124:, where examples of gold ornaments containing glass paste separated by strips of gold have been found in tombs. However, there are questions about whether the Egyptians were using actual enameling techniques; it is possible that instead they were casting glass stones which were then enclosed, set into metal frames, and then sanded to a finish, similarly to how precious stones are set. In first century BCE Nubia, a method appears of soldering gold strips to a metal base, most often gold, and then filling in the sectioned off recesses with glass flux. This method, called cloisonné, later became the preferred style of enameling in the Byzantine Empire.
28:
285:
248:
17:
308:, has been used as the coronation crown of Hungary since the year 1000, when the Hungarian royals introduced Christianity to the country. It contains mostly Byzantine enamelwork originating from Constantinople, though it isn't proven they were crafted originally for this purpose. The enamels are mounted around the base, with several plaques attached at the top. One enamel shows Christ, seated on the imperial throne and giving blessing. Another enamel, positioned at the back of the crown, illustrates a bust portrait of
128:
228:
353:
comparing styles. For example, objects with green glass composed of similar material might be grouped within a similar date range. Origins of
Byzantine enamel work are often even harder to pinpoint, as nearly everything made has been housed in the West since the early 13th century. One way of guessing the origins of a piece is by examining the quality of the Greek lettering; the more accurate the Greek, the more likely the work came directly from the Byzantine Empire.
2687:
160:
plates show indentations marking the line to which the gold wire would be attached, indicating how designs were outlined before soldering and enameling began. Because they were not carving recesses into a base plate and then filling the hole with glass flux, Byzantine workers could also use gold wire to create patterns that would not separate recesses from one another, resulting in a style that appears more like a drawn line.
172:. The period after Iconoclasm saw an upswing in the production of iconic portraits, to which the intricate form of cloisonné developed by the Byzantines lends itself easily. Most enamel works known today have been housed in western Europe since the beginning of the 13th century. Any examples of enamel work still inside Constantinople immediately prior to its destruction were lost or destroyed.
79:
member of the imperial family or a
Christian icon. Enamels, because they are created from expensive materials such as gold, are often very small. Occasionally they are made into medallions that act as decorative jewelry or are set in ecclesiastical designs such as book covers, liturgical equipment like the
332:
is a pectoral cross intended for use as a reliquary. On one side Christ is depicted at the
Crucifixion, while the other shows Mary praying between busts of John the Baptist, Perter, Andrew, and Paul. The dating is contentious, but most agree it was made in the 9th century. The style is similar to the
352:
Many examples of
Byzantine enamel are hard to date because of a lack of inscription or identifiable individual. In these cases, guesses must be made to the date of the object in question through a comparison with similar objects with known dates. This can be done by examining material sources and by
187:
and gifts from the imperial family in
Constantinople. The high value and relatively small size of enamel pieces meant that they were made for an aristocratic audience, most likely commissioned by the imperial family, often as gifts for other royals or for the churches they patronized. For example,
167:
from 726 to 787 AD meant that most examples predating the 8th century were destroyed because of their iconographic nature, though there are a few examples thought to have been made earlier. One of the earliest examples of
Byzantine enamel work is a medallion created in either the late 5th or early
159:
The
Byzantines were the first craftsmen to begin illustrating detailed miniature scenes in enamel. A few examples of early Byzantine enamel frames missing the glass flux have been found, and it has been hypothesized that they were used as educational tools in workshops. Some incomplete enamel base
275:
family during the
Crusades. The lid of the box features Christ on the crucifix, a style not usually seen in Byzantine art until the end of the 6th century, remaining uncommon throughout the period. The work is not particularly refined, signaling the creator was perhaps not familiar with cloisonné
142:
examples. The Greeks were already experts in enameling, soldering a filagree onto a flat base and later adding a paste of glass, or a liquid flux, to the base piece. The entire work was then fired, melting the glass paste into the frame to create the finished work. Occasionally, the ancient Greek
78:
to a metal base plate making the outline of an image. The recessed spaces between the gold filigreed wire are then filled with a colored glass paste, or flux, that fills up the negative space in the design with whatever color chosen. Byzantine enamels usually depict a person of interest, often a
262:
is an example of
Byzantine enameling dating to the early 9th century, though some suggest as early of a creation date as 700. It was quite possibly made in Constantinople, though there are debates around its origins, some suggesting it was made in Syria based on the inconsistencies in the Greek
389:
Egyptian style. The appearance of cloisonné jewelry from
Germanic workshops in the mid-5th century is a complete break with the culture's traditions, signaling that they likely picked up the technique from the east, where the Byzantine Empire was gaining a foothold as the center of the
333:
Fieschi-Morgan Staurotheke; the cloisonné of both is unrefined and stylistically sloppy compared to other examples. The inconsistencies in the Greek lettering on the cross mean that it is possible the piece was not made in the Byzantine Empire, but in southern Italy, where the
102:
in 1204, took many examples of Byzantine enamel with them back West. The destruction of Constantinople meant that the production of enamel artwork went into downfall in the 13th century. It is possible that many examples left in the city were melted down and repurposed by the
147:, who were experienced in glass production already, would carve a recess into the base plate and then pour glass flux into each enclosure. The metal peeking through between the recessed glass would create the outline of the image. This technique is called
223:
was one of the first gifts sent from the East to the West. There is some evidence that the Crusaders carried the reliquaries in front of their military campaigns as Byzantine emperors were known to have presented them.
119:
is an ancient practice with origins that are hard to pinpoint. There are a few places that Byzantine craftsmen could have picked up the technique. Enameling is thought to have existed in an early form in
94:
Many of the examples of Byzantine enamel known today have been repurposed into a new setting, making dating particularly difficult where no inscriptions or identifiable persons are visible. The
856:
320:(1074-1077) is also featured, though he is not wearing a nimbus like Michael VII Ducas or Constantine, which indicates his status as lower than that of the Byzantine Emperors.
1566:
54:
from the 6th to the 12th century AD. The Byzantines perfected an intricate form of vitreous enameling, allowing the illustration of small, detailed, iconographic portraits.
1799:
779:
2675:
1029:
930:
394:. It has been proposed that Late-Roman workshops in Constantinople produced semi-manufactured enamel parts intended for assembly in the west.
2363:
940:
873:
888:
883:
87:, or in some examples, royal crowns. Collections of small enamels may be set together to make a larger, narrative display, such as in the
1964:
950:
925:
2315:
2298:
955:
935:
2014:
1860:
1832:
1476:
1468:
945:
878:
211:, and she supposedly introduced imperial goldsmiths and enamelers to the German church. Many famous examples of Byzantine enamel are
2210:
1571:
219:, which were greatly prized in both the east and the west, therefore more survive still in modern collections. It is likely that a
179:" because of their small size, which likely led to their increase in use as decoration for small, portable containers holding holy
2059:
2539:
2064:
2463:
1223:
1216:
772:
2215:
2074:
1362:
644:
199:
Another possible transmission for Byzantine enamels to the west came in the form of imperial marriages. In 927, the German
1206:
131:
2544:
1957:
2645:
1211:
373:' migration through the eastern Roman Empire into the west, accumulating techniques and materials from Byzantine and
1708:
765:
138:
The enamel workshops within the Byzantine Empire likely perfected their techniques through their connections with
2680:
2502:
1034:
802:
2650:
2640:
2512:
2433:
2251:
2119:
1691:
1635:
1556:
1423:
451:
264:
2507:
2497:
2412:
2167:
1952:
1387:
2581:
2549:
2453:
2162:
2134:
1942:
1481:
107:, who cared little about the religious significance of the art and could reuse the gold but not the glass.
151:, and is considerably easier than the cloisonné form of enameling practiced by the Greeks and Byzantines.
2305:
1947:
1794:
1551:
1302:
2625:
2571:
2310:
2182:
2172:
1872:
1752:
1630:
1561:
1449:
1418:
1261:
1201:
259:
231:
27:
2485:
2009:
1865:
1650:
1541:
1428:
2724:
1784:
1536:
1023:
902:
385:
are cut to fit into a wire frame. This has the appearance of cloisonné, but is more similar to the
305:
377:
sources. However, instead of using traditional Byzantine enamel techniques, they often employed a
2690:
2114:
1840:
1660:
1546:
284:
2714:
2615:
2205:
2047:
1491:
1297:
1271:
1266:
1039:
1015:
1011:
978:
2333:
2187:
1377:
1287:
1251:
1136:
866:
861:
443:
437:
301:
293:
62:
The development of the Byzantine enamel art occurred between the 6th and 12th centuries. The
247:
163:
Most of the Byzantine enamels known today are from the 9th to 12th centuries. The period of
32:
2576:
2559:
2380:
2139:
2104:
1987:
1924:
1919:
1454:
1397:
329:
184:
20:
317:
183:. In this tradition, many enameled pieces found their way to the western empire by way of
8:
1486:
1402:
1392:
1256:
1019:
1007:
894:
341:
2719:
2564:
2554:
2428:
2099:
1982:
1899:
1762:
1114:
1094:
1074:
1064:
830:
313:
227:
16:
2686:
2620:
2525:
2458:
2438:
2406:
2338:
2325:
2246:
2241:
1992:
1757:
1607:
1126:
1079:
1069:
1059:
447:
391:
386:
309:
289:
2490:
2231:
2177:
2144:
2094:
1887:
1877:
1655:
1343:
1235:
1158:
1141:
1119:
1104:
1089:
1003:
788:
744:
362:
268:
251:
204:
139:
63:
51:
36:
2635:
2468:
2448:
2443:
2398:
2388:
2348:
2343:
2293:
2288:
2069:
1675:
1592:
1587:
1327:
1317:
1153:
1147:
1131:
1109:
1099:
1084:
200:
169:
116:
67:
47:
648:
127:
2473:
2353:
2086:
1845:
1739:
1725:
1524:
1228:
983:
366:
272:
104:
99:
2708:
2393:
2270:
2236:
1974:
1909:
1882:
1767:
1382:
1322:
374:
121:
88:
2154:
2129:
2109:
1914:
1892:
1747:
995:
990:
824:
410:
378:
189:
144:
757:
148:
143:
craftsman would apply the glass flux to the base with the aid of a brush.
71:
44:
2655:
2630:
2124:
1934:
1701:
1307:
1292:
1929:
1789:
1779:
1612:
1602:
1312:
216:
176:
164:
2478:
2358:
1850:
1718:
1665:
1597:
208:
95:
75:
2004:
1904:
1855:
1713:
1645:
1433:
334:
193:
2370:
2256:
2197:
1696:
1670:
1348:
442:. Owings Mills, Maryland: Stemmer House Publishers, Inc. p.
382:
80:
1999:
1774:
1640:
180:
731:
Late Roman and Early Byzantine Jewelry in the Mid 5th Century
370:
84:
356:
2278:
471:. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society Ltd. p. 11.
369:
art sees a concurrent form of metalwork influenced by the
267:. Supposedly, the Fiesch-Morgan Staurotheke belonged to
50:
is a metal and glass-working tradition practiced in the
347:
2706:
749:Garnet Jewelry of the Fifth and Sixth Centuries
733:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 73.
728:
312:(1071-1078), next to another plaque of his son
1148:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)
773:
242:
154:
168:6th century and features a bust portrait of
787:
780:
766:
743:
645:"Return of the Holy Crown of St. Stephen"
357:Byzantine influence on Germanic metalwork
337:had active metal workshops of their own.
435:
283:
279:
246:
226:
126:
26:
15:
2036:
323:
2707:
466:
340:
2604:
2035:
1820:
1512:
1179:
800:
761:
751:. Yale University Press. p. 214.
263:lettering. It is currently housed in
215:, relics containing fragments of the
1821:
713:
1523:
439:An Introduction to Medieval Enamels
271:and was brought to the west by the
237:
203:married the niece of the Byzantine
132:Presentation of Jesus at the Temple
13:
718:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
14:
2736:
2646:Greek scholars in the Renaissance
729:Deppert-Lippitz, Barbara (2000).
2685:
381:technique, where stones such as
348:Problems with dating and origins
1035:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
857:Constantinian–Valentinianic era
737:
722:
707:
698:
689:
680:
671:
662:
637:
628:
619:
610:
601:
592:
583:
574:
565:
556:
547:
538:
529:
188:there is evidence that Emperor
2120:Great Palace of Constantinople
1861:Patriarchate of Constantinople
1180:
520:
511:
502:
493:
484:
475:
460:
429:
403:
265:The Metropolitan Museum of Art
1:
397:
2582:University of Constantinople
2163:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
1513:
1313:Chartoularios tou vestiariou
1002:Byzantine successor states (
7:
2252:Saint Catherine's Monastery
1308:Chartoularios tou sakelliou
1303:Logothetes tou stratiotikou
801:
57:
10:
2741:
2641:Neo-Byzantine architecture
2605:
1262:Comes sacrarum largitionum
260:Fieschi-Morgan Staurotheke
243:Fieschi-Morgan Staurotheke
232:Fieschi Morgan Staurotheke
192:(565-578) sent enamels to
175:Enamels are considered a "
155:Byzantine enamel tradition
110:
2668:
2611:
2600:
2521:
2421:
2379:
2324:
2269:
2224:
2211:Sant'Apollinare in Classe
2196:
2153:
2085:
2055:
2046:
2042:
2031:
1973:
1831:
1827:
1816:
1738:
1684:
1623:
1580:
1532:
1519:
1508:
1467:
1442:
1411:
1370:
1361:
1336:
1280:
1244:
1197:
1190:
1186:
1175:
1048:
964:
911:
842:
813:
809:
796:
436:Campbell, Marian (1983).
417:. Encyclopædia Britannica
310:Emperor Michael VII Ducas
1785:Droungarios of the Fleet
205:Emperor John I Tzimisces
74:, where gold strips are
2299:Early Byzantine mosaics
1661:Domestic of the Schools
714:Nees, Lawrence (2002).
2616:Byzantine commonwealth
1378:Praetorian prefectures
1298:Logothetes tou genikou
1272:Quaestor sacri palatii
1267:Comes rerum privatarum
1040:Fall of Constantinople
979:Sack of Constantinople
467:Wessel, Klaus (1967).
297:
255:
234:
135:
40:
24:
2316:Komnenian renaissance
2311:Macedonian period art
2216:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
2188:Walls of Thessaloniki
1288:Logothetes tou dromou
903:Twenty Years' Anarchy
867:Valentinianic dynasty
862:Constantinian dynasty
302:Holy Crown of Hungary
294:Holy Crown of Hungary
287:
280:Holy Crown of Hungary
250:
230:
130:
30:
19:
2513:Units of measurement
2247:Panagia Gorgoepikoos
2140:Pammakaristos Church
1988:Corpus Juris Civilis
1939:Missionary activity
1398:Exarchate of Ravenna
1224:Imperial bureaucracy
330:Beresford Hope Cross
324:Beresford Hope Cross
254:- early 11th century
66:perfected a form of
39:- early 11th century
31:Byzantine enamel of
21:Beresford Hope Cross
2037:Culture and society
1900:Ecumenical councils
1403:Exarchate of Africa
1393:Quaestura exercitus
1257:Magister officiorum
1252:Praetorian prefects
895:Byzantine Dark Ages
342:Limburg Staurotheke
306:St. Stephen's Crown
23:- circa 9th century
2454:Flags and insignia
2100:Baths of Zeuxippus
1983:Codex Theodosianus
1873:Oriental Orthodoxy
831:Later Roman Empire
716:Early Medieval Art
298:
256:
235:
136:
117:vitreous enameling
41:
25:
2702:
2701:
2664:
2663:
2621:Byzantine studies
2596:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2407:Alexander Romance
2265:
2264:
2242:Nea Moni of Chios
2105:Blachernae Palace
2027:
2026:
2023:
2022:
1993:Code of Justinian
1841:Eastern Orthodoxy
1812:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1734:
1733:
1608:Scholae Palatinae
1504:
1503:
1500:
1499:
1469:Foreign relations
1463:
1462:
1357:
1356:
1171:
1170:
1167:
1166:
970:(1204–1453)
745:Arrhenius, Birgit
469:Byzantine Enamels
392:Late Roman Empire
290:Archangel Michael
2732:
2689:
2602:
2601:
2545:Imperial Library
2491:Byzantine Greeks
2232:Daphni Monastery
2183:Panagia Chalkeon
2178:Hagios Demetrios
2145:Prison of Anemas
2095:Basilica Cistern
2053:
2052:
2044:
2043:
2033:
2032:
1888:West Syriac Rite
1878:Alexandrian Rite
1829:
1828:
1822:Religion and law
1818:
1817:
1753:Maritime themata
1709:Palaiologan army
1562:Military manuals
1530:
1529:
1521:
1520:
1510:
1509:
1368:
1367:
1344:Megas logothetes
1195:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1177:
1176:
1050:By modern region
971:
918:
917:(717–1204)
849:
811:
810:
798:
797:
789:Byzantine Empire
782:
775:
768:
759:
758:
753:
752:
741:
735:
734:
726:
720:
719:
711:
705:
702:
696:
693:
687:
684:
678:
675:
669:
666:
660:
659:
657:
656:
647:. Archived from
641:
635:
632:
626:
623:
617:
614:
608:
605:
599:
596:
590:
587:
581:
578:
572:
569:
563:
560:
554:
551:
545:
542:
536:
533:
527:
524:
518:
515:
509:
506:
500:
497:
491:
488:
482:
479:
473:
472:
464:
458:
457:
433:
427:
426:
424:
422:
407:
363:Migration Period
316:. The Hungarian
304:, also known as
269:Pope Innocent IV
252:Monomachus Crown
238:Notable examples
52:Byzantine Empire
37:Monomachus crown
2740:
2739:
2735:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2725:Vitreous enamel
2705:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2695:
2660:
2636:Cyrillic script
2607:
2588:
2533:
2517:
2417:
2399:Digenes Akritas
2375:
2320:
2261:
2225:Other locations
2220:
2192:
2149:
2081:
2070:Cross-in-square
2038:
2019:
1969:
1823:
1804:
1730:
1680:
1676:Varangian Guard
1619:
1593:East Roman army
1588:Late Roman army
1576:
1515:
1496:
1459:
1438:
1407:
1353:
1332:
1328:Epi ton deeseon
1318:Epi tou eidikou
1276:
1240:
1182:
1163:
1150:
1053:
1051:
1044:
1030:Palaiologan era
972:
969:
960:
931:Nikephorian era
919:
916:
907:
850:
848:(330–717)
847:
838:
818:
805:
792:
786:
756:
742:
738:
727:
723:
712:
708:
703:
699:
694:
690:
685:
681:
676:
672:
667:
663:
654:
652:
643:
642:
638:
633:
629:
624:
620:
615:
611:
606:
602:
598:Campbell, p. 17
597:
593:
588:
584:
579:
575:
570:
566:
561:
557:
552:
548:
543:
539:
534:
530:
525:
521:
516:
512:
507:
503:
498:
494:
489:
485:
480:
476:
465:
461:
454:
434:
430:
420:
418:
409:
408:
404:
400:
359:
350:
345:
326:
282:
245:
240:
201:Emperor Otto II
170:Empress Eudoxia
157:
140:Classical Greek
113:
96:Latin Crusaders
60:
12:
11:
5:
2738:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2683:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2598:
2597:
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2593:
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2589:
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2585:
2584:
2574:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2557:
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2542:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2528:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2330:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2275:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2202:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2168:Byzantine Bath
2165:
2159:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2089:
2087:Constantinople
2083:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2040:
2039:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1985:
1979:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1870:
1869:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1846:Byzantine Rite
1837:
1835:
1825:
1824:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1750:
1744:
1742:
1736:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1726:Grand domestic
1723:
1722:
1721:
1716:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1699:
1692:Komnenian army
1688:
1686:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1620:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1590:
1584:
1582:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1567:Military units
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1537:Battle tactics
1533:
1527:
1517:
1516:
1506:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1473:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1446:
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1437:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1374:
1372:
1365:
1359:
1358:
1355:
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1340:
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1334:
1333:
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1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1284:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1275:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1229:Medieval Greek
1221:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1198:
1192:
1184:
1183:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1162:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1056:
1054:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1043:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1000:
999:
998:
988:
987:
986:
984:Fourth Crusade
975:
973:
965:
962:
961:
959:
958:
953:
948:
943:
941:Macedonian era
938:
933:
928:
922:
920:
912:
909:
908:
906:
905:
900:
899:
898:
886:
881:
876:
874:Theodosian era
871:
870:
869:
864:
853:
851:
843:
840:
839:
837:
836:
835:
834:
821:
819:
814:
807:
806:
794:
793:
785:
784:
777:
770:
762:
755:
754:
736:
721:
706:
697:
688:
679:
670:
661:
636:
627:
618:
609:
600:
591:
582:
573:
564:
562:Campbell, p.10
555:
553:Campbell, p.10
546:
537:
528:
519:
517:Campbell, p.10
510:
501:
492:
483:
474:
459:
452:
428:
415:Britannica.com
401:
399:
396:
367:early medieval
358:
355:
349:
346:
344:
339:
325:
322:
296:- 11th century
288:Enamel of the
281:
278:
244:
241:
239:
236:
194:Queen Radegund
156:
153:
112:
109:
105:Ottoman Empire
100:Constantinople
59:
56:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2737:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2715:Byzantine art
2713:
2712:
2710:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2667:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2610:
2603:
2599:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2540:Encyclopedias
2538:
2537:
2535:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
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2492:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2484:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2464:Hellenization
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2422:Everyday life
2420:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2394:Acritic songs
2392:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2378:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2362:
2360:
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2350:
2347:
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2329:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2297:
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2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2237:Hosios Loukas
2235:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2195:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
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2161:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
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2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2090:
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2076:
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2068:
2067:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2034:
2030:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1963:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1910:Monophysitism
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1883:Armenian Rite
1881:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1874:
1871:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1815:
1801:
1800:Naval battles
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1766:
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1754:
1751:
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1737:
1727:
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1717:
1715:
1712:
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1710:
1707:
1703:
1700:
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1690:
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1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
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1535:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1511:
1507:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
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1379:
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1360:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1323:Protasekretis
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
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1283:
1279:
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1247:
1243:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1227:
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1222:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1189:
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1174:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
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1068:
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1058:
1057:
1055:
1047:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
994:
993:
992:
989:
985:
982:
981:
980:
977:
976:
974:
968:
963:
957:
954:
952:
951:Komnenian era
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
923:
921:
915:
910:
904:
901:
896:
892:
891:
890:
889:Heraclian era
887:
885:
884:Justinian era
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
868:
865:
863:
860:
859:
858:
855:
854:
852:
846:
841:
833:
832:
828:
827:
826:
823:
822:
820:
817:
812:
808:
804:
799:
795:
790:
783:
778:
776:
771:
769:
764:
763:
760:
750:
746:
740:
732:
725:
717:
710:
701:
692:
683:
677:Wessel, p.112
674:
668:Wessel, p.111
665:
651:on 2016-03-05
650:
646:
640:
631:
622:
613:
607:Wessel, p. 10
604:
595:
586:
577:
571:Wessel, p. 10
568:
559:
550:
544:Wessel, p. 11
541:
535:Wessel, p. 11
532:
526:Wessel, p. 11
523:
514:
508:Wessel, p. 11
505:
499:Wessel, p. 11
496:
490:Wessel, p. 11
487:
478:
470:
463:
455:
449:
445:
441:
440:
432:
416:
412:
406:
402:
395:
393:
388:
384:
380:
376:
375:Mediterranean
372:
368:
364:
354:
343:
338:
336:
331:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
295:
291:
286:
277:
274:
270:
266:
261:
253:
249:
233:
229:
225:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
197:
195:
191:
186:
182:
178:
173:
171:
166:
161:
152:
150:
146:
141:
133:
129:
125:
123:
122:ancient Egypt
118:
108:
106:
101:
98:, who sacked
97:
92:
90:
86:
82:
77:
73:
69:
65:
55:
53:
49:
46:
43:The craft of
38:
34:
29:
22:
18:
2405:
2283:
2173:Hagia Sophia
2155:Thessalonica
2130:Hagia Sophia
2110:Chora Church
2048:Architecture
1925:Great Schism
1915:Paulicianism
1893:Miaphysitism
1748:Karabisianoi
1052:or territory
1012:Thessalonica
996:Latin Empire
991:Frankokratia
966:
926:Isaurian era
913:
844:
829:
825:Roman Empire
815:
748:
739:
730:
724:
715:
709:
704:Wessel, p.51
700:
695:Wessel, p.51
691:
686:Wessel, p.50
682:
673:
664:
653:. Retrieved
649:the original
639:
630:
621:
612:
603:
594:
589:Wessel, p. 8
585:
580:Wessel, p. 8
576:
567:
558:
549:
540:
531:
522:
513:
504:
495:
486:
477:
468:
462:
438:
431:
419:. Retrieved
414:
411:"Enamelwork"
405:
379:chip-carving
360:
351:
327:
299:
257:
220:
213:staurothekes
212:
198:
190:Justinian II
174:
162:
158:
137:
114:
93:
91:altarpiece.
61:
42:
2656:Megali Idea
2631:Byzantinism
2334:Agriculture
2125:Hagia Irene
1958:Kievan Rus'
1935:Mount Athos
1758:Cibyrrhaeot
1702:Vestiaritai
1557:Mercenaries
1434:Catepanates
1293:Sakellarios
1212:Family tree
1137:Mesopotamia
956:Angelid era
936:Amorian era
634:Wessel p.44
625:Wessel p.42
616:Wessel p.43
481:Wessel p.11
421:20 February
318:King GĂ©za I
314:Constantine
221:staurotheke
207:, princess
196:of France.
115:The art of
33:Empress Zoë
2709:Categories
2651:Third Rome
2577:University
2560:Philosophy
2550:Inventions
2413:Historians
2381:Literature
2364:Varangians
2206:San Vitale
2135:Hippodrome
2115:City Walls
2015:Mutilation
2010:Hexabiblos
1930:Bogomilism
1920:Iconoclasm
1790:Megas doux
1780:Greek fire
1763:Aegean Sea
1636:Kleisourai
1613:Excubitors
1603:Bucellarii
1455:Despotates
1424:Kleisourai
1363:Provincial
1207:Coronation
1181:Governance
946:Doukid era
879:Leonid era
655:2016-03-06
453:0112903851
398:References
217:True Cross
185:pilgrimage
165:Iconoclasm
145:The Romans
89:Pala d'Oro
64:Byzantines
2720:Glass art
2479:Octoechos
2359:Silk Road
1851:Hesychasm
1719:Paramonai
1666:Hetaireia
1598:Foederati
1487:Diplomacy
1482:Diplomats
1388:Provinces
1217:Empresses
1020:Trebizond
816:Preceding
387:Ptolemaic
292:from the
209:Theophanu
177:minor art
149:champlevé
72:cloisonné
68:enameling
48:enameling
45:cloisonné
2572:Scholars
2565:Rhetoric
2555:Medicine
2530:Learning
2429:Calendar
2306:Painters
2005:Basilika
1943:Bulgaria
1905:Arianism
1856:Hayhurum
1833:Religion
1795:Admirals
1714:Allagion
1646:Droungos
1552:Generals
1514:Military
1477:Treaties
1383:Dioceses
1202:Emperors
1115:Sardinia
1095:Dalmatia
1075:Bulgaria
1065:Anatolia
1024:Theodoro
1018: /
1014: /
1006: /
747:(2000).
335:Lombards
134:, enamel
76:soldered
58:Overview
2681:Outline
2626:Museums
2526:Science
2503:Slavery
2459:Gardens
2439:Cuisine
2371:Dynatoi
2339:Coinage
2326:Economy
2294:Mosaics
2257:Mystras
2198:Ravenna
2060:Secular
1948:Moravia
1697:Pronoia
1671:Akritai
1656:Tagmata
1631:Themata
1572:Revolts
1542:Battles
1450:Kephale
1419:Themata
1349:Mesazon
1191:Central
1127:Maghreb
1080:Corsica
1070:Armenia
1060:Albania
803:History
383:garnets
273:Fieschi
111:Origins
81:chalice
70:called
2691:Portal
2606:Impact
2486:People
2434:Cities
2284:Enamel
2065:Sacred
2000:Ecloga
1866:Saints
1775:Dromon
1651:Bandon
1641:Tourma
1624:Middle
1547:Beacon
1429:Bandon
1412:Middle
1281:Middle
1236:Senate
1159:Thrace
1142:Serbia
1120:Sicily
1105:Greece
1090:Cyprus
1008:Epirus
1004:Nicaea
914:Middle
791:topics
450:
276:work.
181:relics
2676:Index
2508:Death
2498:Women
2469:Music
2449:Dress
2444:Dance
2389:Novel
2349:Trade
2344:Mints
2289:Glass
2279:Icons
2075:Domes
1953:Serbs
1768:Samos
1581:Early
1371:Early
1245:Early
1154:Syria
1132:Malta
1110:Italy
1100:Egypt
1085:Crete
1016:Morea
845:Early
371:Goths
85:paten
35:from
2474:Lyra
2354:silk
1965:Jews
1740:Navy
1685:Late
1525:Army
1492:Wars
1443:Late
1337:Late
967:Late
448:ISBN
423:2016
361:The
328:The
300:The
258:The
83:and
2271:Art
1975:Law
365:of
2711::
446:.
444:11
413:.
1026:)
1022:–
1010:–
897:"
893:"
781:e
774:t
767:v
658:.
456:.
425:.
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