1721:. Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to splash boards with etchant; the process has become commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching rates and high production rates. As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated and less effective; different etchants have different capacities for copper, with some as high as 150 grams of copper per liter of solution. In commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the dissolved copper recovered and sold. Small-scale etching requires attention to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive and toxic due to its metal content. The etchant removes copper on all surfaces not protected by the resist. "Undercut" occurs when etchant attacks the thin edge of copper under the resist; this can reduce conductor widths and cause open-circuits. Careful control of etch time is required to prevent undercut. Where metallic plating is used as a resist, it can "overhang" which can cause short-circuits between adjacent traces when closely spaced. Overhang can be removed by wire-brushing the board after etching.
1802:
2430:, where short traces were important. In cordwood construction, axial-leaded components were mounted between two parallel planes. The name comes from the way axial-lead components (capacitors, resistors, coils, and diodes) are stacked in parallel rows and columns, like a stack of firewood. The components were either soldered together with jumper wire or they were connected to other components by thin nickel ribbon welded at right angles onto the component leads. To avoid shorting together different interconnection layers, thin insulating cards were placed between them. Perforations or holes in the cards allowed component leads to project through to the next interconnection layer. One disadvantage of this system was that special
609:
2434:-leaded components had to be used to allow reliable interconnecting welds to be made. Differential thermal expansion of the component could put pressure on the leads of the components and the PCB traces and cause mechanical damage (as was seen in several modules on the Apollo program). Additionally, components located in the interior are difficult to replace. Some versions of cordwood construction used soldered single-sided PCBs as the interconnection method (as pictured), allowing the use of normal-leaded components at the cost of being difficult to remove the boards or replace any component that is not at the edge.
1394:
2031:). A photo-sensitive coating is applied to the surface of the PWB, then exposed to light through the solder mask image film, and finally developed where the unexposed areas are washed away. Dry film solder mask is similar to the dry film used to image the PWB for plating or etching. After being laminated to the PWB surface it is imaged and developed as LPI. Once but no longer commonly used, because of its low accuracy and resolution, is to screen print epoxy ink. In addition to repelling solder, solder resist also provides protection from the environment to the copper that would otherwise be exposed.
2328:. Improper handling techniques might transmit an accumulated static charge through the board, damaging or destroying components. The damage might not immediately affect function but might lead to early failure later on, cause intermittent operating faults, or cause a narrowing of the range of environmental and electrical conditions under which the board functions properly. Even bare boards are sometimes static sensitive: traces have become so fine that it is possible to blow a trace (or change its characteristics) with a static discharge. This is especially true on non-traditional PCBs such as
672:
smaller and component placement on both sides of the board became more common than with through-hole mounting, allowing much smaller PCB assemblies with much higher circuit densities. Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labor costs and greatly increasing production rates compared with through-hole circuit boards. Components can be supplied mounted on carrier tapes. Surface mount components can be about one-quarter to one-tenth of the size and weight of through-hole components, and passive components much cheaper. However, prices of semiconductor
378:
multi-layer HDI PCBs the interconnection of several vias stacked on top of each other (stacked vías, instead of one deep buried via) can be made stronger, thus enhancing reliability in all conditions. The most common applications for HDI technology are computer and mobile phone components as well as medical equipment and military communication equipment. A 4-layer HDI microvia PCB is equivalent in quality to an 8-layer through-hole PCB, so HDI technology can reduce costs. HDI PCBs are often made using build-up film such as ajinomoto build-up film, which is also used in the production of
61:
1684:
1692:
1700:
2196:
be desired to take advantage of the size, weight, and cost reductions obtainable by using some available surface-mount devices. Another reason to use both methods is that through-hole mounting can provide needed strength for components likely to endure physical stress (such as connectors that are frequently mated and demated or that connect to cables expected to impart substantial stress to the PCB-and-connector interface), while components that are expected to go untouched will take up less space using surface-mount techniques.
2016:
235:
597:
1773:
2473:
572:
6776:
584:
2399:
6786:
2615:
2346:
1343:
391:
6796:
2008:
1912:. The de-smear process ensures that a good connection is made to the copper layers when the hole is plated through. On high reliability boards a process called etch-back is performed chemically with a potassium permanganate based etchant or plasma etching. The etch-back removes resin and the glass fibers so that the copper layers extend into the hole and as the hole is plated become integral with the deposited copper.
4283:
1139:
2407:
69:
2121:
620:"Through hole" components are mounted by their wire leads passing through the board and soldered to traces on the other side. "Surface mount" components are attached by their leads to copper traces on the same side of the board. A board may use both methods for mounting components. PCBs with only through-hole mounted components are now uncommon. Surface mounting is used for
1027:(IMS), clad with thermally conductive thin dielectric - used for parts requiring significant cooling - power switches, LEDs. Consists of usually single, sometimes double layer thin circuit board based on e.g. FR-4, laminated on aluminum sheet metal, commonly 0.8, 1, 1.5, 2 or 3 mm thick. The thicker laminates sometimes also come with thicker copper metalization.
4003:
1733:
the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief etching step removes the now-exposed bare original copper laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces. Some single-sided boards which have plated-through holes are made in this way.
2546:
replaces it. This shift is economically efficient from a manufacturer's point of view but is also materially wasteful, as a circuit board with hundreds of functional components may be discarded and replaced due to the failure of one minor and inexpensive part, such as a resistor or capacitor. This practice is a significant contributor to the problem of
1729:
which removes the unexposed film). The exposed areas are sensitized in a chemical bath, usually containing palladium and similar to that used for through hole plating which makes the exposed area capable of bonding metal ions. The laminate is then plated with copper in the sensitized areas. When the mask is stripped, the PCB is finished.
652:
leads (such as resistors, capacitors, and diodes) is done by bending the leads 90 degrees in the same direction, inserting the part in the board (often bending leads located on the back of the board in opposite directions to improve the part's mechanical strength), soldering the leads, and trimming off the ends. Leads may be
2943:
2195:
Often, through-hole and surface-mount construction must be combined in a single assembly because some required components are available only in surface-mount packages, while others are available only in through-hole packages. Or, even if all components are available in through-hole packages, it might
554:
In multi-layer boards, the layers of material are laminated together in an alternating sandwich: copper, substrate, copper, substrate, copper, etc.; each plane of copper is etched, and any internal vias (that will not extend to both outer surfaces of the finished multilayer board) are plated-through,
542:
A printed circuit board can have multiple layers of copper which almost always are arranged in pairs. The number of layers and the interconnection designed between them (vias, PTHs) provide a general estimate of the board complexity. Using more layers allow for more routing options and better control
2266:
In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated into various ICs on the board form temporary connections between the PCB traces to test that the ICs are mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all the ICs to be tested use a standard test configuration procedure, the most common one
2155:
on the surfaces of the PCB; solder paste, which was previously applied to the pads, holds the components in place temporarily; if surface-mount components are applied to both sides of the board, the bottom-side components are glued to the board. In both through hole and surface mount, the components
1788:
Multi-layer printed circuit boards have trace layers inside the board. This is achieved by laminating a stack of materials in a press by applying pressure and heat for a period of time. This results in an inseparable one piece product. For example, a four-layer PCB can be fabricated by starting from
1567:
uses a photomask and developer to selectively remove a UV-sensitive photoresist coating and thus create a photoresist mask that will protect the copper below it. Direct imaging techniques are sometimes used for high-resolution requirements. Experiments have been made with thermal resist. A laser may
1310:
1/2 oz/ft foil is not widely used as a finished copper weight, but is used for outer layers when plating for through holes will increase the finished copper weight Some PCB manufacturers refer to 1 oz/ft copper foil as having a thickness of 35 μm (may also be referred to as 35 μ,
309:
Even as circuit boards became available, the point-to-point chassis construction method remained in common use in industry (such as TV and hi-fi sets) into at least the late 1960s. Printed circuit boards were introduced to reduce the size, weight, and cost of parts of the circuitry. In 1960, a small
1545:
The first step is to replicate the pattern in the fabricator's CAM system on a protective mask on the copper foil PCB layers. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper unprotected by the mask. (Alternatively, a conductive ink can be ink-jetted on a blank (non-conductive) board. This technique
1536:
The panel is eventually broken into individual PCBs along perforations or grooves in the panel through milling or cutting. For milled panels a common distance between the individual boards is 2–3 mm. Today depaneling is often done by lasers which cut the board with no contact. Laser depaneling
305:
Motorola was an early leader in bringing the process into consumer electronics, announcing in August 1952 the adoption of "plated circuits" in home radios after six years of research and a $ 1M investment. Motorola soon began using its trademarked term for the process, PLAcir, in its consumer radio
1994:
under the influence of an electric field. Silver also grows conducting surface paths in the presence of halide and other ions, making it a poor choice for electronics use. Tin will grow "whiskers" due to tension in the plated surface. Tin-lead or solder plating also grows whiskers, only reduced by
1732:
Semi-additive is the most common process: The unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse mask is then applied (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those parts of the substrate that will eventually become the traces). Additional copper is then plated onto
1521:
or similar patterns for even copper distribution over the whole panel in order to avoid bending. The assemblers often mount components on panels rather than single PCBs because this is efficient. Panelization may also be necessary for boards with components placed near an edge of the board because
1211:
copper per ft (35 μm) is the most common thickness; 2 oz (70 μm) and 0.5 oz (17.5 μm) thickness is often an option. Less common are 12 and 105 μm, 9 μm is sometimes available on some substrates. Flexible substrates typically have thinner metalization. Metal-core boards for
941:, frequency dependence introduces phase distortion in wideband applications; as flat a dielectric constant vs frequency characteristics as is achievable is important here. The impedance of transmission lines decreases with frequency, therefore faster edges of signals reflect more than slower ones.
651:
inserted through holes on one side of the board and soldered onto copper traces on the other side. Boards may be single-sided, with an unplated component side, or more compact double-sided boards, with components soldered on both sides. Horizontal installation of through-hole parts with two axial
564:
160:
PCBs can be single-sided (one copper layer), double-sided (two copper layers on both sides of one substrate layer), or multi-layer (outer and inner layers of copper, alternating with layers of substrate). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density, because circuit traces on the inner
958:
Moisture absorption occurs when the material is exposed to high humidity or water. Both the resin and the reinforcement may absorb water; water also may be soaked by capillary forces through voids in the materials and along the reinforcement. Epoxies of the FR-4 materials are not too susceptible,
671:
emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s, and became widely used by the mid-1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered directly onto the PCB surface, instead of wire leads to pass through holes. Components became much
543:
of signal integrity, but are also time-consuming and costly to manufacture. Likewise, selection of the vias for the board also allow fine tuning of the board size, escaping of signals off complex ICs, routing, and long term reliability, but are tightly coupled with production complexity and cost.
156:
software is available to do much of the work of layout. Mass-producing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods, as components are mounted and wired in one operation. Large numbers of PCBs can be fabricated at the same time, and the layout has to be done only once.
1728:
onto a bare substrate using a complex process. The advantage of the additive method is that less material is needed and less waste is produced. In the full additive process the bare laminate is covered with a photosensitive film which is imaged (exposed to light through a mask and then developed
967:
and cyanate esters, on the other side, suffer from high water absorption. Absorbed water can lead to significant degradation of key parameters; it impairs tracking resistance, breakdown voltage, and dielectric parameters. Relative dielectric constant of water is about 73, compared to about 4 for
377:
HDI (High
Density Interconnect) technology allows for a denser design on the PCB and thus potentially smaller PCBs with more traces and components in a given area. As a result, the paths between components can be shorter. HDIs use blind/buried vias, or a combination that includes microvias. With
925:
the thermal expansion of the resin roughly matches copper and glass, above it gets significantly higher. As the reinforcement and copper confine the board along the plane, virtually all volume expansion projects to the thickness and stresses the plated-through holes. Repeated soldering or other
866:
The reinforcement type defines two major classes of materials: woven and non-woven. Woven reinforcements are cheaper, but the high dielectric constant of glass may not be favorable for many higher-frequency applications. The spatially nonhomogeneous structure also introduces local variations in
546:
One of the simplest boards to produce is the two-layer board. It has copper on both sides that are referred to as external layers; multi layer boards sandwich additional internal layers of copper and insulation. After two-layer PCBs, the next step up is the four-layer. The four layer board adds
198:
connectors, wire connector lugs on screw terminals, or other methods. Circuits were large, bulky, heavy, and relatively fragile (even discounting the breakable glass envelopes of the vacuum tubes that were often included in the circuits), and production was labor-intensive, so the products were
2545:
Manufacturers may not support component-level repair of printed circuit boards because of the relatively low cost to replace compared with the time and cost of troubleshooting to a component level. In board-level repair, the technician identifies the board (PCA) on which the fault resides and
2508:
Since it was quite easy to stack interconnections (wires) inside the embedding matrix, the approach allowed designers to forget completely about the routing of wires (usually a time-consuming operation of PCB design): Anywhere the designer needs a connection, the machine will draw a wire in a
1792:
The inner layers are given a complete machine inspection before lamination because mistakes cannot be corrected afterwards. Automatic optical inspection (AOI) machines compare an image of the board with the digital image generated from the original design data. Automated
Optical Shaping (AOS)
950:
Loss tangent determines how much of the electromagnetic energy from the signals in the conductors is absorbed in the board material. This factor is important for high frequencies. Low-loss materials are more expensive. Choosing unnecessarily low-loss material is a common engineering error in
2465:
850:
With decreasing size of board features and increasing frequencies, small nonhomogeneities like uneven distribution of fiberglass or other filler, thickness variations, and bubbles in the resin matrix, and the associated local variations in the dielectric constant, are gaining importance.
664:
on layers immediately below the top layer on multi-layer boards, since the holes must pass through all layers to the opposite side. Once surface-mounting came into use, small-sized SMD components were used where possible, with through-hole mounting only of components unsuitably large for
2962:
434:
which is coated onto the PCB, then exposed to light projected in the pattern of the artwork. The resist material protects the copper from dissolution into the etching solution. The etched board is then cleaned. A PCB design can be mass-reproduced in a way similar to the way
2528:
thanks to the versatility of their layers, especially the copper layer. PCB layers have been used to fabricate sensors, such as capacitive pressure sensors and accelerometers, actuators such as microvalves and microheaters, as well as platforms of sensors and actuators for
1716:
Subtractive methods remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board to leave only the desired copper pattern. The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as
4001:, Burr, Robert P.; Morino, Ronald & Keogh, Raymond J., "Multi-wire electrical interconnecting member having a multi-wire matrix of insulated wires mechanically terminated thereon", published 1979-11-27, assigned to Kollmorgen Technologies Corp.
185:
on a chassis. Typically, the chassis was a sheet metal frame or pan, sometimes with a wooden bottom. Components were attached to the chassis, usually by insulators when the connecting point on the chassis was metal, and then their leads were connected directly or with
352:
From the 1980s onward, small surface mount parts have been used increasingly instead of through-hole components; this has led to smaller boards for a given functionality and lower production costs, but with some additional difficulty in servicing faulty boards.
696:, determined by its width, thickness, and length, must be sufficiently low for the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as a
2798:
2492:. The purpose of a breakout board is to "break out" the leads of a component on separate terminals so that manual connections to them can be made easily. Breakout boards are especially used for surface-mount components or any components with fine lead pitch.
257:
for use in World War II. Such fuzes required an electronic circuit that could withstand being fired from a gun, and could be produced in quantity. The
Centralab Division of Globe Union submitted a proposal which met the requirements: a ceramic plate would be
1397:
A PCB as a design on a computer (left) and realized as a board assembly populated with components (right). The board is double sided, with through-hole plating, green solder resist and a white legend. Both surface mount and through-hole components have been
840:(woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-3 (non-woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (woven glass and epoxy), CEM-5 (woven glass and polyester). Thermal expansion is an important consideration especially with
2504:
Multiwire is a patented technique of interconnection which uses machine-routed insulated wires embedded in a non-conducting matrix (often plastic resin). It was used during the 1980s and 1990s. As of 2010, Multiwire was still available through
Hitachi.
266:, with ceramic disc capacitors and subminiature vacuum tubes soldered in place. The technique proved viable, and the resulting patent on the process, which was classified by the U.S. Army, was assigned to Globe Union. It was not until 1984 that the
2027:). The solder mask is what gives PCBs their characteristic green color, although it is also available in several other colors, such as red, blue, purple, yellow, black and white. One of the most common solder resists used today is called "LPI" (
1833:
Holes may be made conductive, by electroplating or inserting hollow metal eyelets, to connect board layers. Some conductive holes are intended for the insertion of through-hole-component leads. Others used to connect board layers, are called
373:
have meant that there are several new techniques in PCB creation. 3D printed electronics (PEs) can be utilized to print items layer by layer and subsequently the item can be printed with a liquid ink that contains electronic functionalities.
2764:
867:
electrical parameters, due to different resin/glass ratio at different areas of the weave pattern. Nonwoven reinforcements, or materials with low or no reinforcement, are more expensive but more suitable for some RF/analog applications.
2495:
Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate, such as capacitors and integrated circuits, to reduce the amount of space taken up by components on the surface of the PCB while improving electrical characteristics.
863:) and a reinforcement (usually a woven, sometimes nonwoven, glass fibers, sometimes even paper), and in some cases a filler is added to the resin (e.g. ceramics; titanate ceramics can be used to increase the dielectric constant).
1870:
drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called
202:
Development of the methods used in modern printed circuit boards started early in the 20th century. In 1903, a German inventor, Albert Hanson, described flat foil conductors laminated to an insulating board, in multiple layers.
1817:. Coated tungsten carbide is used because board materials are abrasive. High-speed-steel bits would dull quickly, tearing the copper and ruining the board. Drilling is done by computer-controlled drilling machines, using a
761:
resin under pressure and heat to form an integral final piece of uniform thickness. They can be up to 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m) in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads per inch or cm), cloth thickness, and
356:
In the 1990s the use of multilayer surface boards became more frequent. As a result, size was further minimized and both flexible and rigid PCBs were incorporated in different devices. In 1995 PCB manufacturers began using
1763:
are done after the holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away.
2096:. A short is a connection between two points that should not be connected. An open is a missing connection between points that should be connected. For high-volume production, a fixture such as a "bed of nails" in a
2191:
packages. All through-hole components can be hand soldered, making them favored for prototyping where size, weight, and the use of the exact components that would be used in high volume production are not concerns.
1789:
a two-sided copper-clad laminate, etch the circuitry on both sides, then laminate to the top and bottom pre-preg and copper foil. It is then drilled, plated, and etched again to get traces on top and bottom layers.
4190:
1. “You Are HereDEQ Pollutants and
Toxicants Environmental Lead (Pb).” DEQ - How Does Lead Affect Our Environment?, Agency: Environmental Quality, www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3307_29693_30031-90418--,00.html.
161:
layers would otherwise take up surface space between components. The rise in popularity of multilayer PCBs with more than two, and especially with more than four, copper planes was concurrent with the adoption of
2100:
makes contact with copper lands on the board. The fixture or adapter is a significant fixed cost and this method is only economical for high-volume or high-value production. For small or medium volume production
344:
techniques, this concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process in use today. Soldering could be done automatically by passing the board over a ripple, or wave, of molten solder in a
2275:
test architecture provides a means to test interconnects between integrated circuits on a board without using physical test probes, by using circuitry in the ICs to employ the IC pins themselves as test probes.
414:
or other purposes. The tracks function as wires fixed in place, and are insulated from each other by air and the board substrate material. The surface of a PCB may have a coating that protects the copper from
2960:, Cole, Jr., Herbert S.; Sitnik-Nieters, Theresa A. & Wojnarowski, Robert J. et al., "Reworkable high density interconnect structure incorporating a release layer", issued 18 July 1995
2513:(which is worse when wires run parallel to each other—which almost never happens in Multiwire), though the cost is too high to compete with cheaper PCB technologies when large quantities are needed.
591:
used for making holes in printed circuit boards. While tungsten-carbide bits are very hard, they eventually wear out or break. Drilling is a considerable part of the cost of a through-hole printed circuit
1013:. Low water absorption (up to about 0.15%), good insulation properties, good arc resistance. Very common. Several grades with somewhat different properties are available. Typically rated to 130 °C.
2107:
testers are used where test probes are moved over the board by an XY drive to make contact with the copper lands. There is no need for a fixture and hence the fixed costs are much lower. The CAM system
1223:. Common thicknesses are 1/2 oz/ft (150 g/m), 1 oz/ft (300 g/m), 2 oz/ft (600 g/m), and 3 oz/ft (900 g/m). These work out to thicknesses of 17.05 μm (0.67
2305:, which is applied by dipping or spraying after the components have been soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or shorting due to condensation. The earliest conformal coats were
1442:
signal ground while providing DC power to the circuits mounted on the PCB. Signal interconnections are traced on signal planes. Signal planes can be on the outer as well as inner layers. For optimal
1204:
is a layer exceeding three ounces of copper per ft, or approximately 0.0042 inches (4.2 mils, 105 μm) thick. Heavy copper layers are used for high current or to help dissipate heat.
1106:, ("Teflon") - expensive, low dielectric loss, for high frequency applications, very low moisture absorption (0.01%), mechanically soft. Difficult to laminate, rarely used in multilayer applications.
4230:
2772:
2599:
Safety
Standard UL 796 covers component safety requirements for printed wiring boards for use as components in devices or appliances. Testing analyzes characteristics such as flammability, maximum
1382:
sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the schematic diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar and then traces were routed to connect the pads. Rub-on
1580:
uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a
1386:
of common component footprints increased efficiency. Traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout. The finished photomask was
1846:
When vias with a diameter smaller than 76.2 micrometers are required, drilling with mechanical bits is impossible because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be
951:
high-frequency digital design; it increases the cost of the boards without a corresponding benefit. Signal degradation by loss tangent and dielectric constant can be easily assessed by an
2309:; modern conformal coats are usually dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a conformal coating is for plastic to be
2255:
To facilitate these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make temporary connections. Sometimes these pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-circuit test may also exercise
3984:
3232:
2740:
1668:
Laser-printed resist: Laser-print onto toner transfer paper, heat-transfer with an iron or modified laminator onto bare laminate, soak in water bath, touch up with a marker, then etch.
1793:
machines can then add missing copper or remove excess copper using a laser, reducing the number of PCBs that have to be discarded. PCB tracks can have a width of just 10 micrometers.
1594:
laser plotter. The laser raster-scans the PCB and ablates (vaporizes) the paint where no resist is wanted. (Note: laser copper ablation is rarely used and is considered experimental.)
2596:
in electrical equipment. PCBs sold in such countries must therefore use lead-free manufacturing processes and lead-free solder, and attached components must themselves be compliant.
1067:
FR-1, like FR-2, typically specified to 105 °C, some grades rated to 130 °C. Room-temperature punchable. Similar to cardboard. Poor moisture resistance. Low arc resistance.
2280:
tool vendors provide various types of stimuli and sophisticated algorithms, not only to detect the failing nets, but also to isolate the faults to specific nets, devices, and pins.
665:
surface-mounting due to power requirements or mechanical limitations, or subject to mechanical stress which might damage the PCB (e.g. by lifting the copper off the board surface).
944:
Dielectric breakdown voltage determines the maximum voltage gradient the material can be subjected to before suffering a breakdown (conduction, or arcing, through the dielectric).
824:
There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are
4129:
1990:(ECM) is the growth of conductive metal filaments on or in a printed circuit board (PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage bias. Silver, zinc, and aluminum are known to grow
1109:
PTFE, ceramic filled - expensive, low dielectric loss, for high frequency applications. Varying ceramics/PTFE ratio allows adjusting dielectric constant and thermal expansion.
732:
of the printed circuit board conductors become significant circuit elements, usually undesired; conversely, they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit design, as in
2175:
for SMT components or through-hole parts, but skilled technicians are able to hand-solder very tiny parts (for instance 0201 packages which are 0.02 in. by 0.01 in.) under a
976:, the same effect responsible for "popcorning" damage on wet packaging of electronic parts. Careful baking of the substrates may be required to dry them prior to soldering.
2873:
274:
for early key contributions to the development of printed components and conductors on a common insulating substrate. Rubinstein was honored in 1984 by his alma mater, the
1902:
of the high temperature decomposition products of bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical
2112:
the electrical tester to apply a voltage to each contact point as required and to check that this voltage appears on the appropriate contact points and only on these.
1452:
is determined using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper thickness and trace-width. Trace separation is also taken into account in case of differential signals.
744:, obviating the need for additional discrete components. High density interconnects (HDI) PCBs have tracks or vias with a width or diameter of under 152 micrometers.
278:, for his innovations in the technology of printed electronic circuits and the fabrication of capacitors. This invention also represents a step in the development of
1879:
when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers. Laser drilling machines can drill thousands of holes per second and can use either UV or CO
2509:
straight line from one location/pin to another. This led to very short design times (no complex algorithms to use even for high density designs) as well as reduced
349:
machine. However, the wires and holes are inefficient since drilling holes is expensive and consumes drill bits and the protruding wires are cut off and discarded.
423:
between traces or undesired electrical contact with stray bare wires. For its function in helping to prevent solder shorts, the coating is called solder resist or
1957:
1949:
290:
In 1948, the USA released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the mid-1950s, after the
907:
903:
131:
onto or between sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate. Electrical components may be fixed to conductive pads on the outer layers, generally by means of
1737:
made consumer radio sets in the late 1960s using additive boards. The (semi-)additive process is commonly used for multi-layer boards as it facilitates the
3304:
676:(SMDs) are determined more by the chip itself than the package, with little price advantage over larger packages, and some wire-ended components, such as
534:
was used for this purpose, but today other, finer quality printing methods are usually used. Normally the legend does not affect the function of a PCBA.
215:
obtained a patent to flame-spray metal onto a board through a patterned mask. Charles Ducas in 1925 patented a method of electroplating circuit patterns.
2445:. The cordwood method of construction was used only rarely once PCBs became widespread, mainly in aerospace or other extremely high-density electronics.
926:
exposition to higher temperatures can cause failure of the plating, especially with thicker boards; thick boards therefore require a matrix with a high T
4261:
4177:
555:
before the layers are laminated together. Only the outer layers need be coated; the inner copper layers are protected by the adjacent substrate layers.
152:, both once popular but now rarely used. PCBs require additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated.
3287:
3047:
1354:, and component information. The fabrication data is read into the CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) software. CAM performs the following functions:
1124:, a high-temperature polymer. Expensive, high-performance. Higher water absorption (0.4%). Can be used from cryogenic temperatures to over 260 °C.
999:. Common in consumer electronics with single-sided boards. Electrical properties inferior to FR-4. Poor arc resistance. Generally rated to 105 °C.
547:
significantly more routing options in the internal layers as compared to the two layer board, and often some portion of the internal layers is used as
2765:"Global Single Sided Printed Circuit Board Market - Growth, Future Prospects and Competitive Analysis and Forecast 2018 - 2023 - The Industry Herald"
310:
consumer radio receiver might be built with all its circuitry on one circuit board, but a TV set would probably contain one or more circuit boards.
267:
2938:, Abramson, Moe & Danko, Stanislaus F., "Process of assembling electrical circuits", published 1956-07-31, assigned to
2714:
660:
machine. Through-hole manufacture adds to board cost by requiring many holes to be drilled accurately, and it limits the available routing area for
3862:"A Triple Objective Function with a Chebychev Dynamic Pick-and-place Point Specification Approach to Optimise the Surface Mount Placement Machine"
1192:
Copper thickness of PCBs can be specified directly or as the weight of copper per area (in ounce per square foot) which is easier to measure. One
246:
invented the printed circuit as part of a radio set while working in the UK around 1936. In 1941 a multi-layer printed circuit was used in German
4315:
1085:
G-11, woven glass and epoxy - high resistance to solvents, high flexural strength retention at high temperatures. Typically rated to 170 °C.
3580:
1995:
reducing the percentage of tin. Reflow to melt solder or tin plate to relieve surface stress lowers whisker incidence. Another coating issue is
3247:
2313:
onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber. The chief disadvantage of conformal coatings is that servicing of the board is rendered extremely difficult.
1506:
5365:
2559:
2441:, this method allowed the highest possible component packing density; because of this, it was used by a number of computer vendors including
6840:
3743:
3732:
Publication IPC-TR-476A, "Electrochemical
Migration: Electrically Induced Failures in Printed Wiring Assemblies," Northbrook, IL, May 1997.
3644:
1522:
otherwise the board could not be mounted during assembly. Most assembly shops require a free area of at least 10 mm around the board.
212:
123:
layers: each of the conductive layers is designed with a pattern of traces, planes and other features (similar to wires on a flat surface)
1647:
Print onto transparent film and use as photo mask along with photo-sensitized boards, then etch. (Alternatively, use a film photoplotter.)
1112:
RF-35, fiberglass-reinforced ceramics-filled PTFE. Relatively less expensive, good mechanical properties, good high-frequency properties.
1920:
Proper plating or surface finish selection can be critical to process yield, the amount of rework, field failure rate, and reliability.
5812:
5597:
2051:, switch settings, test points and other indications helpful in assembling, testing, servicing, and sometimes using the circuit board.
1801:
1082:, woven glass and epoxy - high insulation resistance, low moisture absorption, very high bond strength. Typically rated to 130 °C.
5189:
4125:
3273:
1054:
785:, etc.) and therefore the characteristics of the laminate produced. Important characteristics are the level to which the laminate is
5635:
3945:
1972:
using ENIG. Another coating consideration is rapid diffusion of coating metal into tin solder. Tin forms intermetallics such as Cu
1493:
Several small printed circuit boards can be grouped together for processing as a panel. A panel consisting of a design duplicated
165:. However, multilayer PCBs make repair, analysis, and field modification of circuits much more difficult and usually impractical.
5537:
4830:
4287:
2884:
847:
FR-4 is by far the most common material used today. The board stock with unetched copper on it is called "copper-clad laminate".
551:
or power plane, to achieve better signal integrity, higher signaling frequencies, lower EMI, and better power supply decoupling.
2160:; once cooled and solidified, the solder holds the components in place permanently and electrically connects them to the board.
1584:, receiving commands from the host software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis.
6529:
6501:
5640:
3716:
2363:
1474:
294:
process was developed by the United States Army. At around the same time in the UK work along similar lines was carried out by
3799:
3616:
1051:, in this form common in small form-factor consumer electronics or for flexible interconnects. Resistant to high temperatures.
6554:
4109:
3928:
3783:
3681:
3351:
3031:
3021:
2997:
499:). In informal usage, the term "printed circuit board" most commonly means "printed circuit assembly" (with components). The
207:
experimented with chemical methods of plating conductors onto linen paper in 1904. Arthur Berry in 1913 patented a print-and-
1937:(BGA) using tin-lead solder balls for connections losing their balls on bare copper traces or using lead-free solder paste.
947:
Tracking resistance determines how the material resists high voltage electrical discharges creeping over the board surface.
317:, and a PCB had holes drilled for each wire of each component. The component leads were then inserted through the holes and
135:, which both electrically connects and mechanically fastens the components to the board. Another manufacturing process adds
6405:
5472:
4747:
2666:
410:, pads for connections, vias to pass connections between layers of copper, and features such as solid conductive areas for
3060:
1600:, in which the copper may be removed directly by a CNC laser. Like PCB milling above, this is used mainly for prototyping.
479:. However, the term "printed wiring board" has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a
6559:
5831:
4528:
4308:
3823:
Ayob, M.; Kendall, G. (2008). "A Survey of
Surface Mount Device Placement Machine Optimisation: Machine Classification".
2939:
2861:
1364:
Compensation for deviations in the manufacturing processes (e.g. scaling to compensate for distortions during lamination)
306:
advertisements. Hallicrafters released its first "foto-etch" printed circuit product, a clock-radio, on 1 November 1952.
275:
1477:. Electronic design automation tools usually create clearances and connections in power and ground planes automatically.
6830:
6064:
5585:
5484:
1941:
4223:
3630:
2796:, Schoop, Max Ulrich, "Process and mechanism for the production of electric heaters", published 1918-02-19
6711:
6539:
6069:
5519:
5358:
4511:
4407:
3717:"Solder Joint Reliability of Gold Surface Finishes (ENIG, ENEPIG and DIG) for PWB Assembled with Lead Free SAC Alloy"
3502:
3475:
3448:
3403:
3257:
3092:
2385:
2028:
1953:
1212:
high power devices commonly use thicker copper; 35 μm is usual but also 140 and 400 μm can be encountered.
1179:
430:
The pattern to be etched into each copper layer of a PCB is called the "artwork". The etching is usually done using
4152:"The Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment Regulations 2012"
3744:"Reliability Issues of No-Clean Flux Technology with Lead-free Solder Alloy for High Density Printed Circuit Boards"
3598:
1886:
The hole walls for boards with two or more layers can be made conductive and then electroplated with copper to form
859:
The circuitboard substrates are usually dielectric composite materials. The composites contain a matrix (usually an
6799:
5893:
4651:
4378:
2067:
Ink jet printing is increasingly used. Ink jet can print variable data, unique to each PWB unit, such as text or a
937:. This constant is also dependent on frequency, usually decreasing with frequency. As this constant determines the
17:
1930:
is applied, and then any exposed copper is coated with solder, nickel/gold, or some other anti-corrosion coating.
6835:
6825:
6820:
6187:
5531:
5467:
4699:
4498:
3168:
2633:
3308:
6478:
6440:
6097:
5805:
4301:
2824:
2367:
1984:
Cu that dissolve into the Tin liquidus or solidus (at 50 °C), stripping surface coating or leaving voids.
1610:
1604:
1346:
A board designed in 1967; the sweeping curves in the traces are evidence of freehand design using adhesive tape
168:
The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $ 60.2 billion in 2014 and is estimated to reach $ 79 billion by 2024.
2857:
2690:
2199:
1760:
6620:
6597:
6327:
6317:
5657:
5525:
4250:
4185:
6701:
6289:
6197:
6102:
5878:
5863:
5351:
4730:
4482:
3108:
2215:
1443:
1410:
1073:
FR-5, woven fiberglass and epoxy, high strength at higher temperatures, typically specified to 170 °C.
914:
871:
810:
153:
4018:
6789:
6524:
6022:
5774:
5669:
4534:
4471:
2976:
Ostmann, Andreas; Schein, Friedrich-Leonhard; Dietterle, Michael; Kunz, Marc; Lang, Klaus-Dieter (2018).
182:
149:
6761:
6410:
5689:
5647:
5194:
4741:
2131:
In assembly the bare board is populated (or "stuffed") with electronic components to form a functional
1854:. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called
1713:
after the subtractive method of the process, though there are also additive and semi-additive methods.
1709:
733:
3998:
3197:
2957:
2935:
2793:
1674:
and resist, non-washable marker, some other methods. Labor-intensive, only suitable for single boards.
6779:
6706:
6681:
6544:
6192:
5798:
5590:
5575:
5501:
5461:
4948:
4662:
4505:
4390:
3135:
Sood, B. and Pecht, M. 2011. Printed
Circuit Board Laminates. Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites. 1–11.
2534:
2230:
1149:
1024:
996:
411:
328:. In 1949, Moe Abramson and Stanislaus F. Danko of the United States Army Signal Corps developed the
299:
282:
technology, as not only wiring but also passive components were fabricated on the ceramic substrate.
271:
3837:
1033:- can be a standalone copper-clad foil or can be laminated to a thin stiffener, e.g. 50-130 μm
6630:
6463:
6049:
5918:
5602:
5507:
5495:
4957:
4815:
4667:
4523:
2442:
2144:
1945:
818:
778:
721:
709:
668:
608:
453:
162:
3048:"Advances in Optical Communications: Making optical printed circuit boards on an industrial scale"
1393:
6691:
6625:
6516:
6332:
5992:
5652:
5430:
5425:
4968:
4688:
4487:
3147:"A SURVEY AND TUTORIAL OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS"
2419:
2356:
2317:
2136:
1784:, visible as a bright copper-colored band running between the top and bottom layers of the board.
828:(Teflon), FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1 or CEM-3. Well known pre-preg materials used in the PCB industry are
825:
644:
322:
120:
3753:
3747:
3661:
2524:
Printed circuit boards have been used as an alternative to their typical use for electronic and
2222:
guidelines for PCB component placement, soldering, and inspection are commonly used to maintain
1446:
performance high frequency signals are routed in internal layers between power or ground planes.
336:. The patent they obtained in 1956 was assigned to the U.S. Army. With the development of board
144:
Printed circuit boards are used in nearly all electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include
6756:
6587:
6468:
6235:
6225:
6220:
5746:
5543:
5137:
4704:
4569:
4545:
3861:
3832:
2569:
2525:
2168:
1505:
combines several different designs onto a single panel. The outer tooling strip often includes
1161:
921:
then exerts mechanical overload on the board components - e.g. the joints and the vias. Below T
637:
1621:
The method chosen depends on the number of boards to be produced and the required resolution.
1420:
Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and enclosure of the PCB.
332:
process in which component leads were inserted into a copper foil interconnection pattern and
6726:
6696:
6686:
6582:
6496:
6372:
6312:
6279:
6269:
6152:
6117:
6107:
6044:
5913:
5888:
5883:
5758:
5712:
5580:
5478:
5206:
5158:
4979:
4795:
4710:
4477:
3697:
2600:
2485:
2167:
techniques used to attach components to a PCB. High volume production is usually done with a
1933:
It is important to use solder compatible with both the PCB and the parts used. An example is
1351:
1118:, a ceramic. Hard, brittle, very expensive, very high performance, good thermal conductivity.
917:
the resin in the composite softens and significantly increases thermal expansion; exceeding T
693:
519:. "Card" is another widely used informal term for a "printed circuit assembly". For example,
116:
3895:
6486:
6458:
6430:
6425:
6254:
6230:
6182:
6165:
6160:
6142:
6132:
6127:
6089:
6039:
6034:
5951:
5897:
5684:
5679:
5662:
5382:
5280:
5024:
4919:
4693:
4586:
4440:
4401:
4332:
4324:
3333:
2325:
2289:
2097:
2048:
1991:
1569:
1402:
Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated layout software, generally in the following steps:
1048:
1030:
673:
444:
104:
60:
38:
1683:
968:
common circuit board materials. Absorbed moisture can also vaporize on heating, as during
181:
Before the development of printed circuit boards, electrical and electronic circuits were
8:
6751:
6676:
6592:
6577:
6342:
6122:
6079:
6074:
5971:
5961:
5933:
5731:
5674:
5513:
5435:
5410:
5374:
5000:
4908:
4800:
4636:
4613:
4151:
4037:"Printed Circuit Boards: The Layers' Functions for Electronic and Biomedical Engineering"
3702:
Printed Wiring Board
Project Report – Table of Contents, Design for the Environment (DfE)
2184:
2058:
1752:
1691:
1518:
1439:
1057:, a polyimide-fluoropolymer composite foil. Copper layer can delaminate during soldering.
934:
887:
844:(BGA) and naked die technologies, and glass fiber offers the best dimensional stability.
836:(woven glass and epoxy), FR-5 (woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (matte glass and polyester),
790:
677:
531:
382:
packages. Some PCBs have optical waveguides, similar to optical fibers built on the PCB.
31:
3960:
777:
material, and the cloth to resin ratio determine the laminate's type designation (FR-4,
80:
to the other surface, and some electronic components mounted using through-hole mounting
6716:
6615:
6491:
6448:
6357:
6299:
6284:
6274:
6059:
5858:
5751:
5736:
5617:
5455:
5420:
5305:
5165:
4873:
4840:
4656:
4540:
4518:
4101:
4069:
4036:
3357:
3003:
2620:
2438:
2310:
2260:
2147:(SMT), the component is placed on the PCB so that the pins line up with the conductive
1898:
For multi-layer boards, those with three layers or more, drilling typically produces a
1748:
1703:
The two processing methods used to produce a double-sided PWB with plated-through holes
1671:
1430:
Layer stack of the PCB is decided, with one to tens of layers depending on complexity.
648:
629:
314:
279:
247:
195:
108:
3332:
Lienig, J.; Scheible, J. (2020). "§1.3.3: Physical Design of Printed Circuit Boards".
3123:
IPC-D-275: Design Standard for Rigid Printed Boards and Rigid Printed Board Assemblies
2841:
2741:"Global Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Market to Witness a CAGR of 3.1% during 2018-2024"
2516:
Corrections can be made to a Multiwire board layout more easily than to a PCB layout.
2259:
test features of some components. In-circuit test systems may also be used to program
870:
The substrates are characterized by several key parameters, chiefly thermomechanical (
636:, and capacitors. Through-hole mounting may be used for some large components such as
6736:
6666:
6645:
6607:
6415:
6382:
6362:
6054:
5966:
5840:
5707:
5300:
5221:
5112:
5064:
4893:
4820:
4782:
4105:
4092:
Brown, Mark; Rawtani, Jawahar; Patil, Dinesh (2004). "Appendix B - Troubleshooting".
4074:
3924:
3779:
3729:
3677:
3498:
3471:
3444:
3399:
3361:
3347:
3253:
3198:"Using Metal Core Printed Circuit Board (MCPCB) as a Solution for Thermal Management"
3088:
3027:
2993:
2820:
2603:, electrical tracking, heat deflection, and direct support of live electrical parts.
2593:
2329:
2302:
2234:
2211:
1835:
1781:
1742:
1699:
1614:
1590:
involves spraying black paint onto copper clad laminate, then placing the board into
1514:
1464:
1406:
895:
883:
770:
characteristics. Available standard laminate thickness are listed in ANSI/IPC-D-275.
741:
705:
680:
small-signal switch diodes, are actually significantly cheaper than SMD equivalents.
500:
136:
77:
3552:
3007:
6569:
6453:
6420:
6215:
6137:
6026:
6012:
6007:
5956:
5943:
5868:
5821:
5440:
5016:
4963:
4790:
4429:
4097:
4064:
4054:
3876:
3842:
3669:
3375:
3339:
2985:
2187:
may be used for delicate parts. Some SMT parts cannot be soldered by hand, such as
1814:
1734:
1463:
Components are placed. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into account.
1387:
875:
802:
124:
4825:
3806:
3566:
1537:
reduces stress on the fragile circuits, improving the yield of defect-free units.
1438:
are decided. A power plane is the counterpart to a ground plane and behaves as an
1370:
Output of the digital tools (copper patterns, drill files, inspection, and others)
398:
A basic PCB consists of a flat sheet of insulating material and a layer of copper
222:'s 1936–1947 Electronic Circuit Making Equipment (ECME) that sprayed metal onto a
141:, drilled holes that allow electrical interconnections between conductive layers.
6640:
6534:
6506:
6400:
6352:
6337:
6322:
6177:
6172:
6112:
6002:
5976:
5928:
5873:
5630:
5625:
5607:
5570:
5565:
5490:
5450:
5293:
5226:
5079:
4810:
4720:
4564:
3946:"History of Electronic Packaging at APL: From the VT Fuze to the NEAR Spacecraft"
3538:
3492:
3465:
3438:
3393:
3146:
3082:
2248:
2241:
2223:
2188:
2015:
1934:
1777:
1756:
1718:
1155:
899:
841:
798:
737:
295:
4451:
3081:
Buschow, K.H., ed. (2001). "Electronic Packaging:Solder Mounting Technologies".
2925:"Topics & Trends of TV Trade." Television Digest 8:44 (1 November 1952), 10.
6746:
6650:
6549:
6395:
6367:
5560:
5268:
5049:
5039:
4805:
4608:
3880:
3846:
2977:
2573:
2468:
A breakout board can allow interconnection between two incompatible connectors.
2411:
2321:
2180:
1965:
1908:
1847:
1725:
1695:
PCBs in process of having copper pattern plated (note the blue dry film resist)
1563:
1547:
1510:
1449:
1079:
992:
938:
879:
837:
806:
786:
782:
657:
613:
520:
461:
346:
259:
254:
4184:. Department of Environmental Quality, State of Michigan. 2019. Archived from
3343:
2989:
2480:'s pins to be accessed easily while still allowing the card to be hot-swapped.
1325:
H/0 or H/H – denotes 0.5 oz/ft copper on one or both sides, respectively.
234:
6814:
6635:
5923:
5741:
5724:
5719:
5330:
5153:
5069:
4888:
4715:
4683:
4041:
3662:"Appendix F Sample Fabrication Sequence for a Standard Printed Circuit Board"
3631:"GTW5-UVF20 series Laser drilling machine Laser processing machines MELLASER"
2916:"Travel and Play with Motorola" LIFE magazine advertisement, 24 May 1954, 14.
2639:
2530:
2256:
2072:
1822:
1319:
1/0 – denotes 1 oz/ft copper one side, with no copper on the other side.
1246:
1228:
1224:
440:
420:
333:
219:
204:
3169:"Method for the Manufacture of an Aluminum Substrate PCB and its Advantages"
1328:
2/0 or 2/2 – denotes 2 oz/ft copper on one or both sides, respectively.
76:
computer board, a printed circuit board, showing the conductive traces, the
6731:
6390:
5211:
5199:
5087:
5054:
4883:
4868:
4435:
4078:
3218:
2103:
1961:
1470:
1431:
1383:
973:
891:
697:
661:
596:
576:
548:
457:
399:
157:
PCBs can also be made manually in small quantities, with reduced benefits.
2206:
After the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways:
1772:
1707:
The process by which copper traces are applied to the surface is known as
1231:), 68.2 μm (2.68 thou), and 102.3 μm (4.02 thou), respectively.
1070:
FR-3, cotton paper impregnated with epoxy. Typically rated to 105 °C.
6721:
6347:
6259:
5253:
4995:
4944:
4850:
4835:
4618:
4580:
4200:
2907:"New Process Perfected for Radio Wiring." Chicago Tribune, 1 August 1952.
2472:
2418:
Cordwood construction can save significant space and was often used with
2284:
2172:
2024:
1969:
1927:
1576:
1555:
1481:
1435:
1197:
1010:
952:
860:
729:
431:
424:
370:
253:
Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a large scale to make
243:
73:
45:
4293:
4251:"Analog, RF and EMC Considerations in Printed Wiring Board (PWB) Design"
3666:
Linkages: Manufacturing Trends in Electronics Interconnection Technology
3490:
2061:
epoxy ink was the established method, resulting in the alternative name.
1999:, the transformation of tin to a powdery allotrope at low temperature.
571:
467:
When a PCB has no components installed, it is less ambiguously called a
44:"PC board" redirects here. For the mainboard of personal computers, see
6741:
6671:
6264:
5997:
5853:
5779:
5445:
5390:
5325:
5315:
5248:
5122:
5092:
5059:
5034:
5029:
5006:
4878:
4858:
4736:
4598:
4575:
4461:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4059:
2628:
2563:
2370: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2176:
2125:
1687:
PCB copper electroplating line in the process of pattern plating copper
1531:
1453:
1390:
reproduced onto a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards.
1006:
964:
767:
725:
717:
621:
601:
583:
527:
456:
is the most common insulating substrate. Another substrate material is
436:
337:
128:
112:
5343:
4094:
Practical Troubleshooting of Electrical Equipment and Control Circuits
2398:
2135:(PCA), sometimes called a "printed circuit board assembly" (PCBA). In
6246:
6207:
5405:
5288:
5132:
5127:
5117:
5044:
4924:
4758:
4753:
4678:
4603:
2510:
2454:
2164:
2157:
2139:, the component leads are inserted in holes surrounded by conductive
2023:
Areas that should not be soldered may be covered with solder resist (
1968:, placed along one edge of some boards, are often nickel-plated then
1890:. These holes electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB.
1810:
1457:
1424:
1375:
1121:
1044:
969:
758:
713:
701:
653:
588:
512:
416:
379:
226:
plastic board. The ECME could produce three radio boards per minute.
191:
187:
145:
132:
2345:
2064:
Liquid photo imaging is a more accurate method than screen printing.
2047:) is often printed on one or both sides of the PCB. It contains the
218:
Predating the printed circuit invention, and similar in spirit, was
6307:
5790:
5400:
5395:
5310:
5258:
5238:
5216:
5102:
5097:
4985:
4974:
4903:
4673:
3673:
2982:
2018 7th Electronic System-Integration Technology Conference (ESTC)
2645:
2614:
2427:
2068:
1996:
1342:
1016:
757:
Laminates are manufactured by curing layers of cloth or paper with
633:
358:
263:
223:
3518:
390:
5170:
5107:
4929:
4914:
4768:
4725:
4373:
3440:
Printed circuit boards: design, fabrication, assembly and testing
2589:
2547:
2477:
2464:
2244:, where physical measurements (for example, voltage) can be done.
2007:
1875:
when they connect an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or
1738:
1581:
1115:
575:
Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s
341:
208:
51:"Panelization" redirects here. For the page layout strategy, see
3144:
2251:, just checking if the PCB does what it had been designed to do.
563:
5243:
4934:
4898:
4863:
4423:
4395:
4368:
4343:
4282:
2978:"High Density Interconnect Processes for Panel Level Packaging"
2577:
2431:
2324:
during transport. When handling these boards, the user must be
1312:
1040:
1036:
960:
766:
percentage are used to achieve the desired final thickness and
689:
526:
A PCB may be printed with a legend identifying the components,
403:
318:
101:
68:
5320:
5231:
4990:
4763:
4556:
4418:
4413:
3896:"SMTA TechScan Compendium: 0201 Design, Assembly and Process"
3553:"Printing of 3d structures by laser-induced forward transfer"
2667:"What Is a Printed Circuit Board (PCB)? - Technical Articles"
2581:
2426:, missile guidance, and telemetry systems) and in high-speed
2219:
1851:
1379:
1216:
1208:
1193:
774:
763:
625:
4224:"PCB Fabrication Data - Design to Fabrication Data Transfer"
2406:
1350:
Manufacturing starts from the fabrication data generated by
720:
with carefully controlled dimensions to assure a consistent
361:
technology to produce High-Density Interconnect (HDI) PCBs.
321:
to the copper PCB traces. This method of assembly is called
5263:
4646:
4592:
4493:
4446:
4384:
4257:
4050:
3233:"Pyralux® Flexible Circuit Materials - DuPont - DuPont USA"
2880:
2585:
2423:
2277:
2272:
2268:
1825:
that describes the location and size of each drilled hole.
1103:
1002:
988:
833:
829:
450:
402:, laminated to the substrate. Chemical etching divides the
262:
with metallic paint for conductors and carbon material for
52:
3491:
Riley, Frank; Electronic Packaging and Production (2013).
2975:
2120:
1923:
PCBs may be plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel.
1215:
In the US, copper foil thickness is specified in units of
2306:
1632:
Silk screen printing – Used for PCBs with bigger features
1591:
1219:
per square foot (oz/ft), commonly referred to simply as
832:(phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (cotton paper and epoxy),
616:: the component side (left) and the printed side (right)
268:
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
3274:"A High Performance, Economical RF/Microwave Substrate"
3219:"Applications | UBE Heat Resistant Polyimide Materials"
1958:
electroless nickel electroless palladium immersion gold
1559:
uses etch-resistant inks to create the protective mask.
3617:"Laser drilling machines GTW5 series (English) Videos"
2422:
in applications where space was at a premium (such as
1926:
After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water, the
1759:. For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of
1635:
Photoengraving – Used when finer features are required
3335:
Fundamentals of Layout Design for Electronic Circuits
724:. In radio-frequency and fast switching circuits the
3581:"Laser drilling high-density printed circuit boards"
2610:
2301:
PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a
1613:
to remove a metal from a substrate submerged into a
1374:
Initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a
3645:"Considerations for Selecting a PCB Surface Finish"
3567:"System producing a conductive path on a substrate"
2866:
2715:"World PCB Production in 2014 Estimated at $ 60.2B"
1858:and can have diameters as small as 10 micrometers.
995:or phenolic cotton paper, paper impregnated with a
821:(how much the thickness changes with temperature).
4035:Perdigones, Francisco; Quero, José Manuel (2022).
3395:Complete PCB Design Using OrCad Capture and Layout
3145:By Lee W. Ritchey, Speeding Edge (November 1999).
2171:and bulk wave soldering for through-hole parts or
2019:A PCB with green solder mask and yellow silkscreen
688:Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the
27:Board to support and connect electronic components
4182:Pollutants and Toxicants: Environmental Lead (Pb)
4091:
3084:Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology
1568:be used instead of a photomask. This is known as
6812:
3749:38th International Symposium on Microelectronics
3741:
3599:"Non-Traditional Methods For Making Small Holes"
2320:sensitive, and therefore they must be placed in
2084:Boards with no components installed are usually
1322:1/1 – denotes 1 oz/ft copper on both sides.
406:into separate conducting lines called tracks or
313:Originally, every electronic component had wire
4034:
3997:
3305:"Printed Circuit Board Design Flow Methodology"
2484:A minimal PCB for a single component, used for
2287:and replace failed components, a task known as
2011:A PCB with red solder mask and white silkscreen
1809:Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with
1776:Cut through a SDRAM-module, a multi-layer PCB (
1460:or dual stripline can be used to route signals.
600:Surface mount components, including resistors,
394:An example of hand-drawn etched traces on a PCB
3698:"Production Methods and Materials 3.1 General"
3421:Liquid Photoresists for Thermal Direct Imaging
3331:
3327:
3325:
2846:. Washington DC: National Bureau of Standards.
2642:- solder-free circuit board manufacture method
5830:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012
5806:
5359:
4309:
4126:"EURLex – 02011L0065-20140129 – EN – EUR-Lex"
3714:
3467:Printed Circuit Boards: Design and Technology
3432:
3430:
2934:
2560:Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive
2143:; the holes keep the components in place. In
2054:There are three methods to print the legend:
933:The materials used determine the substrate's
3778:. McGraw–Hill Professional. pp. 45–19.
3742:Zhan, S.; Azarian, M. H.; Pecht, M. (2005).
2002:
1741:-through of the holes to produce conductive
3859:
3822:
3470:. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 298.
3322:
3061:6 Reasons Why Choose Printed Circuit Boards
2817:Electronic materials and processes handbook
2296:
2283:When boards fail the test, technicians may
1200:is 1.344 mils or 34 micrometers thickness.
854:
238:Proximity fuze Mark 53 production line 1944
211:method in the UK, and in the United States
5813:
5799:
5366:
5352:
4316:
4302:
3427:
3419:Taff, Itshak; Benron, Hai (October 1999).
3418:
3412:
2810:
2808:
1484:, a drill file, and a pick-and-place file.
4323:
4221:
4068:
4058:
3836:
3805:. Coates Circuit Products. Archived from
2386:Learn how and when to remove this message
2088:for "shorts" and "opens". This is called
1180:Learn how and when to remove this message
503:preferred term for an assembled board is
4016:
3869:European Journal of Operational Research
3825:European Journal of Operational Research
3463:
3436:
2839:
2471:
2463:
2405:
2397:
2335:
2119:
2014:
2006:
1861:
1800:
1771:
1698:
1690:
1682:
1392:
1341:
683:
607:
595:
582:
570:
562:
389:
285:
233:
127:from one or more sheet layers of copper
67:
59:
5538:Application-specific integrated circuit
5373:
4248:
4178:"How Does Lead Affect Our Environment?"
3391:
3080:
3074:
2805:
14:
6813:
6530:Knowledge representation and reasoning
3943:
3901:. Surface Mount Technology Association
3773:
3668:. National Academy of Sciences. 2005.
3245:
2874:"IEEE CLEDO BRUNETTI AWARD RECIPIENTS"
2814:
2792:
2537:(PCR), and fuel cells, to name a few.
2034:
1915:
1480:Fabrication data consists of a set of
6555:Philosophy of artificial intelligence
5794:
5347:
4297:
2691:"Printed Circuit Board – An Overview"
692:foil that remains after etching. Its
558:
64:Printed circuit board of a DVD player
5874:Energy consumption (Green computing)
5820:
5473:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
4748:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
3800:"liquid photoimageable solder masks"
3443:. Tata-McGraw Hill. pp. 373–8.
3195:
3166:
3109:"Why Use High Density Interconnect?"
2840:Brunetti, Cledo (22 November 1948).
2738:
2584:), legislation restricts the use of
2368:adding citations to reliable sources
2339:
1540:
1423:The positions of the components and
1154:In particular, it has problems with
1132:
979:
700:for shielding and power return. For
647:, mounting electronic components by
6841:Printed circuit board manufacturing
6560:Distributed artificial intelligence
5832:ACM Computing Classification System
4529:Programmable unijunction transistor
4222:Tavernier, Karel (September 2015).
2940:Secretary of the United States Army
2499:
2267:being the Joint Test Action Group (
2226:in this stage of PCB manufacturing.
1724:In additive methods the pattern is
1546:is also used in the manufacture of
1128:
530:, or identifying text. Originally,
24:
6065:Integrated development environment
5485:Erasable programmable logic device
4430:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
4215:
3953:Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest
3893:
3752:. pp. 367–375. Archived from
3715:Milad, George; Gudeczauskas, Don.
3704:. Environmental Protection Agency.
2819:. McGraw-Hill. pp. 7.3, 7.4.
2459:
2410:Cordwood construction was used in
2079:
1942:organic solderability preservative
1063:Less-often encountered materials:
963:has very low absorption of 0.01%.
773:The cloth or fiber material used,
419:and reduces the chances of solder
364:
100:), is a medium used to connect or
25:
6852:
6540:Automated planning and scheduling
6070:Software configuration management
5520:Complex programmable logic device
4408:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
3923:. Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 293.
3918:
3494:The Electronics Assembly Handbook
2636:- qualification for PCB designers
2568:In many countries (including all
2029:liquid photoimageable solder mask
1954:electroless nickel immersion gold
1207:On the common FR-4 substrates, 1
6794:
6784:
6775:
6774:
4652:Heterostructure barrier varactor
4379:Chemical field-effect transistor
4281:
4102:10.1016/b978-075066278-9/50009-3
3023:Materials for Advanced Packaging
2843:New Advances in Printed Circuits
2613:
2344:
2198:For further comparison, see the
2179:, using tweezers and a fine-tip
1137:
1100:CEM-5, woven glass and polyester
1094:CEM-3, non-woven glass and epoxy
270:awarded Harry W. Rubinstein the
6785:
6188:Computational complexity theory
5532:Field-programmable object array
5468:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
4700:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
4267:from the original on 2022-05-08
4236:from the original on 2022-03-08
4193:
4170:
4144:
4132:from the original on 2016-01-07
4118:
4085:
4028:
4010:
3991:
3977:
3937:
3912:
3887:
3853:
3816:
3792:
3767:
3735:
3723:
3708:
3690:
3654:
3637:
3623:
3609:
3591:
3573:
3559:
3545:
3531:
3511:
3484:
3457:
3385:
3368:
3297:
3293:. Taconic – via Multi-CB.
3280:
3266:
3246:Carter, Bruce (19 March 2009).
3239:
3225:
3211:
3189:
3160:
3138:
3129:
3115:
3101:
3065:
3054:
3040:
3014:
2969:
2950:
2928:
2919:
2910:
2901:
2862:University of Wisconsin-Madison
2634:Certified interconnect designer
2355:needs additional citations for
2183:, for small volume prototypes.
1488:
1332:
1076:FR-6, matte glass and polyester
959:with absorption of only 0.15%.
567:Through-hole (leaded) resistors
276:University of Wisconsin-Madison
176:
5972:Network performance evaluation
4096:. Elsevier. pp. 196–212.
3860:Ayob, M.; Kendall, G. (2005).
3026:. Springer. 18 November 2016.
2850:
2833:
2786:
2757:
2732:
2707:
2683:
2659:
2553:
2533:(LoC), for example to perform
2476:This breakout board allows an
1358:Input of the fabrication data.
1146:This section needs editing to
489:printed circuit board assembly
385:
248:magnetic influence naval mines
13:
1:
6343:Multimedia information system
6328:Geographic information system
6318:Enterprise information system
5907:Computer systems organization
5658:Hardware description language
5526:Field-programmable gate array
3087:. Elsevier. pp. 2708–9.
2652:
1841:
1767:
1525:
1091:CEM-2, cotton paper and epoxy
1088:CEM-1, cotton paper and epoxy
984:Often encountered materials:
229:
6702:Computational social science
6290:Theoretical computer science
6103:Software development process
5879:Electronic design automation
5864:Very Large Scale Integration
4731:Silicon controlled rectifier
4593:Organic light-emitting diode
4483:Diffused junction transistor
3921:Intro To Embedded Systems 1E
3376:"See appendix D of IPC-2251"
3338:. Springer. pp. 26–27.
2771:. 2018-08-21. Archived from
2216:automated optical inspection
1411:electronic design automation
1097:CEM-4, woven glass and epoxy
915:glass transition temperature
896:dielectric breakdown voltage
872:glass transition temperature
811:glass transition temperature
752:
747:
439:can be mass-duplicated from
154:Electronic design automation
7:
6525:Natural language processing
6313:Information storage systems
5670:Formal equivalence checking
4535:Static induction transistor
4472:Bipolar junction transistor
4424:MOS field-effect transistor
4396:Fin field-effect transistor
4017:Weisberg, David E. (2008).
2815:Harper, Charles A. (2003).
2739:Research, Energias Market.
2606:
2115:
1796:
734:distributed-element filters
150:point-to-point construction
10:
6857:
6441:Human–computer interaction
6411:Intrusion detection system
6323:Social information systems
6308:Database management system
5690:Hierarchical state machine
5648:Transaction-level modeling
4742:Static induction thyristor
3944:Wagner, G. Donald (1999).
3881:10.1016/j.ejor.2003.09.034
3847:10.1016/j.ejor.2007.03.042
3585:Industrial Laser Solutions
3398:. Newnes. pp. 443–6.
3196:Yung, Winco K. C. (2007).
2860:, College of Engineering,
2557:
2452:
1678:
1529:
1009:cloth impregnated with an
171:
50:
43:
36:
29:
6831:Electronics manufacturing
6770:
6707:Computational engineering
6682:Computational mathematics
6659:
6606:
6568:
6515:
6477:
6439:
6381:
6298:
6244:
6206:
6151:
6088:
6021:
5985:
5942:
5906:
5839:
5828:
5767:
5700:
5616:
5591:Digital signal processing
5576:Logic in computer science
5553:
5502:Programmable logic device
5462:Hybrid integrated circuit
5381:
5279:
5179:
5146:
5078:
5015:
4943:
4911:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
4849:
4781:
4663:Hybrid integrated circuit
4627:
4555:
4506:Light-emitting transistor
4460:
4342:
4331:
3776:Printed Circuits Handbook
3774:Coombs, Clyde F. (2007).
3497:. Springer. p. 285.
3344:10.1007/978-3-030-39284-0
3262:– via Google Books.
2990:10.1109/ESTC.2018.8546431
2956:
2540:
2535:polymerase chain reaction
2263:components on the board.
2231:analog signature analysis
2003:Solder resist application
1988:Electrochemical migration
1866:It is also possible with
1497:-times is also called an
1337:
1049:flexible printed circuits
1025:insulated metal substrate
997:phenol formaldehyde resin
972:, and cause cracking and
604:and an integrated circuit
537:
412:electromagnetic shielding
111:. It takes the form of a
6717:Computational healthcare
6712:Differentiable computing
6631:Graphics processing unit
6050:Domain-specific language
5919:Computational complexity
5603:Switching circuit theory
5508:Programmable Array Logic
5496:Programmable logic array
4958:Backward-wave oscillator
4668:Light emitting capacitor
4524:Point-contact transistor
4494:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
4201:"FAQ on RoHS Compliance"
2448:
2443:Control Data Corporation
2316:Many assembled PCBs are
2297:Protection and packaging
2229:While the power is off,
2210:While the power is off,
2145:surface-mount technology
2133:printed circuit assembly
2039:A legend (also known as
1940:Other platings used are
1893:
1361:Verification of the data
1148:comply with Knowledge's
939:signal propagation speed
855:Key substrate parameters
669:Surface-mount technology
656:either manually or by a
511:), and for an assembled
481:printed circuit assembly
163:surface mount technology
72:Part of a 1984 Sinclair
30:Not to be confused with
6692:Computational chemistry
6626:Photograph manipulation
6517:Artificial intelligence
6333:Decision support system
5653:Register-transfer level
4969:Crossed-field amplifier
4488:Field-effect transistor
4260:, Long Island Section.
4249:Colotti, James (2022).
3464:Bosshart (1983-01-01).
3437:Khandpur, R.S. (2005).
3392:Mitzner, Kraig (2011).
2745:GlobeNewswire News Room
2519:
2247:While the power is on,
2240:While the power is on,
2163:There are a variety of
2137:through-hole technology
1828:
906:...), and others (e.g.
826:polytetrafluoroethylene
645:through-hole technology
638:electrolytic capacitors
6836:Electronic engineering
6826:Electronics substrates
6821:Electrical engineering
6757:Educational technology
6588:Reinforcement learning
6338:Process control system
6236:Computational geometry
6226:Algorithmic efficiency
6221:Analysis of algorithms
5869:Systems on Chip (SoCs)
5544:Tensor Processing Unit
5138:Voltage-regulator tube
4705:MOS integrated circuit
4570:Constant-current diode
4546:Unijunction transistor
4288:Printed circuit boards
3633:. Mitsubishi Electric.
3619:. Mitsubishi Electric.
3423:. The Board Authority.
3125:. IPC. September 1991.
2570:European Single Market
2526:biomedical engineering
2481:
2469:
2415:
2403:
2169:pick-and-place machine
2128:
2020:
2012:
1806:
1785:
1761:electroless deposition
1745:in the circuit board.
1704:
1696:
1688:
1399:
1347:
1227:), 34.1 μm (1.34
617:
605:
593:
580:
568:
464:, often tan or brown.
395:
242:The Austrian engineer
239:
115:sandwich structure of
81:
65:
6727:Electronic publishing
6697:Computational biology
6687:Computational physics
6583:Unsupervised learning
6497:Distributed computing
6373:Information retrieval
6280:Mathematical analysis
6270:Mathematical software
6153:Theory of computation
6118:Software construction
6108:Requirements analysis
5986:Software organization
5914:Computer architecture
5884:Hardware acceleration
5849:Printed circuit board
5759:Electronic literature
5713:Hardware acceleration
5581:Computer architecture
5479:Emitter-coupled logic
5416:Printed circuit board
5207:Electrolytic detector
4980:Inductive output tube
4796:Low-dropout regulator
4711:Organic semiconductor
4642:Printed circuit board
4478:Darlington transistor
4325:Electronic components
4205:RoHS Compliance Guide
4128:. Eur-lex.europa.eu.
2958:US patent 5434751
2858:1984 Award Recipients
2601:operating temperature
2475:
2467:
2453:Further information:
2437:Before the advent of
2420:wire-ended components
2409:
2401:
2336:Cordwood construction
2123:
2049:component designators
2018:
2010:
1960:(ENEPIG), and direct
1862:Blind and buried vias
1804:
1775:
1751:is usually done with
1702:
1694:
1686:
1650:Laser resist ablation
1588:Laser resist ablation
1467:and lands are marked.
1396:
1388:photolithographically
1352:computer aided design
1345:
819:expansion coefficient
684:Electrical properties
674:surface mount devices
611:
599:
586:
574:
566:
505:circuit card assembly
393:
286:Post-war developments
237:
194:, or sometimes using
86:printed circuit board
71:
63:
6487:Concurrent computing
6459:Ubiquitous computing
6431:Application security
6426:Information security
6255:Discrete mathematics
6231:Randomized algorithm
6183:Computability theory
6161:Model of computation
6133:Software maintenance
6128:Software engineering
6090:Software development
6040:Programming language
6035:Programming paradigm
5952:Network architecture
5685:Finite-state machine
5663:High-level synthesis
5598:Circuit minimization
5025:Beam deflection tube
4694:Metal-oxide varistor
4587:Light-emitting diode
4441:Thin-film transistor
4402:Floating-gate MOSFET
4290:at Wikimedia Commons
3587:. September 1, 2012.
3249:Op Amps for Everyone
3205:Journal of the HKPCA
2671:AllAboutCircuits.com
2648:- resin used in PCBs
2364:improve this article
2332:and microwave PCBs.
2098:rigid needle adapter
1888:plated-through holes
1611:electrical discharge
1570:maskless lithography
1556:Silk screen printing
643:The first PCBs used
469:printed wiring board
445:photographic printer
272:Cledo Brunetti Award
183:wired point-to-point
107:to one another in a
94:printed wiring board
39:PCB (disambiguation)
37:For other uses, see
6762:Document management
6752:Operations research
6677:Enterprise software
6593:Multi-task learning
6578:Supervised learning
6300:Information systems
6123:Software deployment
6080:Software repository
5934:Real-time computing
5732:Digital photography
5514:Generic Array Logic
5436:Combinational logic
5411:Printed electronics
5375:Digital electronics
5001:Traveling-wave tube
4801:Switching regulator
4637:Printed electronics
4614:Step recovery diode
4391:Depletion-load NMOS
3987:. 11 February 2014.
3959:(1). Archived from
3276:. Microwavejournal.
3154:Circuitree Magazine
2769:The Industry Herald
2721:. 28 September 2015
2439:integrated circuits
2185:Selective soldering
2059:Silkscreen printing
2035:Legend / silkscreen
1916:Plating and coating
1780:mounted). Note the
1753:ammonium persulfate
1519:hatched copper pour
1162:improve the content
1031:Flexible substrates
935:dielectric constant
908:moisture absorption
904:tracking resistance
888:dielectric constant
791:dielectric constant
708:can be laid out in
532:silkscreen printing
477:etched wiring board
369:Recent advances in
32:Printed electronics
6545:Search methodology
6492:Parallel computing
6449:Interaction design
6358:Computing platform
6285:Numerical analysis
6275:Information theory
6060:Software framework
6023:Software notations
5962:Network components
5859:Integrated circuit
5680:Asynchronous logic
5456:Integrated circuit
5421:Electronic circuit
5306:Crystal oscillator
5166:Variable capacitor
4841:Switched capacitor
4783:Voltage regulators
4657:Integrated circuit
4541:Tetrode transistor
4519:Pentode transistor
4512:Organic LET (OLET)
4499:Organic FET (OFET)
4156:legislation.gov.uk
4060:10.3390/mi13030460
3176:circuitinsight.com
3167:Fjelstad, Joseph.
2621:Electronics portal
2572:participants, the
2482:
2470:
2416:
2404:
2326:grounded (earthed)
2261:nonvolatile memory
2129:
2021:
2013:
1807:
1786:
1749:Industrial etching
1705:
1697:
1689:
1572:or direct imaging.
1517:, and may include
1501:-panel, whereas a
1400:
1348:
817:), and the Z-axis
706:transmission lines
618:
606:
594:
581:
569:
559:Component mounting
517:backplane assembly
396:
280:integrated circuit
240:
82:
78:through-hole paths
66:
6808:
6807:
6737:Electronic voting
6667:Quantum Computing
6660:Applied computing
6646:Image compression
6416:Hardware security
6406:Security services
6363:Digital marketing
6143:Open-source model
6055:Modeling language
5967:Network scheduler
5788:
5787:
5737:Digital telephone
5708:Computer hardware
5675:Synchronous logic
5341:
5340:
5301:Ceramic resonator
5113:Mercury-arc valve
5065:Video camera tube
5017:Cathode-ray tubes
4777:
4776:
4385:Complementary MOS
4286:Media related to
4158:. 4 December 2012
4111:978-0-7506-6278-9
3930:978-0-07-014589-4
3785:978-0-07-146734-6
3683:978-0-309-10034-2
3650:. 8 October 2013.
3353:978-3-030-39284-0
3288:"RF-35 datasheet"
3221:. UBE, upilex.jp.
3111:. 21 August 2018.
3033:978-3-319-45098-8
2999:978-1-5386-6814-6
2890:on August 4, 2018
2402:A cordwood module
2396:
2395:
2388:
2303:conformal coating
2235:power-off testing
2212:visual inspection
2086:bare-board tested
1541:Copper patterning
1407:Schematic capture
1308:
1307:
1190:
1189:
1182:
980:Common substrates
884:thermal expansion
460:impregnated with
16:(Redirected from
6848:
6798:
6797:
6788:
6787:
6778:
6777:
6598:Cross-validation
6570:Machine learning
6454:Social computing
6421:Network security
6216:Algorithm design
6138:Programming team
6098:Control variable
6075:Software library
6013:Software quality
6008:Operating system
5957:Network protocol
5822:Computer science
5815:
5808:
5801:
5792:
5791:
5441:Sequential logic
5368:
5361:
5354:
5345:
5344:
5195:electrical power
5080:Gas-filled tubes
4964:Cavity magnetron
4791:Linear regulator
4340:
4339:
4318:
4311:
4304:
4295:
4294:
4285:
4275:
4273:
4272:
4266:
4255:
4244:
4242:
4241:
4235:
4228:
4209:
4208:
4197:
4191:
4189:
4174:
4168:
4167:
4165:
4163:
4148:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4122:
4116:
4115:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4072:
4062:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4024:. pp. 14–8.
4023:
4019:"14: Intergraph"
4014:
4008:
4007:
4006:
4002:
3995:
3989:
3988:
3981:
3975:
3974:
3972:
3971:
3965:
3950:
3941:
3935:
3934:
3916:
3910:
3909:
3907:
3906:
3900:
3891:
3885:
3884:
3866:
3857:
3851:
3850:
3840:
3820:
3814:
3813:
3812:on 11 July 2017.
3811:
3804:
3796:
3790:
3789:
3771:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3761:
3739:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3720:
3712:
3706:
3705:
3694:
3688:
3687:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3549:
3543:
3542:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3525:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3488:
3482:
3481:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3434:
3425:
3424:
3416:
3410:
3409:
3389:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3372:
3366:
3365:
3329:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3316:
3307:. Archived from
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3284:
3278:
3277:
3270:
3264:
3263:
3243:
3237:
3236:
3229:
3223:
3222:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3202:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3173:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3151:
3142:
3136:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3078:
3072:
3069:
3063:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3018:
3012:
3011:
2984:. pp. 1–5.
2973:
2967:
2966:
2965:
2961:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2942:
2932:
2926:
2923:
2917:
2914:
2908:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2889:
2883:. Archived from
2878:
2870:
2864:
2856:Engineers' Day,
2854:
2848:
2847:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2812:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2751:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2727:
2726:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2701:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2677:
2663:
2623:
2618:
2617:
2500:Multiwire boards
2391:
2384:
2380:
2377:
2371:
2348:
2340:
2271:) standard. The
1956:(ENIG) coating,
1946:immersion silver
1868:controlled-depth
1815:tungsten carbide
1805:Eyelets (hollow)
1735:General Electric
1615:dielectric fluid
1234:
1233:
1185:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1165:
1141:
1140:
1133:
1129:Copper thickness
1021:metal core board
876:tensile strength
803:tensile strength
640:and connectors.
21:
18:Conductive trace
6856:
6855:
6851:
6850:
6849:
6847:
6846:
6845:
6811:
6810:
6809:
6804:
6795:
6766:
6747:Word processing
6655:
6641:Virtual reality
6602:
6564:
6535:Computer vision
6511:
6507:Multiprocessing
6473:
6435:
6401:Security hacker
6377:
6353:Digital library
6294:
6245:Mathematics of
6240:
6202:
6178:Automata theory
6173:Formal language
6147:
6113:Software design
6084:
6017:
6003:Virtual machine
5981:
5977:Network service
5938:
5929:Embedded system
5902:
5835:
5824:
5819:
5789:
5784:
5763:
5696:
5631:Place and route
5626:Logic synthesis
5612:
5608:Gate equivalent
5571:Logic synthesis
5566:Boolean algebra
5549:
5491:Macrocell array
5451:Boolean circuit
5377:
5372:
5342:
5337:
5275:
5190:audio and video
5175:
5142:
5074:
5011:
4939:
4920:Photomultiplier
4845:
4773:
4721:Quantum circuit
4629:
4623:
4565:Avalanche diode
4551:
4463:
4456:
4345:
4334:
4327:
4322:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4253:
4239:
4237:
4233:
4226:
4218:
4216:Further reading
4213:
4212:
4199:
4198:
4194:
4176:
4175:
4171:
4161:
4159:
4150:
4149:
4145:
4135:
4133:
4124:
4123:
4119:
4112:
4090:
4086:
4033:
4029:
4021:
4015:
4011:
4004:
3996:
3992:
3983:
3982:
3978:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3948:
3942:
3938:
3931:
3917:
3913:
3904:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3888:
3864:
3858:
3854:
3838:10.1.1.486.8305
3821:
3817:
3809:
3802:
3798:
3797:
3793:
3786:
3772:
3768:
3759:
3757:
3740:
3736:
3728:
3724:
3713:
3709:
3696:
3695:
3691:
3684:
3660:
3659:
3655:
3647:
3643:
3642:
3638:
3629:
3628:
3624:
3615:
3614:
3610:
3605:. 15 June 2002.
3597:
3596:
3592:
3579:
3578:
3574:
3565:
3564:
3560:
3551:
3550:
3546:
3537:
3536:
3532:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3489:
3485:
3478:
3462:
3458:
3451:
3435:
3428:
3417:
3413:
3406:
3390:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3369:
3354:
3330:
3323:
3314:
3312:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3290:
3286:
3285:
3281:
3272:
3271:
3267:
3260:
3244:
3240:
3231:
3230:
3226:
3217:
3216:
3212:
3200:
3194:
3190:
3180:
3178:
3171:
3165:
3161:
3149:
3143:
3139:
3134:
3130:
3121:
3120:
3116:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3059:
3055:
3050:. October 2019.
3046:
3045:
3041:
3034:
3020:
3019:
3015:
3000:
2974:
2970:
2963:
2955:
2951:
2944:
2933:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2915:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2893:
2891:
2887:
2876:
2872:
2871:
2867:
2855:
2851:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2813:
2806:
2799:
2791:
2787:
2778:
2776:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2749:
2747:
2737:
2733:
2724:
2722:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2699:
2697:
2689:
2688:
2684:
2675:
2673:
2665:
2664:
2660:
2655:
2619:
2612:
2609:
2566:
2558:Main articles:
2556:
2543:
2522:
2502:
2462:
2460:Breakout boards
2457:
2451:
2412:proximity fuzes
2392:
2381:
2375:
2372:
2361:
2349:
2338:
2322:antistatic bags
2299:
2249:functional test
2242:in-circuit test
2224:quality control
2118:
2090:electrical test
2082:
2080:Bare-board test
2037:
2005:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1966:Edge connectors
1964:(over nickel).
1935:ball grid array
1918:
1906:process, or by
1896:
1882:
1864:
1850:—evaporated by
1844:
1831:
1799:
1770:
1757:ferric chloride
1719:ferric chloride
1681:
1548:hybrid circuits
1543:
1534:
1528:
1511:panel fiducials
1491:
1427:are determined.
1340:
1335:
1253:1/2 oz/ft
1186:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1159:
1156:MOS:CONVERSIONS
1150:Manual of Style
1142:
1138:
1131:
1047:foil. Used for
982:
929:
924:
920:
900:leakage current
886:), electrical (
857:
842:ball grid array
816:
796:
755:
750:
686:
561:
540:
388:
367:
365:Recent advances
296:Geoffrey Dummer
288:
255:proximity fuzes
232:
179:
174:
92:), also called
56:
49:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6854:
6844:
6843:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6806:
6805:
6803:
6802:
6792:
6782:
6771:
6768:
6767:
6765:
6764:
6759:
6754:
6749:
6744:
6739:
6734:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6699:
6694:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6663:
6661:
6657:
6656:
6654:
6653:
6651:Solid modeling
6648:
6643:
6638:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6618:
6612:
6610:
6604:
6603:
6601:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6580:
6574:
6572:
6566:
6565:
6563:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6550:Control method
6547:
6542:
6537:
6532:
6527:
6521:
6519:
6513:
6512:
6510:
6509:
6504:
6502:Multithreading
6499:
6494:
6489:
6483:
6481:
6475:
6474:
6472:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6445:
6443:
6437:
6436:
6434:
6433:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6408:
6403:
6398:
6396:Formal methods
6393:
6387:
6385:
6379:
6378:
6376:
6375:
6370:
6368:World Wide Web
6365:
6360:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6335:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6315:
6310:
6304:
6302:
6296:
6295:
6293:
6292:
6287:
6282:
6277:
6272:
6267:
6262:
6257:
6251:
6249:
6242:
6241:
6239:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6212:
6210:
6204:
6203:
6201:
6200:
6195:
6190:
6185:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6169:
6168:
6157:
6155:
6149:
6148:
6146:
6145:
6140:
6135:
6130:
6125:
6120:
6115:
6110:
6105:
6100:
6094:
6092:
6086:
6085:
6083:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6031:
6029:
6019:
6018:
6016:
6015:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5989:
5987:
5983:
5982:
5980:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5948:
5946:
5940:
5939:
5937:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5916:
5910:
5908:
5904:
5903:
5901:
5900:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5845:
5843:
5837:
5836:
5829:
5826:
5825:
5818:
5817:
5810:
5803:
5795:
5786:
5785:
5783:
5782:
5777:
5771:
5769:
5765:
5764:
5762:
5761:
5756:
5755:
5754:
5749:
5747:cinematography
5739:
5734:
5729:
5728:
5727:
5717:
5716:
5715:
5704:
5702:
5698:
5697:
5695:
5694:
5693:
5692:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5666:
5665:
5660:
5650:
5645:
5644:
5643:
5638:
5628:
5622:
5620:
5614:
5613:
5611:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5595:
5594:
5593:
5586:Digital signal
5583:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5561:Digital signal
5557:
5555:
5551:
5550:
5548:
5547:
5541:
5535:
5529:
5523:
5517:
5511:
5505:
5499:
5493:
5488:
5482:
5476:
5470:
5465:
5459:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5393:
5387:
5385:
5379:
5378:
5371:
5370:
5363:
5356:
5348:
5339:
5338:
5336:
5335:
5334:
5333:
5328:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5297:
5296:
5285:
5283:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5271:
5269:Wollaston wire
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5235:
5234:
5229:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5203:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5183:
5181:
5177:
5176:
5174:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5162:
5161:
5150:
5148:
5144:
5143:
5141:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5084:
5082:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5050:Selectron tube
5047:
5042:
5040:Magic eye tube
5037:
5032:
5027:
5021:
5019:
5013:
5012:
5010:
5009:
5004:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4977:
4972:
4966:
4961:
4954:
4952:
4941:
4940:
4938:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4906:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4866:
4861:
4855:
4853:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4787:
4785:
4779:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4772:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4745:
4739:
4734:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4702:
4697:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4665:
4660:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4633:
4631:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4609:Schottky diode
4606:
4601:
4596:
4590:
4584:
4578:
4573:
4567:
4561:
4559:
4553:
4552:
4550:
4549:
4543:
4538:
4532:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4515:
4514:
4503:
4502:
4501:
4496:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4468:
4466:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4438:
4433:
4427:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4405:
4399:
4393:
4388:
4382:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4350:
4348:
4337:
4329:
4328:
4321:
4320:
4313:
4306:
4298:
4292:
4291:
4278:
4277:
4256:. Revision 5.
4246:
4217:
4214:
4211:
4210:
4192:
4188:on 2019-04-19.
4169:
4143:
4117:
4110:
4084:
4027:
4009:
3990:
3976:
3936:
3929:
3911:
3886:
3875:(3): 609–626.
3852:
3831:(3): 893–914.
3815:
3791:
3784:
3766:
3734:
3722:
3707:
3689:
3682:
3674:10.17226/11515
3653:
3636:
3622:
3608:
3590:
3572:
3558:
3544:
3530:
3510:
3503:
3483:
3476:
3456:
3449:
3426:
3411:
3404:
3384:
3367:
3352:
3321:
3296:
3279:
3265:
3258:
3238:
3224:
3210:
3188:
3159:
3137:
3128:
3114:
3100:
3093:
3073:
3064:
3053:
3039:
3032:
3013:
2998:
2968:
2949:
2927:
2918:
2909:
2900:
2865:
2849:
2832:
2825:
2804:
2785:
2756:
2731:
2706:
2682:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2608:
2605:
2574:United Kingdom
2555:
2552:
2542:
2539:
2521:
2518:
2501:
2498:
2490:breakout board
2488:, is called a
2461:
2458:
2450:
2447:
2394:
2393:
2352:
2350:
2343:
2337:
2334:
2298:
2295:
2253:
2252:
2245:
2238:
2227:
2181:soldering iron
2117:
2114:
2081:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2065:
2062:
2036:
2033:
2004:
2001:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1917:
1914:
1909:Plasma etching
1895:
1892:
1880:
1863:
1860:
1843:
1840:
1830:
1827:
1798:
1795:
1769:
1766:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1675:
1669:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1619:
1618:
1601:
1595:
1585:
1573:
1564:Photoengraving
1560:
1542:
1539:
1530:Main article:
1527:
1524:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1478:
1468:
1461:
1450:Line impedance
1447:
1428:
1421:
1418:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1315:, or 35 mic).
1306:
1305:
1302:
1301:102.3 μm
1299:
1296:
1292:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1264:
1263:
1260:
1259:17.05 μm
1257:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1188:
1187:
1145:
1143:
1136:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1119:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1052:
1028:
1014:
1000:
993:phenolic paper
981:
978:
927:
922:
918:
880:shear strength
856:
853:
814:
807:shear strength
794:
787:fire retardant
754:
751:
749:
746:
685:
682:
658:wave soldering
614:computer mouse
560:
557:
539:
536:
521:expansion card
462:phenolic resin
441:film negatives
408:circuit traces
387:
384:
366:
363:
347:wave-soldering
298:, then at the
287:
284:
231:
228:
178:
175:
173:
170:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6853:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6818:
6816:
6801:
6793:
6791:
6783:
6781:
6773:
6772:
6769:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6745:
6743:
6740:
6738:
6735:
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6715:
6713:
6710:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6698:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6664:
6662:
6658:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6636:Mixed reality
6634:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6613:
6611:
6609:
6605:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6579:
6576:
6575:
6573:
6571:
6567:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6522:
6520:
6518:
6514:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6484:
6482:
6480:
6476:
6470:
6469:Accessibility
6467:
6465:
6464:Visualization
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6442:
6438:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6404:
6402:
6399:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6388:
6386:
6384:
6380:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6336:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6305:
6303:
6301:
6297:
6291:
6288:
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6252:
6250:
6248:
6243:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6213:
6211:
6209:
6205:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6167:
6164:
6163:
6162:
6159:
6158:
6156:
6154:
6150:
6144:
6141:
6139:
6136:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6095:
6093:
6091:
6087:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6032:
6030:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5990:
5988:
5984:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5941:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5924:Dependability
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5911:
5909:
5905:
5899:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5846:
5844:
5842:
5838:
5833:
5827:
5823:
5816:
5811:
5809:
5804:
5802:
5797:
5796:
5793:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5775:Metastability
5773:
5772:
5770:
5768:Design issues
5766:
5760:
5757:
5753:
5750:
5748:
5745:
5744:
5743:
5742:Digital video
5740:
5738:
5735:
5733:
5730:
5726:
5723:
5722:
5721:
5720:Digital audio
5718:
5714:
5711:
5710:
5709:
5706:
5705:
5703:
5699:
5691:
5688:
5687:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5655:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5633:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5623:
5621:
5619:
5615:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5592:
5589:
5588:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5558:
5556:
5552:
5545:
5542:
5539:
5536:
5533:
5530:
5527:
5524:
5521:
5518:
5515:
5512:
5509:
5506:
5503:
5500:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5486:
5483:
5480:
5477:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5463:
5460:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5386:
5384:
5380:
5376:
5369:
5364:
5362:
5357:
5355:
5350:
5349:
5346:
5332:
5331:mercury relay
5329:
5327:
5324:
5323:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5295:
5292:
5291:
5290:
5287:
5286:
5284:
5282:
5278:
5270:
5267:
5266:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5224:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5187:
5185:
5184:
5182:
5178:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5155:
5154:Potentiometer
5152:
5151:
5149:
5145:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5085:
5083:
5081:
5077:
5071:
5070:Williams tube
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5022:
5020:
5018:
5014:
5008:
5005:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4959:
4956:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4889:Fleming valve
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4856:
4854:
4852:
4848:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4788:
4786:
4784:
4780:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4746:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4716:Photodetector
4714:
4712:
4709:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4684:Memtransistor
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4632:
4626:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4591:
4588:
4585:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4562:
4560:
4558:
4554:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4536:
4533:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4459:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4431:
4428:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4409:
4406:
4403:
4400:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4386:
4383:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4347:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:Semiconductor
4330:
4326:
4319:
4314:
4312:
4307:
4305:
4300:
4299:
4296:
4289:
4284:
4280:
4279:
4263:
4259:
4252:
4247:
4232:
4225:
4220:
4219:
4206:
4202:
4196:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4173:
4157:
4153:
4147:
4131:
4127:
4121:
4113:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4088:
4080:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4043:
4042:Micromachines
4038:
4031:
4020:
4013:
4000:
3994:
3986:
3980:
3966:on 2017-05-10
3962:
3958:
3954:
3947:
3940:
3932:
3926:
3922:
3915:
3897:
3894:Borkes, Tom.
3890:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3863:
3856:
3848:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3819:
3808:
3801:
3795:
3787:
3781:
3777:
3770:
3756:on 2017-10-14
3755:
3751:
3750:
3745:
3738:
3731:
3726:
3718:
3711:
3703:
3699:
3693:
3685:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3657:
3646:
3640:
3632:
3626:
3618:
3612:
3604:
3603:MMSOnline.com
3600:
3594:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3568:
3562:
3554:
3548:
3540:
3539:"プリント回路配線の修復"
3534:
3520:
3514:
3506:
3504:9783662131619
3500:
3496:
3495:
3487:
3479:
3477:9780074515495
3473:
3469:
3468:
3460:
3452:
3450:0-07-058814-7
3446:
3442:
3441:
3433:
3431:
3422:
3415:
3407:
3405:9780080943541
3401:
3397:
3396:
3388:
3377:
3371:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3336:
3328:
3326:
3311:on 2015-09-23
3310:
3306:
3300:
3289:
3283:
3275:
3269:
3261:
3259:9780080949482
3255:
3251:
3250:
3242:
3234:
3228:
3220:
3214:
3206:
3199:
3192:
3177:
3170:
3163:
3155:
3148:
3141:
3132:
3124:
3118:
3110:
3104:
3096:
3094:0-08-043152-6
3090:
3086:
3085:
3077:
3068:
3062:
3057:
3049:
3043:
3035:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3017:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2972:
2959:
2953:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2922:
2913:
2904:
2886:
2882:
2875:
2869:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2845:
2844:
2836:
2828:
2822:
2818:
2811:
2809:
2795:
2789:
2775:on 2022-03-02
2774:
2770:
2766:
2760:
2746:
2742:
2735:
2720:
2716:
2710:
2696:
2695:ScienceDirect
2692:
2686:
2672:
2668:
2662:
2658:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2640:Occam process
2638:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2622:
2616:
2611:
2604:
2602:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2565:
2561:
2551:
2549:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2531:Lab-on-a-chip
2527:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2506:
2497:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2479:
2474:
2466:
2456:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2413:
2408:
2400:
2390:
2387:
2379:
2376:December 2016
2369:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2353:This section
2351:
2347:
2342:
2341:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2257:boundary scan
2250:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2161:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2127:
2122:
2113:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2074:
2073:serial number
2070:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2017:
2009:
2000:
1998:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1950:immersion tin
1947:
1943:
1938:
1936:
1931:
1929:
1924:
1921:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1891:
1889:
1884:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1848:laser drilled
1839:
1837:
1826:
1824:
1823:Excellon file
1820:
1816:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1727:
1726:electroplated
1722:
1720:
1714:
1712:
1711:
1701:
1693:
1685:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1656:Laser etching
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1622:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1598:Laser etching
1596:
1593:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1571:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1538:
1533:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1507:tooling holes
1504:
1500:
1496:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1471:Signal traces
1469:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1426:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1395:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1384:dry transfers
1381:
1377:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1355:
1353:
1344:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1303:
1300:
1298:900 g/m
1297:
1295:3 oz/ft
1294:
1293:
1289:
1287:68.2 μm
1286:
1284:600 g/m
1283:
1281:2 oz/ft
1280:
1279:
1275:
1273:34.1 μm
1272:
1270:300 g/m
1269:
1267:1 oz/ft
1266:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1256:150 g/m
1255:
1252:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1184:
1181:
1173:
1163:
1157:
1153:
1151:
1144:
1135:
1134:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1001:
998:
994:
990:
987:
986:
985:
977:
975:
971:
966:
962:
956:
954:
948:
945:
942:
940:
936:
931:
916:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
868:
864:
862:
852:
848:
845:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
822:
820:
812:
808:
804:
801:(tan δ), the
800:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
771:
769:
765:
760:
745:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
710:a planar form
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
681:
679:
675:
670:
666:
663:
662:signal traces
659:
655:
650:
646:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
615:
610:
603:
598:
590:
585:
579:home computer
578:
573:
565:
556:
552:
550:
544:
535:
533:
529:
524:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
465:
463:
459:
455:
452:
448:
446:
442:
438:
433:
428:
426:
422:
418:
413:
409:
405:
401:
392:
383:
381:
375:
372:
362:
360:
354:
350:
348:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
325:
320:
316:
311:
307:
303:
301:
297:
293:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
260:screenprinted
256:
251:
249:
245:
236:
227:
225:
221:
220:John Sargrove
216:
214:
210:
206:
205:Thomas Edison
200:
197:
193:
189:
184:
169:
166:
164:
158:
155:
151:
147:
142:
140:
139:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
79:
75:
70:
62:
58:
54:
47:
40:
33:
19:
6732:Cyberwarfare
6391:Cryptography
5848:
5701:Applications
5415:
5088:Cold cathode
5055:Storage tube
4945:Vacuum tubes
4894:Neutron tube
4869:Beam tetrode
4851:Vacuum tubes
4641:
4436:Power MOSFET
4269:. Retrieved
4238:. Retrieved
4204:
4195:
4186:the original
4181:
4172:
4160:. Retrieved
4155:
4146:
4134:. Retrieved
4120:
4093:
4087:
4046:
4040:
4030:
4012:
3993:
3979:
3968:. Retrieved
3961:the original
3956:
3952:
3939:
3920:
3914:
3903:. Retrieved
3889:
3872:
3868:
3855:
3828:
3824:
3818:
3807:the original
3794:
3775:
3769:
3758:. Retrieved
3754:the original
3748:
3737:
3725:
3710:
3701:
3692:
3665:
3656:
3639:
3625:
3611:
3602:
3593:
3584:
3575:
3561:
3547:
3533:
3522:. Retrieved
3519:"PCB Layout"
3513:
3493:
3486:
3466:
3459:
3439:
3420:
3414:
3394:
3387:
3370:
3334:
3313:. Retrieved
3309:the original
3299:
3282:
3268:
3248:
3241:
3227:
3213:
3207:(24): 12–16.
3204:
3191:
3179:. Retrieved
3175:
3162:
3153:
3140:
3131:
3122:
3117:
3103:
3083:
3076:
3067:
3056:
3042:
3022:
3016:
2981:
2971:
2952:
2930:
2921:
2912:
2903:
2892:. Retrieved
2885:the original
2868:
2852:
2842:
2835:
2816:
2788:
2777:. Retrieved
2773:the original
2768:
2759:
2748:. Retrieved
2744:
2734:
2723:. Retrieved
2718:
2709:
2698:. Retrieved
2694:
2685:
2674:. Retrieved
2670:
2661:
2598:
2567:
2544:
2523:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2494:
2489:
2483:
2436:
2417:
2382:
2373:
2362:Please help
2357:verification
2354:
2315:
2300:
2288:
2282:
2265:
2254:
2205:
2197:
2194:
2173:reflow ovens
2162:
2152:
2148:
2140:
2132:
2130:
2109:
2104:flying probe
2102:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2083:
2053:
2044:
2040:
2038:
2022:
1987:
1986:
1962:gold plating
1939:
1932:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1897:
1887:
1885:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1865:
1855:
1845:
1832:
1818:
1813:coated with
1808:
1791:
1787:
1747:
1731:
1723:
1715:
1708:
1706:
1640:Small volume
1625:Large volume
1620:
1603:
1597:
1587:
1575:
1562:
1554:
1544:
1535:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1492:
1489:Panelization
1482:Gerber files
1436:power planes
1414:
1401:
1373:
1367:Panelization
1349:
1333:Construction
1309:
1220:
1214:
1206:
1202:Heavy copper
1201:
1191:
1176:
1167:
1160:Please help
1147:
1062:
1020:
983:
974:delamination
957:
949:
946:
943:
932:
912:
892:loss tangent
869:
865:
858:
849:
846:
823:
799:loss tangent
772:
756:
698:ground plane
687:
667:
642:
619:
577:Commodore 64
553:
549:ground plane
545:
541:
525:
516:
508:
504:
496:
493:PCB assembly
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
466:
458:cotton paper
449:
429:
407:
397:
376:
368:
355:
351:
334:dip soldered
329:
326:construction
324:through-hole
323:
312:
308:
304:
291:
289:
252:
241:
217:
201:
188:jumper wires
180:
177:Predecessors
167:
159:
143:
137:
97:
93:
89:
85:
83:
57:
6742:Video games
6722:Digital art
6479:Concurrency
6348:Data mining
6260:Probability
5993:Interpreter
5431:Memory cell
5254:Transformer
4996:Sutton tube
4836:Charge pump
4689:Memory cell
4619:Zener diode
4581:Laser diode
4464:transistors
4346:transistors
3985:"StackPath"
2719:iconnect007
2554:Legislation
2486:prototyping
2126:test points
2025:solder mask
1970:gold-plated
1928:solder mask
1877:buried vias
1653:PCB milling
1577:PCB milling
1515:test coupon
1509:, a set of
1503:multi-panel
1409:through an
1378:on a clear
1198:square foot
1011:epoxy resin
953:eye pattern
861:epoxy resin
730:capacitance
622:transistors
612:A PCB in a
602:transistors
528:test points
454:glass epoxy
437:photographs
432:photoresist
425:solder mask
386:Composition
371:3D printing
330:Auto-Sembly
292:Auto-Sembly
244:Paul Eisler
199:expensive.
74:ZX Spectrum
46:Motherboard
6815:Categories
6800:Glossaries
6672:E-commerce
6265:Statistics
6208:Algorithms
6166:Stochastic
5998:Middleware
5854:Peripheral
5780:Runt pulse
5752:television
5446:Logic gate
5391:Transistor
5383:Components
5326:reed relay
5316:Parametron
5249:Thermistor
5227:resettable
5186:Connector
5147:Adjustable
5123:Nixie tube
5093:Crossatron
5060:Trochotron
5035:Iconoscope
5030:Charactron
5007:X-ray tube
4879:Compactron
4859:Acorn tube
4816:Buck–boost
4737:Solaristor
4599:Photodiode
4576:Gunn diode
4572:(CLD, CRD)
4354:Transistor
4276:(81 pages)
4271:2022-05-09
4245:(45 pages)
4240:2022-05-09
3999:US 4175816
3970:2016-12-19
3905:2010-01-11
3760:2017-04-14
3524:2018-05-17
3315:2013-03-30
3252:. Newnes.
3181:17 January
2936:US 2756485
2894:2018-08-04
2826:0071402144
2794:US 1256599
2779:2018-08-26
2750:2018-08-26
2725:2016-04-12
2700:2021-06-24
2676:2021-06-24
2653:References
2629:Breadboard
2564:China RoHS
2177:microscope
2094:PCB e-test
2045:silkscreen
1873:blind vias
1856:micro vias
1842:Micro vias
1819:drill file
1811:drill bits
1768:Lamination
1672:Vinyl film
1532:depaneling
1526:Depaneling
1454:Microstrip
1425:heat sinks
1304:4.02 thou
1290:2.68 thou
1276:1.34 thou
1262:0.67 thou
1007:fiberglass
1005:, a woven
965:Polyimides
768:dielectric
726:inductance
718:microstrip
704:circuits,
694:resistance
589:drill bits
338:lamination
230:Early PCBs
213:Max Schoop
121:insulating
117:conductive
105:components
6621:Rendering
6616:Animation
6247:computing
6198:Semantics
5889:Processor
5636:Placement
5426:Flip-flop
5406:Capacitor
5289:Capacitor
5133:Trigatron
5128:Thyratron
5118:Neon lamp
5045:Monoscope
4925:Phototube
4909:Pentagrid
4874:Barretter
4759:Trancitor
4754:Thyristor
4679:Memristor
4604:PIN diode
4381:(ChemFET)
3833:CiteSeerX
3362:215840278
3235:. DuPont.
3071:IPC-14.38
2511:crosstalk
2455:Monoboard
2428:computers
2311:sputtered
2165:soldering
2156:are then
2124:PCB with
2110:instructs
1458:stripline
1376:photomask
1122:Polyimide
1045:polyimide
970:soldering
759:thermoset
753:Laminates
748:Materials
722:impedance
714:stripline
702:microwave
634:resistors
587:A box of
513:backplane
417:corrosion
380:flip chip
264:resistors
192:soldering
146:wire wrap
133:soldering
129:laminated
113:laminated
6780:Category
6608:Graphics
6383:Security
6045:Compiler
5944:Networks
5841:Hardware
5401:Inductor
5396:Resistor
5311:Inductor
5281:Reactive
5259:Varistor
5239:Resistor
5217:Antifuse
5103:Ignitron
5098:Dekatron
4986:Klystron
4975:Gyrotron
4904:Nuvistor
4821:Split-pi
4707:(MOS IC)
4674:Memistor
4432:(MuGFET)
4426:(MOSFET)
4398:(FinFET)
4262:Archived
4231:Archived
4162:31 March
4130:Archived
4079:35334752
3008:54214952
2646:BT-Epoxy
2607:See also
2285:desolder
2200:SMT page
2158:soldered
2116:Assembly
2069:bar code
1997:tin pest
1992:whiskers
1904:de-smear
1883:lasers.
1797:Drilling
1661:Hobbyist
1609:uses an
1170:May 2024
1017:Aluminum
738:antennae
712:such as
654:soldered
630:IC chips
443:using a
359:microvia
319:soldered
224:Bakelite
6790:Outline
5641:Routing
5475:(3D IC)
5212:Ferrite
5180:Passive
5171:Varicap
5159:digital
5108:Krytron
4930:Tetrode
4915:Pentode
4769:Varicap
4750:(3D IC)
4726:RF CMOS
4630:devices
4404:(FGMOS)
4335:devices
4070:8952574
4053:: 460.
3919:Shibu.
2594:mercury
2590:cadmium
2548:e-waste
2478:SD card
2071:with a
1952:(ISn),
1948:(IAg),
1944:(OSP),
1739:plating
1710:etching
1679:Etching
1607:etching
1582:plotter
1417:) tool.
1116:Alumina
1055:Pyralux
913:At the
797:), the
342:etching
172:History
109:circuit
5618:Design
5554:Theory
5540:(ASIC)
5534:(FPOA)
5528:(FPGA)
5522:(CPLD)
5487:(EPLD)
5244:Switch
4935:Triode
4899:Nonode
4864:Audion
4744:(SITh)
4628:Other
4595:(OLED)
4557:Diodes
4508:(LET)
4490:(FET)
4462:Other
4410:(IGBT)
4387:(CMOS)
4374:BioFET
4369:BiCMOS
4229:. V6.
4136:3 July
4108:
4077:
4067:
4005:
3927:
3835:
3782:
3680:
3501:
3474:
3447:
3402:
3360:
3350:
3256:
3091:
3030:
3006:
2996:
2964:
2945:
2823:
2800:
2580:, and
2578:Turkey
2541:Repair
2432:nickel
2318:static
2290:rework
1980:and Ag
1852:lasers
1475:routed
1432:Ground
1338:Design
1313:micron
1237:oz/ft
1217:ounces
1041:UPILEX
1037:Kapton
961:Teflon
809:, the
805:, the
789:, the
740:, and
690:copper
678:1N4148
626:diodes
592:board.
538:Layers
515:it is
421:shorts
404:copper
125:etched
102:"wire"
6193:Logic
6027:tools
5725:radio
5546:(TPU)
5516:(GAL)
5510:(PAL)
5504:(PLD)
5498:(PLA)
5481:(ECL)
5464:(HIC)
5321:Relay
5294:types
5232:eFUSE
5003:(TWT)
4991:Maser
4982:(IOT)
4971:(CFA)
4960:(BWO)
4884:Diode
4831:SEPIC
4811:Boost
4764:TRIAC
4733:(SCR)
4696:(MOV)
4670:(LEC)
4589:(LED)
4548:(UJT)
4537:(SIT)
4531:(PUT)
4474:(BJT)
4443:(TFT)
4419:LDMOS
4414:ISFET
4265:(PDF)
4254:(PDF)
4234:(PDF)
4227:(PDF)
4049:(3).
4022:(PDF)
3964:(PDF)
3949:(PDF)
3899:(PDF)
3865:(PDF)
3810:(PDF)
3803:(PDF)
3648:(PDF)
3379:(PDF)
3358:S2CID
3291:(PDF)
3201:(PDF)
3172:(PDF)
3150:(PDF)
3004:S2CID
2888:(PDF)
2877:(PDF)
2582:China
2449:Types
2424:fuzes
2220:JEDEC
2153:lands
1900:smear
1894:Smear
1398:used.
1380:mylar
1221:ounce
1194:ounce
1019:, or
775:resin
764:resin
742:fuses
649:leads
475:) or
315:leads
196:crimp
6025:and
5898:Form
5894:Size
5458:(IC)
5264:Wire
5222:Fuse
4806:Buck
4659:(IC)
4647:DIAC
4583:(LD)
4452:UMOS
4447:VMOS
4364:PMOS
4359:NMOS
4344:MOS
4258:IEEE
4164:2022
4138:2015
4106:ISBN
4075:PMID
4051:MDPI
3925:ISBN
3780:ISBN
3678:ISBN
3499:ISBN
3472:ISBN
3445:ISBN
3400:ISBN
3348:ISBN
3254:ISBN
3183:2024
3089:ISBN
3028:ISBN
2994:ISBN
2881:IEEE
2821:ISBN
2592:and
2586:lead
2562:and
2520:Uses
2330:MCMs
2278:JTAG
2273:JTAG
2269:JTAG
2149:pads
2141:pads
2041:silk
1836:vias
1829:Vias
1743:vias
1513:, a
1473:are
1465:Vias
1434:and
1247:thou
1240:g/m
1229:thou
1225:thou
1196:per
1104:PTFE
1080:G-10
1043:, a
1003:FR-4
989:FR-2
838:G-10
834:FR-4
830:FR-2
783:G-10
781:-1,
728:and
497:PCBA
451:FR-4
400:foil
340:and
300:RRDE
209:etch
148:and
138:vias
119:and
53:N-up
4826:Ćuk
4098:doi
4065:PMC
4055:doi
3877:doi
3873:164
3843:doi
3829:186
3730:IPC
3670:doi
3340:doi
2986:doi
2366:by
2307:wax
2189:BGA
2151:or
2092:or
2043:or
1821:or
1782:via
1778:BGA
1755:or
1605:EDM
1592:CNC
1550:.)
1444:EMI
1415:EDA
1311:35
1243:μm
1039:or
1023:or
910:).
779:CEM
716:or
509:CCA
501:IPC
491:or
487:),
485:PCA
473:PWB
190:by
98:PWB
90:PCB
6817::
5896:/
5200:RF
4949:RF
4203:.
4180:.
4154:.
4104:.
4073:.
4063:.
4047:13
4045:.
4039:.
3957:20
3955:.
3951:.
3871:.
3867:.
3841:.
3827:.
3746:.
3700:.
3676:.
3664:.
3601:.
3583:.
3429:^
3356:.
3346:.
3324:^
3203:.
3174:.
3152:.
3002:.
2992:.
2980:.
2879:.
2807:^
2767:.
2743:.
2717:.
2693:.
2669:.
2588:,
2576:,
2550:.
2293:.
2233:,
2218:.
2214:,
1976:Sn
1838:.
1456:,
1440:AC
1209:oz
991:,
955:.
930:.
902:,
898:,
894:,
890:,
882:,
878:,
874:,
813:(T
793:(e
736:,
632:,
628:,
624:,
523:.
447:.
427:.
302:.
250:.
84:A
5834:.
5814:e
5807:t
5800:v
5367:e
5360:t
5353:v
4951:)
4947:(
4317:e
4310:t
4303:v
4274:.
4243:.
4207:.
4166:.
4140:.
4114:.
4100::
4081:.
4057::
3973:.
3933:.
3908:.
3883:.
3879::
3849:.
3845::
3788:.
3763:.
3719:.
3686:.
3672::
3569:.
3555:.
3541:.
3527:.
3507:.
3480:.
3453:.
3408:.
3381:.
3364:.
3342::
3318:.
3185:.
3156:.
3097:.
3036:.
3010:.
2988::
2897:.
2829:.
2782:.
2753:.
2728:.
2703:.
2679:.
2414:.
2389:)
2383:(
2378:)
2374:(
2360:.
2237:.
2202:.
2075:.
1982:3
1978:5
1974:6
1881:2
1617:.
1499:n
1495:n
1413:(
1183:)
1177:(
1172:)
1168:(
1164:.
1158:.
1152:.
928:g
923:g
919:g
815:g
795:r
507:(
495:(
483:(
471:(
96:(
88:(
55:.
48:.
41:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.