The purge of the 2676:Alexander Yegorov 2640:Purge of the army 2507:further inquiry. 2442:spetzpereselentsy 2373:Mikhail Gorbachev 2291:Heinrich Brandler 2230:, former premier 2108:In May 1937, the 1707:ethnic minorities 1674:, hence the name 1634:interior ministry 1619:French Revolution 1607:in his 1968 book 1524: 1500: 1499: 1329:Soviet leadership 1315:Alma-Ata Protocol 1310:Belovezha Accords 1206:Velvet Revolution 1172:Economic blockade 1074:Soviet–Afghan War 1042:Angolan Civil War 993:Laotian Civil War 968:Era of Stagnation 963:Brezhnev Doctrine 932:Sino-Soviet split 862:: Khrushchev Thaw 753:Industrialization 668:Russian Civil War 562: 561: 506:De-Cossackization 498:Ethnic repression 318: 317: 83: 82: 75: 16:(Redirected from 12987: 12852: 12851: 12841: 12840: 12839: 12589: 12588: 12497: 12352:Collectivization 12097:Marxism–Leninism 11982: 11981: 11871: 11870: 11702: 11695: 11688: 11679: 11678: 11665: 11664: 11567: 11559: 11551: 11550:(brother-in-law) 11543: 11539:Sergei Alliluyev 11535: 11531:Joseph Alliluyev 11527: 11519: 11511: 11503: 11495: 11487: 11479: 11471: 11463: 11455: 11447: 11349:Pantheon, Moscow 11307:The Soviet Story 11281:Darkness at Noon 11170:De-Stalinization 11021:Leningrad Affair 10754:Decossackization 10552:1946 Iran crisis 10515:Yalta Conference 10387:Collectivization 10312: 10311: 10272: 10265: 10258: 10249: 10248: 10225: 10206: 10174: 10155: 10104: 10076: 10056: 10035: 10014: 9992: 9970: 9951: 9929: 9907: 9885: 9867: 9865: 9859:. 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Archived from 8957: 8951: 8950: 8948: 8946: 8931: 8925: 8924: 8922: 8920: 8894: 8888: 8887: 8885: 8883: 8872: 8866: 8865: 8863: 8861: 8846: 8840: 8833: 8827: 8821: 8812: 8811: 8788: 8782: 8781: 8758: 8747: 8746: 8726: 8720: 8719: 8699: 8693: 8692: 8672: 8666: 8655: 8649: 8642: 8636: 8608: 8602: 8583: 8577: 8559: 8553: 8546: 8540: 8539: 8517: 8511: 8504: 8498: 8491: 8485: 8484: 8456: 8447: 8441: 8435: 8429: 8428: 8410: 8404: 8403: 8401: 8399: 8384: 8378: 8377: 8357: 8351: 8345: 8339: 8333: 8327: 8321: 8315: 8309: 8303: 8297: 8288: 8282: 8276: 8275: 8264: 8258: 8252: 8246: 8240: 8234: 8228: 8222: 8221: 8219: 8217: 8200: 8194: 8193: 8191: 8189: 8166: 8160: 8157: 8151: 8150: 8148: 8146: 8125: 8119: 8108: 8102: 8096: 8090: 8084: 8078: 8063:John Earl Haynes 8060: 8054: 8053: 8051: 8049: 8038: 8032: 8026: 8020: 8019: 8008: 8002: 8001: 7981: 7975: 7974: 7954: 7948: 7945: 7939: 7933: 7927: 7909: 7903: 7902: 7900: 7898: 7883: 7874: 7859: 7853: 7850: 7839: 7836: 7830: 7821: 7815: 7814: 7812: 7810: 7796: 7790: 7789: 7769: 7763: 7762: 7742: 7736: 7735: 7715: 7709: 7708: 7688: 7682: 7681: 7670: 7664: 7663: 7643: 7637: 7636: 7596: 7590: 7589: 7569: 7563: 7562: 7542: 7536: 7535: 7515: 7509: 7508: 7488: 7482: 7481: 7461: 7455: 7454: 7434: 7428: 7427: 7417: 7411: 7410: 7390: 7384: 7383: 7363: 7357: 7356: 7336: 7330: 7329: 7309: 7303: 7302: 7282: 7276: 7275: 7235: 7229: 7228: 7200: 7191: 7190: 7170: 7164: 7163: 7143: 7137: 7136: 7116: 7110: 7109: 7089: 7083: 7082: 7046: 7040: 7039: 7037: 7035: 7024: 7018: 6945:Albats, Yevgenia 6935: 6929: 6928: 6927:. 29 April 2019. 6917: 6911: 6910: 6892: 6886: 6885: 6865: 6859: 6858: 6838: 6832: 6831: 6811: 6805: 6804: 6784: 6778: 6777: 6757: 6751: 6750: 6730: 6724: 6723: 6703: 6697: 6696: 6676: 6670: 6669: 6651: 6645: 6632: 6626: 6620: 6614: 6604: 6598: 6591: 6585: 6579: 6573: 6567: 6561: 6560: 6558: 6556: 6542: 6536: 6535: 6525: 6501: 6495: 6494: 6474: 6463: 6462: 6460: 6458: 6443: 6437: 6436: 6410: 6401: 6395: 6385: 6379: 6378: 6377:. 15 April 2019. 6367: 6361: 6360: 6342: 6336: 6335: 6312: 6306: 6301:Timothy Snyder, 6299: 6293: 6269: 6263: 6262: 6250: 6239: 6228: 6222: 6216: 6215: 6203: 6194: 6193: 6185: 6170: 6169: 6164:Original title: 6161: 6159: 6141: 6135: 6132: 6123: 6113: 6107: 6106: 6095: 6082: 6075: 6069: 6068: 6057: 6048: 6041: 6035: 6032: 6026: 6020: 6014: 6008: 6002: 5996: 5990: 5987: 5981: 5978: 5969: 5968: 5960: 5954: 5953: 5948:Cohen, Stephen. 5945: 5939: 5933: 5927: 5924: 5915: 5914: 5911:www.marxists.org 5903: 5897: 5896: 5870: 5864: 5861: 5855: 5849: 5843: 5842: 5826: 5820: 5814: 5808: 5802: 5796: 5790: 5784: 5781: 5775: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5721: 5715: 5709: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5698: 5693:. 7 October 2015 5683: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5672: 5658: 5652: 5638: 5632: 5626: 5617: 5611: 5605: 5599: 5590: 5589: 5569: 5563: 5562: 5559:Who Killed Kirov 5554: 5548: 5547: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5518: 5504: 5498: 5497: 5495: 5493: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5458: 5451: 5445: 5444: 5442: 5440: 5434:www.marxists.org 5425: 5410: 5409: 5406:www.marxists.org 5398: 5392: 5391: 5380: 5365: 5354: 5348: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5286: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5186:(7): 1151–1172. 5171: 5165: 5164: 5152: 5146: 5140: 5134: 5127: 5121: 5115: 5109: 5108: 5074: 5065: 5059: 5058: 5056: 5054: 5039: 5033: 5032: 5025: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5014: 4988: 4982: 4975: 4966: 4960: 4951: 4950: 4934: 4928: 4918: 4912: 4911: 4893: 4884: 4883: 4836: 4827: 4826: 4796: 4787: 4759:(Czechoslovakia) 4658:Leningrad affair 4607:, were based on 4542: 4530: 4514: 4494: 4474: 4454: 4442: 4379:Memorial Society 4350:"). It included 4271:Peljidiin Genden 4186:The Great Terror 4137:Stanislav Kosior 4077:, published the 4034:Joseph E. Davies 4008:Jean-Paul Sartre 3902: 3891: 3803:Garegin Apresoff 3723:Great Depression 3693:in front of the 3686: 3675: 3634:Julian Shchutsky 3619:Boris Shumyatsky 3612:Romeo and Juliet 3579:Nikolai Nekrasov 3544:was executed in 3530:, born into the 3500:Lefortovo prison 3372:abstract algebra 3257:Kondratiev waves 3189:Matvei Bronstein 3032:Andrey Vyshinsky 2931:Fritz Houtermans 2916:Polish Communist 2875: 2868: 2864: 2861: 2855: 2852:inline citations 2828: 2827: 2820: 2813: 2806: 2802: 2799: 2793: 2770: 2762: 2753: 2752: 2741: 2740: 2729: 2728: 2590:Khadija Gayibova 2516:Stanislav Kosior 2333:Darkness at Noon 2315:executed in 1938 2306:Nikolai Bukharin 2216:Stanislav Redens 2104:Dewey Commission 2098:Dewey Commission 2040:Grigory Zinoviev 2028:Grigory Zinoviev 1938:Lazar Kaganovich 1887:Pavel Sudoplatov 1859:Grigori Zinoviev 1831:Nikolai Bukharin 1658:wealthy peasants 1610:The Great Terror 1579: 1576: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1560: 1555: 1554: 1545: 1539: 1538: 1529: 1519: 1517: 1492: 1485: 1478: 1464: 1463: 1462: 1443:Soviet republics 1283:New Union Treaty 1084:Olympic boycotts 902:We will bury you 888:De-Stalinization 805:Battle of Berlin 729:Collectivization 610:World revolution 587: 564: 563: 554: 547: 540: 343:Collectivization 320: 319: 296:Lazar Kaganovich 292:Andrey Vyshinsky 233:Ethnic cleansing 138: 118: 117: 78: 71: 67: 64: 58: 38: 37: 30: 21: 12995: 12994: 12990: 12989: 12988: 12986: 12985: 12984: 12865: 12864: 12863: 12858: 12837: 12835: 12822: 12770: 12744: 12664: 12578: 12523: 12495: 12469:Internet domain 12464:Five-year plans 12426: 12393: 12333: 12236: 12198: 12130:Communist Party 12118: 12077:Passport system 11967: 11943:European Russia 11921: 11860: 11801:Khrushchev Thaw 11780:(World War II) 11758:Creation treaty 11712: 11706: 11676: 11671: 11653: 11649:Stalin's bunker 11599:Room at Kremlin 11589:Tiflis Seminary 11570: 11565: 11557: 11549: 11541: 11533: 11526:(granddaughter) 11525: 11517: 11509: 11501: 11493: 11485: 11483:Artyom Sergeyev 11477: 11469: 11461: 11453: 11445: 11431: 11413: 11317: 11275:True Communists 11238: 11236: 11229: 11193:Khrushchev Thaw 11164: 11131:Stalin's poetry 11050: 10918:Japhetic theory 10856:Medvedev Forest 10749:Georgian Affair 10726: 10720: 10681:Five-year plans 10625: 10594:Berlin Blockade 10584:Greek Civil War 10373:August Uprising 10361: 10342:Political views 10307: 10301: 10281: 10276: 10223: 10199: 10181: 10171: 10150:]. Moscow: 10074: 10053: 10032: 10011: 9997:Snyder, Timothy 9989: 9967: 9948: 9926: 9904: 9863: 9857: 9846: 9824: 9803: 9784: 9762: 9739: 9723:. Moscow, 2003. 9716: 9710: 9708:Further reading 9705: 9666: 9655: 9617: 9598: 9579: 9544: 9534:Encounter Books 9512: 9489: 9467: 9448: 9426: 9402: 9381: 9360: 9343: 9338: 9330: 9326: 9317: 9313: 9304: 9300: 9291: 9287: 9278: 9274: 9264: 9262: 9250: 9246: 9242:, pp. 2–4. 9238: 9234: 9227: 9211: 9207: 9199: 9195: 9187: 9183: 9170: 9169: 9165: 9152: 9151: 9147: 9140: 9124: 9120: 9105:10.2307/2166597 9089: 9085: 9076: 9075: 9071: 9061: 9059: 9042: 9038: 9028: 9026: 9008: 9004: 8995: 8994: 8990: 8977: 8976: 8972: 8959: 8958: 8954: 8944: 8942: 8933: 8932: 8928: 8918: 8916: 8895: 8891: 8881: 8879: 8874: 8873: 8869: 8859: 8857: 8848: 8847: 8843: 8835:Chuev, Feliks. 8834: 8830: 8826:, p. 1348. 8824:Wheatcroft 1996 8822: 8815: 8808: 8789: 8785: 8778: 8762:Service, Robert 8759: 8750: 8743: 8727: 8723: 8716: 8700: 8696: 8689: 8673: 8669: 8656: 8652: 8643: 8639: 8622:Wayback Machine 8609: 8605: 8584: 8580: 8560: 8556: 8548:Chuev, Feliks. 8547: 8543: 8536: 8518: 8514: 8505: 8501: 8492: 8488: 8473:10.2307/2166597 8454: 8448: 8444: 8436: 8432: 8425: 8411: 8407: 8397: 8395: 8393:www.trussel.com 8385: 8381: 8374: 8358: 8354: 8346: 8342: 8334: 8330: 8322: 8318: 8310: 8306: 8298: 8291: 8283: 8279: 8266: 8265: 8261: 8253: 8249: 8241: 8237: 8229: 8225: 8215: 8213: 8201: 8197: 8187: 8185: 8183: 8167: 8163: 8158: 8154: 8144: 8142: 8141:on 14 June 2003 8127: 8126: 8122: 8109: 8105: 8097: 8093: 8085: 8081: 8073:" (appendix to 8061: 8057: 8047: 8045: 8039: 8035: 8027: 8023: 8010: 8009: 8005: 7998: 7982: 7978: 7971: 7955: 7951: 7946: 7942: 7934: 7930: 7910: 7906: 7896: 7894: 7884: 7877: 7860: 7856: 7851: 7842: 7837: 7833: 7829:, November 2006 7822: 7818: 7808: 7806: 7798: 7797: 7793: 7786: 7770: 7766: 7759: 7743: 7739: 7732: 7716: 7712: 7705: 7689: 7685: 7672: 7671: 7667: 7660: 7644: 7640: 7597: 7593: 7586: 7570: 7566: 7559: 7543: 7539: 7532: 7516: 7512: 7505: 7489: 7485: 7478: 7462: 7458: 7451: 7435: 7431: 7418: 7414: 7407: 7391: 7387: 7380: 7364: 7360: 7353: 7337: 7333: 7326: 7310: 7306: 7299: 7283: 7279: 7236: 7232: 7205:Current Science 7201: 7194: 7187: 7171: 7167: 7160: 7144: 7140: 7133: 7117: 7113: 7106: 7090: 7086: 7047: 7043: 7033: 7031: 7026: 7025: 7021: 6936: 6932: 6919: 6918: 6914: 6907: 6893: 6889: 6882: 6866: 6862: 6855: 6839: 6835: 6828: 6812: 6808: 6801: 6785: 6781: 6774: 6758: 6754: 6747: 6731: 6727: 6720: 6704: 6700: 6693: 6677: 6673: 6666: 6652: 6648: 6633: 6629: 6621: 6617: 6605: 6601: 6592: 6588: 6580: 6576: 6568: 6564: 6554: 6552: 6544: 6543: 6539: 6502: 6498: 6491: 6475: 6466: 6456: 6454: 6444: 6440: 6408: 6402: 6398: 6394:, Vol. 45, 2013 6386: 6382: 6369: 6368: 6364: 6357: 6343: 6339: 6332: 6316:Subtelny, Orest 6313: 6309: 6300: 6296: 6292:. pp. 102, 107. 6272:Snyder, Timothy 6270: 6266: 6259: 6248: 6240: 6231: 6223: 6219: 6204: 6197: 6186: 6173: 6157: 6155: 6148: 6142: 6138: 6133: 6126: 6114: 6110: 6097: 6096: 6085: 6076: 6072: 6058: 6051: 6042: 6038: 6033: 6029: 6021: 6017: 6009: 6005: 5997: 5993: 5988: 5984: 5979: 5972: 5961: 5957: 5946: 5942: 5934: 5930: 5925: 5918: 5905: 5904: 5900: 5885: 5871: 5867: 5862: 5858: 5850: 5846: 5827: 5823: 5815: 5811: 5803: 5799: 5791: 5787: 5782: 5778: 5773: 5769: 5722: 5718: 5710: 5706: 5696: 5694: 5685: 5684: 5680: 5670: 5668: 5660: 5659: 5655: 5639: 5635: 5627: 5620: 5612: 5608: 5600: 5593: 5586: 5570: 5566: 5555: 5551: 5530: 5526: 5516: 5514: 5506: 5505: 5501: 5491: 5489: 5480: 5479: 5475: 5467: 5463: 5452: 5448: 5438: 5436: 5428:Broué, Pierre. 5426: 5413: 5400: 5399: 5395: 5381: 5368: 5355: 5351: 5338: 5334: 5324: 5322: 5316:"Joseph Stalin" 5314: 5313: 5309: 5298: 5294: 5284: 5282: 5274: 5273: 5269: 5262: 5246: 5242: 5235: 5219: 5215: 5172: 5168: 5153: 5149: 5141: 5137: 5128: 5124: 5116: 5112: 5089:10.2307/2495035 5072: 5066: 5062: 5052: 5050: 5040: 5036: 5027: 5026: 5022: 5012: 5010: 5008: 4992:Helen Rappaport 4989: 4985: 4976: 4969: 4961: 4954: 4935: 4931: 4919: 4915: 4894: 4887: 4851:(1/2): 209–20. 4837: 4830: 4794: 4788: 4775: 4771: 4766: 4726: 4654: 4601:Robert Conquest 4575:Isaac Deutscher 4557: 4550: 4543: 4534: 4531: 4522: 4515: 4506: 4495: 4486: 4475: 4466: 4455: 4446: 4443: 4375: 4369: 4304: 4221: 4205:Bykivnia graves 4169:Robert Conquest 4154: 4093: 4087: 4067:newspaper, the 4016:Robert Conquest 4003: 3923:Lavrentiy Beria 3919: 3918: 3917: 3916: 3915: 3903: 3894: 3893: 3892: 3881: 3829: 3823: 3786: 3778:Main articles: 3776: 3759: 3753: 3744: 3719: 3714: 3713: 3712: 3711: 3710: 3687: 3678: 3677: 3676: 3665: 3528:Nikolai Durnovo 3474:Lavrentiy Beria 3455:Titsian Tabidze 3399:Boris Pasternak 3391:Osip Mandelstam 3384:Albert Einstein 3295:, chief of the 3289:Ivan Kleymyonov 3199:Nikolai Vavilov 3193:quantum gravity 3191:and pioneer of 3119:Nikolai Vavilov 3083:Osip Mandelstam 3075: 3057: 2876: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2841: 2829: 2825: 2814: 2803: 2797: 2794: 2783: 2771: 2750: 2738: 2732:External videos 2727: 2672:Vasily Blyukher 2664:Semyon Budyonny 2654:The first five 2648: 2642: 2540:album procedure 2489: 2477:Main articles: 2475: 2438:Orthodox clergy 2381: 2324:Anastas Mikoyan 2299: 2287:Arthur Koestler 2197: 2191: 2165: 2121:Georgy Pyatakov 2106: 2100: 2083:Alexander Orlov 2073:, in June 1937. 2012: 2007: 2001: 1851:Opposition Bloc 1748: 1742: 1715:mass operations 1623:Reign of Terror 1605:Robert Conquest 1577: 1571: 1568: 1565: 1527:Bol'shoy terror 1496: 1460: 1458: 1453: 1452: 1393: 1385: 1384: 1330: 1322: 1321: 1243:April 9 tragedy 1122: 1111: 1110: 958: 947: 946: 883:Khrushchev Thaw 863: 852: 851: 832:Berlin Blockade 719: 708: 707: 658: 657:: Establishment 647: 646: 625:Bolshevik Party 620:Bolshevik split 595: 558: 324: 323:Mass repression 280:Lavrentiy Beria 255: 242: 211: 180: 178: 149: 116: 98: 91:Reign of Terror 79: 68: 62: 59: 52: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12993: 12983: 12982: 12977: 12972: 12967: 12962: 12957: 12952: 12947: 12942: 12937: 12932: 12927: 12922: 12917: 12912: 12907: 12902: 12897: 12892: 12887: 12882: 12877: 12860: 12859: 12857: 12856: 12846: 12831: 12828: 12827: 12824: 12823: 12821: 12820: 12815: 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12246: 12244: 12238: 12237: 12235: 12234: 12229: 12227:Deputy Premier 12224: 12219: 12218: 12217: 12210:Heads of state 12206: 12204: 12200: 12199: 12197: 12196: 12195: 12194: 12184: 12178: 12175:Supreme Soviet 12172: 12166: 12165: 12164: 12159: 12158: 12157: 12152: 12142: 12137: 12126: 12124: 12120: 12119: 12117: 12116: 12111: 12110: 12109: 12104: 12099: 12092:State ideology 12089: 12084: 12079: 12074: 12073: 12072: 12062: 12057: 12052: 12051: 12050: 12040: 12039: 12038: 12028: 12023: 12022: 12021: 12011: 12006: 12005: 12004: 11999: 11988: 11986: 11979: 11973: 11972: 11969: 11968: 11966: 11965: 11960: 11958:Ural Mountains 11955: 11950: 11948:North Caucasus 11945: 11940: 11935: 11929: 11927: 11923: 11922: 11920: 11919: 11914: 11909: 11908: 11907: 11897: 11892: 11891: 11890: 11879: 11877: 11868: 11862: 11861: 11859: 11858: 11853: 11848: 11843: 11838: 11833: 11828: 11823: 11818: 11813: 11808: 11803: 11798: 11793: 11792: 11791: 11786: 11775: 11770: 11765: 11760: 11755: 11750: 11745: 11744: 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10502: 10497: 10492: 10487: 10486: 10485: 10475: 10465: 10460: 10455: 10450: 10445: 10440: 10435: 10430: 10425: 10416: 10411: 10406: 10401: 10400: 10399: 10394: 10384: 10375: 10369: 10367: 10363: 10362: 10360: 10359: 10354: 10349: 10344: 10339: 10334: 10329: 10324: 10318: 10316: 10309: 10303: 10302: 10300: 10299: 10293: 10286: 10283: 10282: 10275: 10274: 10267: 10260: 10252: 10246: 10245: 10239: 10231: 10220: 10212: 10198: 10197:External links 10195: 10194: 10193: 10188:. Narrated by 10180: 10177: 10176: 10175: 10169: 10156: 10142:, ed. (1991). 10136: 10129: 10122: 10112: 10105: 10087:(8): 1319–53. 10064: 10057: 10051: 10036: 10030: 10015: 10009: 9993: 9987: 9971: 9965: 9952: 9946: 9934:Rogovin, Vadim 9930: 9924: 9908: 9902: 9886: 9868: 9855: 9837: 9828: 9822: 9807: 9801: 9788: 9782: 9766: 9760: 9743: 9737: 9724: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9703: 9677:(6): 1143–59. 9659: 9654:978-0300074420 9653: 9637: 9621: 9616:978-0275951139 9615: 9602: 9597:978-1403901194 9596: 9583: 9578:978-0300123890 9577: 9560: 9548: 9543:978-1893554726 9542: 9516: 9511:978-0198797869 9510: 9493: 9488:978-1400040056 9487: 9471: 9466:978-0691175775 9465: 9452: 9447:978-0713997026 9446: 9434:Figes, Orlando 9430: 9425:978-0674076082 9424: 9406: 9401:978-0195317008 9400: 9385: 9380:978-0195055795 9379: 9364: 9359:978-0465003129 9358: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9336: 9324: 9311: 9298: 9285: 9272: 9244: 9232: 9225: 9205: 9203:, p. 286. 9193: 9181: 9163: 9145: 9138: 9118: 9099:(4): 1030–35. 9083: 9069: 9036: 9002: 8988: 8970: 8952: 8926: 8889: 8878:. 16 July 2002 8867: 8856:. 17 July 1997 8841: 8828: 8813: 8807:978-0521446709 8806: 8783: 8777:978-0674016972 8776: 8748: 8741: 8721: 8714: 8694: 8687: 8667: 8650: 8637: 8611:Michael Ellman 8603: 8578: 8554: 8541: 8535:978-0300104073 8534: 8512: 8499: 8486: 8442: 8440:, p. 139. 8430: 8424:978-0691175775 8423: 8405: 8379: 8373:978-1417992775 8372: 8352: 8340: 8338:, p. 469. 8328: 8326:, p. 468. 8316: 8304: 8302:, p. 472. 8289: 8277: 8259: 8247: 8235: 8223: 8195: 8182:978-0521255141 8181: 8161: 8152: 8120: 8103: 8091: 8089:, p. 117. 8079: 8055: 8033: 8031:, p. 295. 8021: 8003: 7996: 7976: 7969: 7949: 7940: 7938:, p. 301. 7928: 7904: 7875: 7854: 7840: 7831: 7816: 7791: 7784: 7764: 7757: 7737: 7730: 7710: 7703: 7683: 7665: 7658: 7638: 7611:(3): 373–394. 7605:Soviet Studies 7591: 7584: 7564: 7557: 7537: 7530: 7510: 7503: 7483: 7476: 7456: 7449: 7429: 7412: 7405: 7396:Lenin's Moscow 7385: 7378: 7358: 7351: 7331: 7324: 7304: 7297: 7277: 7250:(8): 633–634. 7230: 7192: 7185: 7165: 7158: 7138: 7131: 7111: 7104: 7084: 7057:(1): 267–283. 7041: 7028:"Aino Forsten" 7019: 7001:978-0674587496 6930: 6912: 6906:978-0199560417 6905: 6887: 6880: 6860: 6853: 6833: 6826: 6806: 6799: 6779: 6772: 6752: 6745: 6725: 6718: 6698: 6691: 6671: 6664: 6646: 6627: 6615: 6599: 6586: 6584:, p. 198. 6574: 6572:, p. 211. 6562: 6537: 6496: 6490:978-0190637729 6489: 6464: 6438: 6425:10.1086/235168 6396: 6380: 6362: 6355: 6337: 6331:978-1442609914 6330: 6307: 6294: 6264: 6258:978-9176017777 6257: 6229: 6217: 6195: 6171: 6136: 6124: 6108: 6083: 6070: 6061:Werth, Nicolas 6049: 6036: 6027: 6015: 6013:, p. 352. 6003: 6001:, p. 258. 5991: 5982: 5970: 5955: 5940: 5938:, p. 164. 5928: 5916: 5898: 5884:978-0923891312 5883: 5865: 5856: 5844: 5821: 5819:, p. 121. 5809: 5807:, p. 182. 5797: 5795:, p. 142. 5785: 5776: 5767: 5716: 5704: 5678: 5653: 5633: 5629:Gellately 2007 5618: 5616:, p. 239. 5606: 5591: 5585:978-0521335706 5584: 5564: 5549: 5524: 5499: 5473: 5461: 5446: 5411: 5402:"Great Terror" 5393: 5384:Werth, Nicolas 5366: 5349: 5345:S. Fitzpatrick 5332: 5307: 5292: 5267: 5260: 5240: 5233: 5213: 5166: 5147: 5135: 5122: 5110: 5083:(2): 187–204. 5060: 5034: 5020: 5007:978-1576070840 5006: 4983: 4981:30#3 : 513–45. 4967: 4952: 4929: 4913: 4885: 4828: 4805:(7): 1151–72. 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4761: 4760: 4754: 4748: 4742: 4737: 4725: 4724:Similar events 4722: 4721: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4653: 4650: 4628:Old Bolsheviks 4556: 4553: 4552: 4551: 4544: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4525: 4523: 4516: 4509: 4507: 4497:A memorial to 4496: 4489: 4487: 4476: 4469: 4467: 4456: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4437: 4420:Wall of Sorrow 4371:Main article: 4368: 4365: 4303: 4300: 4220: 4217: 4153: 4150: 4142:Marxist theory 4089:Main article: 4086: 4085:Rehabilitation 4083: 4024:Walter Duranty 4002: 3999: 3965:dekulakization 3912:Nikolai Yezhov 3904: 3897: 3896: 3895: 3886: 3885: 3884: 3883: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3876: 3875: 3872: 3869: 3866: 3863: 3860: 3857: 3854: 3825:Main article: 3822: 3819: 3775: 3772: 3755:Main article: 3752: 3749: 3743: 3740: 3718: 3715: 3688: 3681: 3680: 3679: 3670: 3669: 3668: 3667: 3666: 3664: 3663: 3655: 3644: 3641:Nikolai Nevsky 3637: 3630: 3616: 3603: 3600:Platon Oyunsky 3593: 3586: 3571: 3564: 3557: 3542:Sergei Chavain 3535: 3524: 3521:Nikolai Klyuev 3517: 3506:David Riazanov 3503: 3481: 3477: 3466:Paolo Iashvili 3462: 3453:Georgian poet 3451: 3434: 3423: 3420:Butyrka prison 3407: 3395:Stalin Epigram 3387: 3355:Jewish German 3353: 3336:, director of 3334:Aleksei Gastev 3330: 3327:Pyotr Bogdanov 3319: 3304:astrophysicist 3300: 3285: 3278: 3266: 3260: 3245: 3226: 3219:Trofim Lysenko 3196: 3181: 3056: 3055:Intelligentsia 3053: 3028:Nikolai Yezhov 2993:Ramón Mercader 2878: 2877: 2832: 2830: 2823: 2816: 2815: 2774: 2772: 2765: 2758: 2757: 2746: 2745: 2734: 2733: 2726: 2723: 2641: 2638: 2622:Norman Naimark 2598:dekulakization 2579:Timothy Snyder 2497:Nikolai Yezhov 2474: 2471: 2393:Tsarist regime 2380: 2377: 2357:Romain Rolland 2298: 2295: 2244:Genrikh Yagoda 2212:Genrikh Yagoda 2190: 2187: 2164: 2161: 2156: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2102:Main article: 2099: 2096: 2075: 2074: 2067: 2052: 2011: 2008: 2003:Main article: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1995: 1988: 1985: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1958:dekulakization 1883:Ramón Mercader 1767:Vladimir Lenin 1761:Following the 1754:An excerpt of 1741: 1738: 1726:Nikolai Yezhov 1722:Genrikh Yagoda 1672:Nikolai Yezhov 1654:intelligentsia 1642:Old Bolsheviks 1638:Genrikh Yagoda 1516:Большой террор 1498: 1497: 1495: 1494: 1487: 1480: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1450: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1394: 1392:Related topics 1391: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1318: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1306: 1305: 1300: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1273:The Barricades 1270: 1268:January Events 1265: 1263:Dushanbe riots 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1225: 1224: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1164: 1159: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1123: 1117: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1091: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1032:Wars in Africa 1029: 1028: 1027: 1017: 1015:Yom Kippur War 1012: 1011: 1010: 1008:Fall of Saigon 1005: 1000: 998:Operation Menu 995: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 959: 953: 952: 949: 948: 945: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 898: 897: 885: 880: 875: 870: 864: 858: 857: 854: 853: 850: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 813: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 772: 771: 770: 760: 755: 750: 749: 748: 747: 746: 741: 726: 720: 714: 713: 710: 709: 706: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 659: 653: 652: 649: 648: 645: 644: 639: 634: 632:Russian Empire 629: 628: 627: 622: 617: 607: 602: 596: 593: 592: 589: 588: 580: 579: 573: 572: 560: 559: 557: 556: 549: 542: 534: 531: 530: 529: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 500: 499: 495: 494: 493: 492: 487: 486: 485: 475: 470: 469: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 415: 414: 408: 407: 406: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 377: 376: 370: 369: 368: 367: 366: 365: 360: 350: 348:Dekulakization 345: 340: 332: 331: 327: 326: 316: 315: 312: 308: 307: 276:Nikolai Yezhov 272:Genrikh Yagoda 261: 257: 256: 248: 244: 243: 241: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 214: 212: 209: 206: 205: 187: 183: 182: 173: 169: 168: 155: 151: 150: 139: 131: 130: 123: 122: 81: 80: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12992: 12981: 12978: 12976: 12973: 12971: 12968: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12958: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12948: 12946: 12943: 12941: 12938: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12906: 12903: 12901: 12898: 12896: 12893: 12891: 12888: 12886: 12883: 12881: 12878: 12876: 12873: 12872: 12870: 12855: 12847: 12845: 12844: 12833: 12832: 12829: 12819: 12816: 12812: 12809: 12808: 12807: 12804: 12800: 12797: 12796: 12795: 12792: 12788: 12785: 12784: 12783: 12780: 12779: 12777: 12773: 12765: 12762: 12761: 12759: 12756: 12755: 12753: 12751: 12747: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12728: 12726: 12723: 12721: 12718: 12716: 12715:Printed media 12713: 12711: 12708: 12704: 12701: 12700: 12699: 12696: 12694: 12691: 12689: 12686: 12684: 12681: 12679: 12676: 12675: 12673: 12671: 12667: 12661: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12649: 12648:Cyrillisation 12646: 12644: 12641: 12640: 12639: 12636: 12634: 12631: 12629: 12626: 12622: 12619: 12617: 12616:Working class 12614: 12612: 12611:Soviet people 12609: 12608: 12607: 12604: 12602: 12599: 12597: 12594: 12593: 12590: 12587: 12585: 12581: 12573: 12570: 12569: 12568: 12565: 12563: 12560: 12558: 12555: 12553: 12550: 12548: 12545: 12543: 12540: 12538: 12535: 12534: 12532: 12530: 12526: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12504: 12503: 12500: 12498: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12459:Energy policy 12457: 12455: 12452: 12450: 12447: 12445: 12442: 12441: 12439: 12437: 12433: 12423: 12420: 12418: 12415: 12413: 12410: 12408: 12405: 12404: 12402: 12400: 12396: 12390: 12387: 12385: 12382: 12378: 12375: 12374: 12373: 12370: 12368: 12365: 12363: 12360: 12358: 12355: 12353: 12350: 12348: 12345: 12344: 12342: 12340: 12336: 12328: 12324: 12320: 12316: 12312: 12309: 12308: 12307: 12304: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12292: 12291: 12290: 12287: 12285: 12282: 12278: 12275: 12274: 12273: 12270: 12266: 12263: 12262: 12261: 12258: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12248: 12247: 12245: 12243: 12239: 12233: 12230: 12228: 12225: 12223: 12220: 12216: 12213: 12212: 12211: 12208: 12207: 12205: 12201: 12193: 12190: 12189: 12188: 12187:Supreme Court 12185: 12182: 12179: 12176: 12173: 12170: 12167: 12163: 12160: 12156: 12153: 12151: 12148: 12147: 12146: 12143: 12141: 12138: 12136: 12133: 12132: 12131: 12128: 12127: 12125: 12121: 12115: 12112: 12108: 12105: 12103: 12100: 12098: 12095: 12094: 12093: 12090: 12088: 12085: 12083: 12080: 12078: 12075: 12071: 12068: 12067: 12066: 12063: 12061: 12058: 12056: 12053: 12049: 12046: 12045: 12044: 12041: 12037: 12034: 12033: 12032: 12029: 12027: 12024: 12020: 12017: 12016: 12015: 12012: 12010: 12007: 12003: 12000: 11998: 11995: 11994: 11993: 11990: 11989: 11987: 11983: 11980: 11978: 11974: 11964: 11961: 11959: 11956: 11954: 11951: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11939: 11936: 11934: 11931: 11930: 11928: 11924: 11918: 11915: 11913: 11910: 11906: 11903: 11902: 11901: 11898: 11896: 11893: 11889: 11886: 11885: 11884: 11881: 11880: 11878: 11876: 11872: 11869: 11867: 11863: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11842: 11839: 11837: 11834: 11832: 11829: 11827: 11824: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11797: 11794: 11790: 11789:The Holocaust 11787: 11785: 11782: 11781: 11779: 11776: 11774: 11771: 11769: 11766: 11764: 11761: 11759: 11756: 11754: 11751: 11749: 11746: 11742: 11739: 11737: 11734: 11733: 11732: 11729: 11727: 11724: 11723: 11721: 11719: 11715: 11710: 11703: 11698: 11696: 11691: 11689: 11684: 11683: 11680: 11668: 11660: 11659: 11656: 11650: 11647: 11643: 11640: 11638: 11635: 11633: 11630: 11628: 11625: 11623: 11622:Semyonovskoye 11620: 11618: 11615: 11613: 11610: 11608: 11605: 11604: 11602: 11600: 11597: 11595: 11592: 11590: 11587: 11585: 11582: 11581: 11579: 11577: 11573: 11564: 11561: 11556: 11553: 11548: 11545: 11540: 11537: 11532: 11529: 11524: 11521: 11516: 11513: 11508: 11505: 11500: 11499:Vasily Stalin 11497: 11494:(second wife) 11492: 11489: 11486:(adopted son) 11484: 11481: 11476: 11473: 11468: 11465: 11460: 11459:Kato Svanidze 11457: 11452: 11449: 11444: 11441: 11440: 11438: 11434: 11428: 11427: 11423: 11422: 11420: 11416: 11410: 11407: 11405: 11402: 11400: 11397: 11395: 11392: 11390: 11387: 11385: 11382: 11380: 11377: 11375: 11372: 11370: 11367: 11365: 11362: 11360: 11357: 11355: 11352: 11350: 11347: 11345: 11342: 11340: 11337: 11335: 11332: 11330: 11327: 11326: 11324: 11320: 11314: 11311: 11309: 11308: 11304: 11302: 11299: 11297: 11296: 11292: 11290: 11289: 11285: 11283: 11282: 11278: 11276: 11273: 11271: 11268: 11266: 11263: 11261: 11258: 11256: 11255:Ryutin Affair 11253: 11251: 11248: 11246: 11243: 11242: 11240: 11235:Criticism and 11232: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11213: 11211: 11208: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11200: 11196: 11194: 11191: 11189: 11186: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11175: 11173: 11171: 11167: 11161: 11158: 11155: 11151: 11149: 11148:Order No. 270 11146: 11144: 11143:Order No. 227 11141: 11139: 11138: 11134: 11132: 11129: 11127: 11124: 11122: 11121: 11117: 11115: 11112: 11110: 11109: 11105: 11103: 11100: 11098: 11095: 11092: 11088: 11085: 11081: 11078: 11074: 11071: 11067: 11064: 11060: 11059: 11057: 11053: 11047: 11044: 11042: 11041:Doctors' plot 11039: 11037: 11034: 11032: 11029: 11027: 11024: 11022: 11019: 11017: 11014: 11012: 11009: 11005: 11002: 11000: 10999:Nazino affair 10997: 10995: 10992: 10990: 10987: 10985: 10982: 10980: 10977: 10975: 10972: 10971: 10970: 10967: 10964: 10963:German–Soviet 10960: 10957: 10955: 10952: 10950: 10947: 10945: 10942: 10940: 10937: 10935: 10932: 10928: 10925: 10923: 10922:Slavists case 10919: 10916: 10914: 10911: 10909: 10906: 10905: 10903: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10888:Moscow Trials 10886: 10882: 10879: 10877: 10874: 10872: 10869: 10867: 10864: 10862: 10859: 10857: 10854: 10852: 10849: 10847: 10844: 10842: 10839: 10837: 10834: 10832: 10829: 10827: 10824: 10822: 10819: 10817: 10814: 10813: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10803: 10802: 10799: 10797: 10794: 10792: 10789: 10785: 10782: 10781: 10780: 10777: 10775: 10772: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10745: 10742: 10740: 10737: 10735: 10732: 10731: 10729: 10723: 10717: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10651:Korenizatsiya 10649: 10647: 10646:Neo-Stalinism 10644: 10642: 10639: 10638: 10636: 10632: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10612: 10609: 10607: 10604: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10590: 10587: 10585: 10582: 10580: 10577: 10573: 10570: 10569: 10568: 10565: 10563: 10560: 10558: 10555: 10553: 10550: 10549: 10548: 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10535: 10533: 10532:Ili Rebellion 10530: 10528: 10525: 10521: 10518: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10496: 10493: 10491: 10488: 10484: 10481: 10480: 10479: 10476: 10474: 10471: 10470: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10461: 10459: 10456: 10454: 10451: 10449: 10446: 10444: 10441: 10439: 10436: 10434: 10431: 10429: 10426: 10424: 10420: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10410: 10407: 10405: 10402: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10389: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10379: 10376: 10374: 10371: 10370: 10368: 10364: 10358: 10355: 10353: 10350: 10348: 10345: 10343: 10340: 10338: 10335: 10333: 10330: 10328: 10325: 10323: 10320: 10319: 10317: 10313: 10310: 10304: 10297: 10294: 10291: 10288: 10287: 10284: 10280: 10279:Joseph Stalin 10273: 10268: 10266: 10261: 10259: 10254: 10253: 10250: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10234:Nicolas Werth 10232: 10230: 10226: 10221: 10218: 10217: 10213: 10210: 10205: 10201: 10200: 10191: 10187: 10183: 10182: 10172: 10166: 10162: 10157: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10137: 10135:(2019): 1–24. 10134: 10130: 10127: 10123: 10121: 10117: 10113: 10110: 10106: 10102: 10098: 10094: 10090: 10086: 10082: 10081: 10073: 10069: 10065: 10062: 10058: 10054: 10048: 10044: 10043: 10037: 10033: 10027: 10023: 10022: 10016: 10012: 10006: 10002: 9998: 9994: 9990: 9984: 9980: 9979:Red Holocaust 9976: 9972: 9968: 9962: 9958: 9953: 9949: 9943: 9939: 9935: 9931: 9927: 9921: 9917: 9913: 9909: 9905: 9899: 9895: 9891: 9887: 9883: 9879: 9878: 9873: 9872:Lyons, Eugene 9869: 9862: 9858: 9852: 9845: 9844: 9838: 9834: 9829: 9825: 9819: 9815: 9814: 9808: 9804: 9798: 9794: 9789: 9785: 9779: 9775: 9771: 9767: 9763: 9757: 9753: 9752:Belknap Press 9749: 9744: 9740: 9734: 9730: 9725: 9722: 9718: 9717: 9715: 9700: 9696: 9692: 9688: 9684: 9680: 9676: 9672: 9665: 9660: 9656: 9650: 9646: 9642: 9638: 9633: 9632: 9626: 9622: 9618: 9612: 9608: 9603: 9599: 9593: 9589: 9584: 9580: 9574: 9570: 9566: 9561: 9557: 9553: 9549: 9545: 9539: 9535: 9531: 9530: 9525: 9524:Klehr, Harvey 9521: 9517: 9513: 9507: 9503: 9499: 9494: 9490: 9484: 9480: 9476: 9472: 9468: 9462: 9458: 9453: 9449: 9443: 9439: 9435: 9431: 9427: 9421: 9417: 9416: 9411: 9407: 9403: 9397: 9393: 9392: 9386: 9382: 9376: 9372: 9371: 9365: 9361: 9355: 9351: 9346: 9345: 9334:, p. xx. 9333: 9332:Thurston 1998 9328: 9321: 9315: 9308: 9302: 9295: 9289: 9282: 9276: 9261: 9260: 9255: 9248: 9241: 9236: 9228: 9222: 9218: 9217: 9209: 9202: 9201:Conquest 2008 9197: 9190: 9189:Conquest 2008 9185: 9177: 9173: 9167: 9159: 9155: 9149: 9141: 9135: 9131: 9130: 9122: 9114: 9110: 9106: 9102: 9098: 9094: 9087: 9079: 9073: 9057: 9053: 9052: 9047: 9040: 9025: 9021: 9017: 9013: 9006: 8998: 8992: 8984: 8980: 8974: 8966: 8962: 8956: 8941:. 9 June 2010 8940: 8936: 8930: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8893: 8877: 8871: 8855: 8851: 8845: 8838: 8832: 8825: 8820: 8818: 8809: 8803: 8799: 8798: 8793: 8787: 8779: 8773: 8769: 8768: 8763: 8757: 8755: 8753: 8744: 8738: 8734: 8733: 8725: 8717: 8711: 8707: 8706: 8698: 8690: 8684: 8680: 8679: 8671: 8664: 8660: 8654: 8647: 8641: 8634: 8630: 8626: 8623: 8619: 8616: 8612: 8607: 8600: 8596: 8592: 8588: 8582: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8564: 8558: 8551: 8545: 8537: 8531: 8527: 8523: 8516: 8509: 8503: 8496: 8490: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8461: 8453: 8446: 8439: 8438:Thurston 1998 8434: 8426: 8420: 8416: 8409: 8394: 8390: 8383: 8375: 8369: 8365: 8364: 8356: 8349: 8348:Conquest 2008 8344: 8337: 8336:Conquest 2008 8332: 8325: 8324:Conquest 2008 8320: 8313: 8312:Conquest 2008 8308: 8301: 8300:Conquest 2008 8296: 8294: 8286: 8285:Conquest 2008 8281: 8273: 8269: 8263: 8257:, p. 33. 8256: 8251: 8244: 8239: 8233:, p. 32. 8232: 8227: 8212: 8211: 8206: 8199: 8184: 8178: 8174: 8173: 8165: 8156: 8140: 8136: 8135: 8130: 8124: 8117: 8113: 8107: 8100: 8099:Kuromiya 2007 8095: 8088: 8083: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8059: 8044: 8037: 8030: 8029:Conquest 2008 8025: 8017: 8013: 8007: 7999: 7993: 7989: 7988: 7980: 7972: 7966: 7962: 7961: 7953: 7944: 7937: 7936:Conquest 2008 7932: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7908: 7893: 7889: 7882: 7880: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7858: 7849: 7847: 7845: 7835: 7828: 7827: 7820: 7805: 7801: 7795: 7787: 7781: 7777: 7776: 7768: 7760: 7754: 7750: 7749: 7741: 7733: 7727: 7723: 7722: 7714: 7706: 7700: 7696: 7695: 7687: 7679: 7675: 7669: 7661: 7655: 7651: 7650: 7642: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7595: 7587: 7581: 7577: 7576: 7568: 7560: 7554: 7550: 7549: 7541: 7533: 7527: 7523: 7522: 7514: 7506: 7500: 7496: 7495: 7487: 7479: 7473: 7469: 7468: 7460: 7452: 7446: 7442: 7441: 7433: 7425: 7424: 7416: 7408: 7402: 7398: 7397: 7389: 7381: 7375: 7371: 7370: 7362: 7354: 7348: 7344: 7343: 7335: 7327: 7321: 7317: 7316: 7308: 7300: 7294: 7290: 7289: 7281: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7234: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7199: 7197: 7188: 7182: 7178: 7177: 7169: 7161: 7155: 7151: 7150: 7142: 7134: 7128: 7124: 7123: 7115: 7107: 7101: 7097: 7096: 7088: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7045: 7029: 7023: 7016: 7015: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6941: 6934: 6926: 6922: 6916: 6908: 6902: 6898: 6891: 6883: 6877: 6873: 6872: 6864: 6856: 6850: 6846: 6845: 6837: 6829: 6823: 6819: 6818: 6810: 6802: 6796: 6792: 6791: 6783: 6775: 6769: 6765: 6764: 6756: 6748: 6742: 6738: 6737: 6729: 6721: 6715: 6711: 6710: 6702: 6694: 6688: 6684: 6683: 6675: 6667: 6661: 6657: 6650: 6643: 6642: 6637: 6631: 6624: 6623:Conquest 2008 6619: 6612: 6608: 6607:Conquest 2008 6603: 6596: 6593:Stephen Lee, 6590: 6583: 6582:Courtois 1999 6578: 6571: 6570:Conquest 2008 6566: 6551: 6547: 6541: 6533: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6500: 6492: 6486: 6482: 6481: 6473: 6471: 6469: 6453: 6449: 6442: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6419:(4): 813–61. 6418: 6414: 6407: 6400: 6393: 6389: 6384: 6376: 6372: 6366: 6358: 6352: 6348: 6341: 6333: 6327: 6323: 6322: 6317: 6311: 6304: 6298: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6260: 6254: 6247: 6246: 6238: 6236: 6234: 6226: 6225:Courtois 1999 6221: 6213: 6209: 6202: 6200: 6191: 6184: 6182: 6180: 6178: 6176: 6168: 6167: 6153: 6149: 6140: 6131: 6129: 6121: 6117: 6112: 6104: 6100: 6094: 6092: 6090: 6088: 6080: 6074: 6066: 6062: 6056: 6054: 6047:. pp. 667–68. 6046: 6040: 6031: 6024: 6023:Conquest 2008 6019: 6012: 6011:Conquest 2008 6007: 6000: 5999:Koestler 1940 5995: 5986: 5977: 5975: 5966: 5959: 5951: 5944: 5937: 5936:Conquest 2008 5932: 5923: 5921: 5912: 5908: 5902: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5880: 5876: 5869: 5860: 5854:, p. 87. 5853: 5852:Conquest 2008 5848: 5840: 5836: 5835:Labour Review 5832: 5825: 5818: 5817:Conquest 2008 5813: 5806: 5805:Conquest 2008 5801: 5794: 5793:Conquest 2008 5789: 5780: 5771: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5740:(3): 524–26. 5739: 5735: 5731: 5729: 5720: 5713: 5708: 5692: 5688: 5682: 5667: 5663: 5657: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5637: 5630: 5625: 5623: 5615: 5610: 5603: 5602:Conquest 1987 5598: 5596: 5587: 5581: 5577: 5576: 5568: 5560: 5553: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5536: 5528: 5513: 5509: 5503: 5487: 5483: 5477: 5470: 5465: 5457: 5450: 5435: 5431: 5424: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5407: 5403: 5397: 5389: 5385: 5379: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5363: 5359: 5353: 5346: 5342: 5336: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5303: 5296: 5281: 5277: 5271: 5263: 5257: 5253: 5252: 5244: 5236: 5230: 5226: 5225: 5217: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5170: 5162: 5158: 5151: 5144: 5139: 5132: 5126: 5119: 5118:Conquest 2008 5114: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5077:Slavic Review 5071: 5064: 5049: 5045: 5038: 5030: 5024: 5009: 5003: 4999: 4998: 4993: 4987: 4980: 4974: 4972: 4965:, p. 16. 4964: 4959: 4957: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4933: 4926: 4922: 4921:Conquest 2008 4917: 4910: 4905: 4904: 4899: 4892: 4890: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4835: 4833: 4825: 4824:world—history 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4793: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4778: 4773: 4758: 4757:Prague Spring 4755: 4752: 4749: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4735: 4731: 4728: 4727: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4649: 4647: 4640: 4635: 4631: 4629: 4624: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4591:According to 4588: 4584: 4582: 4578: 4576: 4571: 4569: 4568: 4563: 4548: 4541: 4536: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4473: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4448: 4441: 4436: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4428: 4423: 4421: 4416: 4412: 4410: 4406: 4401: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4374: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4353: 4349: 4344: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4308: 4298: 4293: 4290: 4286: 4284: 4280: 4274: 4272: 4268: 4265: 4261: 4258: 4253: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4225: 4219:Stalin's role 4216: 4214: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4194: 4193:J. Arch Getty 4191:According to 4189: 4187: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4167:According to 4165: 4163: 4159: 4149: 4147: 4143: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4129:rehabilitated 4125: 4122: 4114: 4109: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4082: 4080: 4079:Secret Speech 4076: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4060: 4057: 4053: 4052: 4047: 4044:, authors of 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4030: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4014:According to 4012: 4009: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3985: 3984:rehabilitated 3981: 3977: 3973: 3968: 3966: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3913: 3909: 3908: 3901: 3890: 3873: 3870: 3867: 3864: 3861: 3858: 3855: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3844: 3840: 3839:Israil Pliner 3836: 3832: 3828: 3818: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3785: 3781: 3771: 3768: 3764: 3758: 3748: 3739: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3724: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3685: 3674: 3660: 3656: 3653: 3649: 3648:Mykola Kulish 3645: 3642: 3638: 3635: 3631: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3613: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3597: 3594: 3591: 3587: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3569: 3565: 3562: 3558: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3536: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3522: 3518: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3482: 3478: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3449: 3443: 3442:Zinaida Raikh 3439: 3435: 3432: 3428: 3427:Boris Pilnyak 3424: 3421: 3416: 3415:André Malraux 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3360:Fritz Noether 3358: 3354: 3351: 3350:cybernetician 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3283: 3282:Boris Numerov 3279: 3276: 3275: 3270: 3267: 3264: 3261: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3230:Lev Shubnikov 3227: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3187: 3183: 3182: 3180: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3147: 3142: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3120: 3115: 3108: 3103: 3096: 3091: 3084: 3079: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3052: 3050: 3046: 3040: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3012: 3010: 3004: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2969: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2923:Eric D. Weitz 2919: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2888:Vadim Rogovin 2885: 2874: 2871: 2863: 2860:February 2022 2853: 2849: 2845: 2839: 2838: 2833:This section 2831: 2822: 2821: 2812: 2809: 2801: 2798:February 2022 2791: 2787: 2781: 2780: 2775:This section 2773: 2769: 2764: 2763: 2756: 2747: 2744: 2735: 2730: 2722: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2652: 2647: 2637: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2613: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2591: 2586: 2582: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2528: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2505: 2500: 2498: 2494: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2452: 2450: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2394: 2390: 2385: 2376: 2374: 2370: 2369:rehabilitated 2366: 2362: 2358: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2334: 2328: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2313:revolutionary 2311: 2307: 2303: 2294: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2283:Jay Lovestone 2280: 2279:Bertram Wolfe 2276: 2270: 2268: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2208:Yakov Agranov 2205: 2201: 2196: 2185: 2180: 2178: 2173: 2170: 2160: 2152: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2143: 2139: 2137: 2132: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2119:For example, 2117: 2115: 2111: 2105: 2095: 2093: 2087: 2084: 2080: 2072: 2068: 2065: 2061: 2060:Yuri Piatakov 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2036: 2035: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2006: 2005:Moscow trials 1999:Moscow trials 1993: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1967: 1966: 1965: 1961: 1959: 1953: 1951: 1946: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1930: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1899:party leader 1898: 1894: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1866: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1843:Ryutin affair 1839: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1799: 1795: 1790: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1737: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1711:Volga Germans 1708: 1704: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1676:Yezhovshchina 1673: 1669: 1665: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1585:Joseph Stalin 1583: 1575: 1559: 1549: 1548:Yezhovshchina 1544: 1533: 1528: 1522: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1481: 1479: 1474: 1473: 1471: 1470: 1467: 1457: 1456: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1433:Soviet Empire 1431: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1395: 1389: 1388: 1379: 1378: 1373: 1372: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1326: 1325: 1316: 1313: 1311: 1308: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1295: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1248:Black January 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1229: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1180: 1177: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1115: 1114: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1101:Polish strike 1099: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1020:Prague Spring 1018: 1016: 1013: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 999: 996: 994: 991: 990: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 960: 956: 951: 950: 943: 940: 938: 937:Space program 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 895: 891: 890: 889: 886: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 865: 861: 856: 855: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 777: 776: 773: 769: 768:Moscow trials 766: 765: 764: 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 745: 742: 740: 737: 736: 735: 732: 731: 730: 727: 725: 722: 721: 717: 712: 711: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 683:War communism 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 660: 656: 651: 650: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 630: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 612: 611: 608: 606: 603: 601: 598: 597: 591: 590: 586: 582: 581: 578: 575: 574: 570: 566: 565: 555: 550: 548: 543: 541: 536: 535: 533: 532: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 503: 502: 501: 497: 496: 491: 488: 484: 481: 480: 479: 476: 474: 471: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 423: 422: 419: 418: 417: 416: 413: 410: 409: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 380: 379: 378: 375: 372: 371: 364: 361: 359: 356: 355: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 338:War communism 336: 335: 334: 333: 329: 328: 322: 321: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 286:and others), 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 264:Joseph Stalin 262: 258: 253: 249: 245: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 216: 215: 213: 207: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 177: 174: 170: 167: 163: 159: 156: 152: 147: 143: 137: 132: 129: 124: 119: 114: 110: 109: 105: 100: 96: 92: 88: 77: 74: 66: 63:November 2023 56: 50: 48: 43:This article 41: 32: 31: 19: 18:Yezhovshchina 12834: 12606:Demographics 12596:Antisemitism 12449:Central Bank 12367:Forced labor 12356: 12315:Spetsnaz GRU 12135:organisation 12043:Human rights 11992:Constitution 11875:Subdivisions 11772: 11753:Russian SFSR 11709:Soviet Union 11566:(son-in-law) 11558:(son-in-law) 11555:Yuri Zhdanov 11462:(first wife) 11451:Keke Geladze 11424: 11313:Antisemitism 11305: 11293: 11286: 11279: 11270:Kremlin Plot 11197: 11135: 11119: 11106: 11011:Tax on trees 10969:Deportations 10800: 10706:Stakhanovite 10567:Eastern Bloc 10468:World War II 10421: / 10308:and politics 10215: 10190:Meryl Streep 10185: 10160: 10147: 10143: 10132: 10125: 10115: 10108: 10084: 10078: 10060: 10041: 10020: 10000: 9978: 9956: 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The term 1532:Year of '37 1504:Great Purge 1288:August Coup 1258:War of Laws 1137:Perestroika 988:Vietnam War 978:Six-Day War 763:Great Purge 718:: Stalinism 637:World War I 466:Legislation 393:Great Purge 228:Mass murder 210:Attack type 191:Trotskyists 176:Main phase: 121:Great Purge 102:‹ The 12869:Categories 12750:Opposition 12740:Television 12720:Propaganda 12693:Literature 12567:Naukograds 12562:Sharashkas 12496:(currency) 12474:Inventions 12417:Censorship 12347:Red Terror 12031:Government 11905:Autonomous 11888:Autonomous 11821:Stagnation 11784:Evacuation 11637:Lake Ritsa 11617:Uspenskoye 11534:(grandson) 11518:(grandson) 11510:(daughter) 11265:Trotskyism 11237:opposition 10913:Lysenkoism 10599:Korean War 10478:Winter War 10366:Chronology 10357:Death toll 10322:Early life 9712:See also: 9265:1 December 9062:6 November 8657:Quoted in 8599:0817929029 8574:0300110669 7925:0253209153 7871:1929631146 6983:. p. 200; 6981:0142000639 6967:. p. 460; 6965:1400040051 6951:. p. 101; 6550:goarmy.com 6303:Bloodlands 6290:0465002390 6118:, p. 6116:Figes 2007 5650:1400040051 5614:Figes 2007 5544:B0711N78KN 5517:3 December 5325:2 December 5143:Figes 2007 5053:3 December 4923:, p. 4764:References 4747:(Cambodia) 4708:Lustration 4573:Historian 4547:Sandarmokh 4479:Krasny Bor 4241:Kaganovich 4237:Voroshilov 4115:, Mongolia 3976:Ivan Fedko 3815:Hoja-Niyaz 3805:, General 3732:Sandarmokh 3689:Statue of 3561:Les Kurbas 3308:astronomer 3203:geneticist 3059:See also: 2973:Bolsheviks 2960:, Spanish 2958:Andreu Nin 2950:Trotskyist 2914:and other 2886:historian 2884:Trotskyist 2844:improve it 2700:commissars 2416:White Army 2308:, Russian 2193:See also: 2169:Karl Radek 2136:Not Guilty 2114:John Dewey 2056:Karl Radek 1990:1938, the 1981:1937, the 1968:1936, the 1950:Red Terror 1814:The term " 1744:See also: 1740:Background 1572:period of 1546:) and the 1423:Leadership 1350:Khrushchev 1303:referendum 1278:Referendum 1162:Baltic Way 837:Korean War 678:Red Terror 605:Bolshevism 594:Background 478:Censorship 383:Red Terror 363:Kazakhstan 306:and others 284:Ivan Serov 140:People of 55:editing it 12945:Stalinism 12811:Republics 12799:Republics 12787:Republics 12638:Languages 12502:Transport 12384:Holodomor 12277:Militsiya 12215:President 12107:Stalinism 12009:Elections 11883:Republics 11866:Geography 11856:Nostalgia 11768:Stalinism 11627:New Athos 10893:Hotel Lux 10876:Vinnytsia 10831:Chortkiv 10821:Berezwecz 10816:Berezhany 10784:Holodomor 10641:Stalinism 10579:Cominform 10315:Overviews 9772:(1973) . 9699:205667754 9643:(1998) . 9481:. 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