3440:) though this can include a vote of no-confidence by the shareholders. Terms last for five years, unless 75% of shareholders vote otherwise. §122 AktG lets 10% of shareholders demand a meeting. In the US, Delaware lets directors enjoy considerable autonomy. §141(k) DGCL states that directors can be removed without any cause, unless the board is "classified", meaning that directors only come up for re-appointment on different years. If the board is classified, then directors cannot be removed unless there is gross misconduct. Director's autonomy from shareholders is seen further in §216 DGCL, which allows for plurality voting and §211(d) which states shareholder meetings can only be called if the constitution allows for it. The problem is that in America, directors usually choose where a company is incorporated and §242(b)(1) DGCL says any constitutional amendment requires a resolution by the directors. By contrast, constitutional amendments can be made at any time by 75% of shareholders in Germany (§179 AktG) and the UK (s.21 CA 2006).
3228:
3436:, an attack on American law which failed to hold directors to account, and linked the growing power and autonomy of directors to the economic crisis. In the UK, the right of members to remove directors by a simple majority is assured under s.168 CA 2006 Moreover, Art.21 of the Model Articles requires a third of the board to put themselves up for re-election every year (in effect creating maximum three year terms). 10% of shareholders can demand a meeting any time, and 5% can if it has been a year since the last one (s.303 CA 2006). In Germany, where employee participation creates the need for greater boardroom stability, §84(3) AktG states that management board directors can only be removed by the supervisory board for an important reason (
3544:, which permits an agent to act on behalf of a principal, in exchange for the principal assuming equal liability for the wrongful acts committed by the agent. For this reason, all partners in a typical general partnership may be held liable for the wrongs committed by one partner. Those forms that provide limited liability are able to do so because the state provides a mechanism by which businesses that follow certain guidelines will be able to escape the full liability imposed under agency law. The state provides these forms because it has an interest in the strength of the companies that provide jobs and services therein, but also has an interest in monitoring and regulating their behaviour.
3669:. In the common law, whilst a shareholder is often colloquially referred to as the owner of the company - it is clear that the shareholder is not an owner of the company but makes the shareholder a member of the company and entitles them to enforce the provisions of the company's constitution against the company and against other members. A share is an item of property, and can be sold or transferred. Shares also normally have a nominal or par value, which is the limit of the shareholder's liability to contribute to the debts of the company on an insolvent liquidation. Shares usually confer a number of rights on the holder. These will normally include:
4026:
3314:, whereby they agree to exercise their membership rights in a certain way. Conceptually a shareholders' agreement fulfills many of the same functions as the corporate constitution, but because it is a contract, it will not normally bind new members of the company unless they accede to it somehow. One benefit of shareholders' agreement is that they will usually be confidential, as most jurisdictions do not require shareholders' agreements to be publicly filed. Another common method of supplementing the corporate constitution is by means of
2785:. That legislation shortly gave way to the railway boom, and from there the numbers of companies formed soared. In the later nineteenth century depression took hold, and just as company numbers had boomed, many began to implode and fall into insolvency. Much strong academic, legislative and judicial opinion was opposed to the notion that businessmen could escape accountability for their role in the failing businesses. The last significant development in the history of companies was the decision of the House of Lords in
3084:. If the objects were the things that the company was able to do, then the powers were the means by which it could do them. Usually expressions of powers were limited to methods of raising capital, although from earlier times distinctions between objects and powers have caused lawyers difficulty. Most jurisdictions have now modified the position by statute, and companies generally have capacity to do all the things that a natural person could do, and power to do it in any way that a natural person could do it.
3695:
shares, with the two types having different voting and/or economic rights. It might provide that preference shareholders shall each receive a cumulative preferred dividend of a certain amount per annum, but the ordinary shareholders shall receive everything else. Corporations will structure capital raising in this way in order to appeal to different lenders in the market by providing different incentives for investment. The total value of issued shares in a company is said to represent its
3341:
3213:. On this view, the basic issue of corporate law is that when a "principal" party delegates his property (usually the shareholder's capital, but also the employee's labour) into the control of an "agent" (i.e. the director of the company) there is the possibility that the agent will act in his own interests, be "opportunistic", rather than fulfill the wishes of the principal. Reducing the risks of this opportunism, or the "agency cost", is said to be central to the goal of corporate law.
3805:
bring an end to the company's existence. For obvious reasons, in most countries, the courts have been reluctant to wind up a company solely on the basis of the disappointment of one member, regardless of how well-founded that member's complaints are. Accordingly, most jurisdictions that permit just and equitable winding up also permit the court to impose other remedies, such as requiring the majority shareholder(s) to buy out the disappointed minority shareholder at a fair value.
2747:
6476:
6490:
1760:
2678:
1694:
3503:"A corporate body can only act by agents, and it is, of course, the duty of those agents so to act as best to promote the interests of the corporation whose affairs they are conducting. Such agents have duties to discharge of a fiduciary nature towards their principal. And it is a rule of universal application that no one, having such duties to discharge, shall be allowed to enter into engagements in which he has,
3842:) by individuals with potential access to non-public information about the company. In most countries, trading by corporate insiders such as officers, key employees, directors, and large shareholders may be legal if this trading is done in a way that does not take advantage of non-public information. However, the term is frequently used to refer to a practice in which an insider or a related party trades based on
5258:
3405:) by reserving powers to members, although companies rarely do. UK law specifically reserves shareholders right and duty to approve "substantial non cash asset transactions" (s.190 CA 2006), which means those over 10% of company value, with a minimum of £5,000 and a maximum of £100,000. Similar rules, though much less stringent, exist in §271 DGCL and through case law in Germany under the so-called
58:
4092:, public companies now employ more people and generate more of wealth in the United Kingdom economy than any other form of organisation. The United Kingdom was the first country to draft modern corporation statutes, where through a simple registration procedure any investors could incorporate, limit liability to their commercial creditors in the event of business
3524:, the directors can be forced to account for trading losses personally. Directors are also strictly charged to exercise their powers only for a proper purpose. For instance, were a director to issue a large number of new shares, not for the purposes of raising capital but in order to defeat a potential takeover bid, that would be an improper purpose.
3859:, some investors believe corporate insiders nonetheless may have better insights into the health of a corporation (broadly speaking) and that their trades otherwise convey important information (e.g., about the pending retirement of an important officer selling shares, greater commitment to the corporation by officers purchasing shares, etc.)
3020:", to look directly at, and impose liability directly on the individuals behind the company; the actual practice of piercing the corporate veil is, at English law, non-existent. However, the court will look beyond the corporate form where the corporation is a sham or perpetuating a fraud. The most commonly cited examples are:
4200:
over the assets of a company, so that in the event of default on loan repayments they may seize the company's property directly to satisfy debts. Creditors are also, to some extent, protected by courts' power to set aside unfair transactions before a company goes under, or recoup money from negligent
3642:
have the capacity to produce fine-tuned transactions which, using the advantages of each form of financing, support the limitations of the corporate form, its industry, or economic sector. A mix of both debt and equity is crucial to the sustained health of the company, and its overall market value is
3193:
at large. One of the main differences between different countries in the internal form of companies is between a two-tier and a one tier board. The United
Kingdom, the United States, and most Commonwealth countries have single unified boards of directors. In Germany, companies have two tiers, so that
3102:
Although the company's agents owe duties to the company (and, indirectly, to the shareholders) to exercise those powers for a proper purpose, generally speaking third parties' rights are not impugned if it transpires that the officers were acting improperly. Third parties are entitled to rely on the
3005:
a claim under an insurance policy failed where the insured had transferred timber from his name into the name of a company wholly owned by him, and it was subsequently destroyed in a fire; as the property now belonged to the company and not to him, he no longer had an "insurable interest" in it and
4213:
to attempt a rescue of the company (if the company itself has the assets to pay for this). If rescue proves impossible, a company's life ends when its assets are liquidated, distributed to creditors and the company is struck off the register. If a company becomes insolvent with no assets it can be
3887:
playing a role in employee retirement. These funds are more motivated to partner with employers to have their fund included in a company's retirement plans than to vote their shares – corporate governance activities only increase costs for the fund, while the benefits would be shared equally
3804:
Some jurisdictions also permit companies to be wound up on "just and equitable" grounds. Generally, applications for just and equitable winding-up are brought by a member of the company who alleges that the affairs of the company are being conducted in a prejudicial manner, and asking the court to
3535:
has pointed out, all business organizations represent an attempt to avoid certain costs associated with doing business. Each is meant to facilitate the contribution of specific resources - investment capital, knowledge, relationships, and so forth - towards a venture which will prove profitable to
3891:
Shareholder activism prioritizes wealth maximization and has been criticized as a poor basis for determining corporate governance rules. Shareholders do not decide corporate policy, that is done by the board of directors, but shareholders may vote to elect board directors and on mergers and other
3087:
However, references to corporate capacity and powers have not quite been consigned to the dustbin of legal history. In many jurisdictions, directors can still be liable to their shareholders if they cause the company to engage in businesses outside its objects, even if the transactions are still
2765:
1720 investors had reverted to trading the stock of unincorporated associations, until it was repealed in 1825. However, the process of obtaining Royal charters was insufficient to keep up with demand. In
England there was a lively trade in the charters of defunct companies. It was not until the
3793:
of the company when the company is unable to pay its debts. However, in some jurisdictions, regulators have the power to apply for the liquidation of the company on the grounds of public good, i.e., where the company is believed to have engaged in unlawful conduct, or conduct which is otherwise
3625:
Through the operational life of the corporation, perhaps the most crucial aspect of corporate law relates to raising capital for the business to operate. The law, as it relates to corporate finance, not only provides the framework for which a business raises funds - but also provides a forum for
3519:
The standard of skill and care that a director owes is usually described as acquiring and maintaining sufficient knowledge and understanding of the company's business to enable him to properly discharge his duties. This duty enables the company to seek compensation from its director if it can be
3694:
Companies may issue different types of shares, called "classes" of shares, offering different rights to the shareholders depending on the underlying regulatory rules pertaining to corporate structures, taxation, and capital market rules. A company might issue both ordinary shares and preference
3365:
and the members of the company. Authority is given or "delegated" to the board to manage the company for the success of the investors. Certain specific decision rights are often reserved for shareholders, where their interests could be fundamentally affected. There are necessarily rules on when
4141:
and undivided loyalty to the enterprise. If the mechanisms of voting do not prove enough, particularly for minority shareholders, directors' duties and other member rights may be vindicated in court. Of central importance in public and listed companies is the securities market, typified by the
3562:
Members of a company generally have rights against each other and against the company, as framed under the company's constitution. However, members cannot generally claim against third parties who cause damage to the company which results in a diminution in the value of their shares or others
3904:
and again in the 1970s during a debate about the effect of corporate decision making on states. However, these movements did not establish federal incorporation. Although there has been some federal involvement in corporate governance rules as a result, the relative rights of shareholders and
3854:
In the United States and several other jurisdictions, trading conducted by corporate officers, key employees, directors, or significant shareholders (in the United States, defined as beneficial owners of ten percent or more of the firm's equity securities) must be reported to the regulator or
3297:) is the secondary document, and will generally regulate the company's internal affairs and management, such as procedures for board meetings, dividend entitlements etc. In the event of any inconsistency, the memorandum prevails and in the United States only the memorandum is publicised. In
4247:. The laws of the state of incorporation normally governs a corporation's internal operations, even if the corporation's operations take place outside that state. Corporate law differs from state to state. Because of these differences, some businesses will benefit from having a corporate
2572:
Widely available and user-friendly corporate law enables business participants to possess these four legal characteristics and thus transact as businesses. Thus, corporate law is a response to three endemic opportunism: conflicts between managers and shareholders, between controlling and
3515:
However, in many jurisdictions the members of the company are permitted to ratify transactions which would otherwise fall foul of this principle. It is also largely accepted in most jurisdictions that this principle should be capable of being abrogated in the company's constitution.
2730:
Early companies were purely economic ventures; it was only a belatedly established benefit of holding joint stock that the company's stock could not be seized for the debts of any individual member. The development of company law in Europe was hampered by two notorious "bubbles" (the
2580:
may accurately be called a company; however, a company should not necessarily be called a corporation, which has distinct characteristics. In the United States, a company may or may not be a separate legal entity, and is often used synonymous with "firm" or "business." According to
3582:
members always retain the right to sue if the majority acts to invade their personal rights, e.g. where the company's affairs are not conducted in accordance with the company's constitution (this position has been debated because the extent of a personal right is not set in law).
3058:
Historically, because companies are artificial persons created by operation of law, the law prescribed what the company could and could not do. Usually this was an expression of the commercial purpose which the company was formed for, and came to be referred to as the company's
3752:
If unable to discharge its debts in a timely manner, a corporation may end up on bankruptcy liquidation. Liquidation is the normal means by which a company's existence is brought to an end. It is also referred to (either alternatively or concurrently) in some jurisdictions as
3488:
or conflict with their duty to act in the best interests of the company. This rule is so strictly enforced that, even where the conflict of interest or conflict of duty is purely hypothetical, the directors can be forced to disgorge all personal gains arising from it. In
3707:
etc.). Similarly, most jurisdictions regulate the maintenance of equity capital, and prevent companies returning funds to shareholders by way of distribution when this might leave the company financially exposed. Often this extends to prohibiting a company from providing
3099:, but in many jurisdictions other officers can be appointed too. The board of directors is normally elected by the members, and the other officers are normally appointed by the board. These agents enter into contracts on behalf of the company with third parties.
3570:
In relation to the exercise of their rights, minority shareholders usually have to accept that, because of the limits of their voting rights, they cannot direct the overall control of the company and must accept the will of the majority (often expressed as
3850:
or other relationship of trust and confidence or where the non-public information was misappropriated from the company. Illegal insider trading is believed to raise the cost of capital for securities issuers, thus decreasing overall economic growth.
3469:, as well as duties of care and skill, to safeguard the interests of the company and the members. In many developed countries outside the English speaking world, company boards are appointed as representatives of both shareholders and employees to "
3905:
corporate officers is still mostly regulated by state laws. There is no federal legislation like there is for corporate political contributions or regulation of monopolies and federal laws have developed along different lines than state laws.
2939:
either with or without a share capital. This is a hybrid company, a company similar to its limited company (Ltd.) counterpart but where the members or shareholders do not benefit from limited liability should the company ever go into formal
3855:
publicly disclosed, usually within a few business days of the trade. Many investors follow the summaries of these insider trades in the hope that mimicking these trades will be profitable. While "legal" insider trading cannot be based on
3377:(a) The business and affairs of every corporation organized under this chapter shall be managed by or under the direction of a board of directors, except as may be otherwise provided in this chapter or in its certificate of incorporation.
5038:
3015:
it was held that victims of asbestos poisoning at the hands of an
American subsidiary could not sue the English parent in tort. Whilst academic discussion highlights certain specific situations where courts are generally prepared to
4448:(2004) ch 1 set out similar criteria, and in addition state modern companies involve shareholder ownership. However this latter feature is not the case in many European jurisdictions, where employees participate in their companies.
4846:
3266:, what duties directors owe to the company or when a company must be dissolved as it approaches bankruptcy. Examples of rules that members of a company would be allowed to change and choose could include, what kind of procedure
3801:, or it may be on economic grounds if they believe that the purpose for which the company was formed is now at an end, or that the company is not providing an adequate return on assets and should be broken up and sold off.
2593:(such as a pension fund), or companies limited by guarantee (like some community organizations or charities). Corporate law deals with companies that are incorporated or registered under the corporate or company law of a
4104:
and as an international standard setter, UK law has always given people broad freedom to design the internal company rules, so long as the mandatory minimum rights of investors under its legislation are complied with.
3785:
is appointed to gather in all the company's assets and settle all claims against the company. If there is any surplus after paying off all the creditors of the company, this surplus is then distributed to the members.
3643:
independent of its capital structure. One notable difference is that interest payments to debt is tax deductible whilst payment of dividends are not, this will incentivise a company to issue debt financing rather than
3285:) is the primary document, and will generally regulate the company's activities with the outside world. It states which objects the company is meant to follow (e.g. "this company makes automobiles") and specifies the
3575:). However, majority rule can be iniquitous, particularly where there is one controlling shareholder. Accordingly, a number of exceptions have developed in law in relation to the general principle of majority rule.
4489:
Phillip I. Blumberg, The
Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law: The Search for a New Corporate Personality, (1993) has a very good discussion of the controversial nature of additional rights being granted to
3366:
directors can be removed from office and replaced. To do that, meetings need to be called to vote on the issues. How easily the constitution can be amended and by whom necessarily affects the relations of power.
5041:
of 1811 allowed for free incorporation with limited liability, but only for manufacturing businesses. So, while necessarily drawing on ideas formulated in France and the US, the UK had the first modern company
3699:. Most jurisdictions regulate the minimum amount of capital which a company may have, although some jurisdictions prescribe minimum amounts of capital for companies engaging in certain types of business (e.g.
3113:
established in common law that third parties were entitled to assume that the internal management of the company was being conducted properly, and the rule has now been codified into statute in most countries.
4428:(Eds Reinier Kraakman, John Armour, Paul Davies, Luca Enriques, Henry Hansmann, Gerard Hertig, Klaus Hopt, Hideki Kanda, Mariana Pargendler, Wolf-Georg Ringe, and Edward Rock, Oxford University Press 2017)1.1
3511:, with the interests of those whom he is bound to protect... So strictly is this principle adhered to that no question is allowed to be raised as to the fairness or unfairness of the contract entered into..."
2966:
One of the key legal features of corporations are their separate legal personality, also known as "personhood" or being "artificial persons". However, the separate legal personality was not confirmed under
2624:. Shareholders' losses, in the event of liquidation, are limited to their stake in the corporation, and they are not liable for any remaining debts owed to the corporation's creditors. This rule is called
3637:
Each has relative advantages and disadvantages, both at law and economically. Additional methods of raising capital necessary to finance its operations is that of retained profits
Various combinations of
3194:
shareholders (and employees) elect a "supervisory board", and then the supervisory board chooses the "management board". There is the option to use two tiers in France, and in the new
European Companies (
2429:. Corporate law often describes the law relating to matters which derive directly from the life-cycle of a corporation. It thus encompasses the formation, funding, governance, and death of a corporation.
4782:
Though the
Constitution may allow particular provisions to be further "entrenched", s.22; Furthermore, Art.3 of the Model Articles allows 75% of members in general meeting to give the directors specific
4120:
habitually possesses the power to manage the business under a company constitution, a central theme is what mechanisms exist to ensure directors' accountability. UK law is "shareholder friendly" in that
4794:
3947:
continue to operate separate companies acts, which are amended from time to time to comply with EU Directives and
Regulations. There is, however, also the option of businesses to incorporate as a
2911:. Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities. The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into
3883:. Corporations and boards are challenged to respond to these developments. Shareholder demographics have been effected by trends in worker retirement, with more institutional intermediaries like
3665:, the formatting may differ. If a company wishes to raise capital through equity, it will usually be done by issuing shares (sometimes called "stock" (not to be confused with stock-in-trade)) or
3520:
proved that a director has not shown reasonable skill or care which in turn has caused the company to incur a loss. In many jurisdictions, where a company continues to trade despite foreseeable
4860:
2585:, in America a company means "a corporation — or, less commonly, an association, partnership or union — that carries on industrial enterprise." Other types of business associations can include
3209:. While post-war discourse centred on how to achieve effective "corporate democracy" for shareholders or other stakeholders, many scholars have shifted to discussing the law in terms of
3262:
The law will set out which rules are mandatory, and which rules can be derogated from. Examples of important rules which cannot be derogated from would usually include how to fire the
3797:
Voluntary liquidations occur when the company's members decide voluntarily to wind up the affairs of the company. This may be because they believe that the company will soon become
2643:
Under almost all legal systems corporations have much the same legal rights and obligations as individuals. In some jurisdictions, this extends to allow corporations to exercise
3880:
2791:
where the House of Lords confirmed the separate legal personality of the company, and that the liabilities of the company were separate and distinct from those of its owners.
2921:. A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return.
4519:
received its charter in 1602, but is generally recognized as the first company in the world to issue joint stock. Not coincidentally, the two companies were competitors.
3332:
to be a part of the "constitution" (in the loose sense of the word) of the company, but the requirement for a seal has been abrogated by legislation in most countries.
2647:
against real individuals and the state, and they may be responsible for human rights violations. Just as they are "born" into existence through its members obtaining a
2999:
obtained by a wife against her husband was not effective against the husband's company as it was not named in the order and was separate and distinct from him. And in
2723:). Originally, traders in these entities traded stock on their own account, but later the members came to operate on joint account and with joint stock, and the new
3724:. In addition to the creation of the corporation, and its financing, these events serve as a transition phase into either dissolution, or some other material shift.
3270:
should follow, when dividends get paid out, or how many members (beyond a minimum set out in the law) can amend the constitution. Usually, the statute will set out
3626:
principles and policies which drive the fundraising, to be taken seriously. Two primary methods of financing exists with regard to corporate financing, these are:
3407:
4500:
3144:
3277:
The United States, and a few other common law countries, split the corporate constitution into two separate documents (the UK got rid of this in 2006). The
4623:
4809:
4660:
4133:
holds a series of minimum rights to change the company constitution, issue resolutions and remove members of the board. In turn, directors owe a set of
5029:
2604:
The defining feature of a corporation is its legal independence from the shareholders that own it. Under corporate law, corporations of all sizes have
4722:
1724:
4770:
3690:
in some countries, shareholders have preemption rights, whereby they have a preferential right to participate in future share issues by the company
607:
5062:
company by these three features (separate legal personality, limited liability, delegated management) and in addition, freely transferable shares.
3353:
argued that the separation of control of companies from the investors who were meant to own them endangered the
American economy and led to a mal-
3009:
Separate legal personality allows corporate groups flexibility in relation to tax planning, and management of overseas liability. For instance in
5155:
4704:
3095:
As artificial persons, companies can only act through human agents. The main agent who deals with the company's management and business is the
3777:, although a voluntary liquidation where the company is insolvent will also be controlled by the creditors, and is properly referred to as a
3579:
Where the majority shareholder(s) are exercising their votes to perpetrate a fraud on the minority, the courts may permit the minority to sue
2743:) in the 17th century, which set the development of companies in the two leading jurisdictions back by over a century in popular estimation.
2719:) to merchant adventurers. The Royal charters usually conferred special privileges on the trading company (including, usually, some form of
323:
565:
2948:
There are, however, many specific categories of corporations and other business organizations which may be formed in various countries and
3432:
3349:
3117:
Accordingly, companies will normally be liable for all the act and omissions of their officers and agents. This will include almost all
2503:
that is the law relating to commercial and business related purposes and activities. In some cases, this may include matters relating to
2212:
3414:
Probably the most fundamental guarantee that directors will act in the members' interests is that they can easily be sacked. During the
5180:
4389:
3088:
valid as between the company and the third party. And many jurisdictions also still permit transactions to be challenged for lack of "
2707:, the closest recognizable ancestors of the modern company did not appear until the 16th century. With increasing international trade,
3447:
employ the practice of workers of an enterprise having the right to vote for representatives on the board of directors in a company.
2774:, which in the event of a company's bankruptcy limited the liability of all shareholders to the amount of capital they had invested.
6457:
2991:
2972:
4116:. Corporate governance in the UK mediates the rights and duties among shareholders, employees, creditors and directors. Since the
3990:
2878:. Many countries have forms of business entity unique to that country, although there are equivalents elsewhere. Examples are the
520:
3369:
It is a principle of corporate law that the directors of a company have the right to manage. This is expressed in statute in the
3036:
where the natural interpretation of a contract or statute is as a reference to the corporate group and not the individual company
2320:
729:
4164:. Shares can contain any rights the company and purchaser wish to contract for, but generally grant the right to participate in
2519:(or business enterprises), including such activity as raising capital, company formation, and registration with the government.
3846:
non-public information obtained during the performance of the insider's duties at the corporation, or otherwise in breach of a
2573:
non-controlling shareholders; and between shareholders and other contractual counterparts (including creditors and employees).
4181:
3709:
2883:
2373:
2185:
1823:
1717:
793:
424:
233:
31:
4954:
2901:
There are various types of company that can be formed in different jurisdictions, but the most common forms of company are:
2444:
rules differ, similar legal characteristics and legal problems exist across many jurisdictions. Corporate law regulates how
4569:
4364:
3308:
It is quite common for members of a company to supplement the corporate constitution with additional arrangements, such as
3001:
2819:, and has evolved significantly in the 20th century. In common law countries today, the most commonly addressed forms are:
2782:
412:
356:
315:
17:
3092:", where the relevant transaction has no prospect of being for the commercial benefit of the company or its shareholders.
4374:
3896:. Broadly speaking there have been three movements in 20th century American law that sought a federal corporate law: the
3389:
says the same for the management board, while under §111 AktG the supervisory board's role is stated to be to "oversee" (
294:
3227:
5037:
allowed for public company formation with limited liability after an express governmental concession, and the New York
3944:
3661:
A company limited by shares, whether public or private, must have at least one issued share; however, depending on the
3039:
where permitted by statute (for example, many jurisdictions provide for shareholder liability where a company breaches
2242:
2160:
1421:
82:
5883:
5441:
5340:
4465:
4333:
3496:
2926:
2225:
2026:
1818:
1278:
361:
5997:
5866:
4281:
4271:
3370:
3247:
2544:
of the shareholders (a shareholder's personal liability is limited to the value of their shares in the corporation)
2207:
1710:
1327:
438:
339:
6452:
5799:
5700:
5227:
3856:
3274:, which the corporation's constitution will be assumed to have if it is silent on a bit of particular procedure.
1956:
3979:) is an influential legal regime for companies in Germany. The primary form of company is the public company or
3205:
Recent literature, especially from the United States, has begun to discuss corporate governance in the terms of
3161:
Corporate governance is primarily the study of the power relations among a corporation's senior executives, its
5959:
5593:
5262:
5024:
4230:
2894:
and publicly owned enterprises, can be established with purposes that parallel, supersede, or even replace the
2778:
2767:
2755:
4977:
5312:
3290:
3246:
The rules for corporations derive from two sources. These are the country's statutes: in the US, usually the
3109:
2838:
1928:
1698:
1443:
1353:
1004:
264:
198:
3301:
jurisdictions, the company's constitution is normally consolidated into a single document, often called the
6119:
5598:
5273:
4707:
10 for public companies, setting out a scale of transactions requiring shareholder approval and disclosure.
4583:
4074:
3011:
2907:
2853:
2648:
2325:
2197:
2192:
1878:
1561:
1347:
1175:
448:
6114:
5246:
4546:
3943:. The EU creates minimum standards for companies throughout the EU, and has its own corporate forms. All
3210:
3017:
2977:
2961:
2787:
2084:
2006:
1908:
1551:
1438:
1388:
722:
635:
112:
4150:
the UK strongly protects the right of shareholders to be treated equally and freely trade their shares.
3361:
The most important rules for corporate governance are those concerning the balance of power between the
6550:
6089:
5588:
4512:
4477:
4289:
4081:
4058:
4018:
3310:
2848:
2771:
2605:
2531:
2247:
2079:
2021:
2011:
1943:
1581:
331:
107:
92:
3030:
where a representative of the company has taken some personal responsibility for a statement or action
2620:
which, in turn, typically delegates control of the corporation's day-to-day operations to a full-time
6172:
4686:
4457:
4369:
3325:
3282:
3278:
3186:
3107:
of agents held out by the company to act on its behalf. A line of common law cases reaching back to
2879:
2770:
that the first equivalent of modern companies, formed by registration, appeared. Soon after came the
2582:
2481:
2366:
2295:
2252:
2044:
1918:
1586:
1365:
1307:
1009:
841:
680:
615:
404:
274:
102:
2777:
The beginning of modern company law came when the two pieces of legislation were codified under the
5967:
5949:
4720:(1974) to be those "qualitatively vital to the existence and purpose" of the corporation; which in
4516:
4344:
4240:
3733:
3540:
to both members of the organization and external investors. Business organizations originated with
3298:
3286:
3236:
2806:
2633:
2262:
2257:
2016:
1938:
1601:
1576:
1312:
1022:
956:
926:
575:
442:
117:
77:
6301:
6535:
6342:
6129:
5618:
5603:
4769:, saying any 5% shareholder voting block must register with the Federal financial authority, the
4312:
4214:
wound up by a creditor, for a fee (not that common), or more commonly by the tax creditor (HMRC).
4101:
3876:
2598:
2469:
2340:
1793:
1591:
1571:
1556:
1511:
1337:
1082:
1062:
1013:
999:
994:
990:
951:
745:
284:
205:
6530:
6397:
6382:
4394:
3867:
Most case law on the matter of corporate governance dates to the 1980s and primarily addresses
3491:
3354:
3222:
3122:
2982:
2868:
2660:
2637:
2621:
2565:
2315:
2267:
2117:
1651:
1636:
1566:
1428:
1332:
981:
881:
861:
851:
816:
715:
597:
371:
244:
158:
123:
87:
41:
5099:
4424:
John Armour, Henry
Hansmann, Reinier Kraakman, Mariana Pargendler "What is Corporate Law?" in
4177:
6545:
6501:
6094:
5772:
5583:
5274:
The Samuel and Ronnie Heyman Center on Corporate Governance Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law
4172:
in company affairs. A purchaser of shares is helped to make an informed decision directly by
4143:
4089:
4046:
3997:
3939:
which concerns the formation, operation and insolvency of companies (or corporations) in the
2874:
The proprietary limited company is a statutory business form in several countries, including
2527:
Academics identify four legal characteristics universal to business enterprises. These are:
2425:. The term refers to the legal practice of law relating to corporations, or to the theory of
2290:
2285:
2172:
2102:
1933:
1533:
1415:
1403:
1295:
1288:
1263:
1225:
1200:
1150:
1057:
1018:
766:
540:
72:
4741:
held that shareholders must approve a sale of assets amounting to 80% of the company's value
6540:
6222:
5568:
4277:
4210:
4173:
4134:
4109:
4025:
3932:
3926:
3897:
3872:
3485:
3474:
3460:
3156:
3104:
2504:
2359:
2310:
1988:
1983:
1596:
1521:
1506:
1393:
1383:
1360:
1300:
1268:
1170:
1112:
874:
771:
665:
602:
4765:
See also, SEC 13d-5, dating from times when groups of investors were considered potential
3871:, however, current research considers the direction of legal reforms to address issues of
3720:
Events such as mergers, acquisitions, insolvency, or the commission of a crime affect the
8:
6377:
5517:
5434:
4847:
Multinational Gas and Petrochemical Co v Multinational Gas and Petrochemical Services Ltd
4339:
4285:
4161:
4070:
3738:
A merger or acquisition can often mean the altering or extinguishing of the corporation.
3684:
3662:
3536:
all contributors. Except for the partnership, all business forms are designed to provide
3134:
2895:
2863:
2843:
2724:
2689:
1751:
1678:
1661:
1646:
1496:
1473:
1458:
1378:
1342:
1317:
1273:
1145:
1135:
1117:
985:
941:
856:
836:
640:
394:
366:
220:
193:
188:
178:
4137:
to their companies. Directors must carry out their responsibilities with competence, in
6192:
5851:
5705:
5690:
5668:
5412:
5392:
5345:
5335:
4981:
4399:
4384:
4117:
4097:
4066:
4011:
3982:
3972:
3966:
3936:
3831:
3456:
3419:
3402:
3386:
3362:
3263:
3251:
3206:
3162:
3096:
2761:
Companies returned to the forefront of commerce, although in England to circumvent the
2617:
2561:
2457:
2305:
2147:
1923:
1833:
1641:
1516:
1501:
1468:
1463:
1453:
1448:
1398:
1322:
1230:
1195:
886:
560:
480:
453:
133:
128:
97:
4687:"TITLE 8 - CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CORPORATION LAW - Subchapter IV. Directors and Officers"
6177:
6099:
5937:
5680:
5675:
5628:
5553:
5547:
5387:
5305:
4737:
4461:
4379:
4206:
4197:
4113:
3950:
3868:
3843:
3666:
3614:
3604:
in the name of the company, where the company is controlled by the alleged wrongdoers
3600:
3537:
3478:
3197:
3089:
3053:
3040:
2935:
2833:
2732:
2625:
2613:
2609:
2541:
2330:
2142:
1888:
1861:
1771:
1621:
1528:
1484:
1410:
1283:
1190:
1160:
1097:
891:
620:
490:
378:
253:
215:
210:
5241:
5199:
3892:
changes that have been approved by directors. They may also vote to amend corporate
6182:
6149:
5648:
5512:
5507:
5472:
4874:
4752:
4327:
4224:
4202:
4153:
3839:
3782:
3557:
3444:
3415:
3260:
Gesetz betreffend die Gesellschaften mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH-Gesetz, GmbHG).
3259:
2754:(1858) satirizing the 'monster' joint-stock economy that came into being after the
2685:
2441:
2335:
2300:
1898:
1788:
1673:
1491:
1433:
1258:
1253:
1215:
1052:
1047:
806:
698:
685:
630:
530:
6431:
6404:
6392:
6372:
6306:
6284:
6264:
6259:
6239:
6104:
6084:
6079:
5982:
5942:
5653:
5578:
5502:
5487:
5407:
5034:
4322:
4307:
4302:
4157:
4130:
3919:
3814:
3789:
As its names imply, applications for compulsory liquidation are normally made by
3644:
3567:" and the law normally regards the company as the proper claimant in such cases.
3564:
3553:
3470:
3267:
3170:
3138:
2996:
2828:
2746:
2681:
2672:
2656:
2594:
2547:
2202:
2112:
2049:
1813:
1798:
1626:
1478:
1371:
1235:
1165:
1155:
1072:
969:
936:
901:
821:
801:
670:
625:
348:
173:
4152:
Corporate finance concerns the two money raising options for limited companies.
3080:
By way of distinction, the organs of the company were expressed to have various
6508:
6316:
6234:
5823:
5789:
5740:
5725:
5497:
5402:
5382:
5372:
5072:
4354:
4088:
vehicle to organise and run business. Tracing their modern history to the late
4078:
4042:
4034:
3940:
3835:
3747:
3721:
3427:
3398:
3394:
3271:
3232:
3064:
2986:
2740:
2704:
2551:
2498:
2437:
2345:
2237:
2069:
2054:
1903:
1893:
1843:
1808:
1742:
1656:
1185:
1180:
1107:
1102:
1092:
946:
921:
896:
5129:
4292:
is widely recognized as a good venue for the litigation of business disputes.
4251:
determine the most appropriate or advantageous state in which to incorporate.
6524:
6362:
6321:
6207:
6187:
6159:
6109:
6074:
6048:
6043:
6036:
5987:
5927:
5767:
5757:
5715:
5638:
5633:
5563:
5446:
4716:
Shareholders must approve sale of "all or substantially all assets", held in
4349:
4236:
4147:
3680:(or payments made by companies to their shareholders) declared by the company
3656:
3639:
3620:
3397:, the right to manage is not laid down in law, but is found in Part.2 of the
3340:
3321:
3027:
where the company is effectively just the agent of its members or controllers
2891:
2708:
2508:
2232:
2137:
2127:
2064:
2059:
1973:
1968:
1868:
1828:
1631:
1067:
432:
399:
4559:
Although it did attach to documents within the husband's custody or control.
2886:(LLLP) in the United States. Other types of business organizations, such as
550:
6494:
6244:
6212:
6167:
5905:
5900:
5871:
5784:
5762:
5730:
5663:
5643:
5537:
5477:
5467:
5419:
5377:
5355:
5298:
4638:
4317:
4185:
4122:
4062:
4030:
3884:
3687:
either upon redemption of the share, or upon the liquidation of the company
3541:
3532:
3329:
3316:
3240:
3166:
2949:
2700:
2693:
2644:
2616:
liability for its shareholders. Shareholders control the company through a
2535:
2453:
2445:
2433:
2418:
2410:
2155:
2074:
1963:
1883:
1210:
1087:
1077:
789:
510:
500:
6416:
6357:
6347:
6144:
6139:
5977:
5878:
5794:
5753:
5720:
5685:
5608:
5532:
5482:
5397:
4985:
4255:
4050:
3823:
3594:
in many jurisdictions it is possible for minority shareholders to take a
3423:
3344:
3069:
2968:
2941:
2915:, but otherwise they have no economic rights in relation to the company .
2912:
2887:
2858:
2823:
2800:
2736:
2586:
2577:
2426:
2122:
1838:
1666:
1205:
846:
831:
826:
646:
183:
168:
163:
4108:
Company law, or corporate law, can be broken down into two main fields,
3401:. This means it is a default rule, which companies can opt out of (s.20
3255:
3067:. If an activity fell outside the company's capacity it was said to be
6480:
6409:
6289:
6227:
5972:
5893:
5888:
5846:
5828:
5816:
5777:
5623:
5613:
5573:
5558:
5542:
5492:
5429:
5424:
4359:
4244:
4138:
4093:
3521:
3074:
2812:
2762:
2652:
2557:
2132:
1978:
1803:
1759:
759:
703:
469:
419:
3477:(which concerns the various power relations within a corporation) and
6387:
6352:
6294:
6269:
6134:
6031:
6019:
6004:
5992:
5920:
5838:
5811:
5695:
4756:, and query whether the decision would still be decided the same way.
4259:
4126:
3847:
3798:
3704:
3466:
3190:
3178:
3174:
2875:
2477:
2465:
2461:
2165:
2107:
1140:
1042:
1035:
6475:
4129:, typically exercise sole voting rights in the general meeting. The
2699:
Although some forms of companies are thought to have existed during
30:"Business form" redirects here. For types of business entities, see
6436:
6421:
6124:
6009:
5806:
5350:
5269:
A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law
5268:
5051:
4437:
4426:
The Anatomy of Corporate Law: A Comparative and Functional Approach
4189:
4165:
3901:
3790:
3677:
3182:
2781:
at the behest of the then Vice President of the Board of Trade, Mr
2720:
2677:
2655:. Corporations can even be convicted of criminal offences, such as
2473:
2449:
2422:
2406:
976:
931:
675:
4726:(1981) was held to include assets under 50% of the company's value
3033:
where the company is engaged in fraud or other criminal wrongdoing
2492:
is colloquially used interchangeably with corporate law, the term
2432:
While the minute nature of corporate governance as personified by
6326:
6274:
6254:
6202:
6014:
5932:
5748:
5710:
5658:
4792:
3955:(SE), which allows a company to operate across all member states.
3382:
3302:
3063:, and the extent of the objects are referred to as the company's
2816:
2716:
2712:
2414:
1913:
811:
153:
6426:
6279:
6024:
5915:
5910:
5856:
5527:
5257:
4766:
4280:. Some companies choose to incorporate in Delaware because the
4248:
3893:
2590:
2402:
1873:
1783:
1778:
1693:
4802:
Journal of Comparative Corporate Law and Securities Regulation
4645:. Temple University Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2019-01.
2811:
The law of business organizations originally derived from the
316:
Charitable incorporated organisation (England and Wales)
6367:
6311:
6217:
6058:
5861:
5360:
4188:
means getting loans, usually for the price of a fixed annual
4085:
4038:
3987:(AG). A private company with limited liability is known as a
3827:
3294:
3118:
2930:. The most common form of company used for business ventures.
1614:
776:
4205:. If a company is unable to pay its debts as they fall due,
3900:, some aspects of proposals made in the early stages of the
6249:
6197:
6053:
5451:
5367:
4193:
4169:
3700:
2629:
4284:
offers lower corporate taxes than many other states. Many
57:
5321:
5039:
Act Relative to Incorporations for Manufacturing Purposes
4808:. North-Holland Publishing Company: 75–88. Archived from
2398:
1848:
1220:
5010:"Why New Corporate Law Arises" by Robert B. Thompson in
4997:"Why New Corporate Law Arises" by Robert B. Thompson in
4276:
A majority of publicly traded companies in the U.S. are
3473:" company strategy. Corporate law is often divided into
3125:
is complex, and varies significantly between countries.
5181:"Choice of Entity for Startups Seeking Venture Capital"
4988:
in the Journal of Finance, Vol. LVII, No. 1 (Feb. 2002)
4621:
See the frustration expressed by the House of Lords in
3239:, dating from 7 November 1623, for the amount of 2,400
5290:
5283:
5278:
4501:
Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007
4096:, and where management was delegated to a centralised
3145:
Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007
4288:
prefer to invest in Delaware corporations. Also, the
3781:). Where a company goes into liquidation, normally a
3320:, although these are relatively uncommon outside the
2589:(in the UK governed by the Partnership Act 1890), or
5156:"4 Reasons Why Delaware Is Considered a Tax Shelter"
3761:. Liquidations generally come in two forms — either
2628:, and it is why the names of corporations end with "
4931:(Macmillan International Higher Education 2014), 77
3484:Directors also owe strict duties not to permit any
3481:(which concerns the rules on how capital is used).
2919:
a company limited by guarantee with a share capital
2564:delegates day-to-day management of the company to
4511:In England the first joint stock company was the
3563:membership interests because this is treated as "
6522:
3591:present irreconcilable differences in this area.
5198:Quillen, William T.; Hanrahan, Michael (1992).
5197:
4243:, or organized, under the laws of a particular
4184:by companies for purchase of their own shares.
4168:after a company earns profits and the right to
2750:"Jack and the Giant Joint-Stock", a cartoon in
2511:. When used as a substitute for corporate law,
2955:
324:Scottish charitable incorporated organisation
5306:
2554:", the shares are publicly listed and traded)
2367:
1718:
723:
5100:"Municipal Regulation of Formula Businesses"
4907:Corporate Finance Law: Principles and Policy
4889:Corporate Finance Law: Principles and Policy
4793:Hans-Joachim Mertens; Erich Schanze (1979).
4084:and court cases, the company is the primary
3988:
3980:
4901:
4899:
4897:
4515:, which received its charter in 1600. The
4254:Business entities may also be regulated by
4156:involves the traditional method of issuing
3948:
3727:
3650:
3433:The Modern Corporation and Private Property
3350:The Modern Corporation and Private Property
3195:
2651:, they can "die" when they lose money into
2484:interact with one another. Whilst the term
5313:
5299:
5200:"A Short History of the Court of Chancery"
4390:Securities regulation in the United States
4192:repayment. Sophisticated lenders, such as
4100:. An influential model within Europe, the
4049:lies at the heart of the United Kingdom's
3862:
3177:), as well as other stakeholders, such as
2374:
2360:
1725:
1711:
730:
716:
4180:, and indirectly through restrictions on
6458:History of the American legal profession
4894:
4795:"The German Codetermination Act OF 1976"
4420:
4418:
4416:
4024:
3339:
3226:
2745:
2676:
5178:
4836:(3rd Edn Sweet & Maxwell, 2013) 214
3741:
3647:in order to reduce their tax exposure.
3150:
2985:, particularly in relation to smaller,
2534:of the corporation (access to tort and
14:
6523:
5153:
5097:
4598:Principles of Corporate Insolvency Law
3047:
2794:
425:Limited liability limited partnership
340:Industrial and provident society
5294:
5279:The Delaware Journal of Corporate Law
4955:"Insider Trading | Investor.gov"
4413:
3991:Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung
3527:
3465:In most jurisdictions, directors owe
2981:Separate legal personality often has
2884:limited liability limited partnership
522:Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung
32:List of legal entity types by country
5130:"About the Division of Corporations"
5014:, University of Chicago Press, p. 16
5001:, University of Chicago Press, p. 18
4978:"The World Price of Insider Trading"
4891:(2nd Edn Hart Publishing, 2015) 5-41
4570:Macaura v. Northern Assurance Co Ltd
4365:List of companies named after people
3712:for the purchase of its own shares.
3608:
3002:Macaura v. Northern Assurance Co Ltd
5058:(Aspen 1986) 2, defines the modern
4636:
4600:(3rd Edn, Sweet & Maxwell 2013)
4444:(Aspen 1986) 2; H Hansmann et al.,
3335:
2711:were granted in Europe (notably in
2496:mostly refers to wider concepts of
27:Body of law that governs businesses
24:
5284:International Financial Law Review
4909:(2nd Edn Hart Publishing, 2015) 38
4861:Harlowe's Nominees Pty v. Woodside
4771:Securities and Exchange Commission
3995:(GmbH). A partnership is called a
3808:
3507:, a personal interest conflicting
3450:
3328:. Some jurisdictions consider the
3128:
3024:where the company is a mere façade
2898:mandate of business corporations.
1758:
25:
6562:
5442:Restitution and unjust enrichment
5221:
5134:Delaware Division of Corporations
4431:
4334:Delaware Journal of Corporate Law
4005:
2027:International Chamber of Commerce
1699:Business and economics portal
6489:
6488:
6474:
5256:
4282:Delaware General Corporation Law
4272:Delaware General Corporation Law
4218:
4017:This section is an excerpt from
3965:This section is an excerpt from
3925:This section is an excerpt from
3794:harmful to the public at large.
3779:creditors' voluntary liquidation
3248:Delaware General Corporation Law
2538:in a manner similar to a person)
1692:
567:Société à responsabilité limitée
56:
6453:History of the legal profession
5191:
5179:Feldman, Sandra (17 May 2017).
5172:
5147:
5122:
5104:Case Western Reserve Law Review
5091:
5065:
5045:
5017:
5004:
4991:
4971:
4947:
4942:Ebrahimi v Westbourne Galleries
4934:
4921:
4912:
4881:
4867:
4853:
4839:
4826:
4786:
4776:
4759:
4744:
4729:
4710:
4697:
4679:
4667:
4653:
4643:98 Boston University Law Review
4639:"Incorporating Social Activism"
4630:
4615:
4603:
4590:
4576:
4562:
4553:
3857:material non-public information
3216:
5025:Joint Stock Companies Act 1856
4539:
4522:
4505:
4493:
4483:
4470:
4451:
4231:Model Business Corporation Act
3715:
3509:or which possibly may conflict
2779:Joint Stock Companies Act 1856
2768:Joint Stock Companies Act 1844
2756:Joint Stock Companies Act 1844
2515:means the law relating to the
13:
1:
4406:
4041:financial centre. Within the
3881:capital market intermediaries
3547:
3499:stated in his judgment that,
3123:crimes committed by companies
3110:Royal British Bank v Turquand
3041:environmental protection laws
2839:Limited liability partnership
2560:under a board structure; the
1354:management information system
1005:Chief human resources officer
5247:Resources in other libraries
5098:Salkin, Patricia E. (2008).
4927:Janet Dine, Marios Koutsias
4864:(1968) 121 CLR 483 (Aust HC)
4584:Adams v. Cape Industries plc
4547:Salomon v. Salomon & Co.
4075:UK Corporate Governance Code
3908:
3012:Adams v. Cape Industries plc
2978:Salomon v. Salomon & Co.
2908:company limited by guarantee
2854:Company limited by guarantee
2788:Salomon v. Salomon & Co.
2649:certificate of incorporation
2103:Intellectual property rights
1348:Enterprise resource planning
1176:Financial statement analysis
449:Massachusetts business trust
7:
5154:Tarver, Evan (2015-09-25).
4295:
4265:
3467:strict duties of good faith
3254:(CA 2006); in Germany, the
2995:Fam 181 it was held that a
2962:Piercing the corporate veil
2956:Corporate legal personality
2632:" or some variant such as "
2522:
2085:Economic and monetary union
2007:International Monetary Fund
1944:Voluntary export restraints
636:Piercing the corporate veil
332:Community interest company
307:UK / Ireland / Commonwealth
295:Economic interest grouping
10:
6567:
6120:International legal theory
5599:International slavery laws
5594:International human rights
5589:International criminal law
5204:Delaware Court of Chancery
4534:Salmon v The Hamborough Co
4478:South African Constitution
4290:Delaware Court of Chancery
4269:
4228:
4222:
4059:United Kingdom company law
4019:United Kingdom company law
4016:
4009:
3964:
3959:
3924:
3917:
3812:
3745:
3731:
3654:
3618:
3612:
3551:
3454:
3220:
3165:and those who elect them (
3154:
3132:
3121:, but the law relating to
3051:
2959:
2849:Not-for-profit corporation
2804:
2798:
2772:Limited Liability Act 1855
2670:
2666:
2606:separate legal personality
2550:(if the corporation is a "
2532:Separate legal personality
2080:Customs and monetary union
2022:World Customs Organization
2012:International Trade Centre
405:Limited liability company
29:
6468:
6445:
6335:
6173:Administration of justice
6158:
6067:
5958:
5837:
5739:
5460:
5328:
5242:Resources in your library
4674:Shalfoon v Cheddar Valley
4480:Art.8, especially Art.(4)
4370:List of company registers
4196:typically contract for a
3913:
3283:articles of incorporation
3279:memorandum of association
3018:pierce the corporate veil
2927:company limited by shares
2880:limited liability company
2045:Preferential trading area
1010:Chief information officer
842:Limited liability company
616:Internal affairs doctrine
611:and estoppel corporations
5950:Basic structure doctrine
5800:Natural and legal rights
5681:Public international law
5187:. CT Corporation System.
5033:of 1807, as part of the
4834:Corporate Insolvency Law
4517:Dutch East India Company
4446:Anatomy of Corporate Law
4345:European Company Statute
4239:, most corporations are
4160:to build up a company's
3734:Mergers and acquisitions
3728:Mergers and acquisitions
3683:rights to any return of
3651:Shares and share capital
3373:, where §141(a) states,
3311:shareholders' agreements
3287:authorised share capital
3237:Dutch East India Company
3211:principal–agent problems
2807:Types of business entity
2326:Balassa–Samuelson effect
2321:Ricardian trade theories
2208:Largest consumer markets
2017:World Trade Organization
1023:Chief technology officer
957:Mergers and acquisitions
927:Constitutional documents
752:Management of a business
40:This article is part of
6130:Principle of typicality
5604:International trade law
5320:
4637:Lin, Tom C. W. (2018).
4610:Williams v Natural Life
4530:Edmunds v Brown Tillard
4313:Compliance (regulation)
4069:. Also governed by the
3888:with competitor funds.
3877:institutional investors
3863:Trends and developments
3767:creditors' liquidations
3763:compulsory liquidations
3291:articles of association
3250:(DGCL); in the UK, the
2983:unintended consequences
2673:History of corporations
2341:Lerner symmetry theorem
1083:Environmental economics
1063:International economics
1014:Chief marketing officer
1000:Chief financial officer
995:Chief operating officer
991:Chief executive officer
952:International trade law
746:Business administration
286:Societas unius personae
148:General corporate forms
5012:The Corporate Contract
4999:The Corporate Contract
4460:, 8th edition (2004),
4458:Black's Law Dictionary
4395:State-owned enterprise
4125:, to the exclusion of
4054:
3989:
3981:
3949:
3771:voluntary liquidations
3513:
3492:Aberdeen Ry v. Blaikie
3379:
3358:
3355:distribution of wealth
3326:offshore jurisdictions
3243:
3223:Corporate constitution
3196:
2952:throughout the world.
2869:Privately held company
2758:
2696:
2661:corporate manslaughter
2583:Black's Law Dictionary
2316:Gravity model of trade
2213:Leading trade partners
2118:Government procurement
1919:Exchange rate controls
1763:
1652:International business
1637:Business judgment rule
982:Chief business officer
882:Annual general meeting
862:State-owned enterprise
852:Privately held company
598:Business judgment rule
6125:Principle of legality
5884:Delegated legislation
5584:Intellectual property
4532:(1668) 1 Lev 237 and
4278:Delaware corporations
4258:and in some cases by
4201:directors engaged in
4176:requirements of full
4144:London Stock Exchange
4090:Industrial Revolution
4047:London Stock Exchange
4028:
3998:Kommanditgesellschaft
3775:members' liquidations
3630:Equity financing; and
3619:Further information:
3585:Macdougall v Gardiner
3501:
3495:(1854) 1 Macq HL 461
3375:
3343:
3230:
2913:insolvent liquidation
2805:Further information:
2749:
2680:
2296:Heckscher–Ohlin model
2291:Competitive advantage
2286:Comparative advantage
2173:Trade and development
1934:Countervailing duties
1762:
1328:Customer relationship
1264:Business intelligence
1226:Financial institution
1201:International finance
1151:Cash conversion cycle
1058:Development economics
1019:Chief product officer
767:Management accounting
542:Naamloze vennootschap
532:Kabushiki gaisha
349:Limited company
6343:Barristers' chambers
6285:Legal representation
6223:Justice of the peace
5569:Financial regulation
5265:at Wikimedia Commons
5079:. Cornell Law School
4691:delcode.delaware.gov
4182:financial assistance
4110:corporate governance
3933:European company law
3927:European company law
3898:Progressive Movement
3873:shareholder activism
3822:is the trading of a
3742:Corporate insolvency
3710:financial assistance
3640:financing structures
3486:conflict of interest
3475:corporate governance
3289:of the company. The
3256:Aktiengesetz (AktG)
3157:Corporate governance
3151:Corporate governance
3105:ostensible authority
2558:Delegated management
2517:business corporation
2505:corporate governance
2311:Intra-industry trade
2039:Economic integration
1989:Economic integration
1984:Economic nationalism
1269:Business development
1113:Economic development
875:Corporate governance
772:Financial accounting
666:Beneficial ownership
603:Corporate governance
439:Delaware corporation
266:Societas cooperativa
18:Company registration
6378:Election commission
6090:Expressive function
5619:Landlord–tenant law
5518:Consumer protection
4905:Gullifer and Payne
4887:Gullifer and Payne
4536:(1671) 1 Ch Cas 204
4340:Enterprise Act 2002
4286:venture capitalists
4071:Insolvency Act 1986
3663:corporate structure
3589:Pender v Lushington
3438:ein wichtiger Grund
3135:Corporate liability
3048:Capacity and powers
2896:profit maximization
2864:Sole proprietorship
2844:Limited partnership
2795:Corporate structure
2735:in England and the
2725:Joint stock company
2690:Edward Matthew Ward
2599:sub-national states
2548:Transferable shares
1939:Anti-dumping duties
1879:Non-tariff barriers
1824:Import substitution
1679:Business statistics
1662:International trade
1647:Business operations
1343:Electronic business
1248:Types of management
1136:Financial statement
1118:Economic statistics
986:Chief brand officer
942:Corporate liability
857:Sole proprietorship
837:Joint-stock company
681:Corporate registers
641:Rochdale Principles
395:Benefit corporation
221:Sole proprietorship
6336:Legal institutions
6203:Lawsuit/Litigation
6193:Dispute resolution
5998:Catholic canon law
5706:State of emergency
5669:Will and testament
5393:Law of obligations
5346:Constitutional law
5336:Administrative law
4982:Utpal Bhattacharya
4664:(1885) 30 Ch D 376
4624:Cotman v. Brougham
4513:East India Company
4400:Types of companies
4385:Race to the bottom
4375:Public service law
4118:board of directors
4098:board of directors
4067:Companies Act 2006
4055:
4012:Companies Act 2006
3983:Aktiengesellschaft
3977:Gesellschaftsrecht
3973:German company law
3967:German company law
3937:European Union law
3773:(sometimes called
3765:(sometimes called
3528:Company law theory
3457:Board of directors
3408:HolzmĂĽller-Doktrin
3363:board of directors
3359:
3264:board of directors
3252:Companies Act 2006
3244:
3207:management science
3163:board of directors
3097:board of directors
3006:his claim failed.
2971:until 1895 by the
2759:
2697:
2618:board of directors
2562:board of directors
2306:Economic geography
2113:Competition policy
1909:Technical barriers
1889:Tariff-rate quotas
1834:Trade facilitation
1819:Export orientation
1764:
1642:Consumer behaviour
1444:Product life-cycle
1231:Capital management
1196:Managerial finance
887:Board of directors
482:Aktiengesellschaft
454:Nevada corporation
6551:Law and economics
6518:
6517:
6178:Constitutionalism
6100:Law and economics
5938:Act of parliament
5676:Product liability
5629:Legal archaeology
5554:Environmental law
5548:Entertainment law
5388:International law
5261:Media related to
5228:Library resources
4918:Salomon v Salomon
4878:(1843) 2 Hare 461
4738:Bundesgerichtshof
4661:Ashbury v. Watson
4380:Quasi corporation
4207:UK insolvency law
4198:security interest
4114:corporate finance
4065:formed under the
3951:Societas Europaea
3869:hostile takeovers
3615:Corporate finance
3609:Corporate finance
3601:derivative action
3538:limited liability
3479:corporate finance
3461:Directors' duties
3198:Societas Europaea
3090:corporate benefit
3054:Corporate benefit
2936:unlimited company
2834:Unlimited company
2737:Tulip Bulb Bubble
2626:limited liability
2542:Limited liability
2405:, relations, and
2397:) is the body of
2384:
2383:
2331:Linder hypothesis
2143:Emissions trading
1735:
1734:
1622:Business analysis
1191:Corporate finance
1161:Capital budgeting
1098:Knowledge economy
892:Supervisory board
740:
739:
621:Limited liability
583:
582:
492:Ansvarlig selskap
379:Unlimited company
216:Shelf corporation
211:Shell corporation
199:Limited liability
16:(Redirected from
6558:
6493:
6492:
6491:
6479:
6478:
6302:Question of fact
6183:Criminal justice
5513:Construction law
5508:Conflict of laws
5473:Agricultural law
5315:
5308:
5301:
5292:
5291:
5260:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5210:
5195:
5189:
5188:
5176:
5170:
5169:
5167:
5166:
5151:
5145:
5144:
5142:
5140:
5126:
5120:
5119:
5117:
5115:
5095:
5089:
5088:
5086:
5084:
5069:
5063:
5049:
5043:
5030:Code de Commerce
5021:
5015:
5008:
5002:
4995:
4989:
4975:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4965:
4959:www.investor.gov
4951:
4945:
4940:In England, see
4938:
4932:
4925:
4919:
4916:
4910:
4903:
4892:
4885:
4879:
4875:Foss v Harbottle
4871:
4865:
4857:
4851:
4843:
4837:
4830:
4824:
4823:
4821:
4820:
4814:
4799:
4790:
4784:
4780:
4774:
4763:
4757:
4753:Bushell v. Faith
4748:
4742:
4733:
4727:
4714:
4708:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4683:
4677:
4671:
4665:
4657:
4651:
4650:
4649:. Rochester, NY.
4634:
4628:
4619:
4613:
4607:
4601:
4594:
4588:
4580:
4574:
4566:
4560:
4557:
4551:
4543:
4537:
4528:In England, see
4526:
4520:
4509:
4503:
4497:
4491:
4487:
4481:
4474:
4468:
4455:
4449:
4435:
4429:
4422:
4328:Corporation sole
4262:and ordinances.
4225:US corporate law
4203:wrongful trading
3994:
3986:
3954:
3558:Unfair prejudice
3445:co-determination
3416:Great Depression
3336:Balance of power
3268:general meetings
3201:
3082:corporate powers
2987:family companies
2733:South Sea Bubble
2686:South Sea Bubble
2442:business culture
2376:
2369:
2362:
2336:Leontief paradox
2301:New trade theory
1904:Export subsidies
1789:Balance of trade
1737:
1736:
1727:
1720:
1713:
1697:
1696:
1674:Business process
1216:Financial market
1053:Labour economics
1048:Public economics
807:Corporation sole
742:
741:
732:
725:
718:
686:Registered agent
631:Drag-along right
571:
556:
546:
536:
526:
516:
506:
496:
486:
476:
445:
428:
408:
352:
343:
335:
327:
319:
308:
298:
290:
280:
276:Societas privata
270:
260:
241:
240:
60:
37:
36:
21:
6566:
6565:
6561:
6560:
6559:
6557:
6556:
6555:
6521:
6520:
6519:
6514:
6487:
6473:
6464:
6441:
6432:Political party
6405:Legal education
6393:Law enforcement
6373:Court of equity
6331:
6307:Question of law
6260:Practice of law
6240:Judicial review
6154:
6105:Legal formalism
6085:Comparative law
6080:Contract theory
6063:
5983:Legal pluralism
5954:
5943:Act of Congress
5867:Executive order
5833:
5735:
5654:Nationality law
5579:Immigration law
5503:Competition law
5456:
5324:
5319:
5253:
5252:
5251:
5236:
5235:
5231:
5224:
5219:
5218:
5208:
5206:
5196:
5192:
5177:
5173:
5164:
5162:
5152:
5148:
5138:
5136:
5128:
5127:
5123:
5113:
5111:
5096:
5092:
5082:
5080:
5071:
5070:
5066:
5050:
5046:
5035:Napoleonic Code
5022:
5018:
5009:
5005:
4996:
4992:
4976:
4972:
4963:
4961:
4953:
4952:
4948:
4939:
4935:
4926:
4922:
4917:
4913:
4904:
4895:
4886:
4882:
4872:
4868:
4858:
4854:
4844:
4840:
4831:
4827:
4818:
4816:
4812:
4797:
4791:
4787:
4781:
4777:
4764:
4760:
4749:
4745:
4734:
4730:
4723:Katz v. Bregman
4715:
4711:
4702:
4698:
4685:
4684:
4680:
4672:
4668:
4658:
4654:
4635:
4631:
4620:
4616:
4608:
4604:
4595:
4591:
4581:
4577:
4567:
4563:
4558:
4554:
4544:
4540:
4527:
4523:
4510:
4506:
4498:
4494:
4488:
4484:
4475:
4471:
4456:
4452:
4436:
4432:
4423:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4323:Corporate crime
4308:Competition law
4303:Business ethics
4298:
4274:
4268:
4233:
4227:
4221:
4216:
4215:
4131:general meeting
4022:
4014:
4008:
4003:
4002:
3970:
3962:
3957:
3956:
3935:is the part of
3930:
3922:
3920:Societas Europa
3916:
3911:
3865:
3820:Insider trading
3817:
3815:Insider dealing
3811:
3809:Insider dealing
3750:
3744:
3736:
3730:
3718:
3659:
3653:
3645:preferred stock
3623:
3617:
3611:
3565:reflective loss
3560:
3554:Derivative suit
3552:Main articles:
3550:
3530:
3512:
3463:
3455:Main articles:
3453:
3451:Director duties
3443:Countries with
3338:
3225:
3219:
3171:general meeting
3159:
3153:
3141:
3139:Corporate crime
3133:Main articles:
3131:
3129:Corporate crime
3056:
3050:
2997:discovery order
2964:
2958:
2829:Limited company
2809:
2803:
2797:
2675:
2669:
2657:corporate fraud
2595:sovereign state
2525:
2434:share ownership
2389:(also known as
2380:
2351:
2350:
2281:
2273:
2272:
2228:
2218:
2217:
2188:
2178:
2177:
2148:Trade sanctions
2098:
2090:
2089:
2050:Free-trade area
2040:
2032:
2031:
2002:
1994:
1993:
1959:
1949:
1948:
1894:Import licenses
1864:
1854:
1853:
1814:Trade diversion
1774:
1731:
1691:
1684:
1683:
1627:Business ethics
1617:
1607:
1606:
1547:
1539:
1538:
1249:
1241:
1240:
1236:Venture capital
1166:Commercial bank
1156:Insider dealing
1131:
1123:
1122:
1073:Planned economy
1038:
1028:
1027:
972:
970:Corporate title
962:
961:
937:Corporate crime
917:
907:
906:
902:Audit committee
877:
867:
866:
822:Holding company
802:Corporate group
797:
790:Business entity
782:
781:
762:
736:
691:
690:
671:Civil procedure
661:
653:
652:
626:Tag-along right
593:
585:
584:
569:
554:
544:
534:
524:
514:
504:
494:
484:
474:
443:statutory trust
437:
426:
406:
350:
347:
341:
333:
325:
317:
306:
296:
288:
278:
268:
258:
238:
236:by jurisdiction
235:
234:Corporate forms
226:
225:
206:Private limited
174:Holding company
149:
141:
140:
122:
68:
67:By jurisdiction
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6564:
6554:
6553:
6548:
6543:
6538:
6536:Legal entities
6533:
6516:
6515:
6513:
6512:
6505:
6498:
6484:
6481:Law portal
6469:
6466:
6465:
6463:
6462:
6461:
6460:
6449:
6447:
6443:
6442:
6440:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
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6413:
6412:
6402:
6401:
6400:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6339:
6337:
6333:
6332:
6330:
6329:
6324:
6319:
6317:Trial advocacy
6314:
6309:
6304:
6299:
6298:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6282:
6277:
6272:
6267:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6232:
6231:
6230:
6225:
6215:
6210:
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6190:
6185:
6180:
6175:
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6017:
6012:
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6000:
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5970:
5964:
5962:
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5955:
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5947:
5946:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5925:
5924:
5923:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5897:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5876:
5875:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5854:
5849:
5847:Ballot measure
5843:
5841:
5835:
5834:
5832:
5831:
5826:
5824:Legal treatise
5821:
5820:
5819:
5814:
5804:
5803:
5802:
5792:
5790:Letters patent
5787:
5782:
5781:
5780:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5751:
5745:
5743:
5741:Sources of law
5737:
5736:
5734:
5733:
5728:
5726:Unenforced law
5723:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5688:
5683:
5678:
5673:
5672:
5671:
5666:
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5646:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5616:
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5606:
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5591:
5586:
5581:
5576:
5571:
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5561:
5556:
5551:
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3748:Insolvency law
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3722:corporate form
3717:
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3697:equity capital
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6044:Socialist law
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6037:Byzantine law
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5758:Statutory law
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5716:Transport law
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5564:Financial law
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5523:Corporate law
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5447:Statutory law
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5329:Core subjects
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5263:Corporate law
5259:
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5245:
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5233:Corporate law
5229:
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5186:
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5131:
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5078:
5074:
5068:
5061:
5057:
5056:Corporate Law
5053:
5048:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5031:
5027:. The French
5026:
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5013:
5007:
5000:
4994:
4987:
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4862:
4856:
4849:
4848:
4842:
4835:
4829:
4815:on 2021-03-07
4811:
4807:
4803:
4796:
4789:
4783:instructions.
4779:
4772:
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4755:
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4490:corporations.
4486:
4479:
4473:
4467:
4466:0-314-15199-0
4463:
4459:
4454:
4447:
4443:
4442:Corporate Law
4439:
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4350:Financial law
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4211:administrator
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4148:Takeover Code
4145:
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4128:
4124:
4119:
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3945:member states
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3840:stock options
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3673:voting rights
3672:
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3657:Share capital
3648:
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3621:Financial law
3616:
3603:
3602:
3597:
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3578:
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3573:majority rule
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3322:United States
3319:
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3317:voting trusts
3313:
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3306:
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3300:
3296:
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3288:
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2950:jurisdictions
2943:
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2892:credit unions
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2728:
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2722:
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2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2684:image of the
2683:
2679:
2674:
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2658:
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2639:
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2546:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2520:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2509:financial law
2506:
2502:
2500:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
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2451:
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2439:
2435:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2419:organizations
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2387:Corporate law
2377:
2372:
2370:
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2256:
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2243:United States
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2233:Trade mission
2231:
2230:
2227:
2222:
2221:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
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2159:
2157:
2154:
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2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2138:Trade justice
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2128:Globalization
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
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2100:
2094:
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2086:
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2081:
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2073:
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2065:Single market
2063:
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2060:Customs union
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2001:Organizations
1998:
1997:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1974:Laissez-faire
1972:
1970:
1969:Protectionism
1967:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1958:
1953:
1952:
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1937:
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1907:
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1897:
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1884:Import quotas
1882:
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1858:
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1829:Trade finance
1827:
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1632:Business plan
1630:
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1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1562:Communication
1560:
1558:
1555:
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1550:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1522:administrator
1520:
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1510:
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1427:
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1414:
1412:
1409:
1405:
1404:administrator
1402:
1401:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
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1377:
1373:
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1339:
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1329:
1326:
1324:
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1316:
1314:
1313:Configuration
1311:
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1306:
1302:
1299:
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1227:
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1214:
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1202:
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1197:
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1189:
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1111:
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1094:
1091:
1089:
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1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1068:Mixed economy
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1040:
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1020:
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1003:
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983:
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948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
919:
916:
915:Corporate law
911:
910:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
879:
876:
871:
870:
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835:
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828:
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823:
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815:
813:
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697:
696:
695:
694:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
663:
660:Related areas
657:
656:
649:
648:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
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489:
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483:
479:
477:
472:
468:
467:
466:
465:
461:
460:
455:
452:
450:
447:
444:
440:
436:
434:
433:S corporation
431:
429:
423:
421:
418:
414:
411:
410:
409:
403:
401:
400:C corporation
398:
396:
393:
392:
391:
390:
387:United States
386:
385:
380:
377:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
354:
353:
346:
344:
338:
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328:
322:
320:
314:
313:
312:
311:
305:
304:
299:
293:
291:
287:
283:
281:
277:
273:
271:
267:
263:
261:
256:
252:
251:
250:
249:
246:
243:
242:
237:
230:
229:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
204:
200:
197:
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192:
190:
187:
186:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
151:
145:
144:
135:
132:
130:
127:
126:
125:
121:
119:
116:
114:
113:United States
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
70:
64:
63:
59:
55:
54:
51:
50:Corporate law
48:
47:
43:
39:
38:
33:
19:
6546:Business law
6507:
6500:
6486:
6472:
6245:Jurisdiction
6213:Legal remedy
6168:Adjudication
6068:Legal theory
5906:Ratification
5901:Promulgation
5872:Proclamation
5852:Codification
5785:Human rights
5773:Divine right
5763:Constitution
5731:Women in law
5649:Military law
5644:Marriage law
5639:Maritime law
5538:Election law
5522:
5478:Aviation law
5468:Abortion law
5420:Property law
5356:Criminal law
5232:
5207:. Retrieved
5203:
5193:
5184:
5174:
5163:. Retrieved
5160:Investopedia
5159:
5149:
5137:. Retrieved
5133:
5124:
5112:. Retrieved
5107:
5103:
5093:
5081:. Retrieved
5076:
5067:
5059:
5055:
5047:
5028:
5019:
5011:
5006:
4998:
4993:
4973:
4962:. Retrieved
4958:
4949:
4941:
4936:
4928:
4923:
4914:
4906:
4888:
4883:
4873:
4869:
4859:
4855:
4845:
4841:
4833:
4828:
4817:. Retrieved
4810:the original
4805:
4801:
4788:
4778:
4761:
4751:
4746:
4736:
4731:
4721:
4717:
4712:
4705:Listing Rule
4699:
4690:
4681:
4673:
4669:
4659:
4655:
4646:
4642:
4632:
4622:
4617:
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4605:
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4592:
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4555:
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4533:
4529:
4524:
4507:
4495:
4485:
4472:
4453:
4445:
4441:
4433:
4425:
4332:
4318:Consumer law
4275:
4256:federal laws
4253:
4241:incorporated
4234:
4209:requires an
4186:Debt finance
4123:shareholders
4107:
4102:Commonwealth
4063:corporations
4056:
4051:corporations
4031:River Thames
3996:
3976:
3890:
3885:mutual funds
3866:
3853:
3819:
3818:
3803:
3796:
3788:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3751:
3737:
3719:
3696:
3693:
3660:
3636:
3624:
3599:
3595:
3588:
3584:
3572:
3569:
3561:
3533:Ronald Coase
3531:
3518:
3514:
3508:
3504:
3490:
3483:
3464:
3442:
3437:
3431:
3413:
3406:
3390:
3380:
3376:
3368:
3360:
3348:
3330:company seal
3324:and certain
3315:
3309:
3307:
3276:
3245:
3217:Constitution
3204:
3167:shareholders
3160:
3116:
3108:
3101:
3094:
3086:
3081:
3079:
3068:
3060:
3057:
3010:
3008:
3000:
2990:
2976:
2965:
2947:
2933:
2924:
2918:
2905:
2900:
2888:cooperatives
2873:
2810:
2786:
2776:
2760:
2751:
2729:
2701:Ancient Rome
2698:
2694:Tate Gallery
2645:human rights
2642:
2603:
2587:partnerships
2575:
2571:
2536:contract law
2526:
2516:
2513:business law
2512:
2497:
2494:business law
2493:
2490:business law
2489:
2485:
2470:stakeholders
2468:, and other
2454:shareholders
2446:corporations
2431:
2427:corporations
2394:
2390:
2386:
2385:
2156:Currency war
2075:Fiscal union
1964:Mercantilism
1862:Restrictions
1740:
1552:Architecture
1546:Organization
1512:Supply chain
1338:Earned value
1211:Stock market
1088:Open economy
1078:Econometrics
914:
817:Conglomerate
645:
608:
566:
551:
541:
531:
521:
512:Aksjeselskap
511:
502:Aktieselskab
501:
491:
481:
470:
357:by guarantee
285:
275:
265:
254:
159:Conglomerate
103:South Africa
49:
6541:English law
6417:Legislature
6348:Bureaucracy
6145:Rule of man
6140:Rule of law
6115:Libertarian
5978:Chinese law
5879:Legislation
5829:Regulations
5817:Law reports
5795:Natural law
5691:Reparations
5686:Refugee law
5609:Jurimetrics
5550:(Media law)
5488:Banking law
5483:Amnesty law
5461:Disciplines
5398:Private law
4986:Hazem Daouk
4929:Company Law
4043:Square Mile
4029:Beside the
3824:corporation
3759:dissolution
3716:Dissolution
3505:or can have
3471:codetermine
3424:Adolf Berle
3345:Adolf Berle
3187:environment
3070:ultra vires
2969:English law
2942:liquidation
2859:Partnership
2824:Corporation
2801:Corporation
2783:Robert Lowe
2578:corporation
2482:environment
2391:company law
2161:Trade costs
2123:Outsourcing
1839:Trade route
1752:World trade
1667:Trade route
1582:Engineering
1577:Development
1429:Performance
1372:development
1333:Distributed
1206:Liquidation
847:Partnership
832:Corporation
827:Cooperative
647:Ultra vires
367:proprietary
184:Partnership
179:Joint-stock
169:Corporation
164:Cooperative
6525:Categories
6410:Law school
6290:Prosecutor
6228:Magistrate
6015:Jewish law
5973:Common law
5894:Rulemaking
5889:Regulation
5839:Law making
5778:Divine law
5754:Legal code
5701:Sports law
5624:Law of war
5574:Health law
5559:Family law
5543:Energy law
5493:Bankruptcy
5430:Punishment
5425:Public law
5165:2017-08-19
4964:2023-03-26
4819:2012-08-12
4703:See also,
4407:References
4360:Labour law
4260:local laws
4229:See also:
4178:disclosure
4174:prospectus
4139:good faith
4094:insolvency
4082:Directives
4061:regulates
4010:See also:
3918:See also:
3832:securities
3783:liquidator
3755:winding up
3676:rights to
3548:Litigation
3542:agency law
3522:bankruptcy
3422:scholars,
3393:). In the
3391:ĂĽberwachen
3052:See also:
2813:common law
2763:Bubble Act
2727:was born.
2682:Hogarthian
2653:insolvency
2566:executives
2480:, and the
2423:businesses
2226:By country
2133:Fair trade
1979:Free trade
1929:Safeguards
1804:Trade bloc
1799:Trade pact
1534:Technology
1416:Operations
1296:Commercial
1289:innovation
1279:Capability
1171:Derivative
760:Accounting
704:Law portal
552:Osakeyhtiö
471:Aktiebolag
420:Series LLC
6388:Judiciary
6383:Executive
6358:The bench
6295:Solicitor
6270:Barrister
6150:Sociology
6135:Pseudolaw
6075:Anarchist
6032:Roman law
6020:Parsi law
6005:Hindu law
5993:Canon law
5968:Civil law
5921:Concordat
5812:Precedent
5721:Trust law
5696:Space law
5533:Drugs law
5403:Procedure
5341:Civil law
5110:(4): 1251
4612:1 WLR 830
4166:dividends
4127:employees
3909:By region
3848:fiduciary
3830:or other
3799:insolvent
3791:creditors
3705:insurance
3678:dividends
3299:civil law
3191:community
3183:consumers
3179:creditors
3175:employees
2876:Australia
2752:Town Talk
2622:executive
2614:unlimited
2597:or their
2478:community
2474:consumers
2466:creditors
2462:employees
2458:directors
2450:investors
2415:companies
2248:Argentina
2166:Trade war
2108:Smuggling
1794:Trade law
1602:Structure
1587:Hierarchy
1507:Strategic
1394:Materials
1384:Knowledge
1361:Financial
1301:Marketing
1146:Factoring
1141:Insurance
1043:Commodity
1036:Economics
592:Doctrines
362:by shares
78:Australia
6495:Category
6437:Tribunal
6422:Military
6265:Attorney
6235:Judgment
6095:Feminist
6010:Jain law
5807:Case law
5528:Cyberlaw
5435:Corporal
5413:Criminal
5383:Evidence
5373:Doctrine
5351:Contract
5052:RC Clark
4676:NZLR 561
4438:RC Clark
4296:See also
4266:Delaware
4190:interest
3902:New Deal
3844:material
3667:warrants
3258:and the
3189:and the
3169:in the "
3065:capacity
2721:monopoly
2523:Overview
2472:such as
2253:Pakistan
1743:a series
1741:Part of
1592:Patterns
1572:Conflict
1557:Behavior
1497:Security
1474:Resource
1459:Property
1422:services
1379:Incident
1318:Conflict
1274:Capacity
977:Chairman
932:Contract
676:Contract
609:De facto
441: /
255:Societas
73:Anguilla
42:a series
6509:Outline
6446:History
6353:The bar
6327:Verdict
6275:Counsel
6255:Justice
6110:History
5933:Statute
5749:Charter
5711:Tax law
5659:Probate
5209:3 April
5139:3 April
5114:3 April
5083:3 April
4767:cartels
4235:In the
4162:capital
3960:Germany
3834:(e.g.,
3701:banking
3685:capital
3420:Harvard
3403:CA 2006
3383:Germany
3303:charter
3295:by-laws
3241:florins
3061:objects
2817:England
2739:in the
2717:Holland
2713:England
2667:History
2610:limited
2608:, with
2486:company
2411:persons
2407:conduct
2263:Vietnam
2258:Romania
2203:Tariffs
2198:Exports
2193:Imports
1957:History
1924:Embargo
1914:Bribery
1874:Tariffs
1567:Culture
1517:Systems
1502:Service
1481:
1469:Records
1464:Quality
1454:Project
1449:Product
1439:Process
1418:
1399:Network
1368:
1350:
1323:Content
1130:Finance
812:Company
576:more...
194:Limited
189:General
154:Company
134:Germany
118:Vietnam
6427:Police
6398:Agency
6280:Lawyer
6025:Sharia
5916:Treaty
5911:Repeal
5857:Decree
5768:Custom
5664:Estate
5614:Labour
5378:Equity
5230:about
5060:public
4944:AC 360
4850:Ch 258
4832:Goode
4718:Gimbel
4627:AC 514
4596:Goode
4587:Ch 433
4573:AC 619
4550:AC 22.
4464:
4249:lawyer
4158:shares
4135:duties
4073:, the
4045:, the
4039:global
4033:, the
3914:Europe
3894:bylaws
3769:) and
3430:wrote
3418:, two
3385:, §76
3185:, the
3173:" and
2992:B v. B
2636:" or "
2591:trusts
2476:, the
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2403:rights
2280:Theory
2097:Issues
1784:Export
1779:Import
1772:Policy
1529:Talent
1485:crisis
1411:Office
1284:Change
570:(SARL)
545:(N.V.)
535:(K.K.)
525:(GmbH)
473:
462:Others
427:(LLLP)
372:public
351:(Ltd.)
326:(SCIO)
297:(EEIG)
257:
129:France
88:Canada
6502:Index
6368:Court
6312:Trial
6218:Judge
6059:Yassa
5862:Edict
5408:Civil
5361:Crime
4813:(PDF)
4798:(PDF)
4750:c.f.
4499:e.g.
4476:e.g.
4245:state
4194:banks
4086:legal
4037:is a
4001:(KG).
3836:bonds
3828:stock
3119:torts
2989:. In
2688:, by
2268:India
2186:Lists
1615:Trade
1597:Space
1492:Sales
1434:Power
1389:Legal
1259:Brand
1254:Asset
777:Audit
505:(A/S)
495:(ANS)
407:(LLC)
342:(IPS)
334:(CIC)
318:(CIO)
289:(SUP)
279:(SPE)
269:(SCE)
98:India
6250:Jury
6198:Fiqh
6054:Xeer
5452:Tort
5368:Deed
5211:2018
5141:2018
5116:2018
5085:2018
5042:law.
5023:See
4984:and
4735:The
4647:1535
4462:ISBN
4170:vote
4112:and
4057:The
3879:and
3587:and
3556:and
3459:and
3426:and
3387:AktG
3371:DGCL
3293:(or
3281:(or
3233:bond
3137:and
3075:void
3073:and
2715:and
2703:and
2659:and
2634:Inc.
2630:Ltd.
2421:and
2152:War
1479:Risk
794:list
561:S.A.
555:(Oy)
515:(AS)
485:(AG)
475:(AB)
259:(SE)
5322:Law
5077:Wex
4980:by
3838:or
3826:'s
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3598:or
3381:In
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