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relieve the daughters of Ind from their present miseries? This 50th year of our Queen's accession to the most renowned throne is the jubilee year in which every town and every village in her dominions is to show their loyalty in the best way it can, and wish the mother Queen a long happy life, to rule over us for many years with peace and prosperity. At such an unusual occasion will the mother listen to an earnest appeal from her millions of Indian daughters and grant them a few simple words of change into the book on Hindu law- that 'marriages performed before the respective ages of 20 in boys and 15 in girls shall not be considered legal in the eyes of the law if brought before the Court.' This mere sentence will be sufficient for the present to have enough check on
353:, without creating a great vexation among the ignorant masses. This jubilee year must leave some expression on us Hindu women, and nothing will be more gratefully received than the introduction of this mere sentence into our law books. It is the work of a day if God wished it, but without His aid every effort seems to be in vain. So far, dear lady, I have dwelt on your patience, for which an apology is necessary. With best compliments -I remain yours very sincerely, Rukhmabai.
194:". In addition to his aversion for education, the compulsion to go to sixth standard of school at an age when he should have been at the university was particularly distressing. In the meanwhile, Bhikaji lost his mother and against the advice of Sakharam Arjun, took to living with his maternal uncle Narayan Dhurmaji. The environment of Dhurmaji's home pushed Bhikaji further into a life of
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also caused public reactions. Later on it was revealed that the author was none other than
Rukhmabai. The public debate revolved around multiple points of contention - Hindu versus English Law, reform from the inside versus outside and whether ancient customs deserved respect or not. The first appeal
206:
In contrast, in the same years
Rukhmabai studied at home using books from a Free Church Mission library. Because of her father's association with religious and social reformers she also came into contact with prominent names like Vishnu Shastri Pandit, a strong proponent of women's causes in Western
593:. Although this gave her name as "Rukhmabai Raut" there is no evidence that she ever used the surname of her father, step-father or of Dadaji. She signed herself as "Rukhmabai" in her medical writings and her registration with the Registrar of the General Medical Council also only uses "Rukhmabai".
348:
Everywhere it is considered one of the greatest blessings of God that we are under the protection of our beloved Queen
Victoria's Government, which has its world wide fame for best administration. If such a Government cannot help unyoke us Hindu woman, what Government on earth has the power to
40:
369:
In July 1888, a settlement was reached with
Bhikaji and he relinquished his claim on Rukhmabai for a payment of two thousand rupees. Bhikaji remarried in 1889 and Rukhmabai went on to become a widely revered feminist and medical practitioner.
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Two and a half years later, 11-year-old
Rukhmabai was married to the 19 year old Dadaji Bhikaji, a cousin of her step-father. It was agreed that deviating from the contemporary social norms, Dadaji would stay with Rukhmabai's family as a
227:
Chalk and Walker, asking him to desist preventing
Rukhmabai from joining him. Eventually Sakharam Arjun sought legal help and via lawyers Payne-Gilbert, and Sayani provided grounds for Rukhmabai's refusal to join Bhikaji.
275:. The case drew criticisms from various sections of the society, in some cases claims that the law did not respect the sanctity of Hindu customs. Specifically, criticism of Justice Pinhey's decision came from the
176:
and be fully provided for by them. The expectation was for him to acquire education in due course and "become a good man". Six months into the marriage, Rukhmabai having reached puberty, the traditional event of
365:
It has been claimed that Queen
Victoria overruled the court and dissolved the marriage. However no primary documentary evidence has been provided to support Queen Victoria's direct intervention in the case.
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which he hoped to clear using the property that accompanied
Rukhmabai into the house. Rukhmabai refused to move in to the household of Dhurmaji to live with Bhikaji, a decision supported by her step-father.
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291:, wrote that Justice Pinhey did not understand the spirit of Hindu laws and that he sought reforms by "violent means". In the meantime, a series of articles appearing before and during the trial, in the
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and others who helped establish "The
Rukhmabai Defence Committee" to help gather fund towards supporting her cause of continuing education. In 1889, Rukhmabai set sail to study medicine in England.
327:
responded writing that the legal route was not the solution to the problem of
Rukhmabai's case and that it was Rukhmabai's education that had made her the best judge of her own choices.
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by Sudhir Chandra explores the life and times of a child bride turned rebel-doctor. Published by Pan Macmillan India in 2024, the book is a biography based on decades of research.
240:
1020:
Antoinette, Burton (1 October 1998). "From Child Bride to "Hindoo Lady": Rukhmabai and the Debate on Sexual Respectability in Imperial Britain".
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family. Janardhan Pandurang passed away when Rukhmabai was aged two and six years after her husband's demise, Jayantibai married the widower
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313:". Rukhmabai responded that she would rather face imprisonment than obey the verdict. This resulted in further upheaval and social debate.
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959:
Burton, Antoinette (1999). "Conjugality on Trial: The Rukhmabai Case and the Debate on Indian Child-Marriage in Late-Victorian Britain".
680:(1992). "The Age of Consent Act (1891) Reconsidered: Women's Perspectives and Participation in the Child-Marriage Controversy in India".
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that Rukhmabai's defiance was the result of an English education and declared that Hinduism was in danger. On the other hand,
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of marriage. But Dr Sakharam Arjun, being an eminent physician of reformist tendencies, did not permit early consummation.
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The case generated a great deal of debate both within India and England. It drew written commentaries from reformers like
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went on to practice medicine, making Rukhmabai the second woman to both receive a medical degree and practice medicine.
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who started practicing in 1886) as well as being involved in a landmark legal case involving her marriage as a
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Opening Doors: The Untold Story of Cornelia Sorabji, Reformer, Lawyer and Champion of Women's Rights in India
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until her retirement in 1929. She established the Red Cross Society at Rajkot. Rukhmabai chose to settle in
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In 2008, the specifics of the legal case between Rukhmabai and her husband were published as a book titled
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against the case was made on 18 March 1886 and was upheld by Chief Justice Sir Charles Sargent and Justice
419:) who not only encouraged her but helped raise funds for her further education. Other supporters included
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This displeased Bhikaji, now aged 20, who also resented the attempts of Rukhmabai's family to make him "
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applied to consenting adults. He also found fault with the English law cases and found no precedent in
1127:"Google doodle for Rukhmabai Raut, but India's first woman doctor Kadambini Ganguly remains forgotten"
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and Walter McLaren, the Countess of Dufferin's Fund for Supplying Medical Aid to the Women of India,
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512:" arguing that young widows were being denied the chance to actively contribute to Indian society.
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Ultimately, the publicity and debate generated by this case helped influence the enactment of the "
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160:, an eminent physician and social activist in Bombay. Remarriage of widows was permitted among the
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1091:
Chandra, Sudhir (1992). "Whose laws?: Notes on a legitimising myth of the colonial Indian state".
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Florence Nightingale on Social Change in India: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale, Volume 10
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309:. On 4 March 1887, Justice Farran, using interpretations of Hindu laws, ordered Rukhmabai to "
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At the Heart of the Empire: Indians and the Colonial Encounter in Late-Victorian Britain
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Rukhmabai's Testimony to the Government of India. Daily Telegraph, 15 July 1887. page 2.
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1150:"The Phenomenal Story of Kadambini: One of India's First Women Graduates & Doctors"
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were the first Indian women to have received medical degrees in 1886. But only
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Chandra, Sudhir (1996). "Rukhmabai: Debate over Woman's Right to Her Person".
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India at the time, along with European men and women exposing her to liberal
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White Women's Other Burden: Western Women and South Asia during British Rule
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Disorder in the Court: Trials and Sexual Conflict at the Turn of the Century
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Chandra, Sudhir (2008). "Rukhmabai and Her Case". In Chandra, Sudhir (ed.).
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On 22 November 2017, Google commemorated Rukhmabai's 153rd Birthday with a
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211:. With her mother, she also regularly attended the weekly meetings of the
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94:. She is best known for being one of the first practicing women doctors in
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Indians in Britain: Anglo-Indian Encounters, Race and Identity, 1880-1930
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166:(carpenter) community - the caste to which Rukhmabai's mother belonged.
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In 2016, the story of Rukhmabai was adapted into a Marathi film titled
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19:"Doctor Rakhmabai" redirects here. For the film based on her life, see
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Empire in Question: Reading, Writing, and Teaching British Imperialism
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In March 1884, Bhikaji sent a legal notice to Sakharam Arjun via his
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In 1929 after her retirement, she published a pamphlet titled "
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and broader feminist discussions in British women's magazines.
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239:" came up for hearing and the judgement was passed by Justice
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Rukhmabai was born to Janardhan Pandurang and Jayantibai in a
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One of the first practicing women doctors in colonial India.
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go live with her husband or face six months of imprisonment
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Doctor Rakhmabai | Official Teaser | Tannishtha Chatterjee
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392:, journalistic opinion pieces from prominent names like
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933:. Bombay: Education Society. pp. 132–134, 222–248.
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Enslaved Daughters: Colonialism, Law and Women's Rights
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Enslaved Daughters: Colonialism, Law and Women's Rights
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In 1895, she returned to India and worked as the Chief
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across several topics, which most prominently included
481:. In 1918, she turned down the offer of a role in the
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After the series of court cases which resulted in the
283:(1833–89) who supported Bhikaji. A Pune weekly run by
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895:. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 775–776.
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demonstrating courage to intervene against traditions
86:(22 November 1864 – 25 September 1955) was an Indian
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106:between 1884 and 1888. The case raised significant
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1243:. Penguin Books India. 15 June 2010. p. 32.
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259:soon after. In 1886, the case was brought up for
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219:"Restitution of conjugal rights" case by Bhikaji
1332:"Medical Register: Untraceable Practitioners".
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963:. Palgrave Macmillan, London. pp. 33–56.
931:The Life and Life-work of Behramji M. Malabari
914:. Bombay: Education Society. pp. 113–117.
912:The Life and Life-work of Behramji M. Malabari
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411:Rukhmabai received support from the likes of
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749:. Oxford University Press. pp. 15–41.
243:. Pinhey stated that English precedents on
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948:. Duke University Press. pp. 199–201.
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867:Queen Victoria: A Biographical Companion
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1283:Rukhmabai; Bennett, B. H. (May 1909).
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231:In 1885, the case of Bhikaji seeking "
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374:Influence on Age of Consent Act, 1891
138:. This ultimately contributed to the
1393:20th-century Indian medical doctors
1368:A visual piece on Rukhmabai's story
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839:Robb, George; Erber, Nancy (1999).
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452:London School of Medicine for Women
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1398:Alumni of the University of London
778:Lahiri, Shompa (18 October 2013).
724:. University of California Press.
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339:of the marriage, she appealed to
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247:did not apply to the case as the
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908:""A Hindu Lady"- and her woes"
906:Malabari, Behramji M. (1888).
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520:Rukhmabai died, aged 90, from
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1080:. 21 January 1888. p. 2.
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1363:Kipling's report on the case
1058:Jayawardena, Kamari (2014).
996:"Rukhmabai | Making Britain"
929:. In Giduma, Dayaram (ed.).
910:. In Giduma, Dayaram (ed.).
891:Vallée, Gérard, ed. (2007).
510:- the need for its abolition
489:(Woman's) State Hospital in
77:Doctor, women's emancipation
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1273:- Google - 22 November 2017
944:Burton, Antoinette (2011).
843:. Springer. pp. 42–44.
784:. Routledge. pp. 13–.
643:. Oxford University Press.
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545:) by author Sudhir Chandra.
477:at the Women's Hospital in
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1179:. ABC-CLIO. p. 599.
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927:"Rukhmabai and Damayanti"
870:. ABC-CLIO. p. 429.
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380:Age of Consent Act, 1891
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1340:(5118): 732–734. 1921.
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483:Woman's Medical Service
331:Dissolution of Marriage
215:and Arya Mahilä Samäj.
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132:British-ruled India
1285:"A Case of Myxoma"
1200:Sorabji, Richard.
1129:. 23 November 2017
1093:Studies in History
1074:"Latest Telegrams"
747:Enslaved Daughters
716:Burton, Antoinette
609:Anandi Gopal Joshi
528:In popular culture
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448:Doctor of Medicine
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315:Balgangadhar Tilak
285:Balgangadhar Tilak
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820:(44): 2937–2947.
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718:(30 March 1998).
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604:Feminism in India
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