Microwave - Knowledge

2576: 3024: 2615: 2599: 2773: 2561: 3009: 1073: 2785: 2761: 2084: 2997: 2974: 3149: 33: 1390: 2629: 3165: 1433: 3297: 5807: 1959: 2096: 3317: 7781: 3133: 3244:, consisting of a magnetron feeding microwaves into a closed metal cavity containing food, which was patented by Raytheon on 8 October 1945. Due to their expense microwave ovens were initially used in institutional kitchens, but by 1986 roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned one. Microwave heating became widely used as an industrial process in industries such as plastics fabrication, and as a medical therapy to kill cancer cells in 3475: 3670: 7791: 7770: 3684: 1981: 1110:) at the high end of the band. Beginning at about 40 GHz, atmospheric gases also begin to absorb microwaves, so above this frequency microwave transmission is limited to a few kilometers. A spectral band structure causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies (see graph at right). Above 100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so effective that it is in effect 7801: 1399: 1153: 2265: 3646:(MMIC). The word "monolithic" was added to distinguish these from microstrip PCB circuits, which were called "microwave integrated circuits" (MIC). Since then, silicon MMICs have also been developed. Today MMICs have become the workhorses of both analog and digital high-frequency electronics, enabling the production of single-chip microwave receivers, broadband 2575: 1583:, and antenna sizes are smaller than at lower frequencies because antenna size is inversely proportional to the transmitted frequency. Microwaves are used in spacecraft communication, and much of the world's data, TV, and telephone communications are transmitted long distances by microwaves between ground stations and 1713:

U.S. — with emphasis on 3.65 GHz. Dozens of service providers across the country are securing or have already received licenses from the FCC to operate in this band. The WIMAX service offerings that can be carried on the 3.65 GHz band will give business customers another option for connectivity.

3023: 1896: 1928:

technique in which a beam of radio waves emitted by a transmitter bounces off an object and returns to a receiver, allowing the location, range, speed, and other characteristics of the object to be determined. The short wavelength of microwaves causes large reflections from objects the size of motor

1712:

frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless Internet Access services have been used for almost a decade in many countries in the 3.5–4.0 GHz range. The FCC recently carved out spectrum for carriers that wish to offer services in this range in the

455:

Bands of frequencies in the microwave spectrum are designated by letters. Unfortunately, there are several incompatible band designation systems, and even within a system the frequency ranges corresponding to some of the letters vary somewhat between different application fields. The letter system

1933:

which are required to produce the narrow beamwidths needed to accurately locate objects are conveniently small, allowing them to be rapidly turned to scan for objects. Therefore, microwave frequencies are the main frequencies used in radar. Microwave radar is widely used for applications such as

1080:

of microwaves and far infrared radiation in dry air with a precipitable water vapor level of 0.001 mm. The downward spikes in the graph correspond to frequencies at which microwaves are absorbed more strongly. This graph includes a range of frequencies from 0 to 1 THz; the microwaves are the

2193:

weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 54 °C (129 °F) at a depth of 0.4 millimetres

2710:

paths, they could not communicate beyond the visual horizon, and the low power of the spark transmitters then in use limited their practical range to a few miles. The subsequent development of radio communication after 1896 employed lower frequencies, which could travel beyond the horizon as

1105:

are required. Therefore, on the surface of the Earth, microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 30–40 miles (48–64 km). Microwaves are absorbed by moisture in the atmosphere, and the attenuation increases with frequency, becoming a significant factor

2598: 2805: 3071:

in 1940 to research radar, produced much of the theoretical knowledge necessary to use microwaves. The first microwave relay systems were developed by the Allied military near the end of the war and used for secure battlefield communication networks in the European theater.

2784: 2289:

systems can be used. Here the unknown frequency is compared with harmonics of a known lower frequency by use of a low-frequency generator, a harmonic generator and a mixer. The accuracy of the measurement is limited by the accuracy and stability of the reference source.

2071:, and is one of the few sources of information about conditions in the early universe. Due to the expansion and thus cooling of the Universe, the originally high-energy radiation has been shifted into the microwave region of the radio spectrum. Sufficiently sensitive 3597:

than silicon, so devices fabricated with this material can operate at 4 times the frequency of similar devices of silicon. Beginning in the 1970s GaAs was used to make the first microwave transistors, and it has dominated microwave semiconductors ever since. MESFETs

2308:

or slotted coaxial line to directly measure the wavelength. These devices consist of a probe introduced into the line through a longitudinal slot so that the probe is free to travel up and down the line. Slotted lines are primarily intended for measurement of the

192:, so terrestrial microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles (64 km). At the high end of the band, they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, limiting practical communication distances to around a kilometer. 4976: 2560: 1049:

When radars were first developed at K band during World War 2, it was not known that there was a nearby absorption band (due to water vapor and oxygen in the atmosphere). To avoid this problem, the original K band was split into a lower band,

3058:

at Birmingham University, UK in 1940. Ten centimeter (3 GHz) microwave radar was in use on British warplanes in late 1941 and proved to be a game changer. Britain's 1940 decision to share its microwave technology with its US ally (the

2973: 1456:

to generate microwaves. These devices operate on different principles from low-frequency vacuum tubes, using the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under the influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the

2420:

white and opaque). Exposure to heavy doses of microwave radiation (as from an oven that has been tampered with to allow operation even with the door open) can produce heat damage in other tissues as well, up to and including serious

3610:

for the gate, were developed starting in 1968 and have reached cutoff frequencies of 100 GHz, and are now the most widely used active microwave devices. Another family of transistors with a higher frequency limit is the HEMT

2119:. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven. 1372:. In turn, at even higher frequencies, where the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves becomes small in comparison to the size of the structures used to process them, microwave techniques become inadequate, and the methods of 456:

had its origin in World War 2 in a top-secret U.S. classification of bands used in radar sets; this is the origin of the oldest letter system, the IEEE radar bands. One set of microwave frequency bands designations by the

3508:

for processing. The period from the 1970s to the present has seen the development of tiny inexpensive active solid-state microwave components which can be mounted on circuit boards, allowing circuits to perform significant

2481:

Hertz and the other early radio researchers were interested in exploring the similarities between radio waves and light waves, to test Maxwell's theory. They concentrated on producing short wavelength radio waves in the

2881:, resulted in the technological advances which made microwaves practical. Wavelengths in the centimeter range were required to give the small radar antennas which were compact enough to fit on aircraft a narrow enough 2028:. In addition to receiving naturally occurring microwave radiation, radio telescopes have been used in active radar experiments to bounce microwaves off planets in the solar system, to determine the distance to the 2614: 1791:

in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used above 300 MHz. Typically, microwaves are used in

2772: 2051:

wavelength ranges. The world's largest ground-based astronomy project to date, it consists of more than 66 dishes and was built in an international collaboration by Europe, North America, East Asia and Chile.

1140:. A sensitive receiver beyond the horizon with a high gain antenna focused on that area of the troposphere can pick up the signal. This technique has been used at frequencies between 0.45 and 5 GHz in 3387:

could produce a few milliwatts of microwave power. Its invention set off a search for better negative resistance semiconductor devices for use as microwave oscillators, resulting in the invention of the

845:

weather radar, surface ship radar, some communications satellites, microwave ovens, microwave devices/communications, radio astronomy, mobile phones, wireless LAN, Bluetooth, ZigBee, GPS, amateur radio

3008: 447:, some sources classify microwaves as radio waves, a subset of the radio wave band, while others classify microwaves and radio waves as distinct types of radiation. This is an arbitrary distinction. 2760: 2363:. The main effect of absorption of microwaves is to heat materials; the electromagnetic fields cause polar molecules to vibrate. It has not been shown conclusively that microwaves (or other 2996: 1823:

bands of the microwave spectrum. These frequencies allow large bandwidth while avoiding the crowded UHF frequencies and staying below the atmospheric absorption of EHF frequencies.

2115:

primarily by absorption of the energy in water. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following the development of less expensive

3263:

provided a high-power tunable source of microwaves up to 50 GHz and became the most widely used microwave tube (besides the ubiquitous magnetron used in microwave ovens). The

5377: 1604: 3029:

Mobile US Army microwave relay station 1945 demonstrating relay systems using frequencies from 100 MHz to 4.9 GHz which could transmit up to 8 phone calls on a beam.

2746:

due to excessive electron transit time and interelectrode capacitance. By the 1930s, the first low-power microwave vacuum tubes had been developed using new principles; the

2518:, to refract and diffract radio waves like light rays. Hertz produced waves up to 450 MHz; his directional 450 MHz transmitter consisted of a 26 cm brass rod 2304:

can be used to directly measure the wavelength on a transmission line made of parallel wires, the frequency can then be calculated. A similar technique is to use a slotted

1745:) operate between 1.6 and 2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-building penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones but with vastly greater spectral efficiency. 1325:. Apparatus and techniques may be described qualitatively as "microwave" when the wavelengths of signals are roughly the same as the dimensions of the circuit, so that 4408: 3496:

Prior to the 1970s microwave devices and circuits were bulky and expensive, so microwave frequencies were generally limited to the output stage of transmitters and the

4888: 2378:, it was observed that individuals in the radiation path of radar installations experienced clicks and buzzing sounds in response to microwave radiation. Research by 1485:

modulated mode. This means that they work on the basis of clumps of electrons flying ballistically through them, rather than using a continuous stream of electrons.

1013:

SHF transmissions: Radio astronomy, microwave devices/communications, wireless LAN, most modern radars, communications satellites, satellite television broadcasting,

2160:

of the electrons in the magnetic field, anywhere between 2–200 GHz, hence it is often referred to as Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH). The upcoming

2804: 1580: 1033:

EHF transmissions: Radio astronomy, high-frequency microwave radio relay, microwave remote sensing, amateur radio, directed-energy weapon, millimeter wave scanner

997:

satellite communications, millimeter-wave radar research, military radar targeting and tracking applications, and some non-military applications, automotive radar

3466:. In 1969 Kaneyuki Kurokawa derived mathematical conditions for stability in negative resistance circuits which formed the basis of microwave oscillator design. 1571:(i.e., non-broadcast uses). Microwaves are especially suitable for this use since they are more easily focused into narrower beams than radio waves, allowing 2367:

electromagnetic radiation) have significant adverse biological effects at low levels. Some, but not all, studies suggest that long-term exposure may have a

7045: 3240:, noticed that microwave radiation from a magnetron oscillator melted a candy bar in his pocket. He investigated cooking with microwaves and invented the 2754:. These could generate a few watts of power at frequencies up to a few gigahertz and were used in the first experiments in communication with microwaves. 1727:, designed to operate between 2 and 11 GHz. Commercial implementations are in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz ranges. 83:

is the range between 1 and 100 GHz (wavelengths between 30 cm and 3 mm), or between 1 and 3000 GHz (30 cm and 0.1 mm). The

5752: 2819: 1672:

was used to send up to 5,400 telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio channels combined into one antenna for the

3080:

After World War II, microwaves were rapidly exploited commercially. Due to their high frequency they had a very large information-carrying capacity (

1101:). Although at the low end of the band they can pass through building walls enough for useful reception, usually rights of way cleared to the first 3108:

were launched in the 1960s, which relayed telephone calls and television between widely separated points on Earth using microwave beams. In 1964,

4192: 4553:

Lipman, Richard M.; Tripathi, Brenda J.; Tripathi, Ramesh C. (November–December 1988). "Cataracts Induced by Microwave and Ionizing Radiation".

3428: 6652: 1136:

In a microwave beam directed at an angle into the sky, a small amount of the power will be randomly scattered as the beam passes through the

785: 5117: 1942:. Long-distance radars use the lower microwave frequencies since at the upper end of the band atmospheric absorption limits the range, but 7753: 7725: 7720: 6745: 5688: 2156:

experimental fusion reactors to help break down the gas into a plasma and heat it to very high temperatures. The frequency is tuned to the

6637: 3599: 3393: 4057: 4137: 2929:

at these frequencies, as vacuum tubes had too much capacitance. To fill this need researchers resurrected an obsolete technology, the

2099:

Microwaves are widely used for heating in industrial processes. A microwave tunnel oven for softening plastic rods prior to extrusion.

4107: 3201:

detection, and later many other uses. Radar and satellite communication motivated the development of modern microwave antennas; the

2067:. This faint background radiation, which fills the universe and is almost the same in all directions, is "relic radiation" from the 950:

satellite communications, terrestrial microwave communications, radio astronomy, automotive radar, molecular rotational spectroscopy

5413: 5162: 3088:

networks were built in the US and Europe to exchange telephone calls between cities and distribute television programs. In the new

1504:. Low-power sources are available as benchtop instruments, rackmount instruments, embeddable modules and in card-level formats. A 3713: 3643: 3568: 2683:

experimented with 1.5 and 12 GHz microwaves respectively, generated by small metal ball spark resonators. Russian physicist

2660:, generating frequencies up to 60 GHz (5 millimeter) using a 3 mm metal ball spark oscillator. Bose also invented 123:(UHF) are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study. In all cases, microwaves include the entire 2425:

that may not be immediately evident because of the tendency for microwaves to heat deeper tissues with higher moisture content.

7747: 6606: 5745: 5561: 2798:

meeting in 1938, showing 1.5 GHz microwaves passing through the 7.5 m flexible metal hose registering on a diode detector.

878:

satellite communications, radar, terrestrial broadband, space communications, amateur radio, molecular rotational spectroscopy

3228:

to quickly heat materials and cook food had been investigated in the 1930s by Ilia E. Mouromtseff at Westinghouse, and at the

2695:

of electromagnetic waves propagating through conducting tubes and dielectric rods of arbitrary shape which gave the modes and

2321:, which is equal to half the wavelength. The precision of this method is limited by the determination of the nodal locations. 7742: 7732: 7712: 7514: 5682: 5020: 4372: 4253: 4015: 3121: 3068: 2902: 2389:

When injury from exposure to microwaves occurs, it usually results from dielectric heating induced in the body. The lens and

2056: 1987: 1544: 2731:

Practical use of microwave frequencies did not occur until the 1940s and 1950s due to a lack of adequate sources, since the

6632: 6601: 6546: 5660: 4243: 2608:

in 1897 showing refraction of 1.4 GHz microwaves by paraffin prism, duplicating earlier experiments by Bose and Righi.

2330: 1787:

are smaller and therefore more practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also more

1293:. Due to the high cost and maintenance requirements of waveguide runs, in many microwave antennas the output stage of the 1274:, a computer-controlled array of antennas that produces a beam that can be electronically steered in different directions. 6879: 5036: 4913: 3142:

at a telephone switching center in Seattle, belonging to AT&T's Long Lines microwave relay network built in the 1960s.

7804: 7737: 7583: 6265: 2253: 1636: 1568: 1239: 196: 1180:

for portable devices to be made very small, from 1 to 20 centimeters long, so microwave frequencies are widely used for

7509: 6581: 4986: 4868: 4841: 4831: 4710: 4667: 4599: 4226: 4147: 4117: 4025: 3851: 3824: 3794: 1872: 1756:, use the low-microwave/high-UHF frequencies around 1.8 and 1.9 GHz in the Americas and elsewhere, respectively. 1270:

are being increasingly used in consumer devices. Another directive antenna practical at microwave frequencies is the

1246:. An advantage of narrow beams is that they do not interfere with nearby equipment using the same frequency, allowing 4946: 2569:'s 450 MHz spark transmitter, 1888, consisting of 23 cm dipole and spark gap at focus of parabolic reflector 7836: 7603: 5738: 4174: 3878: 3624: 3612: 3451: 778: 7388: 6936: 6738: 6647: 7499: 4216: 3963: 3938: 2225: 1669: 1531:

are used to measure the temperature of objects or terrain. The sun and other astronomical radio sources such as

1289:, have excessive power losses, so when low attenuation is required, microwaves are carried by metal pipes called 4341:

Wright, E.L. (2004). "Theoretical Overview of Cosmic Microwave Background Anisotropy". In W. L. Freedman (ed.).

914:

radar, satellite communications, astronomical observations, automotive radar, molecular rotational spectroscopy

7494: 5485: 3901: 3084:); a single microwave beam could carry tens of thousands of phone calls. In the 1950s and 60s transcontinental 2040: 1965: 1072: 457: 7831: 7519: 6713: 5643: 3718: 3438:

developed in 1956 by Marion Hines. These were used for low noise microwave receivers in radio telescopes and

3081: 2466:, and proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength. In 1888, German physicist 1788: 1576: 1547:(CMBR), for example, is a weak microwave noise filling empty space which is a major source of information on 3841: 3814: 3784: 7794: 7555: 7452: 6995: 6790: 6762: 5406: 5155: 3763: 3708: 3229: 2906: 2849:

A word was needed to distinguish these new shorter wavelengths, which had previously been lumped into the "

2795: 2700: 2661: 2168: 1290: 771: 3914: 7784: 7291: 6731: 6469: 5853: 5353: 5002: 3703: 2402: 2310: 2130: 1797: 1769: 981:

millimeter wave radar research, molecular rotational spectroscopy and other kinds of scientific research

80: 26: 3988: 1796:

to transmit a signal from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van. See

1144:(troposcatter) communication systems to communicate beyond the horizon, at distances up to 300 km. 7643: 7565: 7504: 7211: 6701: 6556: 6529: 5848: 5637: 5569: 4346: 2543: 2209: 1947: 1904: 1839: 1690: 1014: 236: 4189: 2228:(EPR or ESR) spectroscopy, typically in the X-band region (~9 GHz) in conjunction typically with 1990:(CMBR), showing the improved resolution which has been achieved with better microwave radio telescopes 7841: 7415: 7376: 7221: 7121: 7050: 6983: 6810: 6586: 6439: 5518: 3728: 3345: 3039: 2964: 2707: 2386:

was able to reanimate rats chilled to 0 and 1 °C (32 and 34 °F) using microwave diathermy.

2382:

in the 1970s has shown this to be caused by thermal expansion in parts of the inner ear. In 1955 Dr.

2142: 2075:

can detect the CMBR as a faint signal that is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object.

2009: 1880: 1716: 1535:

emit low level microwave radiation which carries information about their makeup, which is studied by

1330: 1086: 177: 60: 4769: 100:

range; rather, it indicates that microwaves are small (having shorter wavelengths), compared to the

7774: 7016: 6951: 6904: 6864: 6524: 6434: 6298: 6148: 5761: 5338: 3689: 3439: 3105: 3064: 3051: 2987: 2979: 2843: 2747: 1876: 1812: 1644: 1624: 1584: 715: 538: 444: 277: 260: 128: 4700: 3002:

First commercial klystron tube, by General Electric, 1940, sectioned to show internal construction

7613: 7598: 7442: 7393: 7316: 7216: 6894: 6780: 6775: 6464: 6258: 6198: 5399: 5188: 5148: 5114: 4555: 3616: 3603: 3408: 3349: 3093: 3089: 2245: 2205: 2083: 1939: 1831: 1805: 1489: 1177: 484: 212: 3450:

between two energy levels. Negative resistance amplifier circuits required the invention of new

2913:

in 1938 as a means to efficiently radiate microwaves into or out of a waveguide. In a microwave

2842:

data over bidirectional 1.7 GHz beams with a power of one-half watt, produced by miniature

7535: 7321: 7136: 7081: 7076: 6889: 6854: 6705: 6616: 6290: 5480: 5391: 4764: 4745: 3748: 3505: 3085: 2945: 2778:

Experimental 3.3 GHz (9 cm) transmitter 1933 at Westinghouse labs transmits voice over a mile.

2692: 2451: 1640: 3995:. Microwaves101 website, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). 14 May 2016 3364:

amplifiers which were used at lower frequencies became unstable at microwave frequencies, and

127:

band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum. A broader definition includes UHF and

7437: 7241: 7206: 7126: 7106: 7028: 6916: 6837: 6709: 6444: 5497: 5010: 4858: 3743: 3552: 3357: 3194: 3113: 3034:

The first powerful sources of microwaves were invented at the beginning of World War II: the

2960: 2751: 2739: 2653: 2581: 2475: 2180: 2064: 1887:

broadcast navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.

1661: 204: 6770: 4860:

Planar Microwave Engineering: A Practical Guide to Theory, Measurement, and Circuits, Vol. 1

4657: 4164: 4061: 7351: 7311: 7281: 7038: 6973: 6795: 6566: 6454: 6411: 6361: 6158: 6153: 5492: 5470: 5323: 5308: 4801:"On the passage of electric waves through tubes, or the vibrations of dielectric cylinders" 4756: 4360: 3514: 3489: 3459: 3435: 3276: 2766:

Antennas of 1931 experimental 1.7 GHz microwave relay link across the English Channel.

2605: 2551: 2539: 2463: 2294: 2268: 2213: 2138: 2043:, located at more than 5,000 meters (16,597 ft) altitude in Chile, which observes the 1863: 1682: 1612: 1528: 1516: 1326: 1209: 1141: 1131: 1043: 659: 533: 528: 244: 228: 124: 120: 3638:, as well as transistors, can be fabricated by lithography. By 1976 this led to the first 1929:

vehicles, ships and aircraft. Also, at these wavelengths, the high gain antennas such as

8: 7361: 7301: 7060: 7022: 6820: 6805: 6683: 6561: 6474: 6193: 6188: 6163: 6143: 5894: 5550: 5528: 5293: 5218: 5203: 4091: 3738: 3631: 3572: 3463: 3447: 3365: 3353: 3252: 3186: 3148: 3043: 2930: 2515: 2483: 2443: 2184: 2157: 2153: 2048: 1935: 1784: 1753: 1628: 1470: 1165: 654: 543: 521: 494: 489: 116: 6642: 4760: 4364: 1238:

from a half meter to 5 meters in diameter. Therefore, beams of microwaves are used for

32: 7588: 7545: 7476: 7346: 7276: 7251: 7186: 7033: 6754: 6678: 6499: 6479: 6459: 6343: 6251: 6183: 6031: 6004: 5914: 5899: 5523: 5465: 5444: 5233: 5086: 4923:. Vol. 6, no. 5. New York: Popular Book Co. September 1935. pp. 262, 310 4530: 4505: 4481: 4468: 4448: 4422: 4350: 3675: 3639: 3589:

that operated at microwave frequencies were developed in the 1970s. The semiconductor

3564: 3206: 2628: 2123: 2112: 1801: 1780: 1665: 1654: 1548: 1389: 1267: 1221: 1022: 1002: 499: 240: 4506:"Reanimation of rats from body temperatures between 0 and 1 °C by microwave diathermy" 2351:

molecules or break chemical bonds, or cause DNA damage, as ionizing radiation such as

302: 79:

between 300 MHz and 300 GHz, broadly construed. A more common definition in

75:

waves. Its wavelength ranges from about one meter to one millimeter, corresponding to

7628: 7550: 7464: 7447: 7410: 7256: 7086: 7055: 6921: 6815: 6571: 6449: 6386: 6351: 6039: 6035: 6016: 6012: 6008: 5475: 5016: 4982: 4864: 4837: 4706: 4663: 4595: 4572: 4568: 4535: 4486: 4368: 4249: 4222: 4200: 4170: 4143: 4113: 4021: 3897: 3874: 3847: 3820: 3790: 3698: 3635: 3594: 3583:

and antennas to be made, thus allowing compact microwave circuits to be constructed.

3580: 3544: 3510: 3446:, which keep time using a precise microwave frequency emitted by atoms undergoing an 3420: 3202: 3198: 3014: 2890: 2886: 2645: 2523: 2282: 1930: 1900: 1353: 1278: 1251: 1067: 7296: 2944:

around the turn of the century before vacuum tube receivers. The low capacitance of

2656:

performed the first experiments with microwaves. He was the first person to produce

639: 7633: 7593: 7573: 7540: 7469: 7427: 7341: 7196: 7181: 7156: 7131: 7091: 6941: 6800: 6785: 6576: 6173: 5944: 5919: 5787: 5513: 5263: 5082: 5006: 4812: 4774: 4727: 4696: 4564: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4476: 4460: 3758: 3733: 3590: 3518: 3307: 3272: 3256: 3101: 3097: 3047: 2933: 2922: 2889:

used to carry radio waves had excessive power losses at microwave frequencies, and

2811: 2696: 2672: 2447: 2279:

Microwave frequency can be measured by either electronic or mechanical techniques.

2249: 2241: 2190: 2116: 1730: 1536: 1508:

is a solid-state device which amplifies microwaves using similar principles to the

1482: 1408: 1336:

As a consequence, practical microwave circuits tend to move away from the discrete

1318: 1111: 554: 511: 200: 105: 5012:

Crystal fire: the invention of the transistor and the birth of the information age

1968:(ALMA) a radio telescope located in northern Chile. It receives microwaves in the 1281:

which are used to carry lower frequency radio waves to and from antennas, such as

7261: 7116: 6884: 6859: 6847: 6688: 6673: 6489: 6401: 6391: 6243: 6222: 6135: 5977: 5909: 5449: 5121: 5071:"Some Basic Characteristics of Broadband Negative Resistance Oscillator Circuits" 4956:. Vol. 8, no. 2. New York: Radio Science Publications. pp. 107–109 4196: 3892: 3548: 3424: 3323: 3268: 3164: 2926: 2827: 2823: 2657: 2585: 2072: 2025: 2021: 2003: 1969: 1943: 1793: 1765: 1723:(Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) are based on standards such as 1572: 1540: 1437: 1432: 1247: 1235: 1181: 473: 224: 132: 37: 2470:

was the first to demonstrate the existence of electromagnetic waves, generating

7459: 7331: 7306: 7266: 7236: 7111: 6946: 6899: 6874: 6832: 6536: 6494: 6484: 6406: 6396: 6366: 6168: 5952: 5614: 5439: 5278: 5171: 4074: 4042: 3866: 3655: 3620: 3607: 3280: 3260: 3241: 3060: 2918: 2914: 2566: 2527: 2519: 2495: 2467: 2459: 2455: 2409: 2383: 2334: 2318: 2229: 2134: 2104: 2088: 1657: 1608: 1588: 1524: 1462: 1412: 1322: 1302: 1213: 1189: 1119: 649: 516: 466: 248: 220: 22: 21:

This article is about the electromagnetic wave. For the cooking appliance, see

4816: 4778: 4409:

Silent Guardian Protection System. Less-than-Lethal Directed Energy Protection

2592:

generated 60 GHz (5 mm) waves using 3 mm metal ball resonators.

2530:. His historic experiments demonstrated that radio waves like light exhibited 2442:

experiments by physicists who thought of them as a form of "invisible light".

2359:

can. The word "radiation" refers to energy radiating from a source and not to

1333:

and transmission-line theory are more useful methods for design and analysis.

7825: 7608: 7381: 7371: 7286: 7176: 7171: 7161: 7146: 6968: 6827: 6611: 6371: 6356: 6178: 6115: 6096: 6000: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5610: 5434: 5248: 4833:

Digital Microwave Communication: Engineering Point-to-Point Microwave Systems

3915:"Electromagnetic radiation - Microwaves, Wavelengths, Frequency | Britannica" 3296: 3233: 2941: 2898: 2742:

used in radio transmitters could not produce frequencies above a few hundred

2688: 2684: 2680: 2669: 2620: 2547: 2511: 2499: 2360: 2314: 1925: 1369: 1282: 1217: 903: 851: 692: 674: 629: 624: 619: 614: 609: 604: 599: 594: 589: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 506: 370: 162: 147: 5806: 5127: 5070: 4055: 3356:(some of the prewar microwave tubes had also used negative resistance). The 2164:

thermonuclear reactor will use up to 20 MW of 170 GHz microwaves.

1958: 1231:

also allows narrow beams of microwaves to be produced by conveniently small

139: 7486: 7326: 7271: 7201: 7166: 7101: 7000: 6990: 6842: 6591: 6551: 6416: 6054: 6049: 6027: 6022: 5730: 5705: 5666: 5600: 5381: 4692: 4539: 3501: 3497: 3443: 3389: 3380: 3327: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3139: 3109: 2990:, 1940. In use the tube was installed between the poles of an electromagnet 2910: 2878: 2676: 2665: 2503: 2394: 2375: 2364: 2340: 2301: 2237: 2179:

worked in the 1970s and early 1980s to research the possibilities of using

2095: 2060: 1824: 1776: 1749: 1733:

Wireless Access (MBWA) protocols based on standards specifications such as

1679: 1532: 1501: 1493: 1441: 1298: 1271: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1232: 1205: 1193: 1102: 232: 112: 41: 4576: 4490: 4321: 4276: 2959:

were developed as microwave detectors in the 1930s, and the principles of

1254:

are the most widely used directive antennas at microwave frequencies, but

290: 7686: 7336: 7246: 7231: 7191: 7151: 7010: 6333: 6227: 5904: 5886: 5782: 5630: 5605: 4355: 3551:

in the 1950s. The ability to cheaply fabricate a wide range of shapes on

3267:

tube family developed in Russia could produce megawatts of power up into

3245: 3232:

demonstrated cooking meals with a 60 MHz radio transmitter. In 1945

3175: 2937: 2735: 2712: 2535: 2491: 2356: 2297:, which has a known relation between a physical dimension and frequency. 2172: 2149: 1734: 1724: 1650: 1520: 1453: 1349: 1294: 1137: 1090: 1077: 426: 354: 185: 181: 3316: 3017:, the first microwave air intercept radar, in nose of British fighter. 2550:, proving that radio waves and light waves were both forms of Maxwell's 88: 7691: 7398: 7096: 7005: 6961: 6931: 6909: 6381: 6328: 6208: 5876: 5871: 5825: 5802: 5140: 4472: 3586: 3540: 3526: 3485: 3455: 3401: 3397: 3331: 3303: 3225: 3190: 3055: 2983: 2850: 2716: 2531: 2471: 2439: 2397:

that can carry away heat. Exposure to microwave radiation can produce

2368: 2286: 2055:

A major recent focus of microwave radio astronomy has been mapping the

1911:) microwaves to locate aircraft in the airspace surrounding an airport. 1867: 1696:

specifications used for Wi-Fi, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz

1497: 1445: 1419: 1228: 1185: 1173: 1094: 264: 189: 101: 97: 68: 64: 45: 2317:

is present, they may also be used to measure the distance between the

1907:

which radiates a narrow vertical fan-shaped beam of 2.7–2.9 GHz (

1895: 7676: 7141: 6956: 6723: 6668: 6541: 6376: 6313: 6274: 5840: 5818: 5772: 3753: 3647: 3556: 3534: 3412: 3384: 3171: 3155: 3132: 3117: 2953: 2894: 2882: 2839: 2743: 2648:

during his 1895 experiments had a range of 6.5 km (4.0 mi)

2438:

Microwaves were first generated in the 1890s in some of the earliest

2417: 2413: 2305: 1686: 1458: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1341: 1286: 1201: 1157: 1107: 310: 216: 76: 4800: 4464: 4301: 3474: 2948:

allowed them to function at microwave frequencies. The first modern

2861:

were used briefly but did not catch on. The first usage of the word

2723:, and microwave frequencies were not further explored at this time. 2526:

made of a curved zinc sheet, powered by high voltage pulses from an

2522:

with a spark gap between the ends, suspended at the focal line of a

862:

long-distance radio telecommunications, wireless LAN, amateur radio

7671: 7661: 7578: 7403: 7226: 6318: 6303: 6232: 5992: 5792: 5594: 4388: 3669: 3576: 3560: 3432: 3369: 3361: 3264: 3237: 3035: 2398: 2233: 2108: 2068: 2044: 1705: 1697: 1556: 1552: 1474: 1466: 1345: 1337: 1161: 1115: 1046:

frequencies below the L band but is now obsolete per IEEE Std 521.

743: 386: 268: 184:, they do not diffract around hills, follow the earth's surface as 72: 4414: 3843:

National Association of Broadcasters Engineering Handbook, 10th Ed

2187:

that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves.

1114:, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called 138:

Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their

7666: 7651: 6869: 6596: 6101: 6087: 5710: 4728:"The work of Jagdish Chandra Bose: 100 years of MM-wave research" 3840:

Jones, Graham A.; Layer, David H.; Osenkowsky, Thomas G. (2013).

3478: 2949: 2853:" band, which meant all waves shorter than 200 meters. The terms 2720: 2637: 2405: 2244:

ions such as Cu(II). Microwave radiation is also used to perform

2122:

Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for drying and

1884: 1851: 1738: 1701: 1616: 1478: 1098: 1089:

paths; unlike lower frequency radio waves, they do not travel as

919: 883: 758: 748: 738: 697: 684: 166: 155: 5421: 4218:

Microwaves : Introduction To Circuits, Devices And Antennas

3092:

industry, from the 1940s microwave dishes were used to transmit

1488:

Low-power microwave sources use solid-state devices such as the

195:

Microwaves are widely used in modern technology, for example in

7696: 7656: 6978: 6125: 6120: 6110: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6043: 5972: 5649: 5586: 4163:

Karmel, Paul R.; Colef, Gabriel D.; Camisa, Raymond L. (1998).

3619:

made with two different semiconductors, AlGaAs and GaAs, using

2835: 2732: 2507: 2487: 2390: 2348: 2344: 2017: 2013: 1980: 1908: 1757: 1742: 1693: 1603: 1440:. The grey assembly attached to the end of the copper-colored 1422:

techniques become increasingly necessary at higher frequencies

1373: 1197: 986: 970: 955: 939: 867: 834: 818: 753: 733: 710: 705: 679: 669: 664: 418: 298: 295: 151: 143: 84: 49: 36:

A telecommunications tower with a variety of dish antennas for

4449:"Epidemiologic evidence relevant to radar (microwave) effects" 3630:

GaAs can be made semi-insulating, allowing it to be used as a

2486:

and microwave ranges, with which they could duplicate classic

7681: 7618: 6926: 6421: 6308: 5967: 5863: 5777: 5654: 5625: 5620: 5580: 5574: 5556: 4981:. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. p. 269. 3723: 3651: 3530: 3416: 3404:. Diodes are the most widely used microwave sources today. 3373: 2956: 2874: 2831: 2393:

of the eye are especially vulnerable because they contain no

2352: 2033: 1921: 1916: 1783:

transmissions because, due to their short wavelength, highly

1761: 1720: 1709: 1592: 1509: 1505: 1398: 1243: 398: 343: 334: 326: 208: 48:. The apertures of the dishes are covered by plastic sheets ( 2726: 1764:

use 1.452 to 1.492 GHz, while proprietary/incompatible

1152: 934:

satellite communications, molecular rotational spectroscopy

898:

satellite communications, molecular rotational spectroscopy

829:

military telemetry, GPS, mobile phones (GSM), amateur radio

7623: 5962: 5957: 5544: 4056:

PC Mojo – Webs with MOJO from Cave Creek, AZ (2008-04-25).

2885:

to localize enemy aircraft. It was found that conventional

2422: 2379: 2176: 2161: 2029: 1828: 1364:, and lumped-element tuned circuits are replaced by cavity 319: 18:

Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths from 1 m to 1 mm

4746:"The Origin of Waveguides: A Case of Multiple Rediscovery" 2838:, France. The system transmitted telephony, telegraph and 2293:

Mechanical methods require a tunable resonator such as an

2264: 2232:

of 0.3 T. This technique provides information on unpaired

1093:

which follow the contour of the Earth, or reflect off the

5982: 4166:

Introduction to Electromagnetic and Microwave Engineering

3522: 3116:

while investigating noise in a satellite horn antenna at

5109: 3642:(ICs) which functioned at microwave frequencies, called 2687:

in 1895 generated 50 GHz millimeter waves. In 1897

5001: 4662:. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 1–12. 4552: 4277:"IEEE 802.20: Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA)" 3185:

Microwave radar became the central technology used in

3154:

Microwave lens antenna used in the radar for the 1954

2039:

A recently completed microwave radio telescope is the

1623:

12–14 GHz microwave beam from a direct broadcast

1575:; their comparatively higher frequencies allow broad 4753:

IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques

4691: 3839: 3665: 2810:

The first modern horn antenna in 1938 with inventor

2675:

for use in his experiments. Independently in 1894,

1842:. Military communications run primarily over X or K 3547:usable at microwave frequencies, was invented with 3352:microwave devices which worked by a new principle; 6273: 5110:EM Talk, Microwave Engineering Tutorials and Tools 5015:. US: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 89–92. 3816:Concepts and Applications of Microwave Engineering 3271:frequencies and is used in industrial heating and 2623:'s 12 GHz spark oscillator and receiver, 1895 1827:either operates in the C band for the traditional 1156:Waveguide is used to carry microwaves. Example of 1081:subset in the range between 0.3 and 300 gigahertz. 4799:Strutt, William (Lord Rayleigh) (February 1897). 4162: 4058:"Frequency Letter bands – Microwave Encyclopedia" 3513:at microwave frequencies. This has made possible 3075: 2846:at the focus of 10-foot (3 m) metal dishes. 2401:by this mechanism, because the microwave heating 7823: 5655:Multichannel Video and Data Distribution Service 4863:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18, 118. 4592:Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion 4139:RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies 3964:"Details for IEV number 701-02-12: "radio wave"" 3469: 3286: 2078: 1938:, weather forecasting, navigation of ships, and 1631:35,700 kilometres (22,000 miles) above the Earth 1512:, which amplifies higher frequency light waves. 4043:"eEngineer – Radio Frequency Band Designations" 3939:"Details for IEV number 713-06-03: "microwave"" 3789:. American Industrial Hygiene Assn. p. 1. 3174:, installed in the kitchen of US merchant ship 2107:passes microwave radiation at a frequency near 2059:(CMBR) discovered in 1964 by radio astronomers 4882: 4880: 4503: 4345:. Carnegie Observatories Astrophysics Series. 3525:devices, and modern wireless devices, such as 6739: 6259: 5746: 5407: 5156: 5132: 4947:"Searchlight radio with the new 7 inch waves" 4725: 3170:The first commercial microwave oven, Amana's 2818:In 1931 an Anglo-French consortium headed by 2175:research was done to examine possibilities. 1567:Microwave technology is extensively used for 1452:High-power microwave sources use specialized 779: 5760: 5689:Multichannel multipoint distribution service 5422:Wireless video and data distribution methods 3981: 3890:Sorrentino, R. and Bianchi, Giovanni (2010) 3600:metal-semiconductor field-effect transistors 3537:which connect to networks using microwaves. 96:is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the 7754:Global telecommunications regulation bodies 4902:(5). New York: Popular Book Corp.: 266–267. 4886: 4877: 4221:. New Age International. pp. 1.4–1.7. 3812: 2936:(cat whisker detector) which was used as a 254: 7790: 6746: 6732: 6266: 6252: 5822: 5753: 5739: 5414: 5400: 5163: 5149: 4739: 4737: 4687: 4685: 4683: 4681: 4679: 4210: 4208: 4135: 4101: 4099: 4013: 2986:'s prototype cavity magnetron tube at the 2706:However, since microwaves were limited to 1515:All warm objects emit low level microwave 1356:used at lower frequencies are replaced by 786: 772: 4768: 4705:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 474–486. 4529: 4480: 4446: 4354: 4131: 4129: 4017:RF and Microwave Applications and Systems 3968:International Electrotechnical Vocabulary 3943:International Electrotechnical Vocabulary 3782: 2921:component was needed that would act as a 2727:First microwave communication experiments 2632:1.2 GHz microwave spark transmitter 2490:experiments in their laboratories, using 1768:in the U.S. uses around 2.3 GHz for 1676:to the next site, up to 70 km away. 173:, or by similar NATO or EU designations. 5170: 5124:and Microwave Waveguide dimension chart. 5068: 5062: 4792: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4645: 4643: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4245:An introduction to atmospheric radiation 3776: 3644:monolithic microwave integrated circuits 3473: 2963:learned during their development led to 2627: 2584:in 1894 was the first person to produce 2263: 2259: 2094: 2082: 1894: 1602: 1431: 1204:earphones. Antennas used include short 1151: 1071: 31: 4995: 4940: 4938: 4887:Mouromtseff, Ilia A. (September 1933). 4743: 4734: 4730:. National Radio Astronomy Observatory. 4719: 4676: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4214: 4205: 4112:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 55–58. 4105: 4096: 3956: 3931: 3813:Kumar, Sanjay; Shukla, Saurabh (2014). 3808: 3806: 3786:Radio-frequency and Microwave Radiation 3714:International Microwave Power Institute 3383:invented in 1957 by Japanese physicist 3100:back to the studio, allowing the first 3063:) significantly shortened the war. The 2877:, mainly in secrecy, before and during 1946:are used for short-range radar such as 1220:, and increasingly the printed circuit 7824: 6753: 6607:Wireless electronic devices and health 5562:Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service 4798: 4423:"Interaction of Radiation with Matter" 4340: 4334: 4156: 4126: 4075:Letter Designations of Microwave Bands 4007: 3442:. The maser led to the development of 2343:radiation, which means that microwave 2133:techniques use microwaves to generate 1308: 1042:The term P band is sometimes used for 213:satellite and spacecraft communication 6727: 6247: 5734: 5683:Local multipoint distribution service 5395: 5144: 5131: 4914:"Microwaves span the English Channel" 4829: 4823: 4583: 4504:Andjus, R.K.; Lovelock, J.E. (1955). 3302:Microwave oscillator consisting of a 3122:cosmic microwave background radiation 3069:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2604:Microwave spectroscopy experiment by 2057:cosmic microwave background radiation 1988:cosmic microwave background radiation 1883:(introduced in 1978) and the Russian 1545:cosmic microwave background radiation 1317:also has a more technical meaning in 555:EU / NATO / US ECM 7800: 6633:List of civilian radiation accidents 6602:Wireless device radiation and health 6597:Biological dose units and quantities 6547:Electromagnetic radiation and health 5661:Multipoint Video Distribution System 4974: 4968: 4944: 4935: 4850: 4744:Packard, Karle S. (September 1984). 4655: 4608: 4589: 4241: 4235: 4080: 3819:. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 3. 3803: 3368:oscillators and amplifiers based on 2822:demonstrated the first experimental 2699:of microwaves propagating through a 2347:do not contain sufficient energy to 2331:Electromagnetic radiation and health 2324: 5029: 4856: 4343:Measuring and Modeling the Universe 4060:. Microwaves101.com. Archived from 3873:Addison–Wesley Publishing Company. 3846:. Taylor & Francis. p. 6. 2652:Beginning in 1894 Indian physicist 2254:microwave enhanced electrochemistry 1903:(lower curved surface) of an ASR-9 1873:Global Navigation Satellite Systems 1637:Point-to-point (telecommunications) 13: 6582:Radioactivity in the life sciences 5805: 5087:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1969.tb01158.x 4906: 4836:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 7. 4169:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 1. 4136:Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2007). 4090:, Third Ed., p. 522, McGraw Hill. 4014:Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2007). 3833: 3326:. At the right end of the copper 3236:, an engineer working on radar at 2433: 1997: 1587:. Microwaves are also employed in 450: 14: 7853: 5103: 4453:Environmental Health Perspectives 3625:heterojunction bipolar transistor 3623:technology, and the similar HBT ( 3613:high electron mobility transistor 3120:, Holmdel, New Jersey discovered 2462:could travel through space as an 2416:(in the same way that heat turns 2313:on the line. However, provided a 2212:are currently using this type of 1964:Some of the dish antennas of the 1569:point-to-point telecommunications 1492:(at least at lower frequencies), 259:Microwaves occupy a place in the 7799: 7789: 7780: 7779: 7768: 7389:Free-space optical communication 5606:Mobile broadband wireless access 5375: 5069:Kurokawa, Kaneyuki (July 1969). 4889:"3 1/2 Inch Waves Now Practical" 4420: 4020:. CRC Press. pp. 1.9–1.11. 3682: 3668: 3315: 3295: 3163: 3147: 3131: 3022: 3007: 2995: 2972: 2803: 2783: 2771: 2759: 2613: 2597: 2574: 2559: 2032:or map the invisible surface of 2024:with large dish antennas called 1979: 1957: 1668:. Starting in the early 1950s, 1598: 1481:modulated mode, rather than the 1448:which generates the microwaves. 1397: 1388: 135:; 30 to 300 GHz) bands as well. 4726:Emerson, D.T. (February 1998). 4594:. MIT Press. pp. 5–9, 22. 4546: 4497: 4447:Goldsmith, JR (December 1997). 4440: 4402: 4381: 4314: 4294: 4269: 4183: 4142:. CRC Press. pp. I.2–I.4. 4034: 3896:, John Wiley & Sons, p. 4, 3719:Low-noise block converter (LNB) 3555:allowed microstrip versions of 3500:of receivers, and signals were 3337:which generates the microwaves. 2454:, had predicted that a coupled 2226:electron paramagnetic resonance 2224:Microwave radiation is used in 2219: 1670:frequency-division multiplexing 1611:on a residence, which receives 1562: 1125: 4522:10.1113/jphysiol.1955.sp005323 4109:Introduction to RF Propagation 3907: 3884: 3860: 3783:Hitchcock, R. Timothy (2004). 3454:waveguide components, such as 3411:negative resistance microwave 3396:and Ralph L. Johnston and the 3348:in the 1950s led to the first 3076:Post World War II exploitation 2830:40 miles (64 km) between 2171:over long distances, and post- 2041:Atacama Large Millimeter Array 1966:Atacama Large Millimeter Array 1815:systems operate in the C, X, K 1664:links run by carriers such as 1277:At microwave frequencies, the 1061: 458:Radio Society of Great Britain 263:with frequency above ordinary 1: 5644:Educational Broadband Service 4248:. Academic Press. p. 2. 4088:Introduction to Radar Systems 3770: 3634:on which circuits containing 3470:Microwave integrated circuits 3287:Solid state microwave devices 2909:in 1936. Barrow invented the 2865:apparently occurred in 1931. 2236:in chemical systems, such as 2079:Heating and power application 1875:(GNSS) including the Chinese 1857: 1660:were carried via networks of 1327:lumped-element circuit theory 1242:communication links, and for 911:11.3 mm to 16.7 mm 7775:Telecommunication portal 7556:Telecommunications equipment 4659:Microwave Electronic Devices 4569:10.1016/0039-6257(88)90088-4 3893:Microwave and RF Engineering 3764:The Thing (listening device) 3709:Electron cyclotron resonance 2049:millimeter and submillimeter 1555:theory of the origin of the 1477:. These devices work in the 1331:distributed circuit elements 1224:(PIFA) used in cell phones. 1085:Microwaves travel solely by 931:5.0 mm to 11.3 mm 859:3.75 cm to 7.5 cm 460:(RSGB), is tabulated below: 7: 7292:Alexander Stepanovich Popov 6470:Cosmic background radiation 5854:Ultra-high-energy gamma ray 4086:Skolnik, Merrill I. (2001) 3704:Cosmic microwave background 3661: 3255:(TWT) developed in 1943 by 2794:demonstrating waveguide at 2476:spark gap radio transmitter 2311:voltage standing wave ratio 1948:collision avoidance systems 1798:broadcast auxiliary service 1775:Microwave radio is used in 1329:is inaccurate, and instead 1305:is located at the antenna. 1252:Parabolic ("dish") antennas 1147: 1030:1.8 mm to 2.7 mm 1010:2.1 mm to 3.3 mm 994:2.7 mm to 4.0 mm 978:4.0 mm to 6.0 mm 963:5.0 mm to 7.5 mm 947:6.0 mm to 9.0 mm 895:16.7 mm to 25 mm 875:25 mm to 37.5 mm 414:300 GHz – 300 MHz 237:collision avoidance systems 81:radio-frequency engineering 27:Microwaves (disambiguation) 10: 7858: 6996:Telecommunications history 6699: 6557:Lasers and aviation safety 5849:Very-high-energy gamma ray 5638:Advanced Wireless Services 5570:Digital Video Broadcasting 5037:"Cooking with Short Waves" 4945:Free, E.E. (August 1931). 4347:Cambridge University Press 2868: 2715:and by reflecting off the 2428: 2328: 2167:Microwaves can be used to 2109:2.45 GHz (12 cm) 2010:astronomical radio sources 2001: 1972:range, 31 – 1000 GHz. 1914: 1905:airport surveillance radar 1861: 1840:direct-broadcast satellite 1634: 1379: 1348:used with lower-frequency 1129: 1065: 842:7.5 cm to 15 cm 799:Microwave frequency bands 247:, and for cooking food in 125:super high frequency (SHF) 20: 7763: 7705: 7642: 7604:Public Switched Telephone 7564: 7528: 7485: 7426: 7416:telecommunication circuit 7377:Fiber-optic communication 7360: 7122:Francis Blake (telephone) 7069: 6917:Optical telecommunication 6761: 6697: 6661: 6625: 6587:Radioactive contamination 6512: 6440:Electromagnetic radiation 6430: 6342: 6289: 6282: 6207: 6134: 6063: 5991: 5943: 5885: 5862: 5839: 5768: 5698: 5675: 5537: 5519:Satellite Internet access 5506: 5458: 5427: 5371: 5179: 5138: 5133:Links to related articles 4817:10.1080/14786449708620969 4779:10.1109/tmtt.1984.1132809 4510:The Journal of Physiology 4106:Seybold, John S. (2005). 3729:Microwave auditory effect 3593:(GaAs) has a much higher 3440:satellite ground stations 3415:were developed; the ruby 3346:semiconductor electronics 3230:1933 Chicago World's Fair 3106:communications satellites 3040:Russell and Sigurd Varian 2965:semiconductor electronics 2300:In a laboratory setting, 2248:and can be combined with 2183:(SPS) systems with large 2143:chemical vapor deposition 1881:Global Positioning System 1719:(MAN) protocols, such as 1717:Metropolitan area network 1585:communications satellites 1352:. Open-wire and coaxial 1250:by nearby transmitters. 1039:Other definitions exist. 826:15 cm to 30 cm 375:400 nm – 750 nm 339:0.01 nm – 10 nm 276: 180:; unlike lower frequency 61:electromagnetic radiation 7837:Electromagnetic spectrum 7515:Orbital angular-momentum 6952:Satellite communications 6791:Communications satellite 6700:See also the categories 6638:1996 Costa Rica accident 6299:Acoustic radiation force 5762:Electromagnetic spectrum 4201:Herley General Microwave 3989:"Frequency Letter bands" 3690:Telecommunication portal 3604:field effect transistors 3205:(the most common type), 3096:video feeds from mobile 3067:established secretly at 3065:MIT Radiation Laboratory 2988:University of Birmingham 2691:solved the mathematical 2216:in fixed installations. 2131:semiconductor processing 1890: 1813:satellite communications 1645:Satellite communications 1625:communications satellite 1539:using receivers called 1523:, so in meteorology and 1178:omnidirectional antennas 445:electromagnetic spectrum 359:10 nm – 400 nm 278:Electromagnetic spectrum 261:electromagnetic spectrum 255:Electromagnetic spectrum 129:extremely high frequency 7394:Molecular communication 7217:Gardiner Greene Hubbard 7046:Undersea telegraph line 6781:Cable protection system 6612:Radiation heat-transfer 6465:Gravitational radiation 5050:(7): 394. November 1933 4857:Lee, Thomas H. (2004). 4755:. MTT-32 (9): 961–969. 4556:Survey of Ophthalmology 4459:(Suppl. 6): 1579–1587. 4389:"The way to new energy" 4215:Sisodia, M. L. (2007). 3699:Block upconverter (BUC) 3617:field effect transistor 3275:research, and to power 3090:television broadcasting 2946:semiconductor junctions 2905:independently invented 2588:; his spark oscillator 2246:rotational spectroscopy 2206:United States Air Force 2148:Microwaves are used in 1940:speed limit enforcement 1832:fixed satellite service 1806:studio/transmitter link 1581:data transmission rates 1490:field-effect transistor 443:In descriptions of the 391:750 nm – 1 mm 111:The boundaries between 52:) to keep out moisture. 7536:Communication protocol 7322:Charles Sumner Tainter 7137:Walter Houser Brattain 7082:Edwin Howard Armstrong 6890:Information revolution 6653:1990 Zaragoza accident 6648:1984 Moroccan accident 6617:Linear energy transfer 6291:Non-ionizing radiation 5810: 5481:Terrestrial television 4830:Kizer, George (2013). 4805:Philosophical Magazine 4590:Hong, Sungook (2001). 4242:Liou, Kuo-Nan (2002). 4092:1962 Edition full text 3993:Microwave Encyclopedia 3749:Microwave transmission 3553:printed circuit boards 3506:intermediate frequency 3493: 2693:boundary-value problem 2649: 2446:in his 1873 theory of 2276: 2271:for measuring in the K 2111:through food, causing 2100: 2092: 2008:Microwaves emitted by 1912: 1641:Microwave transmission 1632: 1449: 1407:Cutaway view inside a 1169: 1082: 394:400 THz – 300 GHz 235:, industrial heating, 219:and cancer treatment, 188:, or reflect from the 53: 25:. For other uses, see 7510:Polarization-division 7242:Narinder Singh Kapany 7207:Erna Schneider Hoover 7127:Jagadish Chandra Bose 7107:Alexander Graham Bell 6838:online video platform 6643:1987 Goiânia accident 6445:Synchrotron radiation 6435:Earth's energy budget 6417:Radioactive materials 6412:Particle accelerators 5809: 5498:Visual sensor network 3871:Microwave Engineering 3744:Microwave radio relay 3477: 3277:particle accelerators 3246:microwave hyperthermy 3195:anti-aircraft defense 3158:anti-aircraft missile 3114:Robert Woodrow Wilson 2961:semiconductor physics 2844:Barkhausen–Kurz tubes 2752:split-anode magnetron 2740:electronic oscillator 2654:Jagadish Chandra Bose 2631: 2582:Jagadish Chandra Bose 2552:electromagnetic waves 2329:Further information: 2267: 2260:Frequency measurement 2181:solar power satellite 2137:for such purposes as 2098: 2086: 2036:through cloud cover. 1898: 1862:Further information: 1662:microwave radio relay 1649:Before the advent of 1606: 1529:microwave radiometers 1519:, depending on their 1435: 1266:are also used. Flat 1210:rubber ducky antennas 1155: 1075: 245:keyless entry systems 229:particle accelerators 205:microwave radio relay 199:communication links, 176:Microwaves travel by 35: 7832:Microwave technology 7352:Vladimir K. Zworykin 7312:Almon Brown Strowger 7282:Charles Grafton Page 6937:Prepaid mobile phone 6865:Electrical telegraph 6714:Radiation protection 6567:Radiation protection 6455:Black-body radiation 6362:Background radiation 6277:(physics and health) 5493:Satellite television 4695:; Mailloux, Robert; 4190:Microwave Oscillator 3573:directional couplers 3515:satellite television 3490:satellite television 3464:directional couplers 3436:parametric amplifier 3419:invented in 1953 by 3102:remote TV broadcasts 2748:Barkhausen–Kurz tube 2606:John Ambrose Fleming 2516:diffraction gratings 2464:electromagnetic wave 2295:absorption wavemeter 2269:Absorption wavemeter 2214:active denial system 2141:and plasma-enhanced 2139:reactive ion etching 2091:on a kitchen counter 1864:Satellite navigation 1850:band being used for 1785:directional antennas 1613:satellite television 1517:black-body radiation 1418:. Antenna splitter: 1176:of microwaves allow 1142:tropospheric scatter 1132:Tropospheric scatter 411:1 mm – 1 m 121:ultra-high-frequency 7302:Johann Philipp Reis 7061:Wireless revolution 7023:The Telephone Cases 6880:Hydraulic telegraph 6684:Radiation hardening 6626:Radiation incidents 6562:Medical radiography 6521:Radiation syndrome 6475:Cherenkov radiation 5895:Extreme ultraviolet 5551:Long Term Evolution 5529:Wireless local loop 5471:Internet television 5075:Bell System Tech. J 4975:Ayto, John (2002). 4761:1984ITMTT..32..961P 4702:History of Wireless 4656:Roer, T.G. (2012). 4365:2004mmu..symp..291W 3739:Microwave chemistry 3640:integrated circuits 3448:electron transition 3366:negative resistance 3358:feedback oscillator 3354:negative resistance 3344:The development of 3253:traveling wave tube 3187:air traffic control 3044:Stanford University 2873:The development of 2855:quasi-optical waves 2494:components such as 2452:Maxwell's equations 2444:James Clerk Maxwell 2158:cyclotron resonance 1936:air traffic control 1846:-band links, with K 1666:AT&T Long Lines 1653:transmission, most 1629:geostationary orbit 1471:traveling-wave tube 1309:Design and analysis 1287:parallel wire lines 1268:microstrip antennas 1196:(Wi-Fi) access for 1166:air traffic control 1054:, and upper band, K 1027:110 to 170 GHz 928:26.5 to 40 GHz 908:18 to 26.5 GHz 800: 241:garage door openers 117:terahertz radiation 67:shorter than other 7500:Frequency-division 7477:Telephone exchange 7347:Charles Wheatstone 7277:Jun-ichi Nishizawa 7252:Innocenzo Manzetti 7187:Reginald Fessenden 6922:Optical telegraphy 6755:Telecommunications 6679:Radioactive source 6500:Radiation exposure 6480:Askaryan radiation 6460:Particle radiation 6344:Ionizing radiation 5900:Vacuum ultraviolet 5811: 5524:Wireless broadband 5466:Amateur television 5445:Radio broadcasting 5120:2013-06-09 at the 4978:20th century words 4391:. ITER. 2011-11-04 4322:"Welcome to ALMA!" 4195:2013-10-30 at the 3919:www.britannica.com 3676:Electronics portal 3636:passive components 3608:Schottky junctions 3494: 3207:cassegrain antenna 2887:transmission lines 2650: 2474:using a primitive 2325:Effects on health 2285:or high frequency 2283:Frequency counters 2277: 2113:dielectric heating 2101: 2093: 2012:; planets, stars, 1931:parabolic antennas 1913: 1802:remote pickup unit 1781:telecommunications 1633: 1450: 1354:transmission lines 1279:transmission lines 1222:inverted F antenna 1170: 1122:frequency ranges. 1083: 1007:90 to 140 GHz 991:75 to 110 GHz 798: 725:Other TV and radio 408: 119:, microwaves, and 54: 44:, Ventura County, 7819: 7818: 7813: 7812: 7551:Store and forward 7546:Data transmission 7460:Network switching 7411:Transmission line 7257:Guglielmo Marconi 7222:Internet pioneers 7087:Mohamed M. Atalla 7056:Whistled language 6721: 6720: 6702:Radiation effects 6572:Radiation therapy 6508: 6507: 6450:Thermal radiation 6387:Neutron radiation 6352:Radioactive decay 6241: 6240: 5945:Visible (optical) 5728: 5727: 5476:Mobile television 5389: 5388: 5366: 5365: 5022:978-0-393-31851-7 4697:Oliner, Arthur A. 4374:978-0-521-75576-4 4281:Official web site 4255:978-0-12-451451-5 3595:electron mobility 3545:transmission line 3511:signal processing 3421:Charles H. Townes 3203:parabolic antenna 3199:ballistic missile 3098:production trucks 3046:in 1937, and the 2891:George Southworth 2826:link, across the 2673:crystal detectors 2646:Guglielmo Marconi 2524:parabolic antenna 2117:cavity magnetrons 1901:parabolic antenna 1537:radio astronomers 1068:Radio propagation 1037: 1036: 975:50 to 75 GHz 960:40 to 60 GHz 944:33 to 50 GHz 892:12 to 18 GHz 796: 795: 549: 548: 441: 440: 406: 378:750 THz – 400 THz 349:124 keV – 124 eV 315:< 0.01 nm 201:wireless networks 7849: 7842:Radio technology 7803: 7802: 7793: 7792: 7783: 7782: 7773: 7772: 7771: 7644:Notable networks 7634:Wireless network 7574:Cellular network 7566:Types of network 7541:Computer network 7428:Network topology 7342:Thomas A. Watson 7197:Oliver Heaviside 7182:Philo Farnsworth 7157:Daniel Davis Jr. 7132:Charles Bourseul 7092:John Logie Baird 6801:Data compression 6796:Computer network 6748: 6741: 6734: 6725: 6724: 6662:Related articles 6577:Radiation damage 6402:Nuclear reactors 6287: 6286: 6268: 6261: 6254: 6245: 6244: 5832: 5830: 5823: 5816: 5755: 5748: 5741: 5732: 5731: 5514:Mobile broadband 5416: 5409: 5402: 5393: 5392: 5382:Radio portal 5380: 5379: 5378: 5182: 5181: 5165: 5158: 5151: 5142: 5141: 5129: 5128: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5081:(6): 1937–1955. 5066: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5055: 5044:Short Wave Craft 5041: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5007:Lillian Hoddeson 5003:Riordan, Michael 4999: 4993: 4992: 4972: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4961: 4951: 4942: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4921:Short Wave Craft 4918: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4896:Short Wave Craft 4893: 4884: 4875: 4874: 4854: 4848: 4847: 4827: 4821: 4820: 4811:(261): 125–132. 4796: 4790: 4789: 4787: 4785: 4772: 4750: 4741: 4732: 4731: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4689: 4674: 4673: 4653: 4606: 4605: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4550: 4544: 4543: 4533: 4501: 4495: 4494: 4484: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4418: 4412: 4406: 4400: 4399: 4397: 4396: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4358: 4356:astro-ph/0305591 4338: 4332: 4331: 4329: 4328: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4309: 4308: 4298: 4292: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4264: 4262: 4239: 4233: 4232: 4212: 4203: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4160: 4154: 4153: 4133: 4124: 4123: 4103: 4094: 4084: 4078: 4072: 4070: 4069: 4053: 4051: 4050: 4038: 4032: 4031: 4011: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3985: 3979: 3978: 3976: 3975: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3950: 3935: 3929: 3928: 3926: 3925: 3911: 3905: 3888: 3882: 3864: 3858: 3857: 3837: 3831: 3830: 3810: 3801: 3800: 3780: 3759:RF switch matrix 3734:Microwave cavity 3692: 3687: 3686: 3685: 3678: 3673: 3672: 3591:gallium arsenide 3549:printed circuits 3519:cable television 3488:circuit used in 3319: 3308:cavity resonator 3299: 3257:Rudolph Kompfner 3167: 3151: 3135: 3048:cavity magnetron 3026: 3015:British Mk. VIII 3011: 2999: 2976: 2934:crystal detector 2859:ultrashort waves 2820:Andre C. Clavier 2812:Wilmer L. Barrow 2807: 2787: 2775: 2763: 2697:cutoff frequency 2658:millimeter waves 2617: 2601: 2586:millimeter waves 2578: 2563: 2448:electromagnetism 2410:crystalline lens 2250:electrochemistry 2242:transition metal 2203: 2202: 2198: 2191:Less-than-lethal 2073:radio telescopes 2026:radio telescopes 1983: 1961: 1944:millimeter waves 1731:Mobile Broadband 1541:radio telescopes 1409:cavity magnetron 1401: 1392: 1319:electromagnetics 1182:wireless devices 1076:The atmospheric 1017:, amateur radio 872:8 to 12 GHz 810:Wavelength range 801: 797: 788: 781: 774: 481: 480: 463: 462: 417:1.24 meV – 1.24 362:30 PHz – 750 THz 274: 273: 106:radio technology 71:but longer than 7857: 7856: 7852: 7851: 7850: 7848: 7847: 7846: 7822: 7821: 7820: 7815: 7814: 7809: 7769: 7767: 7759: 7701: 7638: 7560: 7524: 7481: 7430: 7422: 7363: 7356: 7262:Robert Metcalfe 7117:Tim Berners-Lee 7065: 6885:Information Age 6757: 6752: 6722: 6717: 6716: 6693: 6689:Havana syndrome 6674:Nuclear physics 6657: 6621: 6514: 6504: 6490:Unruh radiation 6426: 6407:Nuclear weapons 6392:Nuclear fission 6338: 6278: 6272: 6242: 6237: 6203: 6130: 6105: 6091: 6059: 5987: 5939: 5881: 5858: 5835: 5828: 5821: 5814: 5812: 5764: 5759: 5729: 5724: 5714: 5694: 5671: 5533: 5502: 5454: 5450:Satellite radio 5423: 5420: 5390: 5385: 5376: 5374: 5367: 5362: 5359: 5358:300 GHz/1 mm 5357: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5317: 5314: 5313:300 MHz/1 m 5312: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5272: 5269: 5268:300 kHz/1 km 5267: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5227: 5224: 5223:300 Hz/1 Mm 5222: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5175: 5169: 5134: 5122:Wayback Machine 5115:Millimeter Wave 5106: 5101: 5091: 5089: 5067: 5063: 5053: 5051: 5039: 5035: 5034: 5030: 5023: 5000: 4996: 4989: 4973: 4969: 4959: 4957: 4949: 4943: 4936: 4926: 4924: 4916: 4912: 4911: 4907: 4891: 4885: 4878: 4871: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4828: 4824: 4797: 4793: 4783: 4781: 4770:10.1.1.532.8921 4748: 4742: 4735: 4724: 4720: 4713: 4690: 4677: 4670: 4654: 4609: 4602: 4588: 4584: 4551: 4547: 4502: 4498: 4465:10.2307/3433674 4445: 4441: 4431: 4429: 4419: 4415: 4407: 4403: 4394: 4392: 4387: 4386: 4382: 4375: 4349:. p. 291. 4339: 4335: 4326: 4324: 4320: 4319: 4315: 4306: 4304: 4300: 4299: 4295: 4285: 4283: 4275: 4274: 4270: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4240: 4236: 4229: 4213: 4206: 4197:Wayback Machine 4188: 4184: 4177: 4161: 4157: 4150: 4134: 4127: 4120: 4104: 4097: 4085: 4081: 4067: 4065: 4048: 4046: 4041: 4039: 4035: 4028: 4012: 4008: 3998: 3996: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3973: 3971: 3962: 3961: 3957: 3948: 3946: 3937: 3936: 3932: 3923: 3921: 3913: 3912: 3908: 3889: 3885: 3867:Pozar, David M. 3865: 3861: 3854: 3838: 3834: 3827: 3811: 3804: 3797: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3768: 3688: 3683: 3681: 3674: 3667: 3664: 3656:microprocessors 3482: 3472: 3425:James P. Gordon 3376:worked better. 3342: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3338: 3335:(grey assembly) 3324:radar speed gun 3320: 3312: 3311: 3300: 3289: 3281:fusion reactors 3269:millimeter wave 3224:The ability of 3183: 3182: 3181: 3180: 3179: 3168: 3160: 3159: 3152: 3144: 3143: 3136: 3086:microwave relay 3078: 3030: 3027: 3018: 3012: 3003: 3000: 2991: 2977: 2967:after the war. 2871: 2828:English Channel 2824:microwave relay 2814: 2808: 2799: 2788: 2779: 2776: 2767: 2764: 2729: 2624: 2618: 2609: 2602: 2593: 2590:(in box, right) 2579: 2570: 2564: 2436: 2434:Hertzian optics 2431: 2339:Microwaves are 2337: 2327: 2274: 2262: 2230:magnetic fields 2222: 2204: in). The 2200: 2196: 2195: 2081: 2022:radio astronomy 2020:are studied in 2006: 2004:radio astronomy 2000: 1998:Radio astronomy 1995: 1994: 1993: 1992: 1991: 1984: 1975: 1974: 1973: 1970:millimeter wave 1962: 1919: 1893: 1879:, the American 1870: 1860: 1849: 1845: 1837: 1822: 1818: 1794:television news 1766:satellite radio 1752:networks, like 1658:telephone calls 1647: 1635:Main articles: 1620: 1601: 1589:microwave ovens 1573:frequency reuse 1565: 1463:microwave ovens 1438:radar speed gun 1430: 1429: 1428: 1427: 1404: 1403: 1402: 1394: 1393: 1382: 1311: 1248:frequency reuse 1190:cordless phones 1150: 1134: 1128: 1070: 1064: 1057: 1053: 923: 887: 856:4 to 8 GHz 839:2 to 4 GHz 823:1 to 2 GHz 807:Frequency range 792: 763: 720: 701: 688: 634: 453: 451:Frequency bands 257: 249:microwave ovens 225:radio astronomy 170: 159: 140:IEEE radar band 133:millimeter wave 38:microwave relay 30: 19: 12: 11: 5: 7855: 7845: 7844: 7839: 7834: 7817: 7816: 7811: 7810: 7808: 7807: 7797: 7787: 7777: 7764: 7761: 7760: 7758: 7757: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7729: 7728: 7723: 7715: 7709: 7707: 7703: 7702: 7700: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7648: 7646: 7640: 7639: 7637: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7570: 7568: 7562: 7561: 7559: 7558: 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7532: 7530: 7526: 7525: 7523: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7495:Space-division 7491: 7489: 7483: 7482: 7480: 7479: 7474: 7473: 7472: 7467: 7457: 7456: 7455: 7445: 7440: 7434: 7432: 7424: 7423: 7421: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7408: 7407: 7406: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7385: 7384: 7374: 7368: 7366: 7358: 7357: 7355: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7332:Camille Tissot 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7307:Claude Shannon 7304: 7299: 7297:Tivadar Puskás 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7267:Antonio Meucci 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7237:Charles K. Kao 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7212:Harold Hopkins 7209: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7112:Emile Berliner 7109: 7104: 7099: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7073: 7071: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7051:Videotelephony 7048: 7043: 7042: 7041: 7036: 7026: 7019: 7014: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6987: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6966: 6965: 6964: 6954: 6949: 6947:Radiotelephone 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6913: 6912: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6851: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6833:Internet video 6825: 6824: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6767: 6765: 6759: 6758: 6751: 6750: 6743: 6736: 6728: 6719: 6718: 6698: 6695: 6694: 6692: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6665: 6663: 6659: 6658: 6656: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6629: 6627: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6537:Health physics 6534: 6533: 6532: 6527: 6518: 6516: 6510: 6509: 6506: 6505: 6503: 6502: 6497: 6495:Dark radiation 6492: 6487: 6485:Bremsstrahlung 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6431: 6428: 6427: 6425: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6397:Nuclear fusion 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6367:Alpha particle 6364: 6359: 6354: 6348: 6346: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6295: 6293: 6284: 6280: 6279: 6271: 6270: 6263: 6256: 6248: 6239: 6238: 6236: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6214: 6212: 6205: 6204: 6202: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6140: 6138: 6132: 6131: 6129: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6069: 6067: 6061: 6060: 6058: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6025: 6020: 5997: 5995: 5989: 5988: 5986: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5949: 5947: 5941: 5940: 5938: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5891: 5889: 5883: 5882: 5880: 5879: 5874: 5868: 5866: 5860: 5859: 5857: 5856: 5851: 5845: 5843: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5833: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5769: 5766: 5765: 5758: 5757: 5750: 5743: 5735: 5726: 5725: 5723: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5708: 5702: 5700: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5692: 5686: 5679: 5677: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5669: 5664: 5658: 5652: 5647: 5641: 5635: 5634: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5608: 5603: 5592: 5591: 5590: 5584: 5578: 5567: 5566: 5565: 5559: 5554: 5541: 5539: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5510: 5508: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5489: 5488: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5462: 5460: 5456: 5455: 5453: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5440:Internet radio 5437: 5431: 5429: 5425: 5424: 5419: 5418: 5411: 5404: 5396: 5387: 5386: 5372: 5369: 5368: 5364: 5363: 5350: 5348: 5343:30 GHz/10 mm 5335: 5333: 5320: 5318: 5305: 5303: 5298:30 MHz/10 m 5290: 5288: 5275: 5273: 5260: 5258: 5253:30 kHz/10 km 5245: 5243: 5230: 5228: 5215: 5213: 5208:30 Hz/10 Mm 5200: 5198: 5185: 5180: 5177: 5176: 5172:Radio spectrum 5168: 5167: 5160: 5153: 5145: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5126: 5125: 5112: 5105: 5104:External links 5102: 5100: 5099: 5061: 5028: 5021: 4994: 4988:978-7560028743 4987: 4967: 4934: 4905: 4876: 4870:978-0521835268 4869: 4849: 4843:978-1118636800 4842: 4822: 4791: 4733: 4718: 4712:978-0471783015 4711: 4675: 4669:978-1461525004 4668: 4607: 4601:978-0262082983 4600: 4582: 4563:(3): 206–207. 4545: 4516:(3): 541–546. 4496: 4439: 4413: 4411:. raytheon.com 4401: 4380: 4373: 4333: 4313: 4302:"ALMA website" 4293: 4268: 4254: 4234: 4228:978-8122413380 4227: 4204: 4182: 4175: 4155: 4149:978-1420006728 4148: 4125: 4119:978-0471743682 4118: 4095: 4079: 4045:. Radioing.com 4033: 4027:978-1420006711 4026: 4006: 3980: 3955: 3930: 3906: 3883: 3859: 3853:978-1136034107 3852: 3832: 3826:978-8120349353 3825: 3802: 3796:978-1931504553 3795: 3774: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3693: 3679: 3663: 3660: 3621:heterojunction 3565:resonant stubs 3480: 3471: 3468: 3407:Two low-noise 3321: 3314: 3313: 3301: 3294: 3293: 3292: 3291: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3242:microwave oven 3169: 3162: 3161: 3153: 3146: 3145: 3137: 3130: 3129: 3128: 3127: 3126: 3077: 3074: 3061:Tizard Mission 3032: 3031: 3028: 3021: 3019: 3013: 3006: 3004: 3001: 2994: 2992: 2978: 2971: 2942:crystal radios 2870: 2867: 2816: 2815: 2809: 2802: 2800: 2789: 2782: 2780: 2777: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2758: 2728: 2725: 2626: 2625: 2619: 2612: 2610: 2603: 2596: 2594: 2580: 2573: 2571: 2567:Heinrich Hertz 2565: 2558: 2548:standing waves 2528:induction coil 2520:dipole antenna 2468:Heinrich Hertz 2460:magnetic field 2456:electric field 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2384:James Lovelock 2335:Microwave burn 2326: 2323: 2272: 2261: 2258: 2221: 2218: 2169:transmit power 2105:microwave oven 2089:microwave oven 2080: 2077: 2002:Main article: 1999: 1996: 1985: 1978: 1977: 1976: 1963: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1953: 1952: 1915:Main article: 1892: 1889: 1859: 1856: 1847: 1843: 1835: 1820: 1816: 1618: 1609:satellite dish 1600: 1597: 1564: 1561: 1525:remote sensing 1413:microwave oven 1406: 1405: 1396: 1395: 1387: 1386: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1370:resonant stubs 1323:circuit theory 1310: 1307: 1240:point-to-point 1218:patch antennas 1149: 1146: 1130:Main article: 1127: 1124: 1120:optical window 1066:Main article: 1063: 1060: 1055: 1051: 1035: 1034: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1019: 1018: 1011: 1008: 1005: 999: 998: 995: 992: 989: 983: 982: 979: 976: 973: 967: 966: 964: 961: 958: 952: 951: 948: 945: 942: 936: 935: 932: 929: 926: 921: 916: 915: 912: 909: 906: 900: 899: 896: 893: 890: 885: 880: 879: 876: 873: 870: 864: 863: 860: 857: 854: 848: 847: 843: 840: 837: 831: 830: 827: 824: 821: 815: 814: 811: 808: 805: 794: 793: 791: 790: 783: 776: 768: 765: 764: 762: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 730: 727: 726: 722: 721: 719: 718: 713: 708: 703: 699: 695: 690: 686: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 646: 643: 642: 636: 635: 633: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 561: 558: 557: 551: 550: 547: 546: 541: 536: 531: 525: 524: 519: 514: 509: 503: 502: 497: 492: 487: 477: 476: 470: 469: 452: 449: 439: 438: 435: 432: 429: 423: 422: 415: 412: 409: 403: 402: 397:1.7 eV – 1.24 395: 392: 389: 383: 382: 381:3 eV – 1.7 eV 379: 376: 373: 367: 366: 365:124 eV – 3 eV 363: 360: 357: 351: 350: 347: 340: 337: 331: 330: 323: 316: 313: 307: 306: 293: 291:Frequency (Hz) 288: 285: 281: 280: 256: 253: 221:remote sensing 197:point-to-point 168: 157: 142:designations: 104:used in prior 23:Microwave oven 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7854: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7829: 7827: 7806: 7798: 7796: 7788: 7786: 7778: 7776: 7766: 7765: 7762: 7755: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7718: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7710: 7708: 7704: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7649: 7647: 7645: 7641: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7571: 7569: 7567: 7563: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7533: 7531: 7527: 7521: 7520:Code-division 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7505:Time-division 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7492: 7490: 7488: 7484: 7478: 7475: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7462: 7461: 7458: 7454: 7451: 7450: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7435: 7433: 7431:and switching 7429: 7425: 7417: 7414: 7413: 7412: 7409: 7405: 7402: 7401: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7383: 7382:optical fiber 7380: 7379: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7372:Coaxial cable 7370: 7369: 7367: 7365: 7359: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7287:Radia Perlman 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7177:Lee de Forest 7175: 7173: 7172:Thomas Edison 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7162:Donald Davies 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7147:Claude Chappe 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7072: 7068: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7024: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6991:Smoke signals 6989: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6969:Semiconductor 6967: 6963: 6960: 6959: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6911: 6908: 6907: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6830: 6829: 6828:Digital media 6826: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6803: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6766: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6749: 6744: 6742: 6737: 6735: 6730: 6729: 6726: 6715: 6711: 6707: 6706:Radioactivity 6703: 6696: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6666: 6664: 6660: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6630: 6628: 6624: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6520: 6519: 6517: 6511: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6432: 6429: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6372:Beta particle 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6357:Cluster decay 6355: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6345: 6341: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6296: 6294: 6292: 6288: 6285: 6283:Main articles 6281: 6276: 6269: 6264: 6262: 6257: 6255: 6250: 6249: 6246: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6206: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6137: 6133: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6066: 6062: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5999: 5998: 5996: 5994: 5990: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5942: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5890: 5888: 5884: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5865: 5861: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5838: 5831: 5827: 5820: 5808: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5770: 5767: 5763: 5756: 5751: 5749: 5744: 5742: 5737: 5736: 5733: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5697: 5690: 5687: 5684: 5681: 5680: 5678: 5674: 5668: 5665: 5662: 5659: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5645: 5642: 5639: 5636: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5616: 5612: 5611:IEEE 802.15.3 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5588: 5585: 5582: 5579: 5576: 5573: 5572: 5571: 5568: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5552: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5540: 5536: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5505: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5487: 5484: 5483: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5463: 5461: 5457: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5435:Digital radio 5433: 5432: 5430: 5426: 5417: 5412: 5410: 5405: 5403: 5398: 5397: 5394: 5384: 5383: 5370: 5361: 5360:3 THz/0.1 mm 5356: 5355: 5349: 5346: 5345:300 GHz/1 mm 5341: 5340: 5334: 5331: 5330:30 GHz/10 mm 5328:3 GHz/100 mm 5326: 5325: 5319: 5316: 5315:3 GHz/100 mm 5311: 5310: 5304: 5301: 5296: 5295: 5289: 5286: 5283:3 MHz/100 m 5281: 5280: 5274: 5271: 5266: 5265: 5259: 5256: 5255:300 kHz/1 km 5251: 5250: 5244: 5241: 5240:30 kHz/10 km 5238:3 kHz/100 km 5236: 5235: 5229: 5226: 5225:3 kHz/100 km 5221: 5220: 5214: 5211: 5206: 5205: 5199: 5196: 5193:3 Hz/100 Mm 5191: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5166: 5161: 5159: 5154: 5152: 5147: 5146: 5143: 5137: 5130: 5123: 5119: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5107: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5065: 5049: 5045: 5038: 5032: 5024: 5018: 5014: 5013: 5008: 5004: 4998: 4990: 4984: 4980: 4979: 4971: 4955: 4948: 4941: 4939: 4922: 4915: 4909: 4901: 4897: 4890: 4883: 4881: 4872: 4866: 4862: 4861: 4853: 4845: 4839: 4835: 4834: 4826: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4795: 4780: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4747: 4740: 4738: 4729: 4722: 4714: 4708: 4704: 4703: 4698: 4694: 4693:Sarkar, T. K. 4688: 4686: 4684: 4682: 4680: 4671: 4665: 4661: 4660: 4652: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4603: 4597: 4593: 4586: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4557: 4549: 4541: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4500: 4492: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4443: 4428: 4424: 4417: 4410: 4405: 4390: 4384: 4376: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4337: 4323: 4317: 4303: 4297: 4282: 4278: 4272: 4257: 4251: 4247: 4246: 4238: 4230: 4224: 4220: 4219: 4211: 4209: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4191: 4186: 4178: 4176:9780471177814 4172: 4168: 4167: 4159: 4151: 4145: 4141: 4140: 4132: 4130: 4121: 4115: 4111: 4110: 4102: 4100: 4093: 4089: 4083: 4076: 4064:on 2014-07-14 4063: 4059: 4044: 4037: 4029: 4023: 4019: 4018: 4010: 3994: 3990: 3984: 3970:(in Japanese) 3969: 3965: 3959: 3945:(in Japanese) 3944: 3940: 3934: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3894: 3887: 3880: 3879:0-201-50418-9 3876: 3872: 3868: 3863: 3855: 3849: 3845: 3844: 3836: 3828: 3822: 3818: 3817: 3809: 3807: 3798: 3792: 3788: 3787: 3779: 3775: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3696: 3691: 3680: 3677: 3671: 3666: 3659: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3628: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3602:), fast GaAs 3601: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3491: 3487: 3484: 3476: 3467: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3452:nonreciprocal 3449: 3445: 3444:atomic clocks 3441: 3437: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3405: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3375: 3372:devices like 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3336: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3318: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3249: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3234:Percy Spencer 3231: 3227: 3222: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3177: 3173: 3166: 3157: 3150: 3141: 3140:horn antennas 3134: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3073: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3010: 3005: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2975: 2970: 2969: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2932: 2931:point contact 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2899:Wilmer Barrow 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2866: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2813: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2786: 2781: 2774: 2769: 2762: 2757: 2756: 2755: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2724: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2708:line of sight 2704: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2689:Lord Rayleigh 2686: 2685:Pyotr Lebedev 2682: 2681:Augusto Righi 2678: 2674: 2671: 2670:semiconductor 2667: 2666:horn antennas 2663: 2659: 2655: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2622: 2621:Augusto Righi 2616: 2611: 2607: 2600: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2562: 2557: 2556: 2555: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2479: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2450:, now called 2449: 2445: 2441: 2426: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2395:blood vessels 2392: 2387: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2361:radioactivity 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2336: 2332: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2315:standing wave 2312: 2307: 2303: 2298: 2296: 2291: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2270: 2266: 2257: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2238:free radicals 2235: 2231: 2227: 2217: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2192: 2188: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2125: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2097: 2090: 2085: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2065:Robert Wilson 2062: 2058: 2053: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2005: 1989: 1982: 1971: 1967: 1960: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1926:radiolocation 1923: 1918: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1888: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1865: 1855: 1853: 1841: 1833: 1830: 1826: 1814: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1737:or ATIS/ANSI 1736: 1732: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1681: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1655:long-distance 1652: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1614: 1610: 1605: 1599:Communication 1596: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1560: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1502:IMPATT diodes 1499: 1495: 1494:tunnel diodes 1491: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1436:Disassembled 1434: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1414: 1411:as used in a 1410: 1400: 1391: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1283:coaxial cable 1280: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1264:lens antennas 1261: 1260:slot antennas 1257: 1256:horn antennas 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1206:whip antennas 1203: 1199: 1195: 1194:wireless LANs 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1145: 1143: 1139: 1133: 1123: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1087:line-of-sight 1079: 1074: 1069: 1059: 1047: 1045: 1040: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 1000: 996: 993: 990: 988: 985: 984: 980: 977: 974: 972: 969: 968: 965: 962: 959: 957: 954: 953: 949: 946: 943: 941: 938: 937: 933: 930: 927: 925: 918: 917: 913: 910: 907: 905: 902: 901: 897: 894: 891: 889: 882: 881: 877: 874: 871: 869: 866: 865: 861: 858: 855: 853: 850: 849: 844: 841: 838: 836: 833: 832: 828: 825: 822: 820: 817: 816: 813:Typical uses 812: 809: 806: 803: 802: 789: 784: 782: 777: 775: 770: 769: 767: 766: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 735: 732: 731: 729: 728: 724: 723: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 696: 694: 691: 689: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 647: 645: 644: 641: 638: 637: 631: 628: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 611: 608: 606: 603: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 578: 576: 573: 571: 568: 566: 563: 562: 560: 559: 556: 553: 552: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 526: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 504: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 482: 479: 478: 475: 472: 471: 468: 465: 464: 461: 459: 448: 446: 436: 433: 430: 428: 425: 424: 420: 416: 413: 410: 405: 404: 400: 396: 393: 390: 388: 385: 384: 380: 377: 374: 372: 371:Visible light 369: 368: 364: 361: 358: 356: 353: 352: 348: 345: 341: 338: 336: 333: 332: 328: 324: 321: 317: 314: 312: 309: 308: 304: 300: 297: 294: 292: 289: 286: 283: 282: 279: 275: 272: 270: 266: 262: 252: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 193: 191: 187: 183: 179: 178:line-of-sight 174: 172: 164: 160: 153: 149: 145: 141: 136: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 109: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 59:is a form of 58: 51: 47: 43: 39: 34: 28: 24: 16: 7487:Multiplexing 7362:Transmission 7327:Nikola Tesla 7317:Henry Sutton 7272:Samuel Morse 7202:Robert Hooke 7167:Amos Dolbear 7102:John Bardeen 7021: 7001:Telautograph 6905:Mobile phone 6860:Edholm's law 6843:social media 6776:Broadcasting 6710:Radiobiology 6592:Radiobiology 6552:Laser safety 6323: 6217: 6064: 5813: 5797: 5719: 5706:Broadcasting 5676:Technologies 5667:Wireless USB 5601:Mobile WiMAX 5557:5G New Radio 5373: 5352: 5351: 5337: 5336: 5322: 5321: 5307: 5306: 5300:300 MHz/1 m 5292: 5291: 5285:30 MHz/10 m 5277: 5276: 5270:3 MHz/100 m 5262: 5261: 5247: 5246: 5232: 5231: 5217: 5216: 5210:300 Hz/1 Mm 5202: 5201: 5195:30 Hz/10 Mm 5187: 5186: 5090:. Retrieved 5078: 5074: 5064: 5052:. Retrieved 5047: 5043: 5031: 5011: 4997: 4977: 4970: 4958:. Retrieved 4953: 4925:. Retrieved 4920: 4908: 4899: 4895: 4859: 4852: 4832: 4825: 4808: 4804: 4794: 4782:. Retrieved 4752: 4721: 4701: 4658: 4591: 4585: 4560: 4554: 4548: 4513: 4509: 4499: 4456: 4452: 4442: 4430:. Retrieved 4427:HyperPhysics 4426: 4416: 4404: 4393:. Retrieved 4383: 4342: 4336: 4325:. Retrieved 4316: 4305:. Retrieved 4296: 4284:. Retrieved 4280: 4271: 4259:. Retrieved 4244: 4237: 4217: 4185: 4165: 4158: 4138: 4108: 4087: 4082: 4066:. Retrieved 4062:the original 4047:. Retrieved 4036: 4016: 4009: 3997:. Retrieved 3992: 3983: 3972:. Retrieved 3967: 3958: 3947:. Retrieved 3942: 3933: 3922:. Retrieved 3918: 3909: 3891: 3886: 3870: 3862: 3842: 3835: 3815: 3785: 3778: 3629: 3585: 3543:, a type of 3539: 3498:RF front end 3495: 3429:H. J. Zeiger 3406: 3390:IMPATT diode 3381:tunnel diode 3378: 3343: 3334: 3328:horn antenna 3279:and nuclear 3250: 3223: 3219:phased array 3215:slot antenna 3211:lens antenna 3184: 3110:Arno Penzias 3104:. The first 3079: 3052:John Randall 3033: 2911:horn antenna 2879:World War II 2872: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2848: 2817: 2791: 2730: 2713:ground waves 2705: 2677:Oliver Lodge 2651: 2641: 2633: 2589: 2544:interference 2540:polarization 2492:quasioptical 2480: 2437: 2388: 2376:World War II 2373: 2369:carcinogenic 2365:non-ionizing 2341:non-ionizing 2338: 2302:Lecher lines 2299: 2292: 2281: 2278: 2223: 2220:Spectroscopy 2189: 2185:solar arrays 2166: 2150:stellarators 2147: 2128: 2121: 2102: 2061:Arno Penzias 2054: 2038: 2007: 1986:Maps of the 1920: 1871: 1825:Satellite TV 1810: 1777:broadcasting 1774: 1750:mobile phone 1747: 1729: 1715: 1680:Wireless LAN 1678: 1673: 1648: 1595:technology. 1566: 1563:Applications 1533:Cassiopeia A 1514: 1487: 1454:vacuum tubes 1451: 1442:horn antenna 1423: 1415: 1335: 1314: 1312: 1299:RF front end 1276: 1272:phased array 1227:Their short 1226: 1171: 1135: 1126:Troposcatter 1103:Fresnel zone 1091:ground waves 1084: 1048: 1041: 1038: 454: 442: 342:30 EHz – 30 267:, and below 258: 233:spectroscopy 194: 186:ground waves 175: 137: 113:far infrared 110: 93: 87: 56: 55: 42:Frazier Peak 15: 7687:NPL network 7399:Radio waves 7337:Alfred Vail 7247:Hedy Lamarr 7232:Dawon Kahng 7192:Elisha Gray 7152:Yogen Dalal 7077:Nasir Ahmed 7011:Teleprinter 6875:Heliographs 6334:Ultraviolet 6329:Radio waves 6228:Medium wave 5905:Lyman-alpha 5887:Ultraviolet 5826:wavelengths 5819:frequencies 5783:Ultraviolet 5575:Terrestrial 5092:December 8, 4421:Nave, Rod. 3587:Transistors 3527:smartphones 3504:to a lower 3502:heterodyned 3456:circulators 3409:solid state 3400:in 1962 by 3392:in 1956 by 3350:solid state 3261:John Pierce 3226:short waves 3189:, maritime 3176:NS Savannah 2938:demodulator 2790:Southworth 2736:vacuum tube 2536:diffraction 2472:radio waves 2357:ultraviolet 2173:World War 2 1804:(RPU), and 1735:IEEE 802.20 1725:IEEE 802.16 1700:, although 1651:fiber-optic 1521:temperature 1498:Gunn diodes 1473:(TWT), and 1350:radio waves 1295:transmitter 1186:cell phones 1174:wavelengths 1138:troposphere 1078:attenuation 1062:Propagation 804:Designation 467:Radio bands 437:≤ 1.24 μeV 355:Ultraviolet 265:radio waves 182:radio waves 102:radio waves 77:frequencies 69:radio waves 65:wavelengths 7826:Categories 7733:Antarctica 7692:Toasternet 7614:Television 7097:Paul Baran 7029:Television 7013:(teletype) 7006:Telegraphy 6984:transistor 6962:Phryctoria 6932:Photophone 6910:Smartphone 6900:Mass media 6515:and health 6513:Radiation 6382:Cosmic ray 6209:Wavelength 6065:Microwaves 5877:Hard X-ray 5872:Soft X-ray 5841:Gamma rays 5773:Gamma rays 4954:Radio News 4432:20 October 4395:2011-11-08 4327:2011-05-25 4307:2011-09-21 4286:August 20, 4068:2011-11-08 4049:2011-11-08 3974:2024-03-27 3949:2024-03-27 3924:2023-08-15 3902:047066021X 3771:References 3648:amplifiers 3557:capacitors 3541:Microstrip 3486:microstrip 3431:, and the 3413:amplifiers 3402:J. B. Gunn 3398:Gunn diode 3332:Gunn diode 3304:Gunn diode 3191:navigation 3056:Harry Boot 2863:micro-wave 2851:short wave 2717:ionosphere 2532:refraction 2440:radio wave 2418:egg whites 2287:heterodyne 2126:products. 1868:Navigation 1858:Navigation 1829:large dish 1685:, such as 1446:Gunn diode 1420:microstrip 1376:are used. 1366:resonators 1358:waveguides 1342:capacitors 1291:waveguides 1229:wavelength 1172:The short 1158:waveguides 1095:ionosphere 431:≥ 1 m 287:Wavelength 215:, medical 207:networks, 190:ionosphere 98:micrometer 46:California 40:links on 7717:Americas 7706:Locations 7677:Internet2 7438:Bandwidth 7142:Vint Cerf 7039:streaming 7017:Telephone 6957:Semaphore 6848:streaming 6669:Half-life 6542:Dosimetry 6377:Gamma ray 6324:Microwave 6314:Starlight 6275:Radiation 6223:Shortwave 6218:Microwave 5798:Microwave 5720:Microwave 5587:Satellite 5538:Standards 4960:March 24, 4927:March 24, 4784:March 24, 4765:CiteSeerX 4199:notes by 3754:Rain fade 3632:substrate 3577:diplexers 3569:splitters 3561:inductors 3535:Bluetooth 3460:isolators 3394:W.T. Read 3385:Leo Esaki 3306:inside a 3172:Radarange 3156:Nike Ajax 3118:Bell Labs 3082:bandwidth 2954:germanium 2919:nonlinear 2907:waveguide 2895:Bell Labs 2883:beamwidth 2840:facsimile 2834:, UK and 2792:(at left) 2744:megahertz 2701:waveguide 2662:waveguide 2640:receiver 2514:and wire 2403:denatures 2399:cataracts 2306:waveguide 2234:electrons 2145:(PECVD). 1838:band for 1789:bandwidth 1741:(such as 1687:Bluetooth 1683:protocols 1579:and high 1577:bandwidth 1549:cosmology 1461:(used in 1459:magnetron 1362:stripline 1346:inductors 1338:resistors 1315:microwave 1313:The term 1233:high gain 1212:, sleeve 1202:Bluetooth 1108:rain fade 434:≤ 300 MHz 407:Microwave 325:> 124 311:Gamma ray 217:diathermy 94:microwave 57:Microwave 7785:Category 7672:Internet 7662:CYCLADES 7579:Ethernet 7529:Concepts 7453:terminal 7404:wireless 7227:Bob Kahn 7070:Pioneers 6895:Internet 6786:Cable TV 6319:Sunlight 6304:Infrared 6233:Longwave 5993:Infrared 5793:Infrared 5595:IEEE 802 5589:(DVB-S2) 5581:Handheld 5118:Archived 5054:23 March 5009:(1988). 4699:(2006). 4540:13243347 4193:Archived 3869:(1993). 3662:See also 3433:varactor 3370:one-port 3362:two-port 3265:gyrotron 3238:Raytheon 3094:backhaul 3050:tube by 3038:tube by 3036:klystron 2923:detector 2915:receiver 2750:and the 2738:(valve) 2721:skywaves 2644:used by 2504:paraffin 2502:made of 2406:proteins 2371:effect. 2069:Big Bang 2045:universe 2014:galaxies 1706:ISM band 1698:ISM band 1689:and the 1557:Universe 1553:Big Bang 1475:gyrotron 1467:klystron 1303:receiver 1236:antennas 1184:such as 1162:diplexer 1148:Antennas 1116:infrared 1099:skywaves 544:12 (THF) 539:11 (EHF) 534:10 (SHF) 387:Infrared 318:> 30 269:infrared 73:infrared 7805:Commons 7795:Outline 7748:Oceania 7667:FidoNet 7652:ARPANET 7465:circuit 7034:digital 6763:History 6530:chronic 5824:longer 5817:higher 5788:Visible 5699:Related 5657:(MVDDS) 5597:family 5583:(DVB-H) 5577:(DVB-T) 5547:family 5486:Digital 4757:Bibcode 4577:3068822 4531:1365902 4491:9467086 4482:1469943 4473:3433674 4361:Bibcode 4261:12 July 3581:filters 3330:is the 3322:Modern 3310:, 1970s 3178:in 1961 3138:C-band 2980:Randall 2950:silicon 2642:(right) 2638:coherer 2429:History 2412:of the 2408:in the 2374:During 2345:photons 2210:Marines 2199:⁄ 2154:tokamak 2047:in the 2018:nebulas 1885:GLONASS 1852:Milstar 1808:(STL). 1800:(BAS), 1739:HC-SDMA 1702:802.11a 1615:over a 1591:and in 1543:. The 1483:current 1479:density 1444:is the 1424:(right) 1380:Sources 1301:of the 1297:or the 1214:dipoles 1198:laptops 529:9 (UHF) 522:8 (VHF) 500:4 (VLF) 495:3 (ULF) 490:2 (SLF) 485:1 (ELF) 271:light: 131:(EHF) ( 50:radomes 7743:Europe 7713:Africa 7697:Usenet 7657:BITNET 7594:Mobile 7470:packet 6979:MOSFET 6974:device 6771:Beacon 6712:, and 6126:L band 6121:S band 6116:C band 6111:X band 6097:K band 6083:Q band 6078:V band 6073:W band 5978:Orange 5973:Yellow 5953:Violet 5864:X-rays 5778:X-rays 5691:(MMDS) 5685:(LMDS) 5663:(MVDS) 5650:HomeRF 5564:(MBMS) 5019: 4985: 4867: 4840: 4767: 4709: 4666: 4598: 4575: 4538: 4528: 4489: 4479: 4471: 4371: 4252: 4225: 4173: 4146: 4116: 4024: 3999:1 July 3900: 3877: 3850: 3823: 3793: 3654:, and 3652:modems 3606:using 3533:, and 3462:, and 3427:, and 3374:diodes 3273:plasma 3217:, and 2957:diodes 2836:Calais 2733:triode 2668:, and 2634:(left) 2508:sulfur 2500:lenses 2496:prisms 2488:optics 2391:cornea 2353:x-rays 2349:ionize 2252:as in 2135:plasma 2124:curing 2087:Small 2016:, and 1909:S band 1877:Beidou 1819:, or K 1758:DVB-SH 1743:iBurst 1694:802.11 1643:, and 1500:, and 1416:(left) 1374:optics 1344:, and 1200:, and 1192:, and 1164:in an 1160:and a 1112:opaque 1023:D band 1003:F band 987:W band 971:V band 956:U band 940:Q band 904:K band 868:X band 852:C band 835:S band 819:L band 517:7 (HF) 512:6 (MF) 507:5 (LF) 299:energy 296:Photon 89:micro- 85:prefix 7726:South 7721:North 7682:JANET 7619:Telex 7609:Radio 7448:Nodes 7443:Links 7364:media 6942:Radio 6927:Pager 6855:Drums 6821:video 6816:image 6806:audio 6525:acute 6422:X-ray 6309:Light 6211:types 6136:Radio 6032:Bands 6005:Bands 5968:Green 5803:Radio 5646:(EBS) 5640:(AWS) 5626:WiMAX 5621:Wi-Fi 5553:(LTE) 5459:Video 5428:Radio 5174:(ITU) 5040:(PDF) 4950:(PDF) 4917:(PDF) 4892:(PDF) 4749:(PDF) 4469:JSTOR 4351:arXiv 3724:Maser 3615:), a 3531:Wi-Fi 3492:dish. 3417:maser 2927:mixer 2875:radar 2869:Radar 2832:Dover 2512:pitch 2423:burns 2319:nodes 2275:band. 2129:Many 2034:Venus 1924:is a 1922:Radar 1917:Radar 1891:Radar 1811:Most 1762:S-DMB 1748:Some 1721:WiMAX 1710:U-NII 1704:uses 1627:in a 1593:radar 1510:laser 1506:maser 1244:radar 1168:radar 640:IEEE 427:Radio 335:X-ray 209:radar 165:, or 63:with 7738:Asia 7624:UUCP 7584:ISDN 6106:band 6092:band 6050:LWIR 6028:MWIR 6023:SWIR 5963:Cyan 5958:Blue 5715:band 5631:WRAN 5545:3GPP 5507:Data 5094:2012 5056:2015 5017:ISBN 4983:ISBN 4962:2015 4929:2015 4865:ISBN 4838:ISBN 4786:2015 4707:ISBN 4664:ISBN 4596:ISBN 4573:PMID 4536:PMID 4487:PMID 4434:2014 4369:ISBN 4288:2011 4263:2010 4250:ISBN 4223:ISBN 4171:ISBN 4144:ISBN 4114:ISBN 4040:See 4022:ISBN 4001:2018 3898:ISBN 3875:ISBN 3848:ISBN 3821:ISBN 3791:ISBN 3483:band 3379:The 3360:and 3259:and 3251:The 3112:and 3054:and 2984:Boot 2982:and 2952:and 2925:and 2917:, a 2897:and 2857:and 2679:and 2636:and 2546:and 2510:and 2498:and 2478:. 2458:and 2380:NASA 2333:and 2208:and 2177:NASA 2162:ITER 2152:and 2063:and 2030:Moon 1899:The 1866:and 1834:or K 1779:and 1770:DARS 1760:and 1708:and 1691:IEEE 1621:band 1360:and 1321:and 1285:and 1262:and 1118:and 924:band 888:band 474:ITU 284:Name 243:and 171:band 7629:WAN 7599:NGN 7589:LAN 6870:Fax 6811:DCT 6199:ELF 6194:SLF 6189:ULF 6184:VLF 6164:VHF 6159:UHF 6154:SHF 6149:EHF 6144:THF 6055:FIR 6001:NIR 5983:Red 5935:UVA 5930:UVB 5925:UVC 5920:NUV 5915:MUV 5910:FUV 5615:UWB 5354:THF 5339:EHF 5324:SHF 5309:UHF 5294:VHF 5234:VLF 5219:ULF 5204:SLF 5189:ELF 5083:doi 4813:doi 4775:doi 4565:doi 4526:PMC 4518:doi 4514:128 4477:PMC 4461:doi 4457:105 3627:). 3523:GPS 3042:at 2940:in 2903:MIT 2901:at 2893:at 2796:IRE 2719:as 2484:UHF 2414:eye 2355:or 2240:or 1754:GSM 1674:hop 1551:'s 1465:), 1368:or 1044:UHF 1015:DBS 744:III 660:UHF 655:VHF 108:. 92:in 7828:: 6708:, 6704:, 6179:LF 6174:MF 6169:HF 6042:, 6038:, 6034:: 6015:, 6011:, 6007:: 5279:HF 5264:MF 5249:LF 5079:48 5077:. 5073:. 5046:. 5042:. 5005:; 4952:. 4937:^ 4919:. 4898:. 4894:. 4879:^ 4809:43 4807:. 4803:. 4773:. 4763:. 4751:. 4736:^ 4678:^ 4610:^ 4571:. 4561:33 4559:. 4534:. 4524:. 4512:. 4508:. 4485:. 4475:. 4467:. 4455:. 4451:. 4425:. 4367:. 4359:. 4279:. 4207:^ 4128:^ 4098:^ 4073:, 4054:, 3991:. 3966:. 3941:. 3917:. 3805:^ 3658:. 3650:, 3579:, 3575:, 3571:, 3567:, 3563:, 3559:, 3529:, 3521:, 3517:, 3458:, 3423:, 3283:. 3248:. 3221:. 3213:, 3209:, 3197:, 3193:, 3124:. 2703:. 2664:, 2554:. 2542:, 2538:, 2534:, 2506:, 2256:. 2201:64 2103:A 1950:. 1854:. 1772:. 1639:, 1607:A 1559:. 1527:, 1496:, 1469:, 1340:, 1258:, 1216:, 1208:, 1188:, 1058:. 759:VI 749:IV 739:II 716:mm 650:HF 421:V 419:μe 401:V 399:me 346:Hz 329:V 327:ke 322:Hz 305:) 303:eV 251:. 239:, 231:, 227:, 223:, 211:, 203:, 161:, 154:, 150:, 146:, 115:, 7756:) 7752:( 6747:e 6740:t 6733:v 6267:e 6260:t 6253:v 6104:u 6102:K 6090:a 6088:K 6046:) 6044:N 6040:M 6036:L 6030:( 6019:) 6017:H 6013:K 6009:J 6003:( 5829:→ 5815:← 5754:e 5747:t 5740:v 5713:u 5711:K 5617:) 5613:( 5415:e 5408:t 5401:v 5164:e 5157:t 5150:v 5096:. 5085:: 5058:. 5048:4 5025:. 4991:. 4964:. 4931:. 4900:4 4873:. 4846:. 4819:. 4815:: 4788:. 4777:: 4759:: 4715:. 4672:. 4604:. 4579:. 4567:: 4542:. 4520:: 4493:. 4463:: 4436:. 4398:. 4377:. 4363:: 4353:: 4330:. 4310:. 4290:. 4265:. 4231:. 4179:. 4152:. 4122:. 4077:. 4071:. 4052:. 4030:. 4003:. 3977:. 3952:. 3927:. 3904:. 3881:. 3856:. 3829:. 3799:. 3611:( 3598:( 3481:u 3479:k 2273:u 2197:1 2194:( 1848:a 1844:u 1836:u 1821:u 1817:a 1619:u 1617:K 1426:. 1106:( 1097:( 1056:a 1052:u 1050:K 922:a 920:K 886:u 884:K 787:e 780:t 773:v 754:V 734:I 711:W 706:V 700:a 698:K 693:K 687:u 685:K 680:X 675:C 670:S 665:L 630:N 625:M 620:L 615:K 610:J 605:I 600:H 595:G 590:F 585:E 580:D 575:C 570:B 565:A 344:P 320:E 301:( 169:a 167:K 163:K 158:u 156:K 152:X 148:C 144:S 29:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index