History of Chinese Americans

3846: 3073:. Nevertheless, these young men had no idea that they had been brought from San Francisco by the superintendent of the shoe factory to act as strikebreakers at their destination. This incident provided the trade unions with propaganda, later repeatedly cited, calling for the immediate and total exclusion of the Chinese. This particular controversy slackened somewhat as attention focused on the economic crises in 1875 when the majority of cigar and boots manufacturing companies went under. Mainly, just the textile industry still employed Chinese workers in large numbers. In 1876, in response to the rising anti-Chinese hysteria, both major political parties included Chinese exclusion in their campaign platforms as a way to win votes by taking advantage of the nation's industrial crisis. Rather than directly confronting the divisive problems such as class conflict, economic depression, and rising unemployment, this helped put the question of Chinese immigration and contracted Chinese workers on the national agenda and eventually paved way for the era's most racist legislation, the 6102:, 169 U.S. at 705. "The evident intention, and the necessary effect, of the submission of this case to the decision of the court upon the facts agreed by the parties were to present for determination the single question stated at the beginning of this opinion, namely, whether a child born in the United States, of parent "" of Chinese descent, who, at the time of his birth, are subjects of the Emperor of China, but have a permanent domicil and residence in the United States, and are there carrying on business, and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China, becomes at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States. For the reasons above stated, this court is of opinion that the question must be answered in the affirmative." 2541: 2130:

few were women. In 1850, the Chinese community of San Francisco consisted of 4,018 men and only seven women. By 1855, women made up only two percent of the Chinese population in the United States, and even by 1890 this had only increased to 4.8 percent. The lack of visibility of Chinese women in general was due partially to the cost of making the voyage when there was a lack of work opportunities for Chinese women in America. This was exacerbated by the harsh working conditions and the traditional female responsibility of looking after the children and extended family back in China. The only women who did go to America were usually the wives of merchants. Other factors were cultural in nature, such as having

3963:, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), applied to a person of Chinese ancestry, born in and a citizen of the United States. The court held that Miss Lum was not denied equal protection of the law because she was given the opportunity to attend a school which "receive only children of the brown, yellow or black races". However, Chinese Americans in the Mississippi Delta began to identify themselves with whites and ended their friendship with the black community in Mississippi. By the late 1960s, Chinese American children attended white schools and universities. They joined Mississippi's infamous White citizen's councils, became members of white churches, were defined as white on driver's licenses, and could marry whites. 2756:. Just as with the railway construction, there was a dire manpower shortage in the expanding Californian agriculture sector, so the white landowners began in the 1860s to put thousands of Chinese migrants to work in their large-scale farms and other agricultural enterprises. Many of these Chinese laborers were not unskilled seasonal workers, but were in fact experienced farmers, whose vital expertise the Californian fruit, vegetables and wine industries owe much to this very day. Despite this, the Chinese immigrants could not own any land on account of the laws in California at the time. Nevertheless, they frequently pursued agricultural work under leases or profit-sharing contracts with their employers. 2518:

California, the taxes were primarily aimed at them and tax revenue was therefore generated almost exclusively by the Chinese. This tax required a payment of three dollars each month at a time when Chinese miners were making approximately six dollars a month. Tax collectors could legally take and sell the property of those miners who refused or could not pay the tax. Fake tax collectors made money by taking advantage of people who could not speak English well, and some tax collectors, both false and real, stabbed or shot miners who could not or would not pay the tax. During the 1860s, many Chinese were expelled from the mine fields and forced to find other jobs. The Foreign Miner's Tax existed until 1870.

6090:, 169 U.S. at 653. "The question presented by the record is whether a child born in the United States, of parents of Chinese descent, who, at the time of his birth, are subjects of the Emperor of China, but have a permanent domicil and residence in the United States, and are there carrying on business, and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China, becomes at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States by virtue of the first clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution, 'All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.'" 1951:, with the choice usually being decided by distance of either city. Only merchants were able to take their wives and children overseas. The vast majority of Chinese immigrants were peasants, farmers and craftsmen. Young men, who were usually married, left their wives and children behind since they intended to stay in America only temporarily. Wives also remained behind to fulfill their traditional obligation to care for their husbands' parents. The men sent a large part of the money they earned in America back to China. Because it was usual at that time in China to live in confined social nets, families, unions, guilds, and sometimes whole village communities or even regions (for instance, 3458: 3524: 5630:

against the exploitation of Chinese labor by the Central Pacific Railroad, using monopsony theory as developed by Joan Robinson. Monopsonists are buyers whose share of the market is large enough to affect prices, or whose supply curves are not completely elastic. By setting different wages for whites and Chinese – each having different elasticities of supply – and using Chinese in the menial and dangerous jobs, with whites in the better positions, the two groups were complementary rather than interchangeable. Calculations thus prove higher levels of exploitation of the Chinese than in previous studies.

3030: 3017:, a federal U.S. law adopted in 1888, established that the Chinese migrants, even when they had entered and were living the United States legally, could not re-enter after having temporarily left U.S. territory. The Chinese fishermen, in effect, could therefore not leave with their boats the 3-mile (4.8 km) zone of the west coast. Their work became unprofitable, and gradually they gave up fishing. The only area where the Chinese fishermen remained unchallenged was shark fishing, where they stood in no competition to the European Americans. Many former fishermen found work in the salmon 2079: 1915: 4252: 2231: 2565: 2502:

individuals or in small groups, the Chinese formed large teams, which protected them from attacks and, because of good organization, often gave them a higher yield. To protect themselves even further against attacks, they preferred to work areas that other gold seekers regarded as unproductive and had given up on. Because much of the gold fields were exhaustingly gone over until the beginning of the 20th century, many of the Chinese remained far longer than the European miners. In 1870, one-third of the men in the Californian gold fields were Chinese.

2675:. However construction was slowed, first by the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, then by the mountains themselves and most importantly by winter snowstorms. Consequently, the Central Pacific expanded its efforts to hire immigrant laborers (many of whom were Chinese). The immigrants seemed to be more willing to tolerate the horrible conditions, and progress continued. The increasing necessity for tunneling then began to slow progress of the line yet again. To combat this, Central Pacific began to use the newly invented and very unstable 2684: 4114:

to a white woman. At the start of the 20th century there was a 55% rate of Chinese men in New York engaging in interracial marriage, which was maintained in the 1920s, but by the 1930s it had fallen to 20%. It is after the migration of Chinese females in equal number to Chinese males that intermarriage became more balanced. The 1960s census showed 3500 Chinese men married to white women and 2900 Chinese women married to white men. The census also showed 300 Chinese men married black women and 100 black men married Chinese women.

3796: 2391: 2308: 1977: 3570: 1820: 3086: 2733: 4142:, and child quieters. However, many 19th century doctors and opium experts, such as Dr. H.H. Kane and Dr. Leslie E. Keeley, made a distinction between opium used for smoking and that used for medicinal purposes, though they found no difference in addictive potential between them. As part of a larger campaign to rid the United States of Chinese influence, white American doctors claimed that opium smoking led to increased involvement in prostitution by young white women and to genetic contamination via 2895: 4021:. Slummers often frequented the brothels and opium dens of Chinatown in the late 1880s and early 1890s. However, by the mid-1890s, slummers rarely participated in Chinese brothels or opium smoking, but instead were shown fake opium joints where Chinese actors and their white wives staged illicit and exaggerated scenes for their audiences. Quite often such shows, which included gunfights that mimicked those of local tongs, were staged by professional guides or "lobbygows"—often 4522: 2438: 26: 1489: 1450: 1499: 71: 2536:... a race of people whom nature has marked as inferior, and who are incapable of progress or intellectual development beyond a certain point, as their history has shown; differing in language, opinions, color, and physical conformation; between whom and ourselves nature has placed an impassable difference" and as such had no right " to swear away the life of a citizen" or participate" with us in administering the affairs of our Government. 3497:" whose work caused wage dumping and thereby prevented American men from "gaining work". After the 1893 economic downturn, measures adopted in the severe depression included anti-Chinese riots that eventually spread throughout the West from which came racist violence and massacres. Most of the Chinese farm workers, which by 1890 comprised 75% of all Californian agricultural workers, were expelled. The Chinese found refuge and shelter in the 4401: 4164: 1692: 3543:

to physically threaten foreigners' mines or gold diggings. Most, after being forcibly driven from the mines, settled in Chinese enclaves in cities, mainly San Francisco, and took up low end wage labor such as restaurant work and laundry. A few settled in towns throughout the west. With the post Civil War economy in decline by the 1870s, anti-Chinese animosity became politicized by labor leader (and famous anti-Chinese advocate)

3450: 3750:, 66 Cal. 473 (1885) was a landmark court case in the California Supreme Court in which the Court found the exclusion of a Chinese American student, Mamie Tape, from public school based on her ancestry unlawful. However, state legislation passed at the urging of San Francisco Superintendent of Schools Andrew J. Moulder after the school board lost its case enabled the establishment of a segregated school. 4313:, of the 237,293 Chinese Americans (immigrants and natural-born citizens) who lived in the United States in 1960, three-fourths resided in California (40% of the 237,293), New York (16%), and Hawaii (16%). This shows how concentrated Chinese American populations remained during the second wave of immigration and illustrates how most people of Chinese descent stayed close to Chinese American communities. 2696:

better working conditions, their share of the workforce was never more than 10%. As the Chinese railroad workers lived and worked tirelessly, they also managed the finances associated with their employment, and Central Pacific officials responsible for employing the Chinese, even those at first opposed to the hiring policy, came to appreciate the cleanliness and reliability of this group of laborers.

6043: 2644:, hiring Chinese as opposed to whites kept labor costs down by a third, since the company would not pay their board or lodging. This type of steep wage inequality was commonplace at the time. Crocker overcame shortages of manpower and money by hiring Chinese immigrants to do much of the back-breaking and dangerous labor. He drove the workers to the point of exhaustion, in the process 2429:. This immigration may have been as high as 90% male as most immigrated with the thought of returning home to start a new life. Those that stayed in America faced the lack of suitable Chinese brides as Chinese women were not allowed to emigrate in significant numbers after 1872. As a result, the mostly bachelor communities slowly aged in place with very low Chinese birth rates. 2175:, documents show that only 24 percent of 3,171 Chinese women in California were classified as prostitutes, many of whom married Chinese Christians and formed some of the earliest Chinese American families in mainland America. Nevertheless, American legislation used the prostitution issue to make immigration far more difficult for Chinese women. On March 7240: 4080:, those purchased for high-class Chinese brothels catering exclusively to Chinese men, or those purchased for prostitution in lower-class establishments frequented by a mixed clientele. In late-19th century San Francisco, most notably Jackson Street, prostitutes were often housed in rooms 10×10 or 12×12 feet and were often beaten or 5402: 2497:, 金山). Because anarchic conditions prevailed in the gold fields, the robbery by European miners of Chinese mining area permits were barely pursued or prosecuted and the Chinese gold seekers themselves were often victim to violent assaults. At that time, "Chinese immigrants were stereotyped as degraded, exotic, dangerous, and 2075:. Historically, to the Manchus, the policy was both an act of submission and, in practical terms, an identification aid to tell friend from foe. Because Chinese immigrants returned as often as they could to China to see their family, they could not cut off their often hated braids in America and then legally re-enter China. 4421:, and there is often very little contact between these Chinese and those higher-educated Chinese professionals. Quantification of the magnitude of this modality of immigration is imprecise and varies over time, but it appears to continue unabatedly on a significant basis. In the 1980s, there was widespread concern by the 3542:

At first, when surface gold was plentiful, the Chinese were well tolerated and well received. As the easy gold dwindled and competition for it intensified, animosity to the Chinese and other foreigners increased. Organized labor groups demanded that California's gold was only for Americans, and began

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led the expansion of the railway network further into the American West, and many of the Chinese who had built the transcontinental railroad remained active in building the railways. After several projects were completed, many of the Chinese workers relocated and looked for employment elsewhere, such

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mountains — where long tunnels had to be bored through solid granite using only hand tools and black powder. The explosions had caused many of the Chinese laborers to lose their lives. Due to the wide expanse of the work, the construction had to be carried out at times in the extreme heat and also in

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The Central Pacific track was constructed primarily by Chinese immigrants. Even though at first they were thought to be too weak or fragile to do this type of work, after the first day in which Chinese were on the line, the decision was made to hire as many as could be found in California (where most

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However, their displacement had begun already in 1869 when white miners began to resent the Chinese miners, feeling that they were discovering gold that the white miners deserved. Eventually, protest rose from white miners who wanted to eliminate the growing competition. From 1852 to 1870 (ironically

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that forbade the entry of all Chinese women considered "obnoxious" by representatives of U.S. consulates at their origins of departure. In effect, this led to American officials erroneously classifying many women as prostitutes, which greatly reduced the opportunities for all Chinese women wishing to

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women who worked as prostitutes for foreigners also commonly kept a "nursery" of Tanka girls specifically to export them to overseas Chinese communities in Australia or America for prostitution work, or to serve as a Chinese or foreigner's concubine. Of the first wave of Chinese who moved to America,

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who had already been converted in China where foreign Christian missionaries (who had first come in mass in the 19th century) had strived for centuries to wholly Christianize the nation with relatively minor success. Christian missionaries had also worked in the Chinese communities and settlements in

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into mainstream American society. This in turn led to the creation, cohesion, and cooperation of many Chinese benevolent associations and societies whose existence in the United States continued far into the 20th century as a necessity both for support and survival. There were also many other factors

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is seen to be a main point of entry for Chinese immigrants with both India and China dominating this visa category over the last ten years. Unsurprisingly, Chinese immigrants entering the United States via the diversity lottery are low. This means of entry prioritises those entering into the US from

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As pursuant to the Department of Homeland security 2016 immigration report the major class of admission for those Chinese immigrants entering into the US is through Immediate Relatives of US citizens. Just over a third (30,456) of those immigrants gained entry via this means. As legislation in the

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6, 1906 that 300 white women (Irish American) were married to Chinese men in New York, with many more cohabiting. Research carried out in 1900 by Liang showed that of the 120,000 men in more than 20 Chinese communities in the United States, one out of every twenty Chinese men (Cantonese) was married

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had collected five million dollars from the Chinese. Another anti-Chinese law was "An Act to Discourage Immigration to this State of Persons Who Cannot Become Citizens Thereof", which imposed on the master or owner of a ship a landing tax of fifty dollars for each passenger ineligible to naturalized

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mines, as seamen on board the ships of American shipping companies or in the consumer goods industry, especially in the cigar, boots, footwear and textile manufacturing. During the economic crises of the 1870s, factory owners were often glad that the immigrants were content with the low wages given.

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The entry of the Chinese into the United States was, to begin with, legal and uncomplicated and even had a formal judicial basis in 1868 with the signing of the Burlingame Treaty between the United States and China. But there were differences compared with the policy for European immigrants, in that

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Between 1850 and 1875, the most frequent complaint against Chinese residents was their involvement in prostitution. There was a great excess of Chinses men in America, which was caused by coolie trade and anti-miscegenation law against Chinese men. High demand in sex inevitably led to prostitution.

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thereby running counter to the interests of the trade unions. In fact, many employers used the threat of importing Chinese strikebreakers as a means to prevent or break up strikes, which caused further resentment against the Chinese. A notable incident occurred in 1870, when 75 young men from China

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for agricultural production. Chinese workers were used to construct hundreds of miles of levees throughout the delta's waterways in an effort to reclaim and preserve farmland and control flooding. These levees therefore confined waterflow to the riverbeds. Many of the workers stayed in the area and

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Region in southern China, where they had learned how to develop fertile farmland in inaccessible river valleys. This know-how was used for the reclamation of the extensive valleys of the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. During the 1870s, thousands of Chinese laborers played an indispensable role

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explosives—which accelerated both the rate of construction and the mortality of the Chinese laborers. Appalled by the losses, the Central Pacific began to use less volatile explosives, and developed a method of placing the explosives in which the Chinese blasters worked from large suspended baskets

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In 1852, a special foreign miner's tax aimed at the Chinese was passed by the California legislature that was aimed at foreign miners who were not U.S. citizens. Given that the Chinese were ineligible for citizenship at that time and constituted the largest percentage of the non-white population of

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Wong Kim Ark, who was born in San Francisco in 1873, was denied re-entry to the United States after a trip abroad, under a law restricting Chinese immigration and prohibiting immigrants from China from becoming naturalized U.S. citizens. However, he challenged the government's refusal to recognize

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Ong, Paul M. "The Central Pacific Railroad and Exploitation of Chinese Labor." Journal of Ethnic Studies 1985 13(2): 119–124. ISSN 0091-3219. – Ong tries to resolve the apparent inconsistency in the literature on Asians in early California, with contradictory studies showing evidence both for and

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It was far more common for Chinese males to marry non-white females in many states. One of the U.S. censuses of Louisiana alone in 1880 showed 57% Chinese American men were married to African American women, and 43% to White American women. As a result of miscegenation laws against Chinese males.

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Chinese carved out a distinct role in the predominantly biracial society of the Mississippi Delta. In a few communities, Chinese children were able to attend white schools, while others studied under tutors, or established their own Chinese schools. In 1924, a nine-year-old Chinese American named

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In addition to students and professionals, a third wave of recent immigrants consisted of people who are living in or entered the country without documentation, who went to the United States in search of lower-status manual jobs. These undocumented immigrants tend to concentrate in heavily urban

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as the sole legitimate government of all of China, and immigration from Taiwan was counted under the same quota as that for mainland China, which had little immigration to the United States from 1949 to 1977. In the late 1970s, the opening up of the People's Republic of China and the breaking of

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Manufacturers depended on the Chinese workers because they had to reduce labor cost to save money and the Chinese labor was cheaper than the Caucasian labor. The labor from the Chinese was cheaper because they did not live like the Caucasians, they needed less money because they lived with lower

3064:, and so they formed their own Chinese organizations (called "guilds") that represented their interests with the employers. The American trade unionists were nevertheless still wary as the Chinese workers were willing to work for their employers for relatively low wages and incidentally acted as 2695:

The well organized Chinese teams still turned out to be highly industrious and exceedingly efficient; at the peak of the construction work, shortly before completion of the railroad, more than 11,000 Chinese were involved with the project. Although the white European workers had higher wages and

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until 1882—when an American federal law ended the Chinese influx—approximately 300,000 Chinese arrived in the United States. Because the chances to earn more money were far better in America than in China, these migrants often remained considerably longer than they had planned initially, despite

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by demanding that these Chinese students be prevented from returning to "Red China". It was feared by these politicians (and no small amount of their constituents) that, if they were allowed to return home to the PRC, they would furnish America's newfound Cold War enemy with valuable scientific

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Supporters and opponents of Chinese immigration affirm that Chinese labor was indispensable to the economic prosperity of the west. The Chinese performed jobs which could be life-threatening and arduous, for example working in mines, swamps, construction sites and factories. Many jobs that the

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for not attracting enough business or refusing to work for any reason. In San Francisco, "highbinders" (various Chinese gangs) protected brothel owners, extorted weekly tributes from prostitutes and caused general mayhem in Chinatown. However, many of San Francisco's Chinatown whorehouses were

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who could not assimilate into civilized western culture, regardless of citizenship or duration of residency in the USA". In response to this hostile situation these Chinese miners developed a basic approach that differed from the white European gold miners. While the Europeans mostly worked as

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in Manhattan Chinatown, while in San Francisco, by 1876, Chinatown supported over 200 opium dens, each with a capacity of between five and fifteen people. After the Burlingame Commercial Treaty of 1880, only American citizens could legally import opium into the United States, and thus Chinese

2011:" meant that the money advanced by the agencies to cover the cost of the passage was to be paid back by wages earned by the laborers later during their time in the U.S. The credit-ticket system had long been used by indentured migrants from South China who left to work in what Chinese called 2652:

were gold miners or in service industries such as laundries and kitchens). Many more were imported from China. Most of the men received between one and three dollars per day, but the workers from China received much less. Eventually, they went on strike and gained small increases in salary.

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was passed in 1875, which placed restrictions on female Chinese immigration. Those who supported the Page Act were attempting to protect American family values, while those who opposed the Act were concerned that it might hinder the efficiency of the cheap labor provided by Chinese males.

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subgroups. Immigration from Mainland China was almost non-existent until 1977 when the PRC removed restrictions on emigration leading to the immigration of college students and professionals. These recent groups of Chinese tended to cluster in suburban areas and avoided urban Chinatowns.

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of large cities. The vacant agricultural jobs subsequently proved to be so unattractive to the unemployed white Europeans that they avoided the work; most of the vacancies were then filled by Japanese workers, after whom in the decades later came Filipinos, and finally Mexicans. The term

2007:(founded 1874). The money to fund their journey was mostly borrowed from relatives, district associations or commercial lenders. In addition, American employers of Chinese laborers sent hiring agencies to China to pay for the Pacific voyage of those who were unable to borrow money. This " 3440:

The Chinese were often in competition with African Americans in the labor market. In July 1869, in the Southern United States, at an immigration convention at Memphis, a committee was formed to consolidate schemes for importing Chinese laborers into the South like the African Americans.

2556:. The Chinese living in California were with this decision left practically in a legal vacuum, because they had now no possibility to assert their rightful legal entitlements or claims—possibly in cases of theft or breaches of agreement—in court. The ruling remained in force until 1873. 1580:

Newspapers condemned employers who were initially pro-Chinese. When clergy ministering to the Chinese immigrants in California supported the Chinese, they were severely criticized by the local press and populace. So hostile was the opposition that in 1882, the U.S. Congress passed the

3013:, which, finally, expelled the Chinese fishermen with a whole array of taxes, laws and regulations. They had to pay special taxes (Chinese Fisherman's Tax), and they were not allowed to fish with traditional Chinese nets nor with junks. The most disastrous effect occurred when the 2635:

Since there was a lack of white European construction workers, in 1865 a large number of Chinese workers were recruited from the silver mines, as well as later contract workers from China. The idea for the use of Chinese labor came from the manager of the Central Pacific Railroad,

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lifted national origin quotas. After World War II, anti-Asian prejudice began to decrease, and Chinese immigrants, along with other Asians (such as Japanese, Koreans, Indians and Vietnamese), have adapted and advanced. Currently, the Chinese constitute the largest ethnic group of

3925:. Under all this persecution, almost half of the Chinese Americans born in the United States moved to China seeking greater opportunities. Even to this day, discrimination is still talked about, especially for matters like Xenophobia that we still experience in the 21st century. 2155:

as an occupation. The existence of Chinese prostitution was detected early, after which the police, legislature and popular press singled out Chinese prostitutes for criticism. This was seen as further evidence of the depravity of the Chinese and the repression of women in their

1769:, Chinese came into contact with American sailors and merchants at the commercial port of Canton (Guangzhou). There, local individuals heard about opportunities and became curious about America. The main trade route between the United States and China then was between Canton and 4329:, which placed Taiwan under a separate immigration quota from the People's Republic of China. Emigration from Hong Kong was also considered a separate jurisdiction for the purpose of recording such statistics, and this status continued until the present day as a result of the 2421:. The Chinese population rose from 2,716 in 1851 to 63,000 by 1871. In the decade 1861–1870, 64,301 were recorded as arriving, followed by 123,201 in 1871–1880 and 61,711 in 1881–1890. 77% were located in California, with the rest scattered across the West, the South, and 3660:, 1862), and it imposed a $ 2.50 tax per month on all Chinese residing in the state, except Chinese operating businesses, licensed to work in mines, or engaged in the production of sugar, rice, coffee or tea. In 1886, the Supreme Court struck down a Californian law, in 3639:

laws was the Foreign Miners' License tax, which required a monthly payment of three dollars from every foreign miner who did not desire to become a citizen. Foreign-born Chinese could not become citizens because they had been rendered ineligible to citizenship by the

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businessmen had to rely on non-Chinese importers to maintain opium supply. Ultimately, it was European Americans who were largely responsible for the legal importation and illegal smuggling of opium via the port of San Francisco and the Mexican border, after 1880.

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The members of the tongs were marginalized, poor, had lower educational levels and lacked the opportunities available to wealthier Chinese. Their organizations formed without any clear political or benevolent motives and soon found themselves involved in lucrative

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did not exist). These Chinese were mainly merchants, sailors, seamen, and students who wanted to see and acquaint themselves with a strange foreign land they had only heard about. However, their presence was mostly temporary and only a few settled permanently.

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with the United States in 1868 effectively lifted any former restrictions and large-scale immigration to the United States began. In order to avoid difficulties with departure, most Chinese gold-seekers embarked on their transpacific voyage from the docks of

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was passed in 1865, Chinese women brought to the United States for prostitution signed a contract so that their employers would avoid accusations of slavery. Many Americans believed that Chinese prostitutes were corrupting traditional morality, and thus the

2366:, and prostitution. Prostitution proved to be an extremely profitable business for the tongs, due to the high male-to-female ratio among the early immigrants. The tongs would kidnap or purchase females (including babies) from China and smuggle them over the 4092:, who took a percentage of the proceeds in exchange for protection from prosecution. From the 1850s to the 1870s, California passed numerous acts to limit prostitution by all races, yet only Chinese were ever prosecuted under these laws. After the 3689:

had made it unlawful for Chinese laborers to enter the United States for the next 10 years and denied naturalized citizenship to Chinese already here. Initially intended for Chinese laborers, it was broadened in 1888 to include all persons of the

2413:. The Chinese laborers worked out well and thousands more were recruited until the railroad's completion in 1869. Chinese labor provided the massive labor needed to build the majority of the Central Pacific's difficult railroad tracks through the 4508:

notes that 54% of Asian immigrants ages five and over who have been in the United States for five years or less say they speak English proficiently. This means that some of the main challenges Asian immigrants face in the United States today are

2304:, birthplace of the CCBA, formed in 1882, the CCBA had effectively assumed the function of an unofficial local governing body, which even used privately hired police or guards for protection of inhabitants at the height of anti-Chinese excesses. 3999:

language and culture to sell newspapers, exploit Chinese labor and promote Americans of European birth. The press in particular greatly exaggerated the prevalence of opium smoking and prostitution in New York's Chinatown, and many reports of

2119:, less than 20% of Chinese immigrants had accepted Christian teachings. Their difficulties with integration were exemplified by the end of the first wave in the mid-20th century when only a minority of Chinese living in the U.S. could speak 7194:

Noe-Bustamante, Luis, Lauren Mora, and Neil G. Ruiz. “In Their Own Words: Asian Immigrants' Experiences Navigating Language Barriers in the United States.” Pew Research Center Race & Ethnicity. Pew Research Center, December 19, 2022.

3481:. The party took particular aim against Chinese immigrant labor and the Central Pacific Railroad that employed them. Its famous slogan was "The Chinese must go!" Kearney's attacks against the Chinese were particularly virulent and openly 2531:

in 1854 that the Chinese were not allowed to testify as witnesses before the court in California against white citizens, including those accused of murder. The decision was largely based upon the prevailing opinion that the Chinese were:

2268:(also known as the "Chinese Six Companies" because of the original six founding associations). It quickly became the most powerful and politically vocal organization to represent the Chinese not only in San Francisco but in the whole of 4118:

Many Chinese males either cohibited their relationship in secret or married with black females. Of the Chinese men who lived in Mississippi, 20% and 30% of the Chinese males had married black women in many different years before 1940.

2824:. Of the approximately 200 Chinese people in the eastern United States at the time, 58 are known to have fought in the Civil War, many of them in the Navy. Most fought for the Union, but a small number also fought for the Confederacy. 2624:. This network caused the wagon trains of previous decades to become obsolete, exchanging it for a modern transportation system. The building of the railway required enormous labor in the crossing of plains and high mountains by the 3979:

called the Chinese of New York "a constant and terrible menace to society", "in no sense a desirable element of the population". Riis referred to the reputation of New York's Chinatown as a place full of illicit activity, including

2260:, lodgings and job finding services for newcomers. In 1849, the first Chinese merchants' association was formed, but it did not last long. In less than a few years it petered out as its role was gradually replaced by a network of 7740:"Carved in Silence" (Producer/Director/Writer of National Endowment for the Humanities funded documentary with dramatic re-creations about the impact of detention on Chinese immigrants at Angel Island Immigration Station), 1987 1902:. In regard to their legal situation, the Chinese immigrants were far more imposed upon by the government than most other ethnic minorities in these regions. Laws were made to restrict them, including exorbitant special taxes ( 2640:, who at first had trouble persuading his business partners of the fact that the mostly weedy, slender looking Chinese workers, some contemptuously called "Crocker's pets", were suitable for the heavy physical work. For the 2134:

and not leaving the home. Another important consideration was that most Chinese men were worried that by bringing their wives and raising families in America they too would be subjected to the same racial violence and

3722:, 169 U.S. 649 (1898), the Court ruled regarding him that "a child born in the United States, of parents of Chinese descent, who, at the time of his birth, are subjects of the Emperor of China, but have a permanent 4336:

Chinese Muslims have immigrated to the United States and lived within the Chinese community rather than integrating into other foreign Muslim communities. Two of the most prominent Chinese American Muslims are the

7212: 4008:

were simply fictitious. Casual observers of Chinatown believed that opium use was rampant since they constantly witnessed Chinese smoking with pipes. In fact, local Chinatown residents often were instead smoking

1863:. 323 more immigrants came in 1849, 450 in 1850 and 20,000 in 1852 (2,000 in 1 day). By 1852, there were 25,000; over 300,000 by 1880: a tenth of the Californian population—mostly from six districts of Canton ( 3913:, which prohibited Chinese from occupying a sleeping room with less than 500 cubic feet (14 m) of breathing space between each person, the Queue Ordinance, which forced Chinese with long hair worn in a 2488:

was only a transit station on the way to the gold fields in the Sierra Nevada. According to estimates, there were in the late 1850s 15,000 Chinese mine workers in the "Gold Mountains" or "Mountains of Gold"

1590: 4267:, which set immigration from an allowed country at 2% of the number of people of that nationality who already lived in the United States in 1890. Chinese immigration later increased with the passage of the 4121:

Another major concern of European Americans in relation to Chinatowns was the smoking of opium, even though the practice of smoking opium in America long predated Chinese immigration to the United States.

2909:

Region also came countless numbers of experienced Chinese fishermen. In the 1850s they founded a fishing economy on the Californian coast that grew exponentially, and by the 1880s extended along the whole

3867:, which he had co-written, and prohibited "aliens ineligible for citizenship" (i.e. all Asian immigrants) from owning land or property. The law was struck down by the Supreme Court of California in 1946 ( 3845: 5816:"Chinese Fishermen, Monterey, California. 1875": From Monterey County Photographs: Chinese Fishing Village Images. California Historical Society. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. 2299:

to fight discriminatory legislation and treatment. The associations also took their cases to the press and worked with government institutions and Chinese diplomatic missions to protect their rights. In

1597:. These laws not only prevented new immigration but also the reunion of the families of thousands of Chinese men already living in the United States who had left China without their wives and children. 1731:

belonged to Mexico until 1848, and historians have asserted that a small number of Chinese had already settled there by the mid-18th century. Also later, as part of expeditions in 1788 and 1789 by the

1647:

begin to improve, as restrictions on entry into the country, naturalization, and mixed marriage were lessened. In 1943, Chinese immigration to the United States was once again permitted—by way of the

2279:, lending, health, and education and funeral services. The latter became especially significant for the Chinese community because for religious reasons many of the immigrants laid value to burial or 6112: 2015:(South Seas), the region to the south of China that included the Philippines, the former Dutch East Indies, the Malay Peninsula, and Borneo, Thailand, Indochina, and Burma. The Chinese who left for 6049: 3656:

citizenship. "To Protect Free White Labor against competition with emigrant Chinese Labor and to Discourage the Immigration of Chinese into the State of California" was another such law (aka the

3060:

The Chinese took the bad wages, because their wives and children lived in China where the cost of living was low. As they were classified as foreigners they were excluded from joining American

4076:, purchased from poor families, or lured to ports like San Francisco with the promise of marriage. Prostitutes fell into three categories, namely, those sold to wealthy Chinese merchants as 2295:

repression. By resisting overt discrimination enacted against them, the local chapters of the national CCBA helped to bring a number of cases to the courts from the municipal level to the

7196: 2256:") to help immigrants to relocate others from their native towns, socialize, receive monetary aid and raise their voices in community affairs. At first, these organizations only provided 3921:

of 1922, which terminated citizenship for white American women who married an Asian man. The majority of these laws were not fully overturned until the 1950s, at the dawn of the modern

3726:

and residence in the United States, and are there carrying on business, and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China", automatically became a

3945:

was being developed. They gradually came to operate grocery stores in mainly African American neighborhoods. The Chinese population in the delta peaked in the 1870s, reaching 3000.

1906:), prohibiting them from marrying white European partners (so as to prevent men from marrying at all and increasing the population) and barring them from acquiring U.S. citizenship. 8845: 4072:

During this time, Hip Yee Tong, a secret society, imported over six-thousand Chinese women to serve as prostitutes. Most of these women came from southeastern China and were either

4040:

with rooms upstairs available for gambling and opium smoking. A few decades later, local tongs, which originated in the California goldfields around 1860, controlled most gambling (

3539:. Large numbers came from the Taishan area that proudly bills itself as the No. 1 Home of Overseas Chinese. An estimated half a million Chinese Americans are of Taishanese descent. 7936: 4488:

governments on Taiwan have served to split the older Chinese American community, as some pro-reunification Chinese Americans with ROC origins began to identify more with the PRC.

1898:

From the outset, they were met with the distrust and overt racism of settled European populations, ranging from massacres to pressuring Chinese migrants into what became known as

4263:, when China was a welcome ally to the United States. It limited Chinese immigrants to 105 visas per year selected by the government. That quota was supposedly determined by the 1601:

in many Western states also prohibited the Chinese men from marrying white women. In the South, many Chinese American men married African American women. For example, the tenth

7210: 6331: 4452:. However, instead of joining existing Chinese American associations, the recent immigrants formed new cultural, professional, and social organizations which advocated better 1528: 2054:. The racism they experienced from the European Americans from the outset increased continuously until the turn of the 20th century, and with lasting effect prevented their 4492:

US is seen to favour this point of entry. Furthermore, employment based preferences is seen to be the third largest. This means of entry accounts for 23% of the total. The

3666:; this was the first case where the Supreme Court ruled that a law that is race-neutral on its face, but is administered in a prejudicial manner, is an infringement of the 2250:, respectable Chinese merchants—the most prominent members of the Chinese community of the time—made the first efforts to form social and welfare organizations (Chinese: " 5022:

Gabriel J. Chin, "The Civil Rights Revolution Comes to Immigration Law: A New Look at the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965," 75 North Carolina Law Review 273(1996)

4068:

in exchange for weekly payoffs of around five dollars per week. Such gambling-houses were frequented by as many whites as Chinamen, though whites sat at separate tables.

4274:

Many of the first Chinese immigrants admitted in the 1940s were college students who initially sought simply to study in, not immigrate to, America. However, during the

1667:, there are more than 4.2 million Chinese in the United States, above 1.2% of the total population. The influx continues, where each year ethnic Chinese people from the 3597:

to those already settled in the country. Renewed in 1892 and extended indefinitely in 1902, the Chinese population declined until the act was repealed in 1943 by the

8700: 5569:

Wu, Y., Sun, I. Y., & Smith, B. W. (2011). Race, Immigration, and Policing: Chinese Immigrants' Satisfaction with Police. JQ: Justice Quarterly, 28(5), 745–774.

4150:

believed America faced a dual dilemma: opium smoking was ruining moral standards, and Chinese labor was lowering wages and taking jobs away from European Americans.

4025:—with paid actors. Especially in New York, the Chinese community was unique among immigrant communities in so far as its illicit activity was turned into a cultural 3469:

In the 1870s, several economic crises came about in parts of the United States, and many Americans lost their jobs, from which arose throughout the American West an

3021:, which until the 1930s were major employers of Chinese migrants, because white workers were less interested in such hard, seasonal and relatively unrewarding work. 2748:

was the primary crop grown in California. The favorable climate allowed the beginning of the intensive cultivation of certain fruits, vegetables and flowers. In the

1934:

from establishing bases overseas. However, these decrees were widely ignored. Large-scale immigration of Chinese laborers began after China began to receive news of

789: 341: 5443: 3708:" doctrine. Despite this, Chinese laborers and other migrants still entered the United States illegally through Canada and Latin America, in a path known as the 3628:, proclaimed the Chinese "an element ignorant of our constitution and laws, impossible of assimilation with our people and dangerous to our peace and welfare." 7253: 4093: 3785: 3739: 3671: 3433:

Caucasians did not want to do were left to the Chinese. Some believed that the Chinese were inferior to the white people and so should be doing inferior work.

2552:

The ruling effectively made white violence against Chinese Americans unprosecutable, arguably leading to more intense white-on-Chinese race riots, such as the

651: 508: 7758:, founded in 1987 as a non-profit organization to promote and preserve Chinese American and Chinese history and culture through community outreach activities. 7061: 6030: 4032:

Perhaps the most pervasive illicit activity in Chinatowns of the late-19th century was gambling. In 1868, one of the earliest Chinese residents in New York,

3510:" came to symbolize the unfairness Chinese experienced in the American justice system as some were murdered largely due to hatred of their race and culture. 1079: 7761: 7017: 5970: 7943: 6158: 3815:" and "Paper Daughters" was allegedly introduced. Chinese would declare themselves to be United States citizens whose records were lost in the earthquake. 1930:

Decrees by the Qing dynasty issued in 1712 and 1724 forbade emigration and overseas trade and were primarily intended to prevent remnant supporters of the

4383:. During the late 1960s and early and mid-1970, Chinese immigration into the United States came almost exclusively from Hong Kong and Taiwan creating the 2264:

when more immigrants came in greater numbers. Eventually some of the more prominent district associations banded together under one umbrella known as the

1785:

American missionaries in China also sent small numbers of Chinese boys to the United States for schooling. From 1818 to 1825, five students stayed at the

5307: 3041:, many Chinese migrants made their living as domestic servants, housekeepers, running restaurants, laundries (leading to the 1886 Supreme Court decision 815: 805: 7197:

https://www.pewresearch.org/race-ethnicity/2022/12/19/in-their-own-words-asian-immigrants-experiences-navigating-language-barriers-in-the-united-states/

4056:

left under a cup after a pile of cards had been counted off four at a time. Most popular, however, was the lottery. Players purchased randomly assigned

3874:

One of the few cases in which Chinese immigration was allowed during this era were "Pershing's Chinese", 527 people who were allowed to immigrate from

1880: 1521: 1048: 611: 8748: 5513: 4933:

Chin, Gabriel J., (1998) UCLA Law Review vol. 46, at 1 "Segregation's Last Stronghold: Race Discrimination and the Constitutional Law of Immigration"

4469: 4126:

established opium regulation, and in 1842 opium was taxed at seventy-five cents per pound. In New York, by 1870, opium dens had opened on Baxter and

1651:—thereby repealing 61 years of official racial discrimination against the Chinese. Large-scale Chinese immigration did not occur until 1965 when the 1453: 7769: 2465:, which saw many Chinese emigrate to other countries to flee the fighting. As a result, many Chinese made the decision to emigrate from the chaotic 4287:

knowledge. Therefore, Chinese students were heavily encouraged to undergo naturalization. One famous Chinese immigrant of the 1940s generation was

1006: 636: 585: 5846: 3051:) and a wide spectrum of shops, such as food stores, antique shops, jewelers, and imported goods stores. In addition, the Chinese often worked in 2809: 2370:

to work in brothels and similar establishments. There were constant internecine battles over territory, profits, and women in feuds known as the

646: 462: 6200: 5096:– harbor crowded with sampans. Jackson, William Henry, 1843–1942. World's Transportation Commission photograph collection (Library of Congress). 4991: 3995:. To some extent, Riis' characterization was true, though the sensational press quite often exploited the great differences between Chinese and 5036: 781: 6237: 4364:

is another Chinese Muslim writer who moved to the United States after fleeing from China to Taiwan, his father was the Chinese Muslim General

8550: 8510: 8160: 8081: 7999: 7967: 7033:

Liu, Qing (May 2020). "To Be an Apolitical Political Scientist: A Chinese Immigrant Scholar and (Geo)politicized American Higher Education".

4181: 1594: 1514: 7100: 5719: 5296:

Thomas W. Chinn, ed., A History of the Chinese in California: A Syllabus (San Francisco: Chinese Historical Society of America, 1969), p.72.

1843:

began the history of Chinese Americans. At first only a handful of Chinese came, mainly as merchants, former sailors, to America. The first

7783: 7717: 5651:

Kraus, George. "Chinese Laborers and the Construction of the Central Pacific." Utah Historical Quarterly 1969 37(1): 41–57. ISSN 0042-143X.

4371:

Ethnic Chinese immigration to the United States since 1965 has been aided by the fact that the United States maintains separate quotas for

2115:

America, but nevertheless their religious message found few who were receptive. It was estimated that during the first wave until the 1882

676: 616: 501: 440: 418: 385: 352: 297: 253: 231: 198: 165: 132: 5129: 3506:", originally coined as a self-referential term by the Chinese, came to be used as a term against the Chinese in America as the new term " 8743: 8064: 7962: 6191:, 617 (California Supr. 1952) ("...we hold that the alien land law is invalid as in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment."). 5499: 5462: 5278:

Robert Alan Nash, "The Chinese Shrimp Fishery in California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1973), p. 182.

4951:

vol. 9 "Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950"

4830: 4147: 3564: 2334:

associations, business guilds, or legitimate enterprises. As a result, they organized themselves into their own secret societies, called

2312: 2292: 2284: 2265: 2050:

and life; they often came from rural China and therefore had difficulty in adjusting to and finding their way around large towns such as

2028: 1814: 1562: 1470: 1427: 795: 557: 5469: 5467: 5465: 8373: 8314: 8036: 8006: 7855: 7062:"Championing the Causes of Chinese Americans: The William Yukon Chang Papers – News from Columbia's Rare Book & Manuscript Library" 1708: 1125: 1070: 1043: 621: 8763: 8031: 8013: 2004: 1823:

Chinese emigration to America: sketch on board the steam-ship Alaska, bound for San Francisco. From "Views of Chinese"" published in

694: 631: 626: 593: 579: 514: 6335: 8504: 7974: 4875: 4855: 2038:

Although the newcomers arrived in America after an already established small community of their compatriots, they experienced many

960: 946: 810: 761: 714: 709: 656: 606: 551: 5689: 8715: 8544: 8116: 8049: 8041: 7985: 4268: 3606: 3602: 2752:

a strong demand for these products existed. However, the supply of these markets became possible only with the completion of the

2700: 1652: 1417: 1038: 641: 600: 571: 5155: 2283:(including the scattering of ashes) in China. In the 1880s many of the city and regional associations united to form a national 8616: 5486: 4835: 3953:, solely because she was of Chinese descent. The ensuing lawsuit eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States. In 2769: 704: 543: 528: 6011: 4440:

Starting from the 1990s, the demographics of the Chinese American community have shifted in favor of immigrants with roots in

4060:

numbers from gambling-houses, with drawings held at least once a day in lottery saloons. There were ten such saloons found in

8723: 8690: 7479: 6981: 6891: 6792: 6666: 6515: 6435: 6406: 6141: 3917:

to pay a tax or to cut it, and Anti-Miscegenation Act of 1889 that prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women, and the

3773: 2225: 1918:

A tomb for some 400 Chinese laborers who died in 1852 during a rebellion aboard a ship that was carrying them to California.

1492: 1120: 1084: 1025: 933: 683: 565: 522: 330: 120: 7788: 5664: 4306:

newspaper in 1955 to provide a venue through which Chinese American communities could read and write about their own lives.

8474: 8292: 8278: 5867: 3754: 5585:

Takaki, Ronald. Strangers from a Different Shore. A History of Indian Americans. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1989.

3548: 3474: 2163:

Laws passed by the California state legislature in 1866 to curb the brothels worked alongside missionary activity by the

1636:, and prevented from owning land. In many Western states, Asian immigrants were even prevented from marrying Caucasians. 1480: 967: 722: 102: 5642:

Saxton, Alexander. "The Army of Canton in the High Sierra" Pacific Historical Review 1966 35(2): 141–151. ISSN 0030-8684

5440: 2875:

Christopher Wren Bunker and Stephen Decatur Bunker (Siam-born of partial Chinese ancestry), the sons of conjoined twins

8728: 8536: 8026: 6913:

Yee, Mark Gregory. "Opium in America and the Chinese". Chinese America: History and Perspectives, Online Journal, 1997.

6072: 5806:

Chinese serving in the Confederate arm force – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

2796:

were predominantly Chinese in the turn of the 20th century. Also Chinese farmers contributed to the development of the

2664:

other times in the bitter winter cold. So harsh were the conditions that sometimes even entire camps were buried under

2296: 1903: 1475: 1032: 800: 661: 533: 1750:, several Chinese sailors and craftsmen contributed to building the first European-designed boat that was launched in 8866: 8778: 7673: 7659: 7645: 7624: 7607: 7590: 7564: 7547: 7521: 7507: 7493: 7465: 7451: 7417: 7403: 7389: 7375: 7359: 7335: 7318: 7299: 7284: 6956: 6830: 6756: 6713: 6592: 6561: 6469: 6279: 5923:

Aarim-Heriot, Najia, "Chinese immigrants, African Americans, and racial anxiety in the United States, 1848–82", p.123

5412: 5223: 4453: 4292: 4203: 3864: 3675: 3555:, both of whom blamed Chinese "coolies" for depressed wage levels and causing European Americans to lose their jobs. 1840: 699: 689: 90: 7250: 8773: 8526: 8387: 8203: 6620:

Light, Ivan (1974). "From Vice District to Tourist Attraction: The Moral Career of American Chinatown, 1880–1940".

6357: 5510:

Roy D. Graves pictorial collection: Chinese and Chinatown. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley

5426:

or among Chinese residents as their concubines, or to be sold for export to Singapore, San Francisco, or Australia.

4850: 3727: 3490: 2632:, the two privately chartered federally backed enterprises that built the line westward and eastward respectively. 2540: 2024: 993: 768: 407: 2620:. It created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the 1855:

became the first female Chinese immigrant to the United States; she was brought to New York City from her home of

8424: 8235: 8020: 7733:(a three-part documentary film by Bill Moyers about the history of the Chinese immigration into the USA), 2003. ( 7014: 5974: 4537:

The table shows the ethnic Chinese population of the United States (including persons with mixed-ethnic origin).

3905:

banned all immigration from many parts of Asia, including parts of China (see map on left), and foreshadowed the

2911: 2749: 2585: 2569: 2446: 2246:

and guilds, where people had a duty to protect and help one another. Soon after the first Chinese had settled in

1876: 1186: 928: 879: 6162: 8768: 8531: 7848: 6271: 5358: 4430: 4185: 4048:) in New York's Chinatown. One of the most popular games of chance was fan-tan where players guessed the exact 3857: 3618: 3485:, and found considerable support among white people in the American West. This sentiment led eventually to the 3089:

Chinese American miners in the Colorado School of Mines' Edgar Experimental Mine near Idaho Springs, Colorado,

2997:

Again, this initial success was met with a hostile reaction. Since the late 1850s, European migrants—above all

2000: 1620:

In 1924, the law barred further entries of Chinese. Those already in the United States had been ineligible for

669: 538: 6866: 5943: 5905:

LI, Peter S."Occupational mobility and kinship assistance: a study of Chinese immigrants in Chicago", p. 35–37

5314: 4965: 4433:. However, since the start of the 21st century, there have been an increasing number of returnees producing a 4220:, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943, was proposed by U.S. Representative (later Senator) 4013:

through such pipes. In the late 19th century, many European Americans visited Chinatown to experience it via "

3100:

This table describes the occupation partitioning among Chinese males in the twenty most reported occupations.

8753: 8695: 8411: 8196: 7979: 7821: 4477: 4461: 3808: 3800: 3780:(1899–1903) and local businesses, fought the quarantine through numerous federal court battles, claiming the 3718: 3578: 3573:

A political cartoon by cartoonist L. M. Glackens criticizing the United States government (portrayed here as

3048: 2704: 2320: 1680: 1371: 988: 973: 903: 893: 864: 854: 2319:

Following a law enacted in New York, in 1933, in an attempt to evict Chinese from the laundry business, the

2242:

Chinese society was distinctively collectivist and composed of close networks of extended families, unions,

8674: 8447: 4865: 4485: 4405: 4017:", wherein guided groups of affluent New Yorkers explored vast immigrant districts of New York such as the 3709: 3010: 2511: 2023:

if the Chinese migrants had children born in the United States, those children would automatically acquire

1851:

around 1815. Subsequent immigrants that came from the 1820s up to the late 1840s were mainly men. In 1834,

978: 952: 938: 908: 898: 775: 308: 58: 5998: 2544:

Adobe building constructed in the 1870s by Chinese workers living in the railroad-adjacent mining town of

2457:, while southern China suffered from severe political and economic instability due to the weakness of the 2425:. Most came from Southern China looking for a better life; escaping a high rate of poverty left after the 1715:(1565–1815), during which they had established themselves as fishermen, sailors, and merchants on Spanish 1553:

to the United States, beginning in the 19th century. Chinese immigrants in the 19th century worked in the

8568: 7992: 7766: 6113:"Donald Trump meet Wong Kim Ark, the Chinese American Cook who is the father of 'birthright citizenship'" 5527: 5064: 4860: 4501: 4341: 3950: 3949:

Martha Lum, daughter of Gong Lum, was prohibited from attending the Rosedale Consolidated High School in

3799:

1910 decision denying an application for admission to the U.S. by Wong Yoke Fun (eldest son of U.S.-born

2522: 2086:

The first Chinese immigrants usually remained faithful to traditional Chinese beliefs, which were either

1805:

of the 1870s-'80s continued this tradition, sending some 120 boys to be educated in New England schools.

1802: 1402: 1296: 869: 859: 7235: 8685: 8467: 8251: 8147: 6302: 6188: 5914:

Saxton, Alexander, "The indispensable enemy; labor and the anti-Chinese movement in California", p. 5–6

5843: 4497:

countries with historically low number of immigrants. As such, China does not fall into this category.

4349: 4241: 3641: 3070: 2983: 2553: 1758: 998: 983: 843: 5182: 8840: 8809: 8499: 8137: 7841: 7345: 6622: 4999: 4298:

With the rise in immigration and expansion of communities, newspaper and media outlets grew as well.

2753: 2688: 2410: 2193: 2172: 2148: 1888: 1875:. The Chinese did not, however, only come for the gold rush in California, but also helped build the 1664: 1577:

between the U.S. and China, political and labor organizations rallied against "cheap Chinese labor".

1407: 1336: 1301: 874: 363: 5105: 5044: 3838:

of the Sailor's Union. The League was almost immediately successful in pressuring the San Francisco

3457: 2338:, for mutual support and protection of their members. These first tongs modeled themselves upon the 8738: 8608: 8516: 8489: 8300: 8142: 7931: 7804: 3819: 3761: 3610: 3462: 2789: 2645: 2641: 2629: 2507: 2406: 2301: 1859:

by Nathaniel and Frederick Carne, who exhibited her as "the Chinese Lady". By 1848, there were 325

1558: 1376: 1281: 1241: 836: 79: 4105:

In the mid 1850s, 70 to 150 Chinese lived in New York City, of which 11 married Irish women. The

1585:

prohibiting immigration from China for the following ten years. This law was then extended by the

8733: 8679: 8581: 8452: 8214: 8101: 7713: 7097: 6705: 6699: 6584: 6578: 5716: 4906:(1). University of California Press: Pacific Historical Review Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 49-66: 49–66. 4330: 4264: 4174: 3906: 3902: 3891: 3850: 3781: 3667: 3523: 2339: 2287:(CCBA), an umbrella organization, which defended the political rights and legal interests of the 2257: 1598: 1341: 1331: 1326: 1306: 41: 8256: 7500:

In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America

2139:

they had faced. With the heavily uneven gender ratio, prostitution grew rapidly and the Chinese

8824: 8637: 8574: 8462: 8435: 8418: 8394: 8367: 8220: 5243: 5133: 3636: 3470: 3029: 2793: 2713: 2625: 2609: 2545: 2184: 2091: 2027:. However, the immigrants themselves would legally remain as foreigners "indefinitely". Unlike 1786: 1443: 1422: 1256: 1171: 1115: 187: 19: 7155:

Department of Human Services Immigration and Citizenship. (2018). Yearbook 2016. Available at:

6881: 6853: 6820: 6012:"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875" 5215: 5207: 5116: 2612:, and the two sections were merged and ceremonially completed on May 10, 1869, at the famous " 2078: 1947:, a major trading port in the region. Less frequently, they left from the neighboring port of 8484: 8349: 8189: 8165: 8091: 7883: 7472:

Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876–1917

6782: 6265: 6034: 5389: 4481: 4233: 3922: 3686: 3625: 3590: 3486: 3081:

Statistics on Employed Male Chinese in the Twenty, Most Frequently Reported Occupations, 1870

3074: 2621: 2593: 2116: 2055: 1914: 1790: 1582: 1291: 1286: 1161: 887: 451: 396: 374: 5746:

Edward Day Cohota – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

3631:

Many Western states also enacted discriminatory laws that made it difficult for Chinese and

2405:, with 40,400 being recorded as arriving from 1851 to 1860, and again in the 1860s when the 1976: 8814: 8788: 8705: 8624: 8494: 8440: 8430: 8356: 8261: 8176: 7578: 7229: 7156: 6948: 6212: 5805: 5767: 5757:

Antonio Dardelle – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

4434: 4426: 4409: 4326: 4037: 3507: 3038: 2899: 2876: 2781:, until they were driven out during an outbreak of anti-Chinese violence in the mid-1890s. 2454: 2402: 2326:

A minority of Chinese immigrants did not join the CCBA as they were outcasts or lacked the

2276: 2201: 2008: 1960: 1935: 1872: 1602: 1554: 1502: 1381: 1346: 1251: 1226: 923: 913: 220: 209: 154: 6303:"Xenophobia in America: How we got here and what's at stake | Erika Lee | TEDxMinneapolis" 5779:

Thomas Sylvanus – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

5616: 5473: 4251: 3527:

1892 certificate of residence for Hang Jung: From Papers relating to Chinese in California

2230: 8: 8758: 8658: 8650: 8337: 8306: 8171: 7913: 7908: 7813: 6242: 6216: 5853:, Hans Konrad Van Tilburg, University of Hawaiêi at Manoa; Brownstone, p.74; McCunn, p.47 5523: 5072: 4505: 4388: 4384: 3682: 3494: 2784:

Chinese immigrants settled a few small towns in the Sacramento River delta, two of them:

2564: 2498: 2335: 2071:

customs including shaving the front of their heads and combing the remaining hair into a

1366: 1316: 1271: 1261: 1246: 1236: 1221: 1201: 1176: 1166: 1156: 918: 743: 733: 143: 6385: 5768:

Hong Neok Woo – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

5734: 4516: 8562: 8521: 8479: 8457: 8406: 8343: 8332: 8286: 8182: 7778: 6639: 6362: 6037: 6025: 5379:

California Historical Society. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley

5269:"Chinese Fisheries in California," Chamber's Journal, Vol. L (January 21, 1954), p. 48. 4915: 4840: 4225: 4086: 3959:(1927), the Supreme Court affirmed that the separate-but-equal doctrine articulated in 3938: 3910: 3839: 3735: 3705: 3696: 3662: 3043: 2821: 2797: 2213: 1952: 1884: 1831: 1614: 1550: 1386: 1361: 1266: 1206: 1181: 1151: 1141: 753: 748: 738: 728: 264: 242: 33: 7181:

USCIS. (2018). Green Card Through the Diversity Immigrant Visa Program. Available at:

5778: 5756: 4275: 3009:—moved into fishing off the American West Coast too, and they exerted pressure on the 2409:

recruited large labor gangs, many on five-year contracts, to build its portion of the

8555: 8361: 8327: 8320: 8272: 7878: 7864: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7669: 7655: 7641: 7620: 7603: 7586: 7560: 7543: 7517: 7503: 7489: 7475: 7461: 7447: 7436: 7413: 7399: 7385: 7371: 7355: 7331: 7314: 7295: 7280: 6977: 6952: 6887: 6826: 6788: 6752: 6709: 6662: 6588: 6557: 6511: 6465: 6431: 6275: 6137: 6068: 5948: 5735:

John Tommy – Association to commemorate the Chinese serving in the American Civil War

5408: 5219: 5159: 4870: 4065: 3934: 3914: 3586: 3056: 2906: 2785: 2760: 2672: 2462: 2426: 2288: 2209: 2072: 1985: 1939: 1919: 1892: 1860: 1644: 1610: 1574: 1573:" rhetoric. Despite provisions for equal treatment of Chinese immigrants in the 1868 1498: 1321: 1276: 1216: 1191: 1146: 1089: 108: 30: 6159:"A Chinese American immigration secret emerges from the dark days of discrimination" 5896:

1870 U.S. census, Population and social Statistics, Volume I, Table XXIX, pp 704–715

5745: 2208:

showed that 57% of interracial marriages between these Chinese American men were to

1624:

since the previous year. Also by 1924, all Asian immigrants (except people from the

8266: 8208: 8121: 7893: 7825: 7540:

Surviving on the Gold Mountain. A History of Chinese American Women and Their Lives

7042: 6974:

The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth Century American West

6659:

The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth Century American West

6631: 5570: 5400: 4907: 4845: 4510: 4429:

as graduate students were not returning to the PRC. This exodus worsened after the

4299: 4236:

of 1882, and permitted Chinese nationals already residing in the country to become

4098: 3996: 3887: 3795: 3621: 3593:

of 1882. This act outlawed all Chinese immigration to the United States and denied

3014: 2958:, which were built in large numbers on the American west coast. The catch included 2617: 2521:

The position of the Chinese gold seekers also was complicated by a decision of the

2390: 2363: 2307: 2188: 2180: 2144: 2120: 2043: 2012: 1762: 1747: 1632:

by the United States in 1898) were utterly excluded by law, denied citizenship and

1546: 1351: 1231: 1196: 1094: 1017: 1012: 494: 319: 75: 4325:

diplomatic relations with the Republic of China led to the passage in 1979 of the

3811:

allowed a critical change to Chinese immigration patterns. The practice known as "

3569: 2683: 8086: 7903: 7898: 7798: 7773: 7182: 7123: 7104: 7021: 6941: 6117: 5850: 5723: 5668: 5660: 5574: 5447: 4221: 4022: 4018: 3860: 3835: 3831: 3657: 3632: 3503: 2979: 2805: 2721: 2637: 2605: 2374:, which began in the 1850s and lasted until the 1920s, notably in San Francisco, 2331: 2272:. In other large cities and regions in America similar associations were formed. 2239: 2168: 2047: 1981: 1798: 1657: 1412: 1356: 1311: 1211: 286: 5884: 5871: 2845:

Hong Neok Woo, 50th Regiment Infantry, Pennsylvania Volunteer Emergency Militia.

2196:

of 1863, many Chinese Americans immigrated to the Southern states, particularly

1819: 8819: 8783: 8645: 8153: 7888: 7223: 4896:"Some Denominational Reactions to Chinese Immigration to California, 1856-1892" 4457: 4441: 4372: 4361: 4237: 4123: 3823: 3769: 3746: 3723: 3645: 3614: 3085: 2894: 2836:

Corporal John Tomney/Tommy, 70th Regiment Excelsior Brigade, New York Infantry.

2589: 2581: 2526: 2275:

The Chinese associations mediated disputes and soon began participating in the

2136: 2032: 1923: 1844: 1724: 1676: 1633: 1099: 176: 4472:

is now celebrated in some Chinatowns, and flag raising ceremonies feature the

2171:

Churches to help reduce the number of Chinese prostitutes. By the time of the

8860: 7629: 7244: 7216: 4473: 4418: 4310: 4143: 4139: 4061: 3942: 3879: 3827: 3544: 3536: 3478: 3065: 2778: 2676: 2660: 2601: 2485: 2450: 2414: 2367: 2247: 2151:

show that 61 percent of 3,536 Chinese women in California were classified as

2111: 2068: 2051: 2039: 1989: 1848: 1704: 1566: 70: 37: 7169: 1639:

Only since the 1940s, when the United States and China became allies during

8111: 7458:

At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943

7323: 7168:

Workpermit.com. (2018). US H-1B visa for specialty workers. Available at:

7119: 6816: 4260: 4217: 4089: 4014: 3985: 3895: 3803:). The immigration board concluded that he was not really his father's son. 3757: 3598: 2935: 2772:

in California. These levees opened up thousands of acres of highly fertile

2732: 2613: 2458: 2343: 2152: 2140: 2131: 2126: 2107: 2103: 2087: 2060: 1992: 1931: 1778: 1766: 1696: 1648: 1640: 1570: 1561:

in the 1860s. They also worked as laborers in Western mines. They suffered

7833: 7311:

The Chinese in America: A History from Gold Mountain to the New Millennium

5339:

California Historical Society. Library of Congress (The Bancroft Library).

3681:

However, this Supreme Court decision was only a temporary setback for the

2648:

and finishing the project seven years ahead of the government's deadline.

2580:

wound down in the 1860s, the majority of the work force found jobs in the

8804: 7535: 6105: 5690:"Historian Recounts Role of Chinese Americans Who Fought in US Civil War" 5239: 4521: 4365: 4353: 4229: 4127: 4077: 3966: 3955: 3883: 3691: 3594: 3552: 3061: 2955: 2931: 2801: 2737: 2490: 2422: 2379: 2327: 2243: 2064: 1868: 1825: 1770: 1739: 1732: 1712: 1625: 1621: 7734: 7433:

American Exodus: Second-Generation Chinese Americans in China, 1901-1949

7046: 6825:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Rutgers University Press. p. 123. 4134:

Since the early 19th century, opium was widely used as an ingredient in

2477:

province to the United States to find work, with the added incentive of

2437: 2059:

that hindered their assimilation, most notably their appearance. Under

25: 8400: 7720:. Compiled by Waverly B. Lowell. Reference Information. Paper 99. 1996. 7486:

Remaking Chinese America: Immigration, Family, and Community, 1940–1965

6643: 6508:

Slumming: Sexual and Racial Encounters in American Nightlife, 1885–1940

6267:

American Exodus Second-Generation Chinese Americans in China, 1901–1949

4919: 4895: 4526: 4345: 4291:, who would eventually become the leading American expert on China and 4188: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4135: 4073: 4057: 4053: 3976: 3812: 3777: 3765: 3652: 2709: 2597: 2478: 2466: 2269: 2157: 1965: 1956: 1728: 1629: 429: 275: 7793: 5594: 2740:

owes its development to the Chinese American horticulturalist Ah Bing.

8629: 8106: 8096: 7637: 7552: 5093: 4530: 4517:

Statistics of the Chinese population in the United States (1840–2010)

4493: 4449: 4380: 4288: 4026: 3918: 3731: 3574: 3532: 3498: 2987: 2951: 2665: 2577: 2474: 2470: 2375: 2371: 2355: 2280: 2205: 2164: 2016: 1944: 1899: 1864: 1856: 1852: 1794: 1774: 1751: 1743: 1736: 1606: 1586: 7366: 7328:

Becoming Chinese American. A History of Communities and Institutions

6635: 5021: 4932: 4911: 4400: 4278:, conservative American politicians reacted to the emergence of the 4163: 3601:. (Chinese immigration later increased more with the passage of the 7612: 5794: 4946: 4283: 4005: 3981: 3792:

against Kinyoun, director of the San Francisco Quarantine Station.

3006: 3002: 2943: 2359: 2346:, and adopted their codes of brotherhood, loyalty, and patriotism. 2197: 2095: 1808: 1691: 7249:

Key facts about Asian Americans, a diverse and growing population

6879: 6134:

Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague: 1894–1901

6067:(Pbk. ed.). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. p. 31. 3678:. The law aimed in particular against Chinese laundry businesses. 3449: 18:"Chinese in America" redirects here. For the Iris Chang book, see 8846:

List of U.S. cities with significant Chinese-American populations

8381: 7595: 6867:"Chinese blacks in the Americas - Americas - ColorQ's Color Club" 4081: 4045: 4041: 4033: 4010: 4001: 3992: 3789: 3018: 2975: 2967: 2927: 1716: 7557:

Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco

6332:"Chinese in Mississippi: An Ethnic People in a Biracial Society" 3617:

extended to the highest levels of the U.S. government: in 1888,

2687:

1969 Plaque to honor the Chinese railroad workers who built the

2584:

industry. Chinese labor was integral to the construction of the

1871:, p. 143)—who wanted to make their fortune in the 1849-era 7687:

Chinese Immigration Pamphlets in the California State Library.

7514:

Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act

4994:

Asian Pacific Americans-enriching the evolving American culture

4465: 4445: 4376: 4357: 4338: 4321: 4317: 3875: 3482: 2998: 2991: 2971: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2656: 2418: 2261: 2252: 2099: 1720: 1672: 5548:

Strangers From A Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans

5474:

The Chinese in California, 1850–1925 – Business & Politics

5436: 5434: 5401:

Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew; Katharine Caroline Bushnell (2006).

2445:

The last major immigration wave started around the 1850s. The

2342:, underground organizations dedicated to the overthrow of the 7937:

U.S. immigration policy toward the People's Republic of China

7444:

Chinese in the Post-Civil War South: A People Without History

6430:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 99. 4422: 4279: 3989: 3052: 2947: 2773: 2765: 2745: 2680:

that were rapidly pulled to safety after the fuses were lit.

2351: 2219: 1948: 1668: 7118: 4255:

A resident in San Francisco serves tea to a visitor in 1977.

2708:

as in farming, manufacturing firms, garment industries, and

2604:

coast. Construction began in 1863 at the terminal points of

2401:

The Chinese moved to California in large numbers during the

1797:

became the first Chinese graduate from an American college,

5431: 4404:

The Chinese American experience has been documented at the

4245: 4049: 3605:, which abolished direct racial barriers, and later by the 2963: 2959: 2717: 2453:

was being rapidly settled by European Americans during the

2385: 2106:

doctrines. The number of Chinese migrants who converted to

1999:

Chinese immigrants booked their passages on ships with the

7794:

Chinese-American Contribution to transcontinental railroad

7233:

Comparison of Asian Populations during the Exclusion Years

7088:, edited by Howard R. Lamar. Yale University Press, 1998. 6238:"Why China should recognize that dissent can be patriotic" 5459:

Ethnic Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley

2082:

Portrait of a married Chinese American woman in the 1870s.

5844:

Vessels of Exchange: the Global Shipwright in the Pacific

5518: 5516: 5308:"The Right to Leave and Return and Chinese Migration Law" 2939: 1695:

Canton (Guangzhou) was the trade center of China in that

7714:

Chinese Immigration and the Chinese in the United States

7157:

https://www.dhs.gov/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2016

6784:

Asian American children: a historical handbook and guide

6050:

public domain material from this U.S government document

4533:

of the USA – (click to enlarge). Source: US Census 2000.

2067:

men were forced under the threat of beheading to follow

7755: 7750: 7367:

Driven Out: The Forgotten War Against Chinese Americans

5489:, By Ji Hyun Lim, AsianWeek Staff Writer, Mar 07, 2003. 2982:. They sold their catch in local markets or shipped it 2528:

The People of the State of California v. George W. Hall

1761:, as the United States had recently begun transpacific 6883:

Images That Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media

6880:

Susan Dente Ross; Paul Martin Lester (19 April 2011).

5717:

Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the U.S. Army

5441:

Prostitution in the Early Chinese Community, 1850–1900

3967:

Chinatown: Slumming, gambling, prostitution, and opium

2042:. The Chinese immigrants neither spoke nor understood 1609:

alone showed 57% Chinese American men were married to

7583:

The Woman Warrior: Memoirs of a Girlhood Among Ghosts

7382:

Chinese Immigrants (Immigration to the United States)

5887:; McCunn, p.28, 54–57; Brownstone, p.75–79; Gyory p.4 5560:

Illustration: From Roy D. Graves pictorial collection

5158:. The National Women's History Museum. Archived from 4228:

and signed into law on December 17, 1943. It allowed

3477:

labor organization, which was led by the Californian

2978:—all of which, including shark, formed the staple of 2804:

area, followed by other Asian nationalities like the

7944:

One Hundred Years: History of the Chinese in America

5638: 5636: 4484:, growing prosperity in the PRC, and successive pro- 3818:

A year before, more than 60 labor unions formed the

3531:

Across the country, Chinese immigrants clustered in

3493:. Their propaganda branded the Chinese migrants as " 2655:

The route laid not only had to go across rivers and

1995:

emperor. Photo in San Francisco Chinatown from 1910.

1984:

in 1911 Chinese living abroad were forced to wear a

5885:

Chinese Workers Arrive in North Adams, Jun 13, 1870

5130:"The Life Experiences of Chinese Women in the U.S." 4960: 4958: 3635:immigrants to own land and find work. One of these 2716:discrimination and violence from whites, including 2461:, along with massive devastation brought on by the 1549:in the United States includes three major waves of 7668:, Kensington Publishing Corporation (Neuausgabe), 7410:Coming to America. The Chinese-American Experience 7380:Teitelbaum, Michael and Robert Asher, eds. (2004) 6940: 6358:"Neither Black Nor White in the Mississippi Delta" 5971:"The Chinese-American Experience: An Introduction" 5313:. Sydney: University of Technology. Archived from 4153: 3730:at birth. This decision established an important 2833:Corporal Joseph Pierce, 14th Connecticut Infantry. 2671:The Central Pacific made great progress along the 8749:Chinese Historical Society of Southern California 6749:Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border 6407:"The "Race" Notion's Role in Ethnic Assimilation" 6329: 5633: 5254: 3581:while excluding Chinese immigration domestically. 2764:in the construction of a vast network of earthen 8858: 7820:. Chicago Public Library Omnibus Project of the 7516:, The University of North Carolina Press, 1998, 7460:: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006, 7352:An Illustrated History of the Chinese in America 7237:; Estimation of the US-Census for the year 2004 7015:The Chinese-American Experience: An Introduction 6131: 6093: 6081: 4955: 4269:Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 3863:(1902–1939) put great effort into enforcing the 2659:, which had to be bridged, but also through the 2147:became a lucrative business. Documents from the 1809:First wave: the beginning of Chinese immigration 1589:in 1892. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the only 7130:. University of Illinois Press. pp. 49–51. 6483: 6481: 4240:citizens. This marked the first time since the 3716:his citizenship, and in the Supreme Court case 3069:were hired to replace striking shoe workers in 2839:Edward Day Cohota, 23rd Massachusetts Infantry. 2397:, an engraving made in 1870 by Leavitt Burnham. 2234:Member Certificate card of Sam Yup Association. 1971: 1569:. Many Americans were stirred to anger by the " 7408:Wu, Dana Ying-Hui and Jeffrey Dao-Sheng Tung, 7183:https://www.uscis.gov/greencard/diversity-visa 6925: 6923: 6921: 6919: 6814: 6684: 6682: 6680: 6678: 6606: 6604: 5156:"The First Chinese Women in the United States" 4470:National Day of the People's Republic of China 4395: 3453:"Chinese Must Go" pistol from the 19th century 8161:Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885 7849: 7412:, Brookfield, CT (The Millbrook Press) 1993, 7140: 6751:. University of Minnesota Press. p. 33. 6529: 6527: 6213:"Chinese Immigration: Legislative Harassment" 5790: 5788: 5786: 5661:The Chinese and the Transcontinental Railroad 4947:Chin, Gabriel and Hrishi Karthikeyan, (2002) 4316:Until 1979, the United States recognized the 4309:According to historian of the American West, 2568:Chinese workers in the snow constructing the 1522: 7784:A History of Chinese Americans in California 7718:National Archives and Records Administration 7542:: State University of New York Press, 1998, 7208:US Census: Race and Hispanic or Latino: 2000 6787:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 38–. 6478: 5487:"New President of the Chinese Six Companies" 3826:(mayor of San Francisco from 1910 to 1912), 2842:Antonio Dardelle, 27th Connecticut Regiment. 2820:A small number of Chinese fought during the 2559: 8744:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association 7863: 7805:Teachinghistory.org review of web resource 7354:, San Francisco (Design Enterprises) 1979, 7292:The Chinese in America. A Narrative History 6916: 6780: 6675: 6601: 6510:. University of Chicago Press. p. 17. 5712: 5710: 5183:"The Chinese Lady and China for the Ladies" 4831:Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States 3928: 3830:(first president of the organization), and 3776:. Chinese residents, supported by governor 3585:The flow of immigration (encouraged by the 3565:Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States 2395:Chinese Coolies Crossing the Missouri River 2285:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association 2266:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association 1988:, as an expression of their loyalty to the 1815:19th-century Chinese immigration to America 7952: 7856: 7842: 7716:, Records in the Regional Archives of the 7446:: Louisiana State University Press, 1984, 6976:. University of Nevada Press. p. 38. 6943:Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 6556:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 143. 6554:Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York 6524: 6464:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 144. 6462:Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York 6156: 5861: 5859: 5783: 5069:Pew Social and Demographic Trends: reports 5037:"Chinese communities shifting to Mandarin" 4085:located on property owned by high-ranking 3849:The Asiatic Barred Zone as defined by the 3822:in San Francisco, including labor leaders 3427: 3361:Employees of manufacturing establishments 2870:Confederate soldiers with Chinese heritage 2484:For most Chinese immigrants of the 1850s, 2220:Formation of Chinese American associations 1891:and fisheries. Many were also fleeing the 1529: 1515: 7830:(Selected newspaper articles, 1855–1938). 7731:Becoming American. The Chinese Experience 7170:http://workpermit.com/immigration/usa/us- 7086:The New Encyclopedia of the American West 6661:. University of Nevada Press. p. 3. 6383: 6136:. Sacramento: New York University Press. 5541: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5305: 4893: 4232:immigration for the first time since the 4204:Learn how and when to remove this message 3033:A Chinese cigar factory in San Francisco. 2744:Up until the middle of the 19th century, 2323:was founded as a competitor to the CCBA. 2005:Occidental and Oriental Steamship Company 7502:, University of California Press, 1996, 7084:Barth, Gunther. "Chinese Americans." In 6746: 6325: 6323: 6018: 5707: 5127: 4989: 4876:History of Chinese immigration to Canada 4856:Illegal immigration to the United States 4520: 4399: 4250: 4064:in 1876, which received protection from 4036:, opened a fruit and vegetable store on 3933:Chinese immigrants first arrived in the 3844: 3794: 3740:Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution 3568: 3522: 3456: 3448: 3444: 3235:Employees of railroad co., (not clerks) 3084: 3028: 2893: 2848:Thomas Sylvanus, 42nd New York Infantry. 2759:Many of these Chinese men came from the 2731: 2682: 2563: 2539: 2479:being able to aid their family back home 2436: 2389: 2386:Fields of work for first wave immigrants 2306: 2291:community, particularly during times of 2229: 2110:remained at first low. They were mainly 2077: 1975: 1955:) sent nearly all of their young men to 1913: 1818: 1719:that sailed between the Philippines and 1690: 24: 8117:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 7756:Chinese Historical and Cultural Project 7435:(University of California Press, 2019) 7128:Chinese American Transnational Politics 7114: 7112: 7026: 6938: 6854:Love's revolution: interracial marriage 6815:Steven Gregory (1994). Steven Gregory; 5941: 5856: 4881: 4271:, but was in fact set ten times lower. 3607:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 3603:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 3461:Chinese immigrants murdered during the 2432: 1909: 1653:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 52:This article is part of a series on the 8859: 8764:Chinese Staff and Workers' Association 7559:University of California Press, 1995, 7342:The Making of Asian America: A History 7098:Washingtonpost: A Brain Gain for China 6355: 6263: 6235: 6062: 5545: 5532: 5476:, American Memory, Library of Congress 5174: 5148: 4529:(Year 2000); locations of the largest 4474:Flag of the People's Republic of China 3753:At the beginning of the 20th century, 3473:movement and its main mouthpiece, the 2262:Chinese district and clan associations 1773:, where the first Chinese arrived via 1679:move to the United States, surpassing 8724:List of Chinese American associations 8691:Chinese Historical Society of America 7837: 7818:Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey 7751:Chinese Historical Society of America 7289: 6971: 6656: 6619: 6551: 6459: 6404: 6320: 6236:Brooks, Charlotte (23 October 2019). 5865: 5287:D Ying-Hui Wu, J Dao-Sheng Tung, p.35 4887: 4836:History of Asian American immigration 3941:as cheap laborers when the system of 3842:to segregate Asian school children. 3784:was violating their rights under the 3221:Traders & dealers(not specified) 3047:and then to the 1933 creation of the 2922:. With entire fleets of small boats ( 2226:List of Chinese American associations 1686: 7145:. Taylor & Francis. p. 115. 7109: 6704:. Indiana University Press. p. 6697: 6583:. Indiana University Press. p. 6576: 6505: 6425: 6205: 5935: 5498:McCunn, p.113; Brownstone, p.52–56; 5205: 5031: 5029: 5017: 5015: 4990:Bernfeld, Beatrice (May–June 2000), 4942: 4940: 4186:adding citations to reliable sources 4157: 3024: 2926:; 舢舨), the Chinese fishermen caught 2828:Union soldiers with Chinese heritage 2200:, to work on plantations. The tenth 2019:also used the credit-ticket system. 1936:deposits of gold found in California 1591:U.S. law ever to prevent immigration 7059: 7053: 7032: 6947:. Oxford University Press. p. 6405:Sweet, Frank W. (3 November 2011). 5404:Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers 4894:Seager II, Robert (February 1959). 3907:Immigration Restriction Act of 1924 2882:John Fouenty, draftee and deserter. 2879:. 37th Battalion, Virginia Cavalry. 2192:enter the United States. After the 1887:, and participated in establishing 13: 8729:Chinese American Citizens Alliance 7789:The History of Chinese Immigration 7488:: Rutgers University Press, 2002, 7398:, Indiana University Press, 1986, 7261: 5663:Brownstone, p.65–68; McCunn, p.32 5238: 5214:. Little, Brown & Co. p. 5180: 2770:Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta 2102:, while others adhered to various 472: Modern Era 14: 8878: 8779:Organization of Chinese Americans 7762:The Chinese Experience: 1857–1892 7744: 7396:The Chinese Experience in America 7268:Introductions and general history 6701:The Chinese Experience in America 6580:The Chinese Experience in America 6386:"Origins of Chinese in the Delta" 5932:Brownstone, p.68–74; McCunn, p.39 5606:Brownstone, p.59–64; McCunn, p.27 5026: 5012: 4937: 4431:Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 3774:San Francisco plague of 1900–1904 3558: 2865:John Akomb, steward on a gunboat. 2777:made a living as farm workers or 2441:Chinese gold miners in California 8204:Pacific Coast race riots of 1907 7807:Chinese in California, 1850–1925 7724: 7680:Contemporary pamphlet literature 7201: 7188: 7175: 7162: 7149: 7134: 7091: 7078: 7008: 6999: 6990: 6965: 6932: 6907: 6873: 6859: 6847: 6808: 6774: 6765: 6740: 6731: 6722: 6691: 6650: 6613: 6570: 6184:Sei Fujii v. State of California 6065:The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940 6041: 5597:1854, Ancestors in the Americas. 5210:The West: An Illustrated History 4851:Immigration to the United States 4162: 3869:Sei Fujii v. State of California 3535:. The largest population was in 3513: 3491:Angel Island Immigration Station 2646:setting records for laying track 1497: 1488: 1487: 1449: 1448: 69: 7470:Matthew Frye Jacobson. (2000). 7227:US Census: Population 1790–1990 6545: 6536: 6499: 6490: 6453: 6444: 6419: 6398: 6377: 6356:Estrin, James (13 March 2018). 6349: 6295: 6257: 6229: 6194: 6176: 6150: 6125: 6056: 6004: 5988: 5968: 5962: 5926: 5917: 5908: 5899: 5890: 5878: 5837: 5828: 5819: 5810: 5799: 5772: 5761: 5750: 5739: 5728: 5682: 5673: 5654: 5645: 5623: 5609: 5600: 5588: 5579: 5563: 5554: 5504: 5492: 5479: 5453: 5394: 5382: 5373: 5364: 5351: 5342: 5333: 5324: 5299: 5290: 5281: 5272: 5263: 5232: 5199: 5121: 5110: 5099: 4259:The Magnuson Act passed during 4173:needs additional citations for 4154:Second wave (1949 to the 1980s) 3971:In his book published in 1890, 3788:, and in the process, launched 2912:West Coast of the United States 2750:East Coast of the United States 2586:first transcontinental railroad 2570:first transcontinental railroad 2035:was withheld from the Chinese. 1904:Foreign Miners' Tax Act of 1850 1877:First Transcontinental Railroad 1681:Hispanic and Latino immigration 8769:Chinese for Affirmative Action 8696:Kam Wah Chung & Co. Museum 7824:of Illinois. 1942 – via 7143:Chinese Transnational Networks 7035:History of Education Quarterly 6698:Tsai, Shin-shan Henry (1986). 6577:Tsai, Shin-shan Henry (1986). 6272:University of California Press 5944:"Taishan's U.S. well runs dry" 5825:Brownstone, p.74; McCunn, p.44 5450:; Teitelbaum; Asher, pp. 70–73 5388:McCunn, pp. 109–111; see also 5359:Pacific Mail Steamship Company 5087: 5057: 4983: 4970:Chinese blacks in the Americas 4926: 4248:were permitted to naturalize. 3333:Mill & factory operatives 2727: 2001:Pacific Mail Steamship Company 1: 8754:Chinese Society Halls on Maui 8197:United States v. Wong Kim Ark 7822:Works Progress Administration 7654:. 1903, (HarperTrophy) 1977, 7585:, Vintage 1989 (Neuausgabe), 7277:The Chinese-American Heritage 7066:Columbia University Libraries 7060:Gao, Hong Deng (2019-09-23). 5942:Pierson, David (2007-05-11). 5866:Gyory, Andrew (Summer 2000). 5795:Chinese In The U.S. Civil War 5065:"The Rise of Asian Americans" 4525:Chinese population % in 4462:simplified Chinese characters 3809:1906 San Francisco earthquake 3734:in its interpretation of the 3719:United States v. Wong Kim Ark 3518: 3090: 3049:Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance 2792:located 15–20 miles south of 2720:and murders, drove many into 2705:Northwestern Pacific Railroad 2525:, which decided, in the case 2321:Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance 8675:Museum of Chinese in America 6856:by Maria P.P. Root. Page 180 6161:. L.A. Times. Archived from 6063:Romero, Robert Chao (2011). 5575:10.1080/07418825.2010.535009 5407:. Echo Library. p. 13. 5043:, 2003-12-29, archived from 4866:History of the United States 4406:Museum of Chinese in America 4356:after fleeing from China to 3710:Chinese Underground Railroad 3589:of 1868) was stopped by the 2950:. To catch larger fish like 2889: 2514:enforced a series of taxes. 1972:Arrival in the United States 1968:and hostility towards them. 1959:. From the beginning of the 1895:that affected their region. 1847:of this wave arrived in the 1543:history of Chinese Americans 947:Hispanic and Latino American 7: 7650:Laurence Yep, Dragonwings. 7172:h-1b-visa-specialty-workers 6886:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 144–. 5868:"A Reply to Stanford Lyman" 5550:. New York: Back Bay Books. 4861:Racism in the United States 4824: 4502:United States Census Bureau 4396:Third wave (1980s to today) 4342:National Revolutionary Army 3951:Bolivar County, Mississippi 3858:California Attorney General 3579:exclusion of Jews in Russia 3402:Sub-Total (20 occupations) 3305:Barbers & hairdressers 3207:Gardeners & nurserymen 2815: 2046:and were not familiar with 1803:Chinese Educational Mission 10: 8883: 8686:Chinese American Museum DC 8148:San Francisco riot of 1877 7652:Golden Mountain Chronicles 7571:Autobiographies and novels 6939:Burrows, Edwin G. (1999). 6264:Brooks, Charlotte (2019). 6048:This article incorporates 6014:. The Library of Congress. 5973:. HarpWeek. Archived from 5357:Brownstone, pp.37–44; see 4280:People's Republic of China 4242:Naturalization Act of 1790 3909:. Other laws included the 3772:; the early stages of the 3768:because of an outbreak of 3642:Naturalization Act of 1790 3562: 3347:Physicians & surgeons 3291:Fishermen & oystermen 3071:North Adams, Massachusetts 2858:William Hang, landsman on 2223: 2003:(founded in 1848) and the 1812: 1759:American Revolutionary War 1669:People's Republic of China 1593:and naturalization on the 17: 8841:List of Chinese Americans 8833: 8810:United International Bank 8797: 8714: 8667: 8598: 8247: 8243: 8234: 8138:1867 Chinese Labor Strike 8130: 8074: 8063: 7922: 7871: 7801:, by Patrick Radden Keefe 7779:The Chinese in California 7020:January 26, 2014, at the 6747:Luibheid, Eithne (2002). 6623:Pacific Historical Review 6132:Echenberg, Myron (2007). 4900:Pacific Historical Review 3762:San Francisco's Chinatown 3648:to "free white persons". 3375:Carpenters & joiners 3137:Laborers (not specified) 2754:transcontinental railroad 2701:Southern Pacific Railroad 2689:Transcontinental Railroad 2560:Transcontinental railroad 2411:transcontinental railroad 2330:to join more prestigious 2302:San Francisco's Chinatown 2194:Emancipation Proclamation 1675:, and to a lesser extent 8867:Chinese-American history 8739:Chinese Community Centre 8609:American Chinese cuisine 8485:Providence, Rhode Island 8143:Chinese massacre of 1871 8082:Anti-Chinese legislation 7932:Chinese American history 7370:. (Random House, 2007). 7330:: AltaMira Press, 2004, 7313:, AltaMira Press, 2002, 6972:Ahmad, Diane L. (2007). 6657:Ahmad, Diane L. (2007). 6428:How The Other Half Lives 5330:Brownstone, pp.26–35, 57 4506:Pew Research Data Center 3973:How The Other Half Lives 3929:Segregation in the South 3820:Asiatic Exclusion League 3611:National Origins Formula 3463:Chinese massacre of 1871 3415:Total (all occupations) 2851:John Earl, cabin boy on 2790:Walnut Grove, California 2642:Central Pacific Railroad 2630:Central Pacific Railroad 2523:California Supreme Court 2508:Civil Rights Act of 1866 2407:Central Pacific Railroad 1841:Sino–U.S. maritime trade 1643:, did the situation for 1559:Central Pacific Railroad 450: 428: 406: 395: 373: 362: 340: 329: 318: 307: 285: 274: 263: 241: 219: 208: 186: 175: 153: 142: 80:Chinatown, San Francisco 8734:Chinese American church 8680:Chinese American Museum 8517:San Francisco Chinatown 8215:Killing of Vincent Chin 8102:Immigration Act of 1924 7865:Chinese American topics 7799:China's Great Migration 7394:Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry. 7279:(Facts on File, 1988), 6330:Charles Reagan Wilson. 6001:. Retrieved 2008-03-01. 5667:August 4, 2008, at the 5546:Takaki, Ronald (1998). 5370:Lai Him Mark, pp. 23–31 5306:Guofu Liu (July 2005). 5206:Ward, Geoffrey (1997). 4454:Sino-American relations 4417:areas, particularly in 4331:Immigration Act of 1990 4293:Sino-American relations 4265:Immigration Act of 1924 3903:Immigration Act of 1917 3851:Immigration Act of 1917 3782:Marine Hospital Service 3685:movement. In 1882, the 3668:Equal Protection Clause 3646:naturalized citizenship 3551:as well as by Governor 3428:Indispensable workforce 3277:Farmers & planters 2691:, Promontory Point, UT. 2618:Promontory Summit, Utah 2554:1877 San Francisco riot 1777:(the only route as the 1599:Anti-miscegenation laws 968:Middle Eastern American 790:Technology and industry 8617:American Chinese films 8395:Montville, Connecticut 8221:Killing of Akai Gurley 7767:The Chinese in America 7619:, Vintage Books 1996, 7350:McCunn, Ruthanne Lum. 7141:Chee Beng Tan (2007). 5320:on September 18, 2007. 4546:Total U.S. population 4534: 4413: 4304:Chinese-American Times 4256: 4148:Anti-Chinese advocates 3886:as they aided General 3865:Alien Land Law of 1913 3854: 3824:Patrick Henry McCarthy 3804: 3609:, which abolished the 3582: 3528: 3466: 3454: 3249:Boot & shoemakers 3179:Agricultural laborers 3097: 3034: 3011:California legislature 2902: 2741: 2712:. However, widespread 2692: 2626:Union Pacific Railroad 2610:Sacramento, California 2573: 2549: 2538: 2512:California legislature 2442: 2398: 2316: 2235: 2185:United States Congress 2083: 1996: 1927: 1889:California agriculture 1836: 1787:Foreign Mission School 1700: 1080:Admission to the Union 45: 20:The Chinese in America 8190:Hells Canyon Massacre 8166:Rock Springs massacre 8092:Chinese Exclusion Act 7884:American-born Chinese 7664:Teresa Le Yung Ryan, 7602:, Putnam Adult 1989, 7275:Brownstone, David M. 7103:May 29, 2009, at the 5874:on November 26, 2010. 5849:June 6, 2008, at the 5500:Chinese Six Companies 5390:Christianity in China 5348:Cohen, LM. pp. 40–44. 4524: 4410:Manhattan's Chinatown 4403: 4295:during the Cold War. 4254: 4234:Chinese Exclusion Act 3923:Civil Rights Movement 3848: 3798: 3704:, by supporting the " 3700:effectively canceled 3687:Chinese Exclusion Act 3626:Chinese Exclusion Act 3591:Chinese Exclusion Act 3572: 3526: 3487:Chinese Exclusion Act 3460: 3452: 3445:Anti-Chinese movement 3088: 3075:Chinese Exclusion Act 3032: 2898:Chinese fishermen in 2897: 2735: 2686: 2594:Eastern United States 2567: 2543: 2534: 2440: 2417:mountains and across 2393: 2310: 2233: 2117:Chinese Exclusion Act 2081: 2031:, the possibility of 1979: 1917: 1839:In the 19th century, 1822: 1791:Cornwall, Connecticut 1709:Spanish colonial rule 1694: 1583:Chinese Exclusion Act 1563:racial discrimination 1557:of the 1850s and the 1071:Territorial evolution 364:Post-World War II Era 28: 8815:Global Commerce Bank 8789:Hip Sing Association 8177:Seattle riot of 1886 7579:Maxine Hong Kingston 7498:Charles J. McClain. 7290:Chang, Iris (2004). 6781:Benson Tong (2004). 6426:Riis, Jacob (2010). 6189:242 P.2d 718 6165:on February 12, 2019 5162:on September 5, 2014 5117:Brownstone, pp.2, 25 4882:Notes and references 4327:Taiwan Relations Act 4182:improve this article 4094:Thirteenth Amendment 3786:Fourteenth Amendment 3672:Fourteenth Amendment 3624:, who supported the 3495:perpetual foreigners 3489:and the creation of 3039:California Gold Rush 2900:Monterey, California 2877:Chang and Eng Bunker 2499:perpetual foreigners 2455:California Gold Rush 2433:California Gold Rush 2403:California Gold Rush 2277:hospitality industry 2025:American citizenship 2009:credit-ticket system 1961:California Gold Rush 1910:Departure from China 1881:Southern plantations 1873:California Gold Rush 1703:The Chinese reached 1555:California Gold Rush 994:Palestinian American 210:Era of Good Feelings 155:Confederation period 92:Timeline and periods 8759:Ying On Association 8659:Chinatown bus lines 8651:Confucius Institute 8575:Rockville, Maryland 8563:Spokane, Washington 8172:Tacoma riot of 1885 7914:Hyphenated American 7909:Hong Kong Americans 7431:Charlotte Brooks,. 7309:Cassel, Susan Lan. 7047:10.1017/heq.2020.10 6552:Sante, Luc (2003). 6506:Heap, Chad (2009). 6460:Sante, Luc (2003). 6243:The Washington Post 6217:Library of Congress 5999:Chinese immigration 5679:Brownstone, p.68–74 5595:The People Vs. Hall 5524:Tong (organization) 5073:Pew Research Center 4966:"The United States" 4486:Taiwan independence 4444:, rather than from 4282:as a player in the 4124:Tariff acts of 1832 3911:Cubic Air Ordinance 2885:Charles K. Marshall 2588:, which linked the 2473:-speaking areas in 2352:criminal activities 2328:clan or family ties 2029:European immigrants 1551:Chinese immigration 929:Lithuanian American 880:Vietnamese American 144:American Revolution 44:in hand, June 1942. 36:posing alongside a 8582:Winnemucca, Nevada 8374:San Gabriel Valley 8293:West Argyle Street 8183:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 8048:Washington State ( 7772:2021-02-28 at the 7666:Love Made of Heart 6363:The New York Times 6121:. August 31, 2015. 6026:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 5722:2011-06-24 at the 5522:Brownstone, p.56; 5446:2014-12-02 at the 4841:Chinese emigration 4549:Of Chinese origin 4535: 4414: 4389:Taiwanese American 4385:Hong Kong American 4257: 4222:Warren G. Magnuson 4109:reported on August 3961:Plessy v. Ferguson 3939:Reconstruction Era 3855: 3840:Board of Education 3805: 3736:Citizenship Clause 3706:separate but equal 3702:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 3697:Plessy v. Ferguson 3663:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 3583: 3549:Workingman's Party 3529: 3475:Workingman's Party 3467: 3455: 3151:Domestic servants 3098: 3044:Yick Wo v. Hopkins 3035: 2903: 2822:American Civil War 2798:San Gabriel Valley 2742: 2693: 2574: 2550: 2443: 2399: 2317: 2240:1911 revolutionary 2236: 2212:women, and 43% to 2084: 1997: 1928: 1837: 1757:Shortly after the 1707:during the era of 1701: 1699:. Photo from 1895. 1687:Transpacific trade 1613:women, and 43% to 1565:at every level of 1545:or the history of 1049:Transgender people 612:Capital punishment 265:Reconstruction Era 46: 8854: 8853: 8625:Chinaman's chance 8594: 8593: 8590: 8589: 8527:Richmond District 8511:San Francisco Bay 8388:North Miami Beach 8362:Locke, California 8315:Dallas-Fort Worth 8230: 8229: 8059: 8058: 8037:Dallas-Fort Worth 8007:Mississippi Delta 7879:Chinese Americans 7600:The Joy Luck Club 7480:978-0-8090-1628-0 7474:. Hill and Wang, 6983:978-0-87417-844-9 6893:978-0-313-37892-8 6794:978-0-313-33042-1 6668:978-0-87417-844-9 6517:978-0-226-32244-5 6437:978-0-674-04932-1 6143:978-0-8147-2232-9 5949:Los Angeles Times 5617:"Charles Crocker" 4949:Asian Law Journal 4822: 4821: 4511:language barriers 4480:. The effects of 4339:Republic of China 4318:Republic of China 4214: 4213: 4206: 4087:European American 4066:corrupt policemen 3935:Mississippi Delta 3760:requested to put 3676:U.S. Constitution 3587:Burlingame Treaty 3577:) protesting the 3508:Chinaman's chance 3425: 3424: 3319:Clerks in stores 3025:Other occupations 2907:Pearl River Delta 2786:Locke, California 2761:Pearl River Delta 2673:Sacramento Valley 2510:was passed), the 2463:Taiping Rebellion 2427:Taiping Rebellion 2315:in San Francisco. 2244:clan associations 2214:European American 2160:cultural values. 2092:ancestral worship 1982:Xinhai Revolution 1940:Burlingame Treaty 1893:Taiping Rebellion 1861:Chinese Americans 1645:Chinese Americans 1628:, which had been 1615:European American 1575:Burlingame Treaty 1539: 1538: 1461: 1460: 1090:American frontier 989:Lebanese American 974:Egyptian American 904:Estonian American 894:Albanian American 888:European American 865:Japanese American 855:Filipino American 479: 478: 452:Post-Cold War Era 109:Pre-Columbian Era 61: 8874: 8774:Committee of 100 8701:Wing Luke Museum 8569:Washington, D.C. 8480:Portland, Oregon 8245: 8244: 8241: 8240: 8209:Bellingham riots 8122:China Initiative 8072: 8071: 7950: 7949: 7894:Fuzhou Americans 7858: 7851: 7844: 7835: 7834: 7829: 7826:Newberry Library 7617:On Gold Mountain 7364:Pfaelzer, Jean. 7305: 7256: 7205: 7199: 7192: 7186: 7179: 7173: 7166: 7160: 7153: 7147: 7146: 7138: 7132: 7131: 7124:Hsu, Madeline Y. 7116: 7107: 7095: 7089: 7082: 7076: 7075: 7073: 7072: 7057: 7051: 7050: 7030: 7024: 7012: 7006: 7003: 6997: 6996:Ahmad, p. 47–48. 6994: 6988: 6987: 6969: 6963: 6962: 6946: 6936: 6930: 6927: 6914: 6911: 6905: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6877: 6871: 6870: 6863: 6857: 6851: 6845: 6843: 6841: 6839: 6812: 6806: 6805: 6803: 6801: 6778: 6772: 6769: 6763: 6762: 6744: 6738: 6735: 6729: 6726: 6720: 6719: 6695: 6689: 6686: 6673: 6672: 6654: 6648: 6647: 6617: 6611: 6608: 6599: 6598: 6574: 6568: 6567: 6549: 6543: 6540: 6534: 6531: 6522: 6521: 6503: 6497: 6494: 6488: 6485: 6476: 6475: 6457: 6451: 6448: 6442: 6441: 6423: 6417: 6416: 6414: 6413: 6402: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6392: 6381: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6370: 6353: 6347: 6346: 6344: 6343: 6334:. Archived from 6327: 6318: 6317: 6315: 6313: 6299: 6293: 6292: 6290: 6288: 6261: 6255: 6254: 6252: 6250: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6223: 6209: 6203: 6198: 6192: 6186: 6180: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6170: 6157:Ching-Ching Ni. 6154: 6148: 6147: 6129: 6123: 6122: 6109: 6103: 6097: 6091: 6085: 6079: 6078: 6060: 6054: 6045: 6044: 6022: 6016: 6015: 6008: 6002: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5982: 5966: 5960: 5959: 5957: 5956: 5939: 5933: 5930: 5924: 5921: 5915: 5912: 5906: 5903: 5897: 5894: 5888: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5870:. Archived from 5863: 5854: 5841: 5835: 5832: 5826: 5823: 5817: 5814: 5808: 5803: 5797: 5792: 5781: 5776: 5770: 5765: 5759: 5754: 5748: 5743: 5737: 5732: 5726: 5714: 5705: 5704: 5702: 5701: 5694:Voice of America 5686: 5680: 5677: 5671: 5658: 5652: 5649: 5643: 5640: 5631: 5627: 5621: 5620: 5613: 5607: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5583: 5577: 5567: 5561: 5558: 5552: 5551: 5543: 5530: 5520: 5511: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5483: 5477: 5471: 5460: 5457: 5451: 5438: 5429: 5428: 5423: 5421: 5398: 5392: 5386: 5380: 5377: 5371: 5368: 5362: 5355: 5349: 5346: 5340: 5337: 5331: 5328: 5322: 5321: 5319: 5312: 5303: 5297: 5294: 5288: 5285: 5279: 5276: 5270: 5267: 5261: 5260:Brownstone, p.26 5258: 5252: 5251: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5203: 5197: 5196: 5194: 5192: 5187: 5178: 5172: 5171: 5169: 5167: 5152: 5146: 5145: 5143: 5141: 5136:on July 24, 2014 5125: 5119: 5114: 5108: 5106:Brownstone, p.25 5103: 5097: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5053: 5052: 5033: 5024: 5019: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5007: 4998:, archived from 4987: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4977: 4962: 4953: 4944: 4935: 4930: 4924: 4923: 4891: 4871:Chinese Canadian 4846:Overseas Chinese 4540: 4539: 4300:William Y. Chang 4276:Second Red Scare 4209: 4202: 4198: 4195: 4189: 4166: 4158: 4112: 3888:John J. Pershing 3694:". And in 1896, 3622:Grover Cleveland 3103: 3102: 3095: 3092: 2699:After 1869, the 2364:people smuggling 2311:Officers of the 2289:Chinese American 2210:African American 2181:Washington, D.C. 2178: 2173:1880 U.S. census 2149:1870 U.S. census 1835:. April 29, 1876 1748:Vancouver Island 1665:2020 U.S. census 1611:African American 1531: 1524: 1517: 1501: 1491: 1490: 1452: 1451: 1095:Manifest destiny 1085:Historic regions 1067: 1066: 1007:Native Americans 979:Iranian American 953:Mexican American 939:Serbian American 924:Italian American 909:Finnish American 899:English American 850:Chinese American 837:African American 637:Direct democracy 627:The Constitution 586:Higher education 495:American Century 397:Civil Rights Era 375:Civil Rights Era 331:Great Depression 320:Roaring Twenties 188:Jeffersonian Era 98: 97: 93: 76:Chinese American 73: 59: 48: 47: 42:M1928A1 Thompson 31:Chinese American 8882: 8881: 8877: 8876: 8875: 8873: 8872: 8871: 8857: 8856: 8855: 8850: 8829: 8793: 8710: 8663: 8586: 8532:Sunset District 8475:Portland, Maine 8226: 8126: 8087:Anti-Coolie Act 8066: 8055: 7991:Massachusetts ( 7948: 7918: 7904:Hoklo Americans 7899:Hakka Americans 7867: 7862: 7812: 7774:Wayback Machine 7747: 7727: 7708:Primary sources 7705: 7484:Xiaojian Zhao, 7424:Specific topics 7302: 7264: 7262:Further reading 7259: 7221:US Census: 1990 7206: 7202: 7193: 7189: 7180: 7176: 7167: 7163: 7154: 7150: 7139: 7135: 7117: 7110: 7105:Wayback Machine 7096: 7092: 7083: 7079: 7070: 7068: 7058: 7054: 7031: 7027: 7022:Wayback Machine 7013: 7009: 7004: 7000: 6995: 6991: 6984: 6970: 6966: 6959: 6937: 6933: 6928: 6917: 6912: 6908: 6898: 6896: 6894: 6878: 6874: 6865: 6864: 6860: 6852: 6848: 6837: 6835: 6833: 6813: 6809: 6799: 6797: 6795: 6779: 6775: 6771:Luibheid, p.34. 6770: 6766: 6759: 6745: 6741: 6736: 6732: 6727: 6723: 6716: 6696: 6692: 6687: 6676: 6669: 6655: 6651: 6636:10.2307/3638262 6618: 6614: 6609: 6602: 6595: 6575: 6571: 6564: 6550: 6546: 6541: 6537: 6532: 6525: 6518: 6504: 6500: 6495: 6491: 6486: 6479: 6472: 6458: 6454: 6449: 6445: 6438: 6424: 6420: 6411: 6409: 6403: 6399: 6390: 6388: 6384:John Thornell. 6382: 6378: 6368: 6366: 6354: 6350: 6341: 6339: 6328: 6321: 6311: 6309: 6301: 6300: 6296: 6286: 6284: 6282: 6262: 6258: 6248: 6246: 6234: 6230: 6221: 6219: 6211: 6210: 6206: 6199: 6195: 6182: 6181: 6177: 6168: 6166: 6155: 6151: 6144: 6130: 6126: 6118:Washington Post 6111: 6110: 6106: 6098: 6094: 6086: 6082: 6075: 6061: 6057: 6042: 6023: 6019: 6010: 6009: 6005: 5993: 5989: 5980: 5978: 5967: 5963: 5954: 5952: 5940: 5936: 5931: 5927: 5922: 5918: 5913: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5895: 5891: 5883: 5879: 5864: 5857: 5851:Wayback Machine 5842: 5838: 5833: 5829: 5824: 5820: 5815: 5811: 5804: 5800: 5793: 5784: 5777: 5773: 5766: 5762: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5740: 5733: 5729: 5724:Wayback Machine 5715: 5708: 5699: 5697: 5688: 5687: 5683: 5678: 5674: 5669:Wayback Machine 5659: 5655: 5650: 5646: 5641: 5634: 5628: 5624: 5615: 5614: 5610: 5605: 5601: 5593: 5589: 5584: 5580: 5568: 5564: 5559: 5555: 5544: 5533: 5521: 5514: 5509: 5505: 5497: 5493: 5485:AsianWeek.com. 5484: 5480: 5472: 5463: 5458: 5454: 5448:Wayback Machine 5439: 5432: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5399: 5395: 5387: 5383: 5378: 5374: 5369: 5365: 5356: 5352: 5347: 5343: 5338: 5334: 5329: 5325: 5317: 5310: 5304: 5300: 5295: 5291: 5286: 5282: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5264: 5259: 5255: 5246:Made In America 5237: 5233: 5226: 5204: 5200: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5179: 5175: 5165: 5163: 5154: 5153: 5149: 5139: 5137: 5126: 5122: 5115: 5111: 5104: 5100: 5092: 5088: 5078: 5076: 5075:. June 19, 2012 5063: 5062: 5058: 5050: 5048: 5035: 5034: 5027: 5020: 5013: 5005: 5003: 4988: 4984: 4975: 4973: 4972:. Color Q World 4964: 4963: 4956: 4945: 4938: 4931: 4927: 4912:10.2307/3636239 4892: 4888: 4884: 4827: 4519: 4476:as well as the 4458:Chinese schools 4398: 4210: 4199: 4193: 4190: 4179: 4167: 4156: 4110: 4023:Irish Americans 4019:Lower East Side 3969: 3931: 3882:shortly before 3861:Ulysses S. Webb 3836:Walter McCarthy 3832:Andrew Furuseth 3755:Surgeon General 3658:Anti-Coolie Act 3567: 3561: 3521: 3516: 3447: 3430: 3093: 3027: 2980:Chinese cuisine 2892: 2818: 2730: 2722:self-employment 2677:nitro-glycerine 2638:Charles Crocker 2606:Omaha, Nebraska 2592:network of the 2562: 2459:Qing government 2435: 2388: 2332:Chinese surname 2228: 2222: 2176: 2048:Western culture 1974: 1912: 1832:Harper's Weekly 1817: 1811: 1799:Yale University 1725:Manila galleons 1689: 1658:Asian Americans 1535: 1463: 1462: 1064: 1056: 1055: 961:Jewish American 934:Polish American 914:German American 870:Korean American 860:Indian American 831: 823: 822: 677:Merchant Marine 647:Law enforcement 515:Racial violence 489: 481: 480: 287:Progressive Era 95: 91: 83: 62: 60:History of the 23: 12: 11: 5: 8880: 8870: 8869: 8852: 8851: 8849: 8848: 8843: 8837: 8835: 8831: 8830: 8828: 8827: 8822: 8820:East West Bank 8817: 8812: 8807: 8801: 8799: 8795: 8794: 8792: 8791: 8786: 8784:Bing Kong Tong 8781: 8776: 8771: 8766: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8746: 8741: 8736: 8731: 8726: 8720: 8718: 8712: 8711: 8709: 8708: 8706:Wo Hing Museum 8703: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8677: 8671: 8669: 8665: 8664: 8662: 8661: 8656: 8655:Transportation 8653: 8648: 8646:Chinese school 8643: 8640: 8635: 8632: 8627: 8622: 8619: 8614: 8611: 8606: 8602: 8600: 8596: 8595: 8592: 8591: 8588: 8587: 8585: 8584: 8579: 8578: 8577: 8565: 8560: 8559: 8558: 8553: 8545:Seattle-Tacoma 8541: 8540: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8507: 8502: 8500:Salt Lake City 8497: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8471: 8470: 8460: 8455: 8450: 8445: 8444: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8421: 8416: 8415: 8414: 8409: 8397: 8392: 8391: 8390: 8378: 8377: 8376: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8353: 8352: 8340: 8335: 8330: 8325: 8324: 8323: 8311: 8310: 8309: 8297: 8296: 8295: 8283: 8282: 8281: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8248: 8238: 8232: 8231: 8228: 8227: 8225: 8224: 8218: 8212: 8206: 8201: 8193: 8187: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8163: 8158: 8154:Tape v. Hurley 8150: 8145: 8140: 8134: 8132: 8128: 8127: 8125: 8124: 8119: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8078: 8076: 8069: 8067:discrimination 8061: 8060: 8057: 8056: 8054: 8053: 8046: 8045: 8044: 8039: 8029: 8024: 8017: 8010: 8003: 7996: 7989: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7971: 7970: 7965: 7956: 7954: 7947: 7946: 7941: 7940: 7939: 7928: 7926: 7920: 7919: 7917: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7889:Asian American 7886: 7881: 7875: 7873: 7872:Related groups 7869: 7868: 7861: 7860: 7853: 7846: 7838: 7832: 7831: 7810: 7802: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7764: 7759: 7753: 7746: 7745:External links 7743: 7742: 7741: 7738: 7726: 7723: 7722: 7721: 7710: 7709: 7704: 7703: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7677: 7676: 7662: 7648: 7627: 7610: 7593: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7568: 7567: 7550: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7525: 7524: 7512:Andrew Gyory. 7510: 7496: 7482: 7468: 7454: 7442:Lucy M Cohen. 7440: 7428: 7427: 7425: 7421: 7420: 7406: 7392: 7378: 7362: 7348: 7338: 7321: 7307: 7300: 7287: 7272: 7271: 7269: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7257: 7243:2020-02-12 at 7215:2020-02-12 at 7200: 7187: 7174: 7161: 7148: 7133: 7108: 7090: 7077: 7052: 7025: 7007: 6998: 6989: 6982: 6964: 6957: 6931: 6915: 6906: 6892: 6872: 6858: 6846: 6831: 6807: 6793: 6773: 6764: 6757: 6739: 6730: 6721: 6714: 6690: 6674: 6667: 6649: 6630:(3): 367–394. 6612: 6600: 6593: 6569: 6562: 6544: 6535: 6523: 6516: 6498: 6489: 6477: 6470: 6452: 6443: 6436: 6418: 6397: 6376: 6348: 6319: 6294: 6280: 6256: 6228: 6204: 6201:Chinese Texans 6193: 6175: 6149: 6142: 6124: 6104: 6092: 6080: 6074:978-0816514601 6073: 6055: 6017: 6003: 5997:(06-19-2003). 5987: 5969:Wei, William. 5961: 5934: 5925: 5916: 5907: 5898: 5889: 5877: 5855: 5836: 5827: 5818: 5809: 5798: 5782: 5771: 5760: 5749: 5738: 5727: 5706: 5681: 5672: 5653: 5644: 5632: 5622: 5608: 5599: 5587: 5578: 5562: 5553: 5531: 5512: 5503: 5491: 5478: 5461: 5452: 5430: 5413: 5393: 5381: 5372: 5363: 5350: 5341: 5332: 5323: 5298: 5289: 5280: 5271: 5262: 5253: 5231: 5224: 5198: 5181:Haddad, John. 5173: 5147: 5132:Archived from 5128:Wei Chi Poon. 5120: 5109: 5098: 5086: 5056: 5025: 5011: 4982: 4954: 4936: 4925: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4826: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4816: 4813: 4810: 4806: 4805: 4802: 4799: 4796: 4792: 4791: 4788: 4785: 4782: 4778: 4777: 4774: 4771: 4768: 4764: 4763: 4760: 4757: 4754: 4750: 4749: 4746: 4743: 4740: 4736: 4735: 4732: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4721: 4718: 4715: 4712: 4708: 4707: 4704: 4701: 4698: 4694: 4693: 4690: 4687: 4684: 4680: 4679: 4676: 4673: 4670: 4666: 4665: 4662: 4659: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4648: 4645: 4642: 4638: 4637: 4634: 4631: 4628: 4624: 4623: 4620: 4617: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4606: 4603: 4600: 4596: 4595: 4592: 4589: 4586: 4582: 4581: 4578: 4575: 4572: 4568: 4567: 4564: 4563:not available 4561: 4558: 4554: 4553: 4550: 4547: 4544: 4518: 4515: 4478:older ROC flag 4442:mainland China 4397: 4394: 4373:Mainland China 4362:Pai Hsien-yung 4212: 4211: 4170: 4168: 4161: 4155: 4152: 4107:New York Times 4090:city officials 3968: 3965: 3930: 3927: 3770:bubonic plague 3747:Tape v. Hurley 3644:that reserved 3619:U.S. President 3615:discrimination 3563:Main article: 3560: 3559:Discrimination 3557: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3465:in Los Angeles 3446: 3443: 3429: 3426: 3423: 3422: 3419: 3416: 3413: 3410: 3409: 3406: 3403: 3400: 3397: 3396: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3369: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3359: 3355: 3354: 3351: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3340: 3337: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3326: 3323: 3320: 3317: 3313: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3299: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3285: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3271: 3270: 3267: 3264: 3261: 3257: 3256: 3253: 3250: 3247: 3243: 3242: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3229: 3228: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3215: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3205: 3201: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3187: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3173: 3172: 3169: 3166: 3163: 3159: 3158: 3155: 3152: 3149: 3145: 3144: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3131: 3130: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3117: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3066:strikebreakers 3026: 3023: 2891: 2888: 2887: 2886: 2883: 2880: 2867: 2866: 2863: 2856: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2817: 2814: 2729: 2726: 2561: 2558: 2434: 2431: 2387: 2384: 2258:interpretation 2221: 2218: 2137:discrimination 2104:ecclesiastical 2040:culture shocks 2033:naturalization 1973: 1970: 1924:Ryukyu Islands 1911: 1908: 1845:Chinese people 1813:Main article: 1810: 1807: 1763:maritime trade 1688: 1685: 1677:Southeast Asia 1660:(about 22%). 1634:naturalization 1547:ethnic Chinese 1537: 1536: 1534: 1533: 1526: 1519: 1511: 1508: 1507: 1506: 1505: 1495: 1484: 1483: 1481:Historiography 1478: 1473: 1465: 1464: 1459: 1458: 1457: 1456: 1446: 1438: 1437: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1397: 1396: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1136: 1135: 1131: 1130: 1129: 1128: 1126:The West Coast 1123: 1118: 1110: 1109: 1105: 1104: 1103: 1102: 1100:Indian removal 1097: 1092: 1087: 1082: 1074: 1073: 1065: 1062: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1029: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1015: 1003: 1002: 1001: 999:Saudi American 996: 991: 986: 984:Iraqi American 981: 976: 964: 957: 956: 955: 943: 942: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 919:Irish American 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 884: 883: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 844:Asian American 840: 832: 829: 828: 825: 824: 821: 820: 819: 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 786: 785: 784: 782:Sexual slavery 772: 765: 758: 757: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 719: 718: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 680: 673: 666: 665: 664: 659: 654: 652:Postal service 649: 644: 642:Foreign policy 639: 634: 629: 624: 619: 614: 609: 597: 590: 589: 588: 576: 575: 574: 562: 561: 560: 548: 547: 546: 541: 536: 531: 519: 518: 517: 505: 498: 490: 487: 486: 483: 482: 477: 476: 473: 469: 468: 466: 458: 457: 454: 447: 446: 444: 436: 435: 432: 425: 424: 422: 414: 413: 410: 403: 402: 399: 392: 391: 389: 381: 380: 377: 370: 369: 366: 359: 358: 356: 348: 347: 344: 337: 336: 333: 326: 325: 322: 315: 314: 311: 304: 303: 301: 293: 292: 289: 282: 281: 278: 271: 270: 267: 260: 259: 257: 249: 248: 245: 238: 237: 235: 227: 226: 223: 221:Jacksonian Era 216: 215: 212: 205: 204: 202: 194: 193: 190: 183: 182: 179: 177:Federalist Era 172: 171: 169: 161: 160: 157: 150: 149: 146: 139: 138: 136: 128: 127: 124: 116: 115: 112: 96: 89: 88: 85: 84: 74: 66: 65: 55: 54: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8879: 8868: 8865: 8864: 8862: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8839: 8838: 8836: 8832: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8802: 8800: 8796: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8721: 8719: 8717: 8716:Organizations 8713: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682:(Los Angeles) 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8672: 8670: 8666: 8660: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8633: 8631: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8612: 8610: 8607: 8604: 8603: 8601: 8597: 8583: 8580: 8576: 8573: 8572: 8571: 8570: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8557: 8554: 8552: 8549: 8548: 8547: 8546: 8542: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8514: 8513: 8512: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8490:Salem, Oregon 8488: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8469: 8468:Squirrel Hill 8466: 8465: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8449: 8448:Oklahoma City 8446: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8428: 8427: 8426: 8425:New York City 8422: 8420: 8417: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8404: 8403: 8402: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8389: 8386: 8385: 8384: 8383: 8379: 8375: 8372: 8371: 8370: 8369: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8351: 8350:East Downtown 8348: 8347: 8346: 8345: 8341: 8339: 8336: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8326: 8322: 8319: 8318: 8317: 8316: 8312: 8308: 8305: 8304: 8303: 8302: 8298: 8294: 8291: 8290: 8289: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8277: 8276: 8275: 8274: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8249: 8246: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8233: 8222: 8219: 8216: 8213: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8199: 8198: 8194: 8191: 8188: 8185: 8184: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8156: 8155: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8135: 8133: 8129: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8079: 8077: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8062: 8051: 8047: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8034: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8025: 8022: 8021:New York City 8018: 8015: 8011: 8008: 8005:Mississippi ( 8004: 8001: 7997: 7994: 7990: 7987: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7969: 7968:San Francisco 7966: 7964: 7961: 7960: 7958: 7957: 7955: 7951: 7945: 7942: 7938: 7935: 7934: 7933: 7930: 7929: 7927: 7925: 7921: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7876: 7874: 7870: 7866: 7859: 7854: 7852: 7847: 7845: 7840: 7839: 7836: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7815: 7811: 7809: 7808: 7803: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7771: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7748: 7739: 7736: 7732: 7729: 7728: 7725:Documentaries 7719: 7715: 7712: 7711: 7707: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7685: 7682: 7679: 7678: 7675: 7674:0-7582-0217-2 7671: 7667: 7663: 7661: 7660:0-06-440085-9 7657: 7653: 7649: 7647: 7646:0-9759255-7-1 7643: 7639: 7635: 7631: 7630:Ki Longfellow 7628: 7626: 7625:9780307950390 7622: 7618: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7608:0-399-13420-4 7605: 7601: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7591:0-679-72188-6 7588: 7584: 7580: 7577: 7576: 7573: 7570: 7569: 7566: 7565:0-520-08867-0 7562: 7558: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7548:0-7914-3864-3 7545: 7541: 7537: 7534: 7533: 7530: 7527: 7526: 7523: 7522:0-8078-4739-9 7519: 7515: 7511: 7509: 7508:0-520-20514-6 7505: 7501: 7497: 7495: 7494:0-8135-3011-3 7491: 7487: 7483: 7481: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7467: 7466:0-8078-5448-4 7463: 7459: 7455: 7453: 7452:0-8071-2457-5 7449: 7445: 7441: 7438: 7437:online review 7434: 7430: 7429: 7426: 7423: 7422: 7419: 7418:1-56294-271-9 7415: 7411: 7407: 7405: 7404:0-253-31359-7 7401: 7397: 7393: 7391: 7390:0-8160-5687-0 7387: 7383: 7379: 7377: 7376:1-4000-6134-2 7373: 7369: 7368: 7363: 7361: 7360:0-932538-01-0 7357: 7353: 7349: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7337: 7336:0-7591-0458-1 7333: 7329: 7325: 7324:Lai, Him Mark 7322: 7320: 7319:0-7591-0001-2 7316: 7312: 7308: 7303: 7301:0-14-200417-0 7297: 7293: 7288: 7286: 7285:0-8160-1627-5 7282: 7278: 7274: 7273: 7270: 7267: 7266: 7255: 7252: 7251: 7246: 7245:archive.today 7242: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7230: 7228: 7224: 7222: 7218: 7217:archive.today 7214: 7211: 7209: 7204: 7198: 7191: 7184: 7178: 7171: 7165: 7158: 7152: 7144: 7137: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7115: 7113: 7106: 7102: 7099: 7094: 7087: 7081: 7067: 7063: 7056: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7029: 7023: 7019: 7016: 7011: 7002: 6993: 6985: 6979: 6975: 6968: 6960: 6958:0-19-514049-4 6954: 6950: 6945: 6944: 6935: 6926: 6924: 6922: 6920: 6910: 6895: 6889: 6885: 6884: 6876: 6868: 6862: 6855: 6850: 6834: 6832:0-8135-2109-2 6828: 6824: 6823: 6818: 6811: 6796: 6790: 6786: 6785: 6777: 6768: 6760: 6758:0-8166-3804-7 6754: 6750: 6743: 6737:Light, p.372. 6734: 6725: 6717: 6715:0-253-31359-7 6711: 6707: 6703: 6702: 6694: 6685: 6683: 6681: 6679: 6670: 6664: 6660: 6653: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6624: 6616: 6607: 6605: 6596: 6594:0-253-31359-7 6590: 6586: 6582: 6581: 6573: 6565: 6563:0-374-52899-3 6559: 6555: 6548: 6539: 6530: 6528: 6519: 6513: 6509: 6502: 6496:Sante, p.145. 6493: 6487:Sante, p.144. 6484: 6482: 6473: 6471:0-374-52899-3 6467: 6463: 6456: 6447: 6439: 6433: 6429: 6422: 6408: 6401: 6387: 6380: 6365: 6364: 6359: 6352: 6338:on 2012-04-01 6337: 6333: 6326: 6324: 6308: 6304: 6298: 6283: 6281:9780520302686 6277: 6273: 6269: 6268: 6260: 6245: 6244: 6239: 6232: 6218: 6214: 6208: 6202: 6197: 6190: 6185: 6179: 6164: 6160: 6153: 6145: 6139: 6135: 6128: 6120: 6119: 6114: 6108: 6101: 6096: 6089: 6084: 6076: 6070: 6066: 6059: 6053: 6051: 6040: (1886). 6039: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6027: 6021: 6013: 6007: 6000: 5996: 5995:The Economist 5991: 5977:on 2014-01-26 5976: 5972: 5965: 5951: 5950: 5945: 5938: 5929: 5920: 5911: 5902: 5893: 5886: 5881: 5873: 5869: 5862: 5860: 5852: 5848: 5845: 5840: 5834:Cassel, p.435 5831: 5822: 5813: 5807: 5802: 5796: 5791: 5789: 5787: 5780: 5775: 5769: 5764: 5758: 5753: 5747: 5742: 5736: 5731: 5725: 5721: 5718: 5713: 5711: 5695: 5691: 5685: 5676: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5657: 5648: 5639: 5637: 5626: 5618: 5612: 5603: 5596: 5591: 5582: 5576: 5572: 5566: 5557: 5549: 5542: 5540: 5538: 5536: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5517: 5507: 5501: 5495: 5488: 5482: 5475: 5470: 5468: 5466: 5456: 5449: 5445: 5442: 5437: 5435: 5427: 5416: 5414:1-4068-0431-2 5410: 5406: 5405: 5397: 5391: 5385: 5376: 5367: 5360: 5354: 5345: 5336: 5327: 5316: 5309: 5302: 5293: 5284: 5275: 5266: 5257: 5249: 5248: 5245: 5241: 5235: 5227: 5225:0-316-92236-6 5221: 5217: 5213: 5212: 5209: 5202: 5184: 5177: 5161: 5157: 5151: 5135: 5131: 5124: 5118: 5113: 5107: 5102: 5095: 5090: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5060: 5047:on 2004-06-04 5046: 5042: 5038: 5032: 5030: 5023: 5018: 5016: 5002:on 2006-05-07 5001: 4997: 4996: 4993: 4986: 4971: 4967: 4961: 4959: 4952: 4950: 4943: 4941: 4934: 4929: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4890: 4886: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4828: 4817: 4814: 4811: 4808: 4807: 4803: 4800: 4797: 4794: 4793: 4789: 4786: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4775: 4772: 4769: 4766: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4755: 4752: 4751: 4747: 4744: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4733: 4730: 4727: 4724: 4723: 4719: 4716: 4713: 4710: 4709: 4705: 4702: 4699: 4696: 4695: 4691: 4688: 4685: 4682: 4681: 4677: 4674: 4671: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4660: 4657: 4654: 4653: 4649: 4646: 4643: 4640: 4639: 4635: 4632: 4629: 4626: 4625: 4621: 4618: 4615: 4612: 4611: 4607: 4604: 4601: 4598: 4597: 4593: 4590: 4587: 4584: 4583: 4579: 4576: 4573: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4562: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4551: 4548: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4538: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4514: 4512: 4507: 4503: 4498: 4495: 4489: 4487: 4483: 4482:Taiwanization 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4460:which taught 4459: 4456:, as well as 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4438: 4437:for the PRC. 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4419:New York City 4411: 4407: 4402: 4393: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4369: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4352:who moved to 4351: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4334: 4332: 4328: 4323: 4319: 4314: 4312: 4311:Gunther Barth 4307: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4294: 4290: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4253: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4208: 4205: 4197: 4194:December 2014 4187: 4183: 4177: 4176: 4171:This section 4169: 4165: 4160: 4159: 4151: 4149: 4145: 4144:miscegenation 4141: 4137: 4132: 4129: 4125: 4119: 4115: 4108: 4103: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4088: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4069: 4067: 4063: 4062:San Francisco 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3978: 3974: 3964: 3962: 3958: 3957: 3952: 3946: 3944: 3943:sharecropping 3940: 3936: 3926: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3880:United States 3877: 3872: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3859: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3828:Olaf Tveitmoe 3825: 3821: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3802: 3797: 3793: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3756: 3751: 3749: 3748: 3743: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3720: 3713: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3684: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3627: 3623: 3620: 3616: 3613:. ) Official 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3556: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3545:Denis Kearney 3540: 3538: 3537:San Francisco 3534: 3525: 3514:Exclusion era 3511: 3509: 3505: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3479:Denis Kearney 3476: 3472: 3464: 3459: 3451: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3420: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3411: 3407: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3391: 3388: 3385: 3384: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3370: 3366: 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2838: 2835: 2832: 2831: 2830: 2829: 2825: 2823: 2813: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2780: 2779:sharecroppers 2775: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2739: 2734: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2706: 2702: 2697: 2690: 2685: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2669: 2667: 2662: 2661:Sierra Nevada 2658: 2653: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2633: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2622:American West 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2571: 2566: 2557: 2555: 2547: 2542: 2537: 2533: 2530: 2529: 2524: 2519: 2515: 2513: 2509: 2503: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2486:San Francisco 2482: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2451:North America 2448: 2439: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2415:Sierra Nevada 2412: 2408: 2404: 2396: 2392: 2383: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2368:Pacific Ocean 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2347: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2324: 2322: 2314: 2313:Six Companies 2309: 2305: 2303: 2298: 2297:Supreme Court 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2254: 2249: 2248:San Francisco 2245: 2241: 2232: 2227: 2217: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2161: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2122: 2118: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2080: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2052:San Francisco 2049: 2045: 2041: 2036: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1994: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1969: 1967: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1849:United States 1846: 1842: 1834: 1833: 1828: 1827: 1821: 1816: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1755: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1705:North America 1698: 1693: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1661: 1659: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1637: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1595:basis of race 1592: 1588: 1584: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1567:White society 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1532: 1527: 1525: 1520: 1518: 1513: 1512: 1510: 1509: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1494: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1476:List of years 1474: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1467: 1466: 1455: 1447: 1445: 1444:Urban history 1442: 1441: 1440: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1399: 1398: 1394: 1393: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 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720: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 691: 688: 687: 686: 685: 681: 679: 678: 674: 672: 671: 667: 663: 662:Voting rights 660: 658: 655: 653: 650: 648: 645: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 630: 628: 625: 623: 620: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 604: 603: 602: 598: 596: 595: 591: 587: 584: 583: 582: 581: 577: 573: 570: 569: 568: 567: 563: 559: 556: 555: 554: 553: 549: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 526: 525: 524: 520: 516: 513: 512: 511: 510: 506: 504: 503: 499: 497: 496: 492: 491: 485: 484: 474: 471: 470: 467: 465: 464: 460: 459: 455: 453: 449: 448: 445: 443: 442: 438: 437: 433: 431: 427: 426: 423: 421: 420: 416: 415: 411: 409: 405: 404: 400: 398: 394: 393: 390: 388: 387: 383: 382: 378: 376: 372: 371: 367: 365: 361: 360: 357: 355: 354: 350: 349: 345: 343: 339: 338: 334: 332: 328: 327: 323: 321: 317: 316: 312: 310: 306: 305: 302: 300: 299: 295: 294: 290: 288: 284: 283: 279: 277: 273: 272: 268: 266: 262: 261: 258: 256: 255: 251: 250: 246: 244: 243:Civil War Era 240: 239: 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Retrieved 7065: 7055: 7038: 7034: 7028: 7010: 7005:Ahmad, p.51. 7001: 6992: 6973: 6967: 6942: 6934: 6909: 6897:. Retrieved 6882: 6875: 6861: 6849: 6836:. Retrieved 6821: 6817:Roger Sanjek 6810: 6798:. Retrieved 6783: 6776: 6767: 6748: 6742: 6733: 6724: 6700: 6693: 6658: 6652: 6627: 6621: 6615: 6579: 6572: 6553: 6547: 6542:Heap, p.145. 6538: 6507: 6501: 6492: 6461: 6455: 6450:Riis, p.100. 6446: 6427: 6421: 6410:. Retrieved 6400: 6389:. Retrieved 6379: 6367:. Retrieved 6361: 6351: 6340:. Retrieved 6336:the original 6310:. Retrieved 6306: 6297: 6285:. Retrieved 6266: 6259: 6247:. Retrieved 6241: 6231: 6220:. Retrieved 6207: 6196: 6183: 6178: 6167:. Retrieved 6163:the original 6152: 6133: 6127: 6116: 6107: 6100:Wong Kim Ark 6099: 6095: 6088:Wong Kim Ark 6087: 6083: 6064: 6058: 6047: 6024: 6020: 6006: 5994: 5990: 5979:. Retrieved 5975:the original 5964: 5953:. Retrieved 5947: 5937: 5928: 5919: 5910: 5901: 5892: 5880: 5872:the original 5839: 5830: 5821: 5812: 5801: 5774: 5763: 5752: 5741: 5730: 5698:. Retrieved 5696:. 2011-04-19 5693: 5684: 5675: 5656: 5647: 5625: 5611: 5602: 5590: 5581: 5565: 5556: 5547: 5506: 5494: 5481: 5455: 5425: 5418:. Retrieved 5403: 5396: 5384: 5375: 5366: 5353: 5344: 5335: 5326: 5315:the original 5301: 5292: 5283: 5274: 5265: 5256: 5247: 5244: 5240:Bryson, Bill 5234: 5211: 5208: 5201: 5191:September 5, 5189:. Retrieved 5176: 5166:September 5, 5164:. Retrieved 5160:the original 5150: 5140:September 5, 5138:. Retrieved 5134:the original 5123: 5112: 5101: 5089: 5077:. Retrieved 5068: 5059: 5049:, retrieved 5045:the original 5040: 5004:, retrieved 5000:the original 4995: 4992: 4985: 4974:. Retrieved 4969: 4948: 4928: 4903: 4899: 4889: 4812:331,449,281 4798:308,745,538 4784:281,421,906 4770:248,709,873 4756:226,542,199 4742:203,302,031 4728:179,323,175 4714:151,325,798 4700:132,164,569 4686:123,202,624 4672:106,021,537 4536: 4499: 4490: 4439: 4415: 4370: 4348:and his son 4335: 4315: 4308: 4303: 4302:founded the 4297: 4273: 4261:World War II 4258: 4218:Magnuson Act 4215: 4200: 4191: 4180:Please help 4175:verification 4172: 4140:cough syrups 4133: 4128:Mott Streets 4120: 4116: 4106: 4104: 4070: 4031: 3986:prostitution 3972: 3970: 3960: 3954: 3947: 3932: 3900: 3896:Pancho Villa 3873: 3868: 3856: 3817: 3806: 3801:Wong Kim Ark 3758:Walter Wyman 3752: 3745: 3744: 3728:U.S. citizen 3717: 3714: 3701: 3695: 3692:Chinese race 3680: 3661: 3650: 3637:anti-Chinese 3630: 3599:Magnuson Act 3584: 3541: 3530: 3471:anti-Chinese 3468: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3099: 3080: 3079: 3062:trade unions 3042: 3036: 2996: 2954:, they used 2904: 2869: 2868: 2860:USS Hartford 2859: 2853:USS Hartford 2852: 2827: 2826: 2819: 2783: 2758: 2743: 2714:anti-Chinese 2698: 2694: 2670: 2654: 2650: 2634: 2614:golden spike 2575: 2551: 2535: 2527: 2520: 2516: 2504: 2494: 2483: 2444: 2400: 2394: 2354:, including 2348: 2344:Qing dynasty 2325: 2318: 2293:anti-Chinese 2274: 2251: 2237: 2187:enacted the 2179:3, 1875, in 2169:Presbyterian 2162: 2127:Tanka people 2125: 2108:Christianity 2088:Confucianism 2085: 2061:Qing dynasty 2056:assimilation 2037: 2021: 1998: 1932:Ming dynasty 1929: 1897: 1867:) province ( 1838: 1830: 1824: 1784: 1779:Panama Canal 1756: 1702: 1662: 1649:Magnuson Act 1641:World War II 1638: 1619: 1579: 1571:Yellow Peril 1542: 1540: 1031: 1024: 1005: 966: 959: 945: 886: 849: 842: 835: 788: 774: 769:Social class 767: 760: 721: 695:Marine Corps 682: 675: 668: 632:Debt ceiling 617:Civil rights 599: 592: 578: 564: 550: 521: 509:Civil unrest 507: 502:Antisemitism 500: 493: 475:2008–present 463:2008–present 461: 439: 417: 384: 351: 342:World War II 296: 252: 230: 197: 164: 131: 121:Colonial Era 119: 107: 101: 51: 15: 8805:Cathay Bank 8621:Terminology 8419:New Orleans 8368:Los Angeles 8075:Legislation 8027:Puerto Rico 7963:Los Angeles 7959:California 7953:by location 7634:China Blues 7536:Huping Ling 7456:Erika Lee, 7306:(Nachdruck) 7294:. Penguin. 6728:Tsai, p.41. 6688:Ahmad, p.3. 6610:Tsai, p.39. 6533:Heap, p.34. 6312:19 December 4658:92,228,496 4644:76,212,168 4630:62,979,766 4616:50,189,209 4602:38,558,371 4588:31,443,321 4574:23,191,876 4560:17,069,453 4552:Percentage 4527:U.S. states 4500:Drawing on 4427:brain drain 4412:since 1980. 4366:Bai Chongxi 4354:Los Angeles 4238:naturalized 4058:sweepstakes 4038:Pell Street 3956:Lum v. Rice 3937:during the 3898:in Mexico. 3884:World War I 3595:citizenship 3553:John Bigler 3437:standards. 3165:Launderers 3112:Population 3109:Occupation 3094: 1920 2802:Los Angeles 2738:Bing cherry 2728:Agriculture 2710:paper mills 2616:" event at 2423:New England 2380:Los Angeles 2202:U.S. census 2158:patriarchal 2153:prostitutes 2145:trafficking 2112:Protestants 2065:Han Chinese 1964:increasing 1869:Bill Bryson 1826:The Graphic 1793:. In 1854, 1771:New England 1740:John Meares 1713:Philippines 1626:Philippines 1622:citizenship 1603:U.S. census 1395:Territories 1116:New England 796:Agriculture 715:Coast Guard 710:Space Force 558:Immigration 408:Vietnam War 309:World War I 103:Prehistoric 8463:Pittsburgh 8401:New Jersey 8321:Richardson 8236:Chinatowns 8019:New York ( 8012:Missouri ( 7998:Michigan ( 7984:Illinois ( 7071:2023-05-11 7041:(2): 139. 6412:2018-11-24 6391:2012-01-01 6342:2012-01-01 6287:25 October 6249:25 October 6222:2009-03-06 6169:2007-09-01 5981:2014-02-05 5955:2008-11-11 5700:2013-01-25 5619:. PBS.org. 5420:31 October 5051:2013-09-18 5006:2007-09-01 4976:2008-07-15 4815:5,400,000 4801:3,794,673 4787:2,432,585 4773:1,645,472 4531:Chinatowns 4504:data, the 4435:brain gain 4350:Ma Dunjing 4346:Ma Hongkui 4226:Washington 4078:concubines 4006:immorality 3977:Jacob Riis 3892:expedition 3813:Paper Sons 3778:Henry Gage 3766:quarantine 3653:California 3533:Chinatowns 3519:Settlement 3499:Chinatowns 3037:Since the 3007:Dalmatians 2984:salt-dried 2952:barracudas 2794:Sacramento 2774:marshlands 2666:avalanches 2598:California 2576:After the 2546:Dutch Flat 2467:Taishanese 2447:West Coast 2270:California 2224:See also: 2132:bound feet 1980:Until the 1966:xenophobia 1957:California 1900:Chinatowns 1883:after the 1737:fur trader 1729:California 1663:As of the 670:Journalism 622:Corruption 601:Government 552:Demography 539:Newspapers 430:Reagan Era 276:Gilded Age 114:until 1607 78:family in 38:half-track 8642:Education 8638:Love boat 8630:Jook-sing 8505:San Diego 8495:St. Louis 8431:Manhattan 8357:Las Vegas 8301:Cleveland 8262:Baltimore 8107:Cable Act 8097:Geary Act 8014:St. Louis 7814:"Chinese" 7638:Eio Books 7553:Judy Yung 6844:Page 123. 5079:August 6, 4494:H1-B visa 4450:Hong Kong 4381:Hong Kong 4344:Generals 4289:Tsou Tang 4244:that any 4136:medicines 4074:kidnapped 4046:lotteries 4027:commodity 4002:indecency 3919:Cable Act 3732:precedent 3651:By then, 3575:Uncle Sam 3389:Peddlers 3077:in 1882. 3019:canneries 3015:Scott Act 2988:East Asia 2905:From the 2890:Fisheries 2578:gold rush 2506:when the 2491:Cantonese 2475:Guangdong 2471:Cantonese 2376:Cleveland 2372:tong wars 2356:extortion 2281:cremation 2206:Louisiana 2165:Methodist 2141:sex trade 2017:Australia 1945:Hong Kong 1885:Civil War 1879:, worked 1865:Guangdong 1857:Guangzhou 1853:Afong Moy 1795:Yung Wing 1775:Cape Horn 1752:Vancouver 1711:over the 1683:by 2012. 1607:Louisiana 1587:Geary Act 1121:The South 705:Air Force 580:Education 456:1991–2008 441:1991–2008 434:1981–1991 419:1980–1991 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