287:
because the assumptions of any empirical theory are necessarily unrealistic, since such a theory must abstract from the particular details of each instance of the phenomenon that the theory seeks to explain. This leads him to the conclusion that “ruly important and significant hypotheses will be found to have ‘assumptions’ that are wildly inaccurate descriptive representations of reality, and, in general, the more significant the theory, the more unrealistic the assumptions (in this sense).” Consistently with this, he makes the case for seeing the assumptions of neoclassical positive economics as not importantly different from the idealizations that are employed in natural science, drawing a comparison between treating a falling body as if it were falling in a vacuum and viewing firms as if they were rational actors seeking to maximize expected returns.
309:
helps the student develop the mindset of a scientist as well as their habits and dispositions. Idealized science is especially important for learning science because of the deeply cognitively and materially distributed nature of modern science, where most science is done by larger groups of scientists. One example is a 2016 gravitational waves paper listing over a thousand authors and more than a hundred science institutions. By simplifying the content, students can engage in all aspects of scientific work and not just add one small piece of the whole project. Idealized
Science also helps to dispel the notion that science simply follows a single set scientific method. Instead, idealized science provides a framework for the iterative nature of scientific work, the reliance on critique, and the social aspects that help continually guide the work.
300:
presents two reasons for why this is the case: first, because rational-choice theory does not illuminate “a mechanism that brings about non-intentionally the same outcome that a superrational agent could have calculated intentionally”, a mechanism “that would simulate rationality”; and second, because rational-choice explanations do not provide precise, pinpoint predictions, comparable to those of quantum mechanics. When a theory can predict outcomes that precisely, then, Elster contends, we have reason to believe that theory is true. Accordingly, Elster wonders whether the as-if assumptions of rational-choice theory help explain any social or political phenomenon.
295:
that the explanation specifying that chain is neglecting a hidden variable that could account for both the independent variable and the dependent variable. Relatedly, he also contends that social-scientific explanations should be formulated in terms of causal mechanisms, which he defines as “frequently occurring and easily recognizable causal patterns that are triggered under generally unknown conditions or with indeterminate consequences.” All this informs Elster's disagreement with
183:
344:) describe only the behavior of ideal bodies, these laws can only be used to predict the behavior of real bodies when a considerable number of factors have been physically eliminated (e.g. through shielding conditions) or ignored. Laws that account for these factors are usually more complicated and in some cases have not yet been developed.
294:
has argued that an explanation in the social sciences is more convincing when it ‘opens the black box’ — that is to say, when the explanation specifies a chain of events leading from the independent variable to the dependent variable. The more detailed this chain, argues Elster, the less likely it is
299:
in general and
Friedman in particular. On Elster's analysis, Friedman is right to argue that criticizing the assumptions of an empirical theory as unrealistic is misguided, but he is mistaken to defend on this basis the value of rational-choice theory in social science (especially economics). Elster
286:
conception of science, including social science. He also argues against the criticism that we should reject an empirical theory if we find that the assumptions of that theory are not realistic, in the sense of being imperfect descriptions of reality. This criticism is wrongheaded, Friedman claims,
148:
Given any x and any y, if all the molecules in y are perfectly elastic and spherical, possess equal masses and volumes, have negligible size, and exert no forces on one another except during collisions, then if x is a gas and y is a given mass of x which is trapped in a vessel of variable size and
308:
In science education, idealized science can be thought of as engaging students in the practices of science and doing so authentically, which means allowing for the messiness of scientific work without needing to be immersed in the complexity of professional science and its esoteric content. This
274:
conflicts. The child of a single parent frequently may imagine ("idealize") the (ideal) absent parent to have those characteristics of a perfect parent. However, the child may find imagination is favorable to reality. Upon meeting that parent, the child may be happy for a while, but disappointed
31:
assume facts about the phenomenon being modeled that are strictly false but make models easier to understand or solve. That is, it is determined whether the phenomenon approximates an "ideal case," then the model is applied to make a prediction based on that ideal case.
82:, in his study of bodies in motion, set up experiments that assumed frictionless surfaces and spheres of perfect roundness. The crudity of ordinary objects has the potential to obscure their mathematical essence, and idealization is used to combat this tendency.
501:
LIGO Scientific
Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration; Abbott, B. P.; Abbott, R.; Abbott, T. D.; Abernathy, M. R.; Acernese, F.; Ackley, K.; Adams, C.; Adams, T.; Addesso, P.; Adhikari, R. X.; Adya, V. B.; Affeldt, C.; Agathos, M.; Agatsuma, K. (2016-02-11).
51:
of a falling bowling ball, and doing so would be more complicated. In this case, air resistance is idealized to be zero. Although this is not strictly true, it is a good approximation because its effect is negligible compared to that of gravity.
339:
There is continued philosophical concern over how
Galileo's idealization method assists in the description of the behavior of individuals or objects in the real world. Since the laws created through idealization (such as the
89:
predicted that if a perfectly round and smooth ball were rolled along a perfectly smooth horizontal plane, there would be nothing to stop the ball (in fact, it would slide instead of roll, because rolling requires
255:
individuals are assumed to make maximally rational choices. This assumption, although known to be violated by actual humans, can often lead to insights about the behavior of human populations.
55:
Idealizations may allow predictions to be made when none otherwise could be. For example, the approximation of air resistance as zero was the only option before the formulation of
545:
Windschitl, M.; Thompson, J.; Braaten, M. (2008). "Beyond the
Scientific Method: Model-based Inquiry as a New Paradigm of Preference for School Science Investigations".
633:
321:
recognized the importance of idealization but opposed its application to the study of the mind, holding that mental phenomena do not lend themselves to idealization.
270:
in which a person perceives another to be better (or have more desirable attributes) than would actually be supported by the evidence. This sometimes occurs in
165:. While we know that friction is present in actual systems, solving the model without friction can provide insights to the behavior of actual systems where the
336:
suggested that
Galilean idealization presupposes tendencies or capacities in nature and that this allows for generalization beyond what is the ideal case.
282:. In his view, the standard by which we should assess an empirical theory is the accuracy of the predictions that that theory makes. This amounts to an
616:
290:
Against this instrumentalist conception, which judges empirical theories on the basis of their predictive success, the social theorist
149:
the temperature of y is kept constant, then any decrease of the volume of y increases the pressure of y proportionally, and vice versa.
697:, Poznań Studies in the Philosophy of the Sciences and the Humanities, Vol. 82, Rodopi:Atlanta-Amsterdam 2004, pp. 253–271.
485:
702:
The Role of
Idealization in Science and Its Implications for Science Education, Journal of Science Education and Technology
63:. Many debates surrounding the usefulness of a particular model are about the appropriateness of different idealizations.
317:
While idealization is used extensively by certain scientific disciplines, it has been rejected by others. For instance,
275:
later when learning that the parent does not actually nurture, support and protect as the former caretaker parent had.
226:
208:
736:
731:
333:
193:
200:
388:, Poznań Studies in the Philosophy of the Sciences and the Humanities, Vol. 38, Rodopi:Atlanta-Amsterdam 1994
611:
278:
A notable proponent of idealization in both the natural sciences and the social sciences was the economist
500:
581:
110:
involves the process of idealization because it studies ideal entities, forms and figures. Perfect
85:
The most well-known example of idealization in
Galileo's experiments is in his analysis of motion.
684:
The
Metaphysics of Science: An Account of Modern Science in Terms of Principles, Laws and Theories
709:
The
Structure of Idealization. Towards a Systematic Interpretation of the Marxian Idea of Science
204:
576:
296:
329:
20:
16:
Process by which a scientific model is simplified by assuming strictly false facts to be true
28:
503:
8:
590:
158:
594:
515:
673:
Between Abstraction and Idealization: Scientific Practice and Philosophical Awareness
481:
267:
252:
598:
94:). This hypothesis is predicated on the assumption that there is no air resistance.
586:
530:
525:
40:
620:
328:, it is nonetheless the source of continued controversy in the literature of the
283:
279:
244:
166:
119:
318:
143:
60:
56:
44:
725:
353:
341:
271:
36:
324:
Although idealization is considered one of the essential elements of modern
263:
248:
48:
127:
691:
Why Did Husserl Not Become the Galileo of the Science of Consciousness?
613:
Why did Husserl not become the Galileo of the Science of Consciousness?
463:
Explaining Social Behavior: More Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences
445:
Explaining Social Behavior: More Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences
430:
Explaining Social Behavior: More Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences
291:
259:
373:
Realtà ed astrazione. Scuola polacca ed epistemologia post-positivista
240:
75:
504:"Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger"
211:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
520:
478:
Idealized Science: A Framework for Practicing Science Authentically
162:
107:
91:
567:
Chuang Liu (2004), "Laws and Models in a Theory of Idealization",
413:
Friedman, Milton (1953). "The Methodology of Positive Economics".
398:
Friedman, Milton (1953). "The Methodology of Positive Economics".
74:
used the concept of idealization in order to formulate the law of
325:
154:
139:
115:
111:
86:
79:
71:
123:
417:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 18, 21–22.
239:
It has been argued by the "Poznań School" (in Poland) that
654:, Philosophy of Science, Vol. 41, No. 1, pg 48, Mar. 1974.
43:; for example, it is not usually necessary to account for
544:
432:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–25.
693:, in F. Coniglione, R. Poli and R. Rollinger, (Eds.),
675:, in F. Coniglione, R. Poli and R. Rollinger (Eds.),
465:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 18.
447:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 26.
130:
that help us think about and investigate the world.
402:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 14.
695:Idealization XI: Historical Studies on Abstraction
677:Idealization XI: Historical Studies on Abstraction
679:, Atlanta-Amsterdam:Rodopi 2004, pp. 59–110.
723:
456:
454:
652:A Pragmatic Analysis of Idealization in Physics
451:
716:Idealization X: The Richness of Idealization
371:About the Poznań School, see F. Coniglione,
635:Nature's capacities and their measurement.
566:
562:
560:
386:Idealization VI: Idealization in Economics
580:
529:
519:
227:Learn how and when to remove this message
138:An example of the use of idealization in
704:, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1999, pp. 145–150.
412:
397:
659:Idealization XIII: Modeling in History,
557:
724:
460:
442:
427:
39:is accurate, the model will have high
475:
714:Leszek Nowak and Izabella Nowakowa,
384:B. Hamminga, N.B. De Marchi (Eds.),
303:
176:
718:, Amsterdam / Atlanta: Rodopi 2000.
13:
644:
591:10.1023/b:synt.0000016425.36070.37
14:
748:
686:, Springer:Dordrecht 2007 (2 ed.)
661:Amsterdam-New York: Rodopi, 2009.
172:
97:
312:
181:
626:
604:
538:
480:. McKees Rocks: BMW Endeavors.
531:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102
494:
469:
436:
421:
406:
391:
378:
365:
157:, people will often solve for
102:
1:
668:, Clarendon Press:Oxford 1983
657:Krzysztof Brzechczyn, (ed.),
359:
415:Essays in Positive Economics
400:Essays in Positive Economics
66:
7:
666:How the Laws of Physics Lie
347:
207:the claims made and adding
169:of friction is negligible.
59:allowed the calculation of
10:
753:
247:(see the works written by
133:
243:used idealization in the
476:Wargo, Brian M. (2021).
27:is the process by which
737:Epistemology of science
711:, Dordrecht:Reidel 1980
508:Physical Review Letters
671:Francesco Coniglione,
297:rational-choice theory
732:Philosophy of science
330:philosophy of science
47:when determining the
21:philosophy of science
632:Cartwright N (1994)
461:Elster, Jon (2015).
443:Elster, Jon (2015).
428:Elster, Jon (2015).
375:, Catania:CUECM 1990
610:Klawiter A (2004).
689:Andrzej Klawiter,
664:Nancy Cartwright,
619:2017-05-20 at the
192:possibly contains
650:William F, Barr,
547:Science Education
487:978-1-945226-05-2
304:Science education
268:defence mechanism
251:). Similarly, in
237:
236:
229:
194:original research
29:scientific models
744:
682:Craig Dilworth,
639:
630:
624:
608:
602:
601:
584:
564:
555:
554:
542:
536:
535:
533:
523:
498:
492:
491:
473:
467:
466:
458:
449:
448:
440:
434:
433:
425:
419:
418:
410:
404:
403:
395:
389:
382:
376:
369:
334:Nancy Cartwright
232:
225:
221:
218:
212:
209:inline citations
185:
184:
177:
161:systems without
41:predictive power
752:
751:
747:
746:
745:
743:
742:
741:
722:
721:
647:
645:Further reading
642:
631:
627:
621:Wayback Machine
609:
605:
582:10.1.1.681.4412
565:
558:
543:
539:
499:
495:
488:
474:
470:
459:
452:
441:
437:
426:
422:
411:
407:
396:
392:
383:
379:
370:
366:
362:
350:
332:. For example,
315:
306:
284:instrumentalist
280:Milton Friedman
253:economic models
245:social sciences
233:
222:
216:
213:
198:
186:
182:
175:
144:Boyle's Gas Law
136:
105:
100:
69:
17:
12:
11:
5:
750:
740:
739:
734:
720:
719:
712:
707:Leszek Nowak,
705:
700:Mansoor Niaz,
698:
687:
680:
669:
662:
655:
646:
643:
641:
640:
625:
603:
575:(3): 363–385,
556:
537:
493:
486:
468:
450:
435:
420:
405:
390:
377:
363:
361:
358:
357:
356:
349:
346:
319:Edmund Husserl
314:
311:
305:
302:
235:
234:
189:
187:
180:
174:
173:Social science
171:
135:
132:
104:
101:
99:
98:Other examples
96:
68:
65:
45:air resistance
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
749:
738:
735:
733:
730:
729:
727:
717:
713:
710:
706:
703:
699:
696:
692:
688:
685:
681:
678:
674:
670:
667:
663:
660:
656:
653:
649:
648:
637:
636:
629:
622:
618:
615:
614:
607:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
578:
574:
570:
563:
561:
553:(5): 941–697.
552:
548:
541:
532:
527:
522:
517:
514:(6): 061102.
513:
509:
505:
497:
489:
483:
479:
472:
464:
457:
455:
446:
439:
431:
424:
416:
409:
401:
394:
387:
381:
374:
368:
364:
355:
354:Spherical cow
352:
351:
345:
343:
342:ideal gas law
337:
335:
331:
327:
322:
320:
313:Limits on use
310:
301:
298:
293:
288:
285:
281:
276:
273:
272:child custody
269:
265:
261:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
231:
228:
220:
210:
206:
202:
196:
195:
190:This section
188:
179:
178:
170:
168:
164:
160:
156:
151:
150:
145:
141:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
95:
93:
88:
83:
81:
77:
73:
64:
62:
58:
53:
50:
46:
42:
38:
37:approximation
33:
30:
26:
22:
715:
708:
701:
694:
690:
683:
676:
672:
665:
658:
651:
638:pp. 186–191.
634:
628:
612:
606:
572:
568:
550:
546:
540:
511:
507:
496:
477:
471:
462:
444:
438:
429:
423:
414:
408:
399:
393:
385:
380:
372:
367:
338:
323:
316:
307:
289:
277:
266:refers to a
264:idealization
257:
249:Leszek Nowak
238:
223:
214:
191:
152:
147:
137:
128:abstractions
106:
84:
70:
54:
49:acceleration
34:
25:idealization
24:
18:
118:, straight
103:Mathematics
61:drag forces
57:Stokes' law
726:Categories
521:1602.03837
360:References
292:Jon Elster
260:psychology
201:improve it
577:CiteSeerX
241:Karl Marx
205:verifying
159:Newtonian
76:free fall
67:Early use
617:Archived
599:18998321
569:Synthese
348:See also
217:May 2019
163:friction
108:Geometry
92:friction
326:science
199:Please
155:physics
140:physics
134:Science
116:spheres
112:circles
87:Galileo
80:Galileo
72:Galileo
597:
579:
484:
142:is in
124:angles
35:If an
595:S2CID
516:arXiv
167:force
120:lines
482:ISBN
126:are
122:and
587:doi
573:138
526:doi
512:116
258:In
203:by
153:In
19:In
728::
593:,
585:,
571:,
559:^
551:92
549:.
524:.
510:.
506:.
453:^
262:,
146::
114:,
78:.
23:,
623:.
589::
534:.
528::
518::
490:.
230:)
224:(
219:)
215:(
197:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.