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early 1970s new racks were being delivered with these side panels. However, thieves and vagrants could still gain access to the automobiles. In 1973 the first fully enclosed racks with continuous side panels, end doors, and roofs were developed to address this problem. Whitehead & Kales, Ford, N&W and DT&I jointly developed a Snap-Pak prototype enclosed tri-level car, NW 400000. The car side was made up of overlapping perforated steel sheets. The ends were protected with two trifold doors, and a corrugated steel roof extended the full length of the car. A competing RailPac prototype was developed by Portec-Paragon, Chrysler, and several railroads. It featured mesh screen side panels, vertically sliding three-piece doors, and a similar roof. The
Southern Railway and Greenville Steel Car developed a unique 124-foot (38 m) articulated three-unit Autoguard car with single-axle trucks, SOU 599000-599001.
364:(ATSF) constructed a prototype trilevel rack mounted on 53-foot (16.15 m) flat ATSF 90082. Santa Fe's first production auto racks were 85-foot (25.91 m) trilevel Auto-Veyor units supplied by Dana-Spicer and Whitehead & Kales later in the year, both mounted on General American-built G85 cars. The Southern Pacific actually took delivery of the first Whitehead & Kales Auto-Pack tri-level racks in April, mounting them on General American-built Clejan and G85 cars. The slightly longer 85-foot (25.91 m) racks could carry 12 full size or 18 compact autos per car. Several other railroads quickly ordered their own auto racks from Dana and W&K or from American Car & Foundry, Darby Corporation, Evans Products, Paragon Bridge & Steel, or Thrall Car Manufacturing. The Santa Fe and Frisco also built some of their autoracks in their own car shops.
357:(SL-SF, or Frisco) designed and built a prototype bi-level rack mounted on 42-foot (12.80 m) flat car SL-SF 95844. Satisfied that the basic concept was sound, the railroad contracted with Pullman-Standard to design and construct a full-size tri-level prototype. The result that rolled out of the Pullman plant on January 29, 1960, was SLSF 3000, an 83-foot (25.30 m) tri-level car capable of carrying 12 automobiles. When testing proved the car satisfactory the Frisco ordered 130 production cars, SL-SF 3001–3130, delivered by Pullman that August and September.
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350:" service were introduced, new automobiles began to be shipped by rail loaded on highway auto-carrier trailers. Eight to ten autos could be carried per flat car in this manner. By 1960 several U.S. railroads were handling new automobiles in this way, including the CB&Q, C&NW, CRIP, D&H, D&RGW, ERIE/EL, GN, KCS, L&N, MILW, MKT, MP/TP, NP, SL-SF, SP, SSW, WAB and UP. The New York Central, which used the Flexi-Van system of transporting only the highway trailer body without the wheel assembly, developed a Flexi-Van automobile carrier rack.
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used to stack and load vehicles within boxcars and permanently attach them to the flatcars. The assemblies, also called racks, created two levels on which automobiles could be loaded. To complete the flatcar, foldaway bridges were added to the ends of the flatcar decks to allow the vehicles to be driven the entire length of a train for loading. Such flatcars eliminated the need for specialized equipment to load and unload boxcar racks. All they needed now was a ramp at the right height.
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436:. Whitehead & Kales, one of two dominant producers since the late 1960s, was acquired by Thrall in 1981. Paragon, the other leading rack-builder, was purchased by Portec in the early 1970s, which was in turn acquired by Thrall in 1985. Paragon's autorack designs were sold to Greenville Steel Car, also in 1985, which was itself acquired by Trinity Industries in 1986. Thrall itself was eventually acquired by Trinity as well in 2001. Currently autoracks are produced by
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339:(CN) introduced an innovative group of bi-level auto carriers. These CN cars were similar to conventional boxcars, except they had a second floor and doors at both ends of the car instead of the usual side doors. They were huge by the standards of the time; the cars were 75 ft (22.86 m) long and could carry eight vehicles. These cars were a big success and helped lead to the development of today's enclosed auto racks.
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cooperation with
Chrysler, was placed into service by ATSF, C&O, C&NW, D&RGW, GTW, N&W, RF&P, SLSF, SP, UP and several other roads, with most riding on leased Trailer Train flats. These two designs were refined during the late 1970s and by 1980 fully enclosed tri-levels accounted for roughly a third of the in-service fleet, however fully enclosed bi-levels lagged far behind.
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280:. Two to four automobiles would usually fit into one boxcar. But as the automobile industry grew in size, railroads found that they needed to modify the boxcars for more efficient loading. Some modifications included longer boxcars, larger sliding double side doors located near one end of the boxcar, or doors located on the boxcar ends.
759:). When the railroad companies went from the open autoracks to the enclosed, they were able to reduce freight damage claims. The enclosed rail cars prevented the autos from getting damaged from falling or thrown rocks, bullets and other forms of vandalism. They also stopped the theft of autos and parts from autos and kept
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Another joint
General Motors-Southern Pacific automobile rail car was the Stac-Pac. It was designed to carry 12 high-end Oldsmobile, Buick, and Cadillac models in four removable fully enclosed tri-level containers per 89-foot (27 m) flat car. The first production Stac-Pac cars entered service in
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into the vapor canister during shipment, and the windshield washer bottle stood at a 45-degree angle. Plastic spacers were wedged in beside the powertrain to prevent damage to engine and transmission mounts. The wedges were removed when cars were unloaded. The rail car doors were opened and closed by
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Starting in this early period, most autoracks were mounted on flat cars leased from a leasing company, such as
Trailer Train (see below), North American Car (NIFX marks), Merchants Despatch (MDAX marks), American Refrigerator Transit (MPFX marks), or Pullman's Transport Leasing Division (TLCX marks),
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In the 1950s, most railroads took the cue from circuses and started loading their own flatcars in this manner. But, loading even up to six automobiles onto one flat car left a large amount of space above the vehicles that was unused. The natural solution was to take the temporary assemblies that were
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or in separate sections of their trains; basically, one train would haul the performers and employees while a second train would haul the vehicles and freight. The circus solution to loading vehicles was to use a string of flatcars. A temporary ramp was placed at the end of the flatcars and temporary
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As traffic to
Whittier increased, the shuttle became insufficient, leading to a project to convert the existing railroad tunnel into a single-lane combination highway and railway tunnel which was opened to traffic on June 7, 2000. At a length of 13,300 feet (4,053.8 m), it is the second-longest
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The Auto Train offered an alternative to motorists who would otherwise have to drive their automobiles the 855-mile (1,376 km) distance along the East Coast of the United States. For vacationers with destinations at one or more of the many popular tourist attractions of
Florida, the Auto Train
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in 1955, stepped in to ease the railroads' financial burden a bit. Trailer Train purchased the flat cars from the rail car manufacturers, and the railroads that wanted to operate autoracks, purchased the racks that were installed on those flat cars. Such cars were easily spotted at trackside due to
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Curiously, in 1961 a German-built three-unit, articulated bilevel autorack was imported into the United States to demonstrate the German design to U.S. railroads. North
American Car Corporation handled promotion of the car, which was marked NIFX 1200. The car rode on four single-axle trucks and was
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A major problem left to solve was that the new autorack cars did not provide any protection from theft, vandalism, or severe weather. Individual railroads began installing mesh side screens and solid panels to their racks to protect the vehicles from impact and debris in the late 1960s, and by the
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The number of manufacturers offering autoracks declined during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. Several firms simply exited the field, including AC&F, Evans, Dana, and Darby, while others were acquired by other builders. Pullman, after supplying the very first production tri-level autoracks to the
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engineers worked with German railroads to design a railroad car that was basically an extra long version of a vehicle hauling trailer. The design they came up with was able to carry 10 vehicles on one car. VW's two-level flatcar design effectively became the first autorack, entering service circa
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Autorack and flat car length quickly grew to 87 feet (26.52 m) and then 89 feet (27.13 m) to increase their loading capacity even further. This made them about as long as the average railroad passenger car of the time; if the cars were much longer, they would not be able to operate in
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to increase their capacity by adding collapsible frames to allow for double-deck operation. The concept was not perfected and therefore failed to gain acceptance. In the 1940s and 1950s, some railroads experimented with automobile-loading assemblies that would lift one or more automobiles above
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During the early 1960s, specially built auto carriers rapidly took over rail transportation of newly completed automobiles in North
America. They carried more vehicles in the same space and were easier to load and unload than the boxcars formerly used. Ever-larger auto carriers and specialized
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Also in 1954, Evans
Products, a manufacturer of loading racks for carrying automobiles in conventional boxcars, developed a bi-level Auto-Loader superstructure with an elevating top deck capable of carrying six cars or light trucks on a typical flatcar. Two prototype units were constructed and
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For greater flexibility and to improve car utilization, single-unit autoracks are being built that allow the number of loading levels, or decks, to be easily changed between bilevel (two) and trilevel (three), depending on which is in demand at the time. Greenbrier calls their version of this
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The first production fully enclosed racks were delivered in late 1974 and early 1975. The
Whitehead & Kales tri-level design, renamed Safe-Pak, was delivered to ATSF, CP, CRR, FEC, NW, SCL, SSW, UP, and WP, all of them riding on railroad-owned flats. Portec's RailPac design, developed in
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in 1983. Amtrak, a federally chartered corporation which operates most intercity passenger trains in the United States, continued to use Auto-Train's autoracks as an important portion of its service. These were supplemented with new bilevels built by Johnstown America in 2004 and 2005.
488:, the rail cars would hold 30 Vegas in a vertical, nose-down position, versus 18 in normal tri-level autoracks. Each Vega was fitted with four removable, cast-steel sockets inserted into the undercarriage that locked into the hooks on the bottom-hinged doors that made up the car side.
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and low-speed crash tests to make sure nose-down Vegas would not shift or be damaged in railcar collisions. Chevrolet's goal was to deliver Vegas topped with fluids and ready to drive to the dealership. To do this Vega engineers had to design a special engine
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The railroads have become the primary long-distance transporter of completed automobiles. Using the enclosed tri-level autoracks, they are able to provide lower costs as well as greater protection from in-transit damage (such as that which may occur due to
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October 1971. Besides SP and its Cotton Belt subsidiary (SSW), Stac-Pac flat cars were contributed to the pool by the Santa Fe and Trailer Train, with the containers being supplied by ATSF, BN, D&RGW, FEC, MILW, PC (MDT), RI, Southern Railway, SP,
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bridge plates spanned the gaps between adjacent flatcars; the road vehicles were driven or towed up onto one car and then driven or towed down the train. This type of vehicle loading became known as "circus style" due to its frequent use by circuses.
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Both railroads and automakers wanted to eliminate theft and damage from vandalism and weather, thus reducing shipping costs. They also wanted to increase the number of vehicles carried per rail car for the same reason. Toward that end, in 1968
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but many roads also operated cars mounted on their own flat cars. Railroads known to have done so include ATSF, CN, CP, CR, CRR, D&RGW, FEC, GN, GTW, KCS, L&N, Monon, MP, N&W, RI, SCL, SLSF, SOO, Southern, SP, SSW, UP, WM, and WP.
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others within a boxcar. The success of these assemblies was limited due to their special use and specific size; it proved uneconomical to maintain a fleet of these assemblies that could only be loaded into boxcars from the ends of the cars.
978:" in North America and as a "Motorail" in Australia and Europe. Passengers are carried in normal passenger cars or in sleeping cars on longer journeys, while their vehicles are loaded into autoracks, car carriers, or flatcars.
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mounted on conventional 53 ft (16 m) flat cars for field testing. NYC 500085 carried a semi-streamlined rack, while UP 5800 had a more utilitarian rack mounted. Neither design went into commercial production.
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so that each half of the car is about the same length as a conventional autorack. These cars, which can be seen in operation on many of the railroads of the western US (but also seen occasionally in the
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Although railroads were just beginning to see the advantages that autoracks delivered in the 1960s, most North American railroads were reluctant to invest in such specially built equipment. The
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Frisco, abandoned the field to concentrate on the flat cars that autoracks were mounted on, only to return briefly in 1976–1977 to build a few tri-levels for the B&O and Cotton Belt (SSW).
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By this time, in the United States, most circuses still traveled by rail. Circuses were major haulers of wheeled vehicles, carrying all of their vehicles on flat cars, usually behind their own
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in 1991; since then many railroads have themselves purchased the flat cars on which the racks were installed and TTX has itself expanded into purchasing and leasing out other railroad
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routes to modify their bridge and tunnel clearances to accept them. Consequently, some roofless and even open tri-levels and bi-levels remained in service into the mid-to-late 1980s.
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The privately owned service became very popular, but after 10 years of operation, and some costly attempts to expand the service elsewhere, such as a schedule between Florida and
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Railroads of today are still grappling with the problem of loading more and larger vehicles onto autoracks. One popular solution is to create a double-length car that is
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In the early 20th century, when automobiles were still new technology, their production levels were low enough that they could be shipped in sufficient quantities in
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the reporting marks identifying Trailer Train on the flat car portion of the car and the railroad's logo (usually much larger) in the upper portion of the rack.
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These modifications helped, but the demand for new automobiles outpaced the railroads' abilities to build and modify boxcars in which to ship them. In 1923, the
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introduced a new and innovative rail transportation service for both passengers and their automobiles in the United States, operating scheduled service between
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720:) measure 145 ft 4 in (44.3 m) long and 20 ft 3 in (6.17 m) tall; they feature adjustable interior decks to carry up to 22
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This arrangement worked so well that nearly every autorack operating in the US was owned by a railroad, with only a few exceptions. Trailer Train became
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transcontinental bi-level, enclosed autorack boxcars. These were augmented by new tri-level auto-racks built by Southern Iron & Equipment in 1976.
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began service on purely passenger routes in the United States, a key feature of Auto-Train's new service was the use of autoracks, which were former
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In current operation of Amtrak's Auto Train, there are two trains in operation simultaneously. The autoracks normally run on the rear of Auto Train
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operated Vert-A-Pacs. All were withdrawn from service at the end of the 1977 Vega model year and were reracked with conventional tri-level racks.
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had filler caps located high up on the rear edge of the case to prevent acid spilling, the carburetor float bowl had a special tube that drained
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The first production Vert-A-Pacs entered service in April 1970; the last ones entered service in January 1973. Besides Southern Pacific, the
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865:. In October 1988 it was extended to operate on the service throughout to Sydney. The motorail service was curtailed to operate between
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250:. Autoracks are used to transport new vehicles from factories to automotive distributors, and to transport passengers' vehicles in
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In 1960, the Frisco was not the only railroad experimenting with racks mounted on flat cars to carry automobiles. In January the
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393:(N&W) and other carriers. Autoracks were built in three-level configurations carrying automobiles, and with two-levels for
584:, and by General Motors itself. All of the cars and containers were withdrawn from service at the end of the 1976 model year.
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1789:"AAR Open Top Loading Rules Manual, Section 1, Appendix A, Preload Inspection Checklist and Equipment Plate Diagrams"
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A rail transport service where passengers can take their automobile along with them on their journey is known as an "
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In 1959, when 85 ft (25.91 m) flat cars capable of carrying two 40-foot (12.19 m) highway trailers in
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The prototype car, SP 618000 was turned out in December 1968 and tested through 1969. Chevrolet conducted
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616:. The development of enclosed autoracks also helped make several other innovative services work well.
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Roofs were not added to all autoracks until the mid-1980s, as it took time for railroads with low
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Collectable Automobile. April 2000 p.37 "Riding the rails: Shipping Vegas by Vert-a-pac."
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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A modern German autorack similar to the original design with a full load of automobiles
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and Perth in November 2015. In November 1978, a motorail service was introduced on
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jointly began work on development of a radical new rail car designed to carry the
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The American Railroad Freight Car: From the Wood-Car Era to the Coming of Steel
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experimented with modifying a group of 61-foot-long (18.59 m) wood-frame
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began offering a vehicle shuttle service utilizing standard flat cars and
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introduced the first motorail services in Australia on services from
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In February 1992, Queensland Rail introduced motorail services on
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have the convenience of using their own automobile upon arrival.
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The open end of a bi-level autorack that is undergoing repairs
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deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
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briefly produced a few racks at about the same time, as did
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728:. Thrall produced a competing articulated two-unit design.
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In October 1976 a motorail service was introduced on the
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914:. In June 1986 a motorail service was introduced on the
836:. In July 1973 a motorail service was introduced on the
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baffle to prevent oil from entering the No. 1 cylinder,
1213:"Image: NYC-EARLY-AUTORACK-STORY.jpg, (800 × 1446 px)"
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In December 1980 a motorail service was introduced by
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Seeking a more efficient method, in February 1959 the
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between Brisbane and Cairns and in February 1993 the
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on curves. Yet, the railroads could still do better.
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and the longest combined rail and highway tunnel in
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service between Virginia and Florida was resumed by
484:, a new compact car being developed by GM. Known as
1794:. Association of American Railroads. Archived from
1121:under Maynard Mountain between a stop just off the
16:
Railway rolling stock used to transport automobiles
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920:between Sydney and Brisbane. In October 1987 the
315:production was increasing beyond the capacity of
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892:. In April 1986, the first motorail service in
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1689:Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin
1523:Victoria Division. October 1973. p. 201.
368:tested by the B&O, but no sales resulted.
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135:The examples and perspective in this article
1301:Railway Age Jan 23, 1961 and October 2, 1961
235:outside the US), is a specialized piece of
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1044:From the beginning in 1971, the same year
455:
1413:Popular Mechanics, October 1969, page 151
1230:
981:
191:Learn how and when to remove this message
173:Learn how and when to remove this message
110:Learn how and when to remove this message
1431:Southern Pacific Bulletin November, 1970
1133:, which was also a port of call for the
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73:This article includes a list of general
1564:Sydney-Melbourne Service Goes Motorail
1422:Railway Locomotives and Cars July, 1969
1014:avoid the long automobile ride on busy
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1066:
778:Western Australian Government Railways
767:Combining autoracks and passenger cars
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924:introduced a motorail service on the
822:introduced a motorail service on the
362:Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
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1075:Modern autoracks in use on Amtrak's
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121:
59:
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1382:"RailcarPhotos.com - Photo Details"
1238:"Image: p01751.jpg, (760 × 503 px)"
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675:Autoracks wait to be unloaded in a
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1549:To the Gold Coast the relaxed way
355:Saint Louis-San Francisco Railroad
79:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
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1715:A Brief History of the Sunlander
1677:issue 246 September 1986 page 161
1519:. Vol. 1, no. 10. Vic:
1497:WAGR Introduces Motorail Service
1320:Enclosed tri-level car, NW 400000
558:Merchants Despatch Transportation
34:This article has multiple issues.
1775:
1664:issue 239 February 1986 page 322
1353:"Southern Autoguard car #599000"
1162:
1010:service offered two advantages:
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930:between Sydney and Melbourne.
875:between Adelaide and Melbourne.
763:from living in the automobiles.
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842:between Sydney and Melbourne.
526:Denver & Rio Grande Western
42:or discuss these issues on the
1744:Johns Hopkins University Press
1721:issue 96 November 2014 page 37
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1196:
1119:Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel
1:
1692:issue 603 January 1988 page 4
1292:Railway Age November 27, 1961
1265:Railway Age February 15, 1960
1189:
620:New designs and current usage
1782:Motor car transporter wagons
1342:Railway Age October 29, 1973
1274:Railway Age February 1, 1960
1183:Loading gauge § Freight
771:
389:terminals were developed by
376:Transporting new automobiles
285:Grand Trunk Western Railroad
207:Auto-rack train car carries
7:
1155:
1129:and the small port town of
820:Public Transport Commission
712:cars. These cars, built by
602:Norfolk and Western Railway
405:interchange service due to
391:Norfolk and Western Railway
149:, discuss the issue on the
10:
1855:
1728:
1404:Railway Age March 25, 1974
1310:Railway Age March 31, 1969
1101:tracks on the east coast.
542:Louisville & Nashville
271:
1333:Railway Age June 25, 1973
1202:Railway Age March 8, 1954
952:
804:introduced a motorail on
752:conditions on unenclosed
637:This section needs to be
478:Southern Pacific Railroad
430:Pacific Car & Foundry
1283:Railway Age May 16, 1960
1125:near the former town of
718:The Greenbrier Companies
1513:"Mildura Anniversary".
732:multilevel concept the
456:Vert-A-Pac and Stac-Pac
94:more precise citations.
1628:September 1980 page 27
1609:Motorail to Melbourne
1567:Railway Transportation
1109:In the mid-1960s, the
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988:Auto-Train Corporation
982:Auto-Train Corporation
688:
668:
468:
450:Union Pacific Railroad
385:
219:
211:
1829:Freight rolling stock
1673:The Brisbane Limited
1658:The New Queenslander
1613:November 1978 page 26
1579:New Motorail Service
1357:RRPictureArchives.net
1135:Alaska Marine Highway
1074:
986:On December 6, 1971,
945:between Brisbane and
942:Spirit of the Outback
927:Intercapital Daylight
888:between Adelaide and
800:. In August 1972 the
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598:Pennsylvania Railroad
594:Trailer Train Company
588:Trailer Train Company
538:Illinois Central Gulf
463:
444:, Johnstown America,
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307:In the mid-1950s, in
217:
206:
1784:at Wikimedia Commons
1600:January 1989 page 59
1585:November 1976 page 8
1582:Westrail News Letter
922:State Rail Authority
818:. In March 1973 the
518:Baltimore & Ohio
467:loaded on Vert-a-pac
155:create a new article
147:improve this article
1824:Automotive industry
1801:on 24 February 2021
1555:January 1973 page 1
1178:Car carrier trailer
1067:Amtrak's Auto Train
880:Australian National
825:Gold Coast Motorail
708:), are brand named
596:, organized by the
566:Seaboard Coast Line
522:Burlington Northern
227:, also known as an
1736:White, John H. Jr.
1643:2022-11-06 at the
1217:CanadaSouthern.com
1080:
964:Eurotunnel Shuttle
896:was introduced by
802:Victorian Railways
776:In March 1972 the
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669:
530:Florida East Coast
469:
446:National Steel Car
422:overhead clearance
386:
344:trailer-on-flatcar
258:services, such as
242:used to transport
220:
212:
1780:Media related to
1686:Here & There
1503:March 1972 page 3
1487:Guide to Railcars
1468:Missing or empty
1386:RailcarPhotos.com
1050:Canadian National
959:Car shuttle train
716:(a subsidiary of
658:
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578:Cotton Belt Route
337:Canadian National
313:Volkswagen Beetle
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1570:July 1973 page 4
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1500:WAGR News Letter
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1455:. June 26, 1972.
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917:Brisbane Limited
903:The Queenslander
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1361:the original
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1250:. Retrieved
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1219:. 2008-04-17
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722:light trucks
709:
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229:auto carrier
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37:
36:Please help
33:
1805:24 February
1452:Railway Age
702:Great Lakes
693:articulated
681:Los Angeles
665:Articulated
610:TTX Company
562:Rock Island
509:means of a
465:Chevy Vegas
438:TrinityRail
244:automobiles
209:automobiles
92:introducing
1818:Categories
1391:2015-09-28
1367:2015-09-28
1252:2015-09-28
1223:2015-09-28
1190:References
1083:Auto Train
1077:Auto Train
976:Auto Train
894:Queensland
859:Port Pirie
685:California
486:Vert-A-Pac
448:, and the
442:Greenbrier
397:and light
325:Volkswagen
265:Auto Train
163:March 2013
75:references
39:improve it
1594:MotoRail
1529:0310-7477
947:Longreach
812:Melbourne
794:Geraldton
772:Australia
734:Multi-Max
714:Gunderson
667:auto-rack
649:July 2016
502:batteries
493:vibration
407:clearance
348:piggyback
289:flat cars
151:talk page
100:July 2012
45:talk page
1839:Shipping
1834:Motorail
1762:26130632
1738:(1993).
1702:Motorail
1641:Archived
1638:Motorail
1537:19676396
1516:Newsrail
1156:See also
1095:consists
1061:Illinois
1020:Virginia
908:Brisbane
906:between
885:The Ghan
867:Adelaide
857:between
828:between
810:between
738:AutoFlex
726:minivans
600:and the
506:gasoline
476:and the
256:motorail
237:railroad
225:autorack
145:You may
1729:Sources
1625:Network
1143:highway
1127:Portage
1057:Chicago
1036:Florida
1032:Georgia
1004:Orlando
1002:, near
816:Mildura
798:Mullewa
790:Bunbury
750:traffic
746:weather
710:AutoMax
639:updated
556:(under
309:Germany
278:boxcars
272:History
268:route.
88:improve
1760:
1750:
1535:
1527:
1146:tunnel
1087:Amtrak
1046:Amtrak
1034:, and
998:) and
994:(near
953:Europe
912:Cairns
830:Sydney
786:Albany
568:, and
534:Frisco
434:Thrall
399:trucks
328:1954.
260:Amtrak
231:(also
77:, but
1799:(PDF)
1792:(PDF)
863:Perth
782:Perth
761:hobos
754:truck
153:, or
1807:2021
1758:OCLC
1748:ISBN
1533:OCLC
1525:ISSN
1521:ARHS
1474:help
910:and
861:and
851:and
832:and
814:and
796:and
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254:and
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
