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into the amino acid sequence of proteins, as evidenced by the messenger RNA molecules present within every cell, and the RNA genomes of a large number of viruses. The single-stranded nature of RNA, together with tendency for rapid breakdown and a lack of repair systems means that RNA is not so well
737:
DNA has three primary attributes that allow it to be far better than RNA at encoding genetic information. First, it is normally double-stranded, so that there are a minimum of two copies of the information encoding each gene in every cell. Second, DNA has a much greater stability against breakdown
733:
DNA and RNA are both capable of encoding genetic information, because there are biochemical mechanisms which read the information coded within a DNA or RNA sequence and use it to generate a specified protein. On the other hand, the sequence information of a protein molecule is not used by cells to
762:
The single-stranded nature of protein molecules, together with their composition of 20 or more different amino acid building blocks, allows them to fold in to a vast number of different three-dimensional shapes, while providing binding pockets through which they can specifically interact with all
805:
In addition, RNA is a single-stranded polymer that can, like proteins, fold into a very large number of three-dimensional structures. Some of these structures provide binding sites for other molecules and chemically active centers that can catalyze specific chemical reactions on those bound
546:
in the case of proteins). In general, they are all unbranched polymers, and so can be represented in the form of a string. Indeed, they can be viewed as a string of beads, with each bead representing a single nucleotide or amino acid monomer linked together through
738:
than does RNA, an attribute primarily associated with the absence of the 2'-hydroxyl group within every nucleotide of DNA. Third, highly sophisticated DNA surveillance and repair systems are present which monitor damage to the DNA and
359:
as used in polymer science refers only to a single molecule. For example, a single polymeric molecule is appropriately described as a "macromolecule" or "polymer molecule" rather than a "polymer," which suggests a
742:
the sequence when necessary. Analogous systems have not evolved for repairing damaged RNA molecules. Consequently, chromosomes can contain many billions of atoms, arranged in a specific chemical structure.
763:
manner of molecules. In addition, the chemical diversity of the different amino acids, together with different chemical environments afforded by local 3D structure, enables many proteins to act as
806:
molecules. The limited number of different building blocks of RNA (4 nucleotides vs >20 amino acids in proteins), together with their lack of chemical diversity, results in catalytic RNA (
1067:
703:
In contrast, both RNA and proteins are normally single-stranded. Therefore, they are not constrained by the regular geometry of the DNA double helix, and so fold into complex
554:
In most cases, the monomers within the chain have a strong propensity to interact with other amino acids or nucleotides. In DNA and RNA, this can take the form of
707:
dependent on their sequence. These different shapes are responsible for many of the common properties of RNA and proteins, including the formation of specific
1156:
1556:
Roland E. Bauer; Volker
Enkelmann; Uwe M. Wiesler; Alexander J. Berresheim; Klaus MĂĽllen (2002). "Single-Crystal Structures of Polyphenylene Dendrimers".
1138:
767:, catalyzing a wide range of specific biochemical transformations within cells. In addition, proteins have evolved the ability to bind a wide range of
375:. Complicated biomacromolecules, on the other hand, require multi-faceted structural description such as the hierarchy of structures used to describe
1659:
1615:
227:
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alone. The structure of simple macromolecules, such as homopolymers, may be described in terms of the individual monomer subunit and total
976:
in arthropods and fungi). Many carbohydrates contain modified monosaccharide units that have had functional groups replaced or removed.
456:
Another common macromolecular property that does not characterize smaller molecules is their relative insolubility in water and similar
759:
that sustain life. Proteins carry out all functions of an organism, for example photosynthesis, neural function, vision, and movement.
900:
Some lipids are held together by ester bonds; some are huge aggregates of small molecules held together by hydrophobic interactions.
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775:, smaller molecules that can endow the protein with specific activities beyond those associated with the polypeptide chain alone.
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1054:. The incorporation of inorganic elements enables the tunability of properties and/or responsive behavior as for instance in
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unlike the other macromolecules, lipids are not defined by chemical
Structure. Lipids are any organic nonpolar molecule.
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790:, according to the instructions within a cell's DNA. They control and regulate many aspects of protein synthesis in
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Walter, Peter; Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander S.; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin C.; Roberts, Keith (2008).
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1255:"Ăśber Isopren und Kautschuk. 5. Mitteilung. Ăśber die Hydrierung des Kautschuks und ĂĽber seine Konstitution"
26:"Macromolecular chemistry" redirects here. For the journal formerly known as Macromolecular Chemistry, see
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1630:. Cached HTML version of a missing PDF file. Retrieved March 10, 2010. The article is based on the book,
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527:. Each of these molecules is required for life since each plays a distinct, indispensable role in the
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Because of the double-stranded nature of DNA, essentially all of the nucleotides take the form of
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Inventing
Polymer Science: Staudinger, Carothers, and the Emergence of Macromolecular Chemistry
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704:
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Macromolecules often have unusual physical properties that do not occur for smaller molecules.
332:
Usage of the term to describe large molecules varies among the disciplines. For example, while
1764:
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991:
968:). Polysaccharides perform numerous roles in living organisms, acting as energy stores (e.g.
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composed of core of glucose units surrounded by gallic acid esters and ellagic acid units
1300:
810:) being generally less-effective catalysts than proteins for most biological reactions.
538:
DNA, RNA, and proteins all consist of a repeating structure of related building blocks (
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other molecules from a large part of the volume of the solution, thereby increasing the
265:
2. If a part or the whole of the molecule fits into this definition, it may be described
1366:
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Nucleotides (a phosphate, ribose, and a base- adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine)
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Nucleotides (a phosphate, ribose, and a base- adenine, guanine, uracil, or cytosine)
787:
1370:
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558:(G–C and A–T or A–U), although many more complicated interactions can and do occur.
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few of the units has a negligible effect on the molecular properties. This statement
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1304:
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in 1832, had a different meaning from that of today: it simply was another form of
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refers to macromolecules as the four large molecules comprising living things, in
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in the 1920s, although his first relevant publication on this field only mentions
245:
comprises the multiple repetition of units derived, actually or conceptually, from
1708:
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Because of their size, macromolecules are not conveniently described in terms of
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as having a high relative molecular mass if the addition or removal of one or a
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1. In many cases, especially for synthetic polymers, a molecule can be regarded
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A molecule of high relative molecular mass, the structure of which essentially
1748:
1393:"How can biochemical reactions within cells differ from those in test tubes?"
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548:
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368:
345:
340:, the term may refer to aggregates of two or more molecules held together by
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1046:. Polymers may be prepared from inorganic matter as well as for instance in
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fails in the case of certain macromolecules for which the properties may be
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191:
183:
164:
1732:
1692:
1603:
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10.1002/1521-3765(20020902)8:17<3858::AID-CHEM3858>3.0.CO;2-5
1197:"Glossary of basic terms in polymer science (IUPAC Recommendations 1996)"
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1003:
930:
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is an information storage macromolecule that encodes the complete set of
543:
512:
299:
140:
1604:
Several (free) introductory macromolecule related internet-based courses
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1342:
Jenkins, A. D.; KratochvĂl, P.; Stepto, R. F. T.; Suter, U. W. (1996).
1051:
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425: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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if the solute concentration of their solution is too high or too low.
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of the reactions of other macromolecules, through an effect known as
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Jenkins, A. D; KratochvĂl, P; Stepto, R. F. T; Suter, U. W (1996).
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suited for the long-term storage of genetic information as is DNA.
524:
508:
461:
376:
152:
135:
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High concentrations of macromolecules in a solution can alter the
1485:. Fourth edition is available online through the NCBI Bookshelf:
1068:
List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures
1027:
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critically dependent on fine details of the molecular structure.
987:
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Lecture notes on the structure and function of macromolecules
1467:
Molecular
Biology of the Cell (5th edition, Extended version)
1432:
Berg, Jeremy Mark; Tymoczko, John L.; Stryer, Lubert (2010).
352:
203:
171:
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between nucleotides on the two complementary strands of the
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Fifth edition available online through the NCBI Bookshelf:
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520:
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469:
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Some examples of macromolecules are synthetic polymers (
751:
Proteins are functional macromolecules responsible for
746:
214:. Synthetic fibers and experimental materials such as
19:"Macromolecules" redirects here. For the journal, see
711:, and the ability to catalyse biochemical reactions.
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to dissolve in water. Similarly, many proteins will
63:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1526:
1520:
1499:
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986:subunits. They can perform structural roles (e.g.
309:(in excess of 1,000 atoms). At that time the term
1594:Synopsis of Chapter 5, Campbell & Reece, 2002
1458:
1425:
1145:. Americanchemistry.com. Retrieved on 2011-07-01.
960:, polysaccharides can form linear polymers (e.g.
1746:
786:is multifunctional, its primary function is to
383:, the word "macromolecule" tends to be called "
1154:
1653:
1498:Golnick, Larry; Wheelis, Mark. (1991-08-14).
1287:(2008). "The Origin of the Polymer Concept".
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1344:"Glossary of Basic Terms in Polymer Science"
982:consist of a branched structure of multiple
797:RNA encodes genetic information that can be
202:) and large non-polymeric molecules such as
1434:Biochemistry, 7th ed. (Biochemistry (Berg))
1009:
1660:
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533:DNA makes RNA, and then RNA makes proteins
247:molecules of low relative molecular mass.
1408:
1390:
1157:"Nanotechnology: A Guide to Nano-Objects"
778:
734:functionally encode genetic information.
715:DNA is optimised for encoding information
441:Learn how and when to remove this message
123:Learn how and when to remove this message
1013:
956:. Because monosaccharides have multiple
929:
134:
1105:Stryer L, Berg JM, Tymoczko JL (2002).
964:) or complex branched structures (e.g.
925:
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1283:
1018:Structure of an example polyphenylene
561:
16:Very large molecule, such as a protein
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1641:
1384:
1277:
1253:Staudinger, H.; Fritschi, J. (1922).
972:) and as structural components (e.g.
502:
348:but which do not readily dissociate.
218:are also examples of macromolecules.
1529:The Manga Guide to Molecular Biology
747:Proteins are optimised for catalysis
423:adding citations to reliable sources
394:
182:. The most common macromolecules in
61:adding citations to reliable sources
32:
28:Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics
1323:Principles of Physical Biochemistry
1155:Gullapalli, S.; Wong, M.S. (2011).
13:
14:
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511:are dependent on three essential
491:. This comes from macromolecules
167:. It is composed of thousands of
515:for their biological functions:
399:
329:and had little to do with size.
37:
1549:
1136:Life cycle of a plastic product
1111:(5th ed.). San Francisco:
596:Catalyzes biological reactions
410:needs additional citations for
48:needs additional citations for
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1315:
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1188:
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1129:
952:) are formed from polymers of
1:
1558:Chemistry: A European Journal
1502:The Cartoon Guide to Genetics
1289:Journal of Chemical Education
1164:Chemical Engineering Progress
1083:
908:carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
531:. The simple summary is that
390:
221:
582:Encodes genetic information
542:in the case of DNA and RNA,
364:composed of macromolecules.
178:of smaller molecules called
7:
1527:Takemura, Masaharu (2009).
1325:Prentice Hall: New Jersey,
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10:
1791:
1438:W.H. Freeman & Company
1351:Pure and Applied Chemistry
1205:Pure and Applied Chemistry
1170:(5): 28–32. Archived from
351:According to the standard
174:. Many macromolecules are
25:
18:
1675:
915:Major protein Complexes?
814:The Major Macromolecules:
663:Stability to degradation
624:Building blocks (number)
1271:10.1002/hlca.19220050517
1056:smart inorganic polymers
1010:Synthetic macromolecules
705:three-dimensional shapes
551:into a very long chain.
497:effective concentrations
307:high molecular compounds
139:Chemical structure of a
21:Macromolecules (journal)
1363:10.1351/pac199668122287
1321:van Holde, K.E. (1998)
1218:10.1351/pac199668122287
694:Watson–Crick base pairs
610:Building blocks (type)
556:Watson–Crick base pairs
549:covalent chemical bonds
489:macromolecular crowding
1259:Helvetica Chimica Acta
1023:
990:) as well as roles as
942:
935:Raspberry ellagitannin
779:RNA is multifunctional
281:
144:
1506:. Collins Reference.
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992:secondary metabolites
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837:Bonds that Join them
757:biochemical reactions
485:equilibrium constants
355:definition, the term
342:intermolecular forces
232:
138:
1725:Biomolecular complex
926:Branched biopolymers
499:of these molecules.
419:improve this article
157:biological processes
57:improve this article
1301:2008JChEd..85..624J
819:
562:Structural features
313:, as introduced by
279:used adjectivally.
1622:Winter 2002–2003,
1618:by Ulysses Magee,
1609:2011-07-18 at the
1391:Minton AP (2006).
1285:Jensen, William B.
1141:2010-03-17 at the
1048:inorganic polymers
1024:
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818:
503:Linear biopolymers
460:, instead forming
303:Hermann Staudinger
145:
1770:Polymer chemistry
1760:Molecular physics
1742:
1741:
1669:Hierarchy of life
1634:by Yasu Furukawa.
1564:(17): 3858–3864.
1542:978-1-59327-202-9
1513:978-0-06-273099-2
1480:978-0-8153-4111-6
1447:978-1-4292-2936-4
1410:10.1242/jcs.03063
1403:(Pt 14): 2863–9.
1309:10.1021/ed085p624
1212:(12): 2287–2311.
1122:978-0-7167-4955-4
958:functional groups
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1036:synthetic rubber
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886:Monosaccharides
883:Polysaccharides
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509:living organisms
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954:monosaccharides
950:polysaccharides
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858:Phosphodiester
831:Building Block
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677:Repair systems
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824:Macromolecule
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408:This section
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369:stoichiometry
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357:macromolecule
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235:Macromolecule
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200:carbohydrates
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192:nucleic acids
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155:important to
154:
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149:macromolecule
143:macromolecule
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74: –
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68:Find sources:
62:
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46:This article
44:
40:
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34:
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1765:Biochemistry
1731: >
1728:
1727: >
1723: >
1719: >
1715: >
1711: >
1707: >
1705:Organ system
1703: >
1699: >
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1469:. New York:
1466:
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1375:the original
1357:(12): 2287.
1354:
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1237:. Retrieved
1230:the original
1209:
1203:
1190:
1179:. Retrieved
1172:the original
1167:
1163:
1150:
1131:
1113:W.H. Freeman
1108:Biochemistry
1107:
1025:
1000:pigmentation
994:involved in
978:
946:Carbohydrate
944:
845:Amino acids
832:
826:
823:
813:
812:
804:
796:
782:
761:
750:
736:
732:
724:instructions
718:
702:
698:double helix
691:
619:Amino acids
616:Nucleotides
613:Nucleotides
553:
537:
506:
478:
455:
452:
437:
428:
417:Please help
412:verification
409:
385:high polymer
384:
366:
356:
350:
344:rather than
331:
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295:
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184:biochemistry
165:nucleic acid
159:, such as a
148:
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119:
110:
100:
93:
86:
79:
67:
55:Please help
50:verification
47:
1733:Biomolecule
1693:Biocoenosis
1620:ISSA Review
1397:J. Cell Sci
1078:Soft matter
1052:geopolymers
980:Polyphenols
889:Glycosidic
544:amino acids
540:nucleotides
513:biopolymers
212:macrocycles
188:biopolymers
141:polypeptide
1749:Categories
1697:Population
1295:(5): 624.
1265:(5): 785.
1239:2013-07-27
1181:2015-06-28
1084:References
996:signalling
833:(Monomer)
827:(Polymer)
799:translated
792:eukaryotes
753:catalysing
649:Structure
391:Properties
267:as either
230:definition
222:Definition
83:newspapers
1721:Organelle
1689:Ecosystem
1681:Biosphere
1628:1540-9864
1020:dendrimer
962:cellulose
842:Proteins
808:ribozymes
773:coenzymes
769:cofactors
672:Variable
669:Variable
577:Proteins
493:excluding
362:substance
338:chemistry
327:acetylene
319:isomerism
315:Berzelius
284:The term
273:polymeric
1775:Polymers
1701:Organism
1607:Archived
1578:12203280
1419:16825427
1371:98774337
1226:98774337
1139:Archived
1062:See also
1040:graphene
1028:plastics
984:phenolic
966:glycogen
848:Peptide
658:Complex
655:Complex
525:proteins
474:denature
462:colloids
458:solvents
431:May 2013
377:proteins
296:molecule
275:, or by
208:nanogels
196:proteins
180:monomers
176:polymers
153:molecule
1297:Bibcode
1004:defense
894:Lipids
765:enzymes
644:Single
641:Double
334:biology
323:benzene
311:polymer
277:polymer
161:protein
97:scholar
1713:Tissue
1626:
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1042:, and
1034:, and
988:lignin
974:chitin
970:starch
939:tannin
740:repair
728:genome
291:macro-
204:lipids
198:, and
99:
92:
85:
78:
70:
1709:Organ
1685:Biome
1378:(PDF)
1367:S2CID
1347:(PDF)
1233:(PDF)
1222:S2CID
1200:(PDF)
1175:(PDF)
1160:(PDF)
726:(the
666:High
481:rates
466:salts
379:. In
353:IUPAC
251:Notes
228:IUPAC
172:atoms
104:JSTOR
90:books
1717:Cell
1624:ISSN
1574:PMID
1537:ISBN
1508:ISBN
1487:link
1475:ISBN
1454:link
1442:ISBN
1415:PMID
1327:ISBN
1117:ISBN
1050:and
1002:and
937:, a
873:RNA
863:DNA
771:and
755:the
680:Yes
605:Yes
602:Yes
588:Yes
585:Yes
574:RNA
571:DNA
529:cell
523:and
507:All
483:and
470:ions
325:and
210:and
186:are
76:news
1566:doi
1405:doi
1401:119
1359:doi
1305:doi
1267:doi
1214:doi
1168:107
1038:),
784:RNA
720:DNA
686:No
683:No
633:20
599:No
591:No
521:RNA
517:DNA
421:by
387:".
271:or
163:or
59:by
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