Human right to water and sanitation

35: 1008:, a single mother named Diane Pilchen was living as a rental tenant in a foreclosed house, in which the owner (landlord) of the house had failed to pay the water bill for some time. The City of Auburn billed Pilchen for the landlord's arrears, and repeatedly shut her water service off without notice when she could not pay these debts, making the house uninhabitable. The city condemned the home and forced Pilchen and her child to move out. Pilchen was represented by the Public Utility Law Project of New York (PULP) in the lawsuit. The City of Auburn attempted unsuccessfully to argue that water is not a constitutional right because bottled water could be used instead, an argument that was contested by PULP as absurd. In 2010, Pilchen won summary judgment in which it was determined that shutting off the water violated her constitutional rights, and that Pilchen could not be billed and stopped from having water due to an unrelated party's delays in paying water bills. 1019: 549:

goods and services. Generally, a rule of thumb for the affordability of water is that it should not surpass 3–5% of households' income. Accessibility of water considers the time taken, convenience in reaching the source and risks involved while getting to the source of water. Water must be accessible to every citizen, meaning that water should not be further than 1,000 meters or 3,280 feet and must be within 30 minutes. Availability of water considers whether the supply of water is available in adequate amounts, reliable and sustainable. Quality of water considers whether water is safe for consumption, including for drinking or other activities. For acceptability of water, it must not have any odor and should not consist of any color.

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Council and the UN General Assembly, she continued clarifying the scope and content of the human right to water and sanitation. As Special Rapporteur, she addressed issues such as: Human Rights Obligations Related to Non-State Service Provision in Water and Sanitation (2010); Financing for the Realization of the Rights to Water and Sanitation (2011); Wastewater management in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013); and Sustainability and non-retrogression in the realization of the rights to water and sanitation (2013). Léo Heller was appointed in 2014 to be the second Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation.

805: 890:) which held that the city's water policy had been formulated based upon a material error of law in regards to the city's obligation to provide the minimum set in the South African National Standard, therefore it was set aside. The court also held the quantity for dignified human existence in compliance with section 27 of the constitution was in fact 42 litres per person per day rather than 50 litres per person per day. The SCA declared that the installation of water meters was illegal, but suspended the order for two years to give the city an opportunity to rectify the situation. 4019: 581:

water, there are "regions particularly delayed, such as Sub-Saharan Africa". The UN further emphasizes that "about 1.5 million children under the age of five die each year and 443 million school days are lost because of water- and sanitation-related diseases." In 2022, over 2 billion people, 25% of the world's population, lacked consistent access to clean drinking water. 4.2 billion lacked access to safe sanitation services. By 2024, new estimates are much higher, with 4.4 billion people in low- and middle-income countries lacking access to safe household drinking water.

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Resolution 64/292 reasserted the human right to receive safe, affordable, and clean accessible water and sanitation services. During that General Assembly, it stated that for the comprehension of enjoyment in life and all human rights, safe and clean drinking water as well as sanitation is acknowledged as a human right. General Assembly Resolution 64/292's assertion of a free human right of access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation raises issues regarding governmental rights to control and responsibilities for securing that water and sanitation. The

901:. Therefore, the minimum content set out by the regulation 3(b) is constitutional, rendering the bodies to deviate upwards and further it is inappropriate for a court to determine the achievement of any social and economic right the government has taken steps to implement. The courts had instead focused their inquiry on whether the steps taken by Government are reasonable, and whether the Government subjects its policies to regular review. The judgment has been criticized for deploying an "unnecessarily limiting concept of judicial deference". 682:

liters of water per person per day), which must be safe, acceptable and affordable (water costs should not exceed 3% of household income), and physically accessible (the water source has to be within 1,000 meters of the home and collection time should not exceed 30 minutes)." The General Assembly declared that clean drinking water is "essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights". In September 2010, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution recognizing that the human right to water and sanitation forms part of the

616:(CRC) has Article 24 that provides that "parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health ... 2. States parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures... (c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia... the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking water..." 1124: 1207:. The treaty was formed to limit the conflict between India and Pakistan regarding the use of the Indus basin and allocate water supply for both countries after the countries gained independence. However, disagreements regarding it have surfaced. According to the treaty, India is allowed to use the western river basin for irrigation and non-consumptive purposes, while Pakistan has the majority of control over the basin. However, Pakistan has voiced concerns that India's construction on the rivers may lead to severe 623:(CRPD) has Article 28(2)(a) that requires that "parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to social protection and to the enjoyment of that right without discrimination on the basis of disability, and shall take appropriate steps to safeguard and promote the realization of this right, including measures to ensure equal access by persons with disabilities to clean water services, and to ensure access to appropriate and affordable services, devices and other assistance for disability-related needs." 869:. The case revolved around the distribution of water through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas of Soweto. This case concerned two major issues: whether or not the city's policy regarding the supply of free basic water, 6 kilolitres per month to each account holder in the city was in conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act. The second issue being whether or not the installation of pre-paid water meters was lawful. It was held in the 783:. This contract was for the operation and management of the Dar es Salaam water system. In May 2005, the Tanzania government ended the contract with Biwater Gauff for its alleged failure to meet performance guarantees. In July 2008, the Tribunal issued its decision on the case, declaring that the Tanzania government had violated the agreement with Biwater Gauff. It did not however award monetary damages to Biwater, acknowledging that public interest concerns were paramount in the dispute. 1175:) and scholars argue that the right to water also has a trans-national or extraterritorial aspect. They argue that given the fact that water supplies naturally overlap and cross borders, states also have a legal obligation not to act in a way that might have a negative effect on the enjoyment of human rights in other states. The formal acknowledgement of this legal obligation could prevent the negative effects of the global "water crunch" (as a future threat and one negative result of 1409: 1423: 609:(CEDAW) has Article 14.2 that states that "parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular shall ensure to women the right: ... (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications." 897:, which held that the duty created by the constitution required that the state take reasonable legislative and other measures progressively to realise the achievement of the right to access of water, within its available resource. The Constitutional Court also held that it is a matter for the legislature and executive institution of government to act within the allowance of their budgets and that the scrutiny of their programs is a matter of democratic 627:"The International Bill of Human Rights"- which comprises the 1966: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); 1966: Articles 11 and 12 of the 1966 International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural Right (ICERS); and 1948: Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) documented the evolution of human right to water and sanitation and other water-associated rights to be recognised in worldwide decree. 464: 61: 921: 1395: 1140: 659:

adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, to reduce the risk of water-related disease and to provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements." Several countries agreed and formally acknowledged the right to water to be part of their treaty obligations under the ICESCR (e.g., Germany; United Kingdom; Netherlands) after publication of General Comment 15.

1091:, 1992, Native rights were legally recognized at the first time. Indigenous Australians often claim cultural bonds to the land. Although "culture" was recognized in the court as much as land resources, cultural and spiritual value of Aborigines to water body are fuzzy. It is challenging but needed to transcend their cultural and spiritual values into legal sphere. For now, there is virtually no progress. 722:. The issues involved the states failure to acknowledge indigenous communities' property rights over ancestral lands. In 1991, the state removed the indigenous Sawhoyamaxa community from the land resulting in their loss of access to basic essential services, like water, food, schooling and health services. This fell within the scope of the 958:, as protected by Article 21 of the Constitution of India, included the right to enjoy pollution-free water. The case failed upon the facts and it was held that the petition had been filed not in any public interest but for the petitioner's personal interest and therefore a continuation of litigation would amount to an abuse of process. 1068:. After the 2016 briefing, the court was unable to come to a conclusion, so the court decided to do additional briefings. After five briefings in 2017 and one briefing in 2018, the court has allowed the construction of the pipeline, but the Standing Rock tribe continues to fight to ensure that pipeline is removed. 2849:, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 12, Right to adequate food (Twentieth session, 1999), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1999/5 (1999), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 62 (2003). 995:

ESCR are not explicitly protected in New Zealand at the current time, either by the Human Rights or Bill of Rights Acts, therefore the right to water is not defended by law there. The New Zealand Law Society has recently indicated that this country would give further consideration to the legal status

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The opponents believe that the consequence of water being a human right excludes private sector involvement and requires that water should be given to all people because it is essential to life. Access to water as a human right is used by some NGOs as a means to combat privatization efforts. A human

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Water shortages and increasing consumption of freshwater make this right incredibly complicated. As the world population rapidly increases, freshwater shortages will cause many problems. A shortage in the quantity of water brings up the question of whether or not water should be transferred from one

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Here a water usage dispute arose due to the fact that the state of Haryana was using the Jamuna River for irrigation, while the residents of Delhi needed it for the purpose of drinking. It was reasoned that domestic use overrode the commercial use of water and the court ruled that Haryana must allow

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that the city's by-laws did not provide for the installation of meters and that their installation was unlawful. Further, as the meters halted supply of water to residence once the free basic water supply had ended, this was deemed an unlawful discontinuation of the water supply. The court held the

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and implemented by ordinary statutes. This is evidence of a slight modification of the second technique of constitutionalisation referred to as the "subsidiary legislation model". This means that a large portion of the content and implementation of the right is done an ordinary domestic statute with

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regarding discrepancies arising from a 30-year contract between the parties to operate the water supply of various provinces. A consideration in regard to the right to water is implicitly made during the arbitration for compensation, where it was held that Azurix was entitled to a fair return on the

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Contention exists regarding whose, if anyone's, responsibility it is to ensure the human right to water and sanitation. Often, two schools of thought emerge from such discourse: it is the state's responsibility to provide access to clean water to people versus the privatization of distribution and

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Such proponents claim that the government costs of developing infrastructure for water resource allocation is not worth the marginal benefits of water provision, thus deeming the state as an ineffective provider of water. Moreover, it is argued that water commodification leads to more sustainable

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would be tampered with, even though the pipeline does not run directly through the lake. Lake Oahe provides basic water necessities for the Sioux Tribe such as drinking water and for sanitation. The construction of the oil pipeline means that there is a higher risk of an oil spill into Lake Oahe,

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Subsequent resolutions extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur and defined each state's role in the respect of these rights. The most recent General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 has been called a declaration of "The Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation. It recognized the

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as "Independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation" was extended and renamed as "Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation" after the resolutions in 2010. Through her reports to the Human Rights

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The HRWS obliges governments to ensure that people can enjoy quality, available, acceptable, accessible, and affordable water and sanitation. Affordability of water considers the extent to which the cost of water becomes inhibitive such that it requires one to sacrifice access to other essential

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Further reasoning for the decision was based on General Comment 12 on the Right to Food, made by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights imposing upon parties to the agreement the obligation to observe and respect already existing access to adequate food by not implementing any

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Following intense negotiations, 122 countries formally acknowledged "the Human Right to Water and Sanitation" in General Assembly Resolution 64/292 on 28 July 2010. It recognized the right of every human being to have access to sufficient water for personal and domestic uses (between 50 and 100

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services in 2015. Access to clean water is a major problem for many parts of the world. Acceptable sources include "household connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collections." Although 9 percent of the global population lacks access to

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in 2010. They stated that there was aman right to sanitation connected to the human right to water, since the lack of sanitation reduces the quality of water downstream, so subsequent discussions have continued emphasizing both rights together. In July 2010, United Nations (UN) General Assembly

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Australian water law basically prescribes surface water for citizens who can use surface water but cannot own. In the constitution, however, there is no description about inland and riparian water. Therefore, the sphere of inland/riparian water rights are the primary mandates of the state. The

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and related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health and the rights to adequate housing and adequate food. It defines that "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. An

1110:(NWI), promoting recognition of indigenous right to water. However, NWI is not concerned broadly about complex history of settler-colonialism, which has systematically created an unequal pattern of water distribution. Indigenous people in Australia are constantly seeking the right to water. 765:

market value of the investment. This was rather than the requested US$ 438.6 million, citing that a reasonable business person could not expect such a return, given the limits of water price increases and improvements that would be required to ensure a well-functioning, clean water system.

738:) concern the contracts established between governments and corporations for the maintenance of waterways. Although the cases regard questions of investment, commentators have noted that the indirect impact of the right to water upon the verdicts is significant. World Bank data shows that 846:

The court found that the discontinuation of the existing water source, which had not adhered to the "fair and reasonable" requirements of the South African Water Services Act, was illegal. It is important to note that the decision pre-dates the adoption of the UN General Comment No. 15.

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has stated that broad recognition of the significance of accessing dependable and clean water and sanitation services will promote wide expansion of the achievement of a healthy and fulfilling life. A revised UN resolution in 2015 highlighted that the two rights were separate but equal.

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The commercialization of water is offered as a response to the increased scarcity of water that has resulted due to the world population tripling while the demand for water has increased six-fold. Market environmentalism uses the markets as a solution to environmental problems such as

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right to water "generally rests on two justifications: the non-substitutability of drinking water ('essential for life'), and the fact that many other human rights which are explicitly recognized in the UN Conventions are predicated upon an (assumed) availability of water (e.g. the

726:; encroaching the right to life. Water is included in this right, as part of access to land. The courts required the lands to be returned, compensation provided, and basic goods and services to be implemented, while the community was in the process of having their lands returned. 2820: 532:, inextricably related to the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and therefore a human right. It stated: "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses." 882:

in Oakland, California, shared a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award for their work on this case. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick defining a human right to water and quantifying basic human needs for water.

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Without the existence of an international body that can enforce it, the human right to water relies upon the activity of national courts. The basis for this has been established through the constitutionalisation of economic, social and cultural rights

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In 2000, the Federal Court concluded the agreement that allowed indigenous landowners to take water for traditional purposes. However, the use is limited to traditional purpose, which did not include irrigation as a traditional practice.

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overshadows today's state governance that regulates water use to indigenous Australians. There are many governmental agreements, but most of them are incomplete to fully influence power to the indigenous right to water and sanitation. In

2815: 835:. The case was brought by residents of a block of flats (Bon Vista Mansions), following the disconnection of the water supply by the local Council, resulting from the failure to pay water charges. The court held that in adherence to the 1211:

in Pakistan. Moreover, Pakistan voiced that the dams constructed by India for non-consumptive purposes may be used to divert water flow and disrupt Pakistan's water supply. In addition, the treaty involves rivers that originate from

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Scholars also called attention to the importance of possible UN recognition of human rights to water and sanitation at the end of the twentieth century. Two early efforts to define the human right to water came from law professor

503:, declarations and other standards. Some commentators have based an argument for the existence of a universal human right to water on grounds independent of the 2010 General Assembly resolution, such as Article 11.1 of the 647:, or most fundamentally, the right to life. Gleick added: "that access to a basic water requirement is a fundamental human right implicitly and explicitly supported by international law, declarations, and State practice." 1054:

is located near the border of North and South Dakota and the pipeline is built within a half a mile of it. Since the pipeline was built near the reservation, the tribe feared that historical and cultural significance of

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The ICESCR requires signatory countries to progressively achieve and respect all human rights, including those of water and sanitation. They should work quickly and efficiently to increase access and improve service.

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World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2011. Drinking water: Equity, Satefy and sustainability. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water and Sanitation.

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Alston & Goodman, International Human Rights, Oxford University Press (2013), Lucy A. Williams, "The Role of Courts In The Quantitative-Implementation of Social and Economic Rights: A Comparative Study", 3

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World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2012. Progress on drinking water and sanitation. 2012 update. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and

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with its several covenants has made it obligatory for all the nations to ensure equitable distribution of water amongst all the citizens. Accordingly, the ENF began to observe and promote the celebration of

3105: 2702: 2421:"Statement by the Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to safe drinking water and sanitation, Ms Catarina de Albuquerque at the 15th session of the Human Rights Council" 513:

and consider it to include the Covenant's provisions hold that such a right is a universally binding principle of international law. Other treaties that explicitly recognize the HRWS include the 1979

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Gupta, J., Ahlers, R., and Ahmed, L. 2010. The human right to water: Moving towards consensus in a fragmented world. Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, 19(3), 294–305

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distinction between the right to water and the right to sanitation. This decision was made due to concern about the right to sanitation being overlooked when compared to the right to water.

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in 2008. She wrote a detailed report in 2009 that outlined human rights obligations to sanitation, and the CESCR responded by stating that sanitation should be recognized by all states.

3114:, New Zealand Law Society Human Rights & Privacy Committee, Submission to the 18th Session of The Human Rights Council, Shadow Report to New Zealand's 2nd Universal Periodic Review 654:(CESCR) overseeing ICESCR compliance came to similar conclusions as these scholars with General Comment 15 in 2002. It was found that, the right to water was an implicitly part of the 525: 793: 663: 504: 966:

Water is essential for existence of living beings including humans. Therefore, having access to pure and adequate quantity of water is an inalienable human right. Hence, the

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Greenwood, Esther E.; Lauber, Thomas; van den Hoogen, Johan; Donmez, Ayca; Bain, Robert E. S.; Johnston, Richard; Crowther, Thomas W.; Julian, Timothy R. (16 August 2024).

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for water in 1927. The World Right to Water Day calls for the adoption of special legislation establishing the universal right to water. Under the guidance of founder Dr

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residents of Phiri should be provided with a free basic water supply of 50 litres per person per day. The work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the

970:(ENF) deems it necessary to recognise the right to water (with ensured per capita minimum quantity of water) through the appropriate expressed legal provision. The 2505: 2394: 796:) through one of two means: as "directive principles" that are goals and are often non-justiciable; or as expressly protected and enforceable through the courts. 2218:, McCaffrey, S.C. "A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications" (1992) V Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Issue 1, pp.1-24. 34: 1688:

UN (United Nations). 2010. Resolution adopted by the general assembly. 64/292. The human right to water and sanitation. A/RES/64/292. New York: United Nations.

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believe that the managing of water as an economic good by private companies will be more efficient than governments providing water resources to their citizens

967: 2697: 954:, where a discharge of sludge from the washeries into the Bokaro River was petitioned against by way of public interest litigation. The courts found that the 2946:, Pacific Institute "Pacific Institute Shares BENNY Award for Efforts in South African Water Rights Decision." (2008), Pacific Institute, Oakland, California 620: 2679: 2658: 253: 4053: 1877: 1697:

UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1997. Governance for Sustainable Human Development: A UNDP Policy Document. UNDP, New York, NY, USA. See

2989:, Mazibuko and Another v National Director of Public Prosecutions (113/08) ZASCA 52; 2009 (6) SA 479 (SCA) ; 3 All SA 548 (SCA) (26 May 2009) 984: 651: 2323:"Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Realization of the right to drinking water and sanitation Report of the Special Rapporteur, El Hadji Guissé" 2568: 3680:

Bakker, Karen. "The "Commons" Versus the "Commodity": Alter‐globalization, Anti‐privatization and the Human Right to Water in the Global South".

2763:, McGraw, George S. "Defining and Defending the Right to Water and its Minimum Core: Legal Construction and the Role of National Jurisprudence" 3028:, Amy Hardberger "Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Water: Evaluating Water as a Human Right and the Duties and Obligations it Creates" (2005) 4 1620: 3060: 2451:"Statement by the Special Rapporteur on the right to access to safe drinking water and sanitation at the 66th Session of the General Assembly" 3432: 2350: 1313: 3644:

Wilder, Margaret; Romero Lankao, Patricia (November 2006). "Paradoxes of Decentralization: Water Reform and Social Implications in Mexico".

2806:, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" NZLJ 289 at 298 2785:, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" NZLJ 289 at 297 2612: 2022: 1307: 1060:

which made the tribe concerned. The Sioux Tribe sued the DAPL company as they believed that the creation of the pipeline was violating the

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Baer, M. 2015. From Water Wars to Water Rights: Implementing the Human Right to Water in Bolivia, Journal of Human Rights, 14:3, 353-376,

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which issued guidelines to assist governments to achieve and respect the human right to water and sanitation. These guidelines led the UN

3089: 2799: 2778: 597:(UDHR) of 1948. Neither of these early documents explicitly recognized human rights to water and sanitation. Several later international 528:

in General Comment 15 drafted in 2002. It was a non-binding interpretation that access to water was a condition for the enjoyment of the

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General Assembly Declares Access to Clean Water and Sanitation Is a Human Right." UN News Center. 28 July 2010. Accessed 20 March 2014.

1065: 2903: 2860: 4400: 3126:"NEW YORK'S UTILITY PROJECT : City of Auburn Violated Tenant's Constitutional Rights in Denial and Termination of Water Service" 2162: 636: 2230: 4072:

What is considered a human right is in some cases controversial; not all the topics listed are universally accepted as human rights

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obtains authority over water by borrowing the help of external relationship, including the Grants Power, Trade and Commerce Power.

3026: 268: 4305: 4000: 2963: 2737: 1945: 887: 779:. This was again a case of a private water company in a contractual dispute with a government, this time the United Republic of 683: 655: 529: 3181: 2530: 4106: 4046: 2458: 2428: 1510: 3211: 3539: 2480: 1838: 1790: 613: 594: 518: 2987: 643:

in 1999. McCaffrey stated that "Such a right could be envisaged as part and parcel of the right to food or sustenance, the

4274: 2998: 1505: 894: 712: 541: 113: 3236: 4433: 4156: 2624:

Bakker, Karen (27 February 2013). "Neoliberal Versus Postneoliberal Water: Geographies of Privatization and Resistance".

2603:, International Network for Economic, Social & Cultural RIghts, Case of Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay. 1213: 723: 209: 1018: 2398: 2135: 3720: 4039: 3237:"Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; Indian Law Bulletins, National Indian Law Library (NILL)" 2347:"Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation" 1464: 1061: 118: 1821:"III.S.8 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 64/292 (On the Right to Water and Sanitation) (28 July 2010)". 1701: 1051: 450: 2596: 1855:"International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation" 1534:"International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation" 2761: 1128: 875: 865: 858: 492: 85: 75: 2322: 1971: 917:, it has been interpreted by the courts that the right to life includes the right to safe and sufficient water. 4438: 4335: 4091: 3125: 674:

as an independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and

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because of their high importance in sustaining every person's life. It was recognized as a human right by the

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on 20 March, the date on which Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar ("the father of modern India") led the world's first

817: 90: 3366: 2300: 4201: 4111: 236: 231: 80: 1997: 1745: 4078: 2572: 2506:"OHCHR | Sustainability and non-retrogression in the realisation of the rights to water and sanitation" 870: 836: 164: 108: 3989: 2023:"Building access to clean water in support of Sustainable Development Goal 6 | UNICEF Supply Division" 1155:

Given the fact that access to water is a cross-border source of concern and potential conflict in the

4423: 4365: 4025: 4018: 1230: 1107: 987:, the ENF arranges a variety of several programmes to ensure the right to water for Indian citizens. 399: 3658: 4474: 4380: 4345: 4290: 4176: 3058: 2372: 2138:. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 20 November 1989. Archived from 1854: 1533: 1458: 1086: 2346: 2163:

https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities

1920: 1777:. Equality in Water and Sanitation Services. Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge. pp. 26–43. 4086: 3891: 2397:(Press release). Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 1 October 2010. Archived from 1358: 690: 671: 536: 3318:

Burdon, Peter; Drew, Georgina; Stubbs, Matthew; Webster, Adam; Barber, Marcus (2 October 2015).

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conventions, however, had provisions that explicitly recognized rights to water and sanitation.

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spiked starting in the 1990s and significant growth in privatization continued into the 2000s.

319: 3320:"Decolonising Indigenous water 'rights' in Australia: flow, difference, and the limits of law" 3086: 2797: 2776: 2200: 913:

regarding the right to water illustrate that although this is not explicitly protected in the

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water management due to the economic incentives for consumers to use water more efficiently.

1096: 914: 404: 344: 204: 199: 134: 3580: 2836: 4355: 4315: 4196: 3378: 3367:"Indigenous people's right to water under international law: a legal pluralism perspective" 2901: 2858: 1747:

Realising the human rights to water and sanitation: A Handbook by the UN Special Rapporteur

1332: 1176: 667: 443: 379: 263: 174: 159: 154: 144: 3474:

McCaffrey, Stephen C. "Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications, A."

2876: 8: 4469: 4405: 4126: 4121: 4096: 3087:"Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" 2183:

Meier, Benjamin Mason; Kayser, Georgia; Amjad, Urooj; Bartram, Jamie (15 November 2012).

1591:"Refworld | General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant)" 1204: 1148: 1081: 824: 739: 734:

The following cases from the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (

394: 374: 314: 248: 149: 3967:"WaterLex – Securing human rights to water and sanitation through law and policy reform" 3382: 3003:(CCt 39/09) ZACC 28; 2010 (3) BCLR 239 (CC) ; 2010 (4) SA 1 (CC) (8 October 2009) 2113:"Text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women" 1034:(DAPL). This crude oil pipeline spans over four states, which includes the beginning in 4443: 4320: 4246: 4141: 3626: 3555: 3347: 3297: 2847: 2641: 1796: 414: 409: 339: 283: 241: 214: 2614:, Global Public Interest in International Investment Law, Andreas Kulick, 2012 at 303. 2048: 4350: 4310: 4263: 4211: 4136: 3618: 3535: 3510: 3394: 3351: 3339: 3301: 3289: 2919: 2887: 2645: 2196: 2068: 1834: 1800: 1786: 1437: 1350: 1011: 879: 632: 593:(ICESCR) of 1966 codified the economic, social, and cultural rights found within the 496: 419: 384: 369: 288: 273: 221: 194: 3189: 3150: 2112: 535:

The first resolutions about the HRWS were passed by the UN General Assembly and the

507:(ICESCR); among those commentators, those who accept the existence of international 4340: 4256: 4221: 3667: 3663: 3502: 3386: 3331: 3281: 2633: 2060: 1826: 1778: 1673: 1447: 1234: 364: 3820: 3531:

Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia's International Rivers: A Legal Perspective

3335: 1910:

Global Issues at the United Nations." UN News Center. n.d. Accessed 20 March 2014.

1123: 4418: 4370: 4330: 4231: 4181: 3390: 3285: 3151:"PILCHEN v. CITY OF AUBURN | 728 F.Supp.2d 192 (2010) | 20100806950 | Leagle.com" 3111: 3093: 3064: 2907: 2864: 2824: 2803: 2782: 2724: 2706: 2685: 2667: 2637: 2600: 1881: 1705: 1677: 1590: 1500: 1428: 644: 436: 389: 359: 329: 324: 226: 4001:

The Human Right to Water and Sanitation: Translating Theory into Practice (2009)

3770: 3413:"In Africa, War Over Water Looms As Ethiopia Nears Completion Of Nile River Dam" 3319: 4464: 4360: 4285: 4241: 3269: 1495: 1475: 1380: 1208: 971: 898: 808:

A group of people gathering around a communal tap in Johannesburg, South Africa

573: 480: 354: 334: 278: 1258:

Organizations working on the rights to water and sanitation are listed below.

839:, that constitutionally all persons ought to have access to water as a right. 4458: 4390: 4325: 4206: 3622: 3514: 3398: 3365:

Gupta, Joyeeta; Hildering, Antoinette; Misiedjan, Daphina (1 December 2014).

3343: 3293: 2727:, Business & Human RIghts Resource Centre, Biwater-Tanzania arbitration. 2571:. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. 22 November 1969. Archived from 2236:"The Human Right to Water" (1999) Water Policy, Vol. 1, Issue 5, pp. 487-503. 2072: 1772: 1490: 1247: 1168: 1164: 955: 729: 349: 139: 3916: 2139: 2133:

The full text of the Convention on the rights of the child is available at:

2064: 1782: 1320: 752:

The first notable case regarding the right to water in the ICSID is that of

572:

reported that 663 million people did not have access to improved sources of

4300: 4295: 4186: 4063: 4031: 3990:

Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation

3044: 2233: 2184: 1400: 1039: 1035: 813: 640: 598: 488: 298: 293: 258: 189: 184: 169: 99: 3494: 2185:"Implementing an Evolving Human Right Through Water and Sanitation Policy" 607:

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

515:

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

4166: 3506: 1485: 1452: 1156: 717: 3630: 3606: 3433:"Pray For Rain: Crimea's Dry-Up A Headache For Moscow, Dilemma For Kyiv" 2297:"Human rights: the Netherlands officially recognises the right to water" 1946:"Transforming Water Access: How the "World's Lifeblood" is Under Attack" 1698: 1422: 4171: 2594: 1830: 1414: 1200: 1160: 1144: 980: 675: 577: 509: 484: 3694: 2817:

Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council

1771:

Roaf, Virginia; Albuquerque, Catarina de; Heller, Léo (26 July 2018).

1283: 928:, the river that the state of Haryana and the city of Delhi were using 833:

Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council

826:

Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council

524:

The clearest definition of the human right to water was issued by the

4151: 4009: 2395:"UN united to make the right to water and sanitation legally binding" 2088:"More than 4 billion people don't have access to clean water at home" 2049:"Mapping safe drinking water use in low- and middle-income countries" 1480: 1216:, which have been excluded from control over their own water bodies. 1203:

region. The two countries have a pre-existing agreement known as the

1056: 757: 2933: 1408: 1022:

People protesting against the building of the Dakota Access Pipeline

463: 4413: 4251: 3795: 2046: 1442: 1375: 1367: 1196: 1047: 1028:

Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers,

780: 1139: 1013:

Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. United States Army Corps of Engineers

920: 886:

The big respondents took the case to the Supreme Court of Appeal (

60: 4216: 4161: 4146: 4131: 3607:"Conflict over Water Between India and Pakistan: Fear and Hopes?" 3495:"Water: an Economic Resource Conflict between India and Pakistan" 2271: 1558: 1394: 1219: 4023:

Knowledge's health care articles can be viewed offline with the

526:

United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

2944: 2924:, (06/13865) ZAGPHC 491; All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008) at 181 2296: 1278: 940:

enough water to get to Delhi for consumption and domestic use.

925: 761: 590: 566: 52: 3745: 1106:

In June 2004, CoAC concluded an intergovernmental accord on a

863:

The quantity of water to be provided was further discussed in

664:

Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights

591:

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

505:

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

3046:

Delhi Water Supply & Sewage v. State Of Haryana & Ors

1267: 1192: 910: 775:

Secondly, a similar case encountered by the ICSID is that of

3995: 3966: 1559:"Resolution 64/292: The human right to water and sanitation" 43:

Boy drinks from a tap at a NEWAH WASH water project in Nepal

3841: 3821:"About Pure Water for the World – Pure Water for the World" 3182:"Standing Rock Sioux Tribe v. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers" 1469: 1295: 1273: 1186: 1171:

amongst other places, some non-governmental organizations (

1132: 1043: 3268:

Poirier, Robert; Schartmueller, Doris (1 September 2012).

1998:"How Improving Clean Water Access Can Fight Global Hunger" 1233:

and an inefficient use of resources. Supporters of market

831:

The first notable case in which the courts did so was the

730:

International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes

570:

Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

3417: 2688:, Azurix Corp v Argentina ICSID Case No ARB/01/12 at 149. 1321:

International non-governmental organizations and networks

1172: 1135:

flows by as much as 25% and devastate Egyptian farmlands.

932: 562: 3941: 3556:"Indus Waters Treaty | History, Provisions, & Facts" 2892:, (06/13865) ZAGPHC 491; All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008) 2246: 1621:"The human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation" 576:

and more than 2.4 billion people lacked access to basic

4010:

Right to Water: Understanding children's right to water

3866: 3450: 3364: 3317: 2182: 1076:

The attention in Australia is focused on the rights of

706: 2558:(Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 29 March 2006). 3788: 3000:

Mazibuko and Other v. City of Johannesburg and Others

2793: 2791: 1770: 1030:

where the Sioux Tribe challenged the building of the

621:

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

3267: 1390: 1289: 1270:(UN Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights) 584: 3643: 3040: 3038: 1825:. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 2012. pp. 1–2. 850: 4424:Freedom from involuntary female genital mutilation 3030:Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights 2788: 2765:Loyola University Chicago International Law Review 1753:. Portugal: United Nations. pp. Introduction. 1304:(German Corporation for International Cooperation) 943: 662:A further step was taken in 2005 by the former UN 652:Committee for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2867:, South African Water Services Act Section 4 (3) 2626:Annals of the Association of American Geographers 2585:, American Convention on Human Rights, article 4. 786: 495:on 28 July 2010. The HRWS has been recognized in 4456: 3867:"Pacific Institute | Advancing Water Resilience" 3035: 2827:, High Court of South Africa, Case No. 01/12312. 1969: 1589:Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. 768: 3371:Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2910:, South African Water Services Act. Section 11 2838:, South African Constitution, Section 27(1)(a). 1869: 1316:(United States Environmental Protection Agency) 1261: 2226: 2224: 2161:The text of the Convention is available here: 1743: 1310:(Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation) 1220:Water commercialization versus state provision 1199:is influenced by the scarcity of water in the 711:The right to water has been considered in the 701: 4047: 3528:Salman, Salman M. A.; Uprety, Kishor (2002). 1972:"The truth behind clean water in Africa 2022" 1151:, which provided 85% of Crimea's fresh water. 1026:In 2016, there was a prominent case known as 444: 4061: 3992:by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights 3527: 2555:Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay 2272:"righttowater - Just another WordPress site" 1650:"Resolution adopted by the General Assembly" 961: 467:people sanitizing the environment in Nigeria 4092:Freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention 2221: 745: 4054: 4040: 451: 437: 3657: 3492: 3123: 2531:"The Human Right to Water and Sanitation" 1970:SeventhQueen; Wolf, Jared (8 June 2022). 1337:Center for Water Security and Cooperation 996:of economic, social and cultural rights. 816:, the right to water is enshrined in the 3946:Unitarian Universalist Service Committee 3721:"Regulatory Information by Topic: Water" 2699:Biwater Gauff (Tanzania) Ltd v. Tanzania 1995: 1774:The Human Rights to Water and Sanitation 1187:Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan 1138: 1122: 1118: 1113: 1017: 919: 803: 556: 462: 4306:Right to an adequate standard of living 3892:"Help Solve the Water Crisis in Africa" 3611:The Indian Journal of Political Science 2549: 2547: 2136:"Convention on the Rights of the Child" 1906: 1904: 1902: 1892: 1890: 684:right to an adequate standard of living 656:right to an adequate standard of living 530:right to an adequate standard of living 14: 4457: 4107:Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment 3718: 3604: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3270:"Indigenous water rights in Australia" 3186:Public Land & Resources Law Review 3175: 3173: 3171: 2957:"South African National Standard 3(b)" 2623: 934:Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana 878:in Johannesburg, South Africa and the 4035: 3313: 3311: 3263: 3261: 3259: 3257: 2767:Vol. 8, No. 2, 127-204 (2011) at 137. 2569:"American Convention on Human Rights" 2303:from the original on 22 February 2009 2212: 2210: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1699:http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/ 1298:(United Kingdom's Cooperation Agency) 614:Convention on the Rights of the Child 595:Universal Declaration on Human Rights 519:Convention on the Rights of the Child 3674: 3468: 3179: 2544: 2085: 1899: 1887: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1588: 1584: 1582: 1580: 1528: 1526: 1506:Water issues in developing countries 1080:to water and sanitation. History of 713:Inter-American Court of Human Rights 707:Inter-American Court of Human Rights 542:United Nations Development Programme 479:) is a principle stating that clean 3481: 3168: 1823:International Law & World Order 1551: 1511:Workers' right to access the toilet 1006:Pilchen v. City of Auburn, New York 724:American Convention on Human Rights 473:human right to water and sanitation 24: 3358: 3308: 3254: 3180:Wood, Oliver (15 September 2017). 3124:Norlander, Gerry (5 August 2010). 3049:, 1999 SCC(2) 572, JT 1996 (6) 107 2373:"United Nations Official Document" 2207: 1757: 1730: 1346:The DigDeep Right to Water Project 1066:National Historic Preservation Act 25: 4486: 4227:Right to refuse medical treatment 3983: 3085:Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard, 1996:Advocacy, W. V. (22 March 2022). 1744:de Albuquerque, Catarina (2014). 1608: 1577: 1523: 1465:Three generations of human rights 1290:Governmental cooperation agencies 1062:National Environmental Policy Act 585:Legal foundations and recognition 4017: 3959: 3934: 3909: 3884: 3859: 3834: 3813: 3771:"Actualizing the right to water" 3719:US EPA, OMS (22 February 2013). 2921:Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg 2889:Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg 2353:from the original on 6 July 2010 1421: 1407: 1393: 1253: 999: 909:The two most prominent cases in 852:Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg 720:Indigenous Community v. Paraguay 59: 33: 3763: 3738: 3712: 3687: 3637: 3598: 3573: 3548: 3521: 3443: 3437:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 3425: 3405: 3229: 3204: 3143: 3117: 3099: 3079: 3070: 3052: 3020: 3006: 2992: 2981: 2949: 2938: 2927: 2913: 2895: 2881: 2870: 2852: 2841: 2830: 2809: 2770: 2755: 2730: 2712: 2691: 2673: 2652: 2617: 2606: 2588: 2561: 2523: 2498: 2481:"OHCHR | Wastewater management" 2473: 2443: 2413: 2387: 2365: 2339: 2315: 2289: 2264: 2239: 2176: 2167: 2155: 2127: 2105: 2079: 2040: 2015: 1989: 1963: 1938: 1913: 1847: 1814: 1720: 1472:- Water, sanitation and hygiene 1340:Freshwater Action Network (FAN) 1147:of Crimea, Ukraine blocked the 1129:Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam 952:Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar 945:Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar 893:The issues went further to the 876:University of the Witwatersrand 866:Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg 859:Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg 799: 493:United Nations General Assembly 86:Natural rights and legal rights 76:Claim rights and liberty rights 4439:Sexual and reproductive health 4336:Right to a healthy environment 3668:10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.026 2086:Ford, Celia (15 August 2024). 1711: 1691: 1682: 1666: 1642: 1361:with the Water Justice project 990: 821:some constitutional standing. 787:Right to water in domestic law 756:. The dispute was between the 13: 1: 4356:Right to public participation 3605:Sharma, Pankaj Kumar (2012). 3336:10.1080/2201473X.2014.1000907 1517: 1372:WaterLex (defunct as of 2020) 777:Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania 770:Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania 114:Economic, social and cultural 4376:Right to science and culture 3391:10.1016/j.cosust.2014.09.015 3286:10.1016/j.soscij.2011.11.002 2878:, UN General Comment No. 15 2742:UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub 2638:10.1080/00045608.2013.756246 1678:10.1080/14754835.2014.988782 1284:Sanitation and Water for All 1262:United Nations organizations 1127:Ethiopia's move to fill the 1071: 950:Also notable is the case of 410:Self-determination of people 91:Negative and positive rights 7: 4202:Right to keep and bear arms 4112:Freedom from discrimination 3534:. World Bank Publications. 3067:, The Constitution of India 3015:Constitutional Court Review 2247:"Resources and Information" 1386: 1038:, then passes through both 702:International jurisprudence 81:Individual and group rights 10: 4491: 3493:Bakhtawar, Saadia (2012). 3274:The Social Science Journal 3130:NEW YORK'S UTILITY PROJECT 2709:, ICSID Case No ARB/05/22. 2670:, ICSID Case No ARB/01/12. 1191:The water dispute between 1131:'s reservoir could reduce 856: 837:South African Constitution 4399: 4366:Right to rest and leisure 4272: 4077: 4070: 3476:Geo. Int'l Envtl. L. Rev. 2723:24 September 2013 at the 1231:environmental degradation 1108:National Water Initiative 1052:Standing Rock Reservation 977:World Rights to Water Day 962:World Rights to Water Day 637:University of the Pacific 4381:Right to social security 4346:Right to Internet access 4291:Equal pay for equal work 4177:Presumption of innocence 3800:www.freshwateraction.net 3324:Settler Colonial Studies 2660:Azurix Corp v. Argentina 1459:Period. End of Sentence. 1343:Pure Water for the World 904: 754:Azurix Corp v. Argentina 747:Azurix Corp v. Argentina 68:Theoretical distinctions 4257:right to be a candidate 4087:Equality before the law 3921:Transnational Institute 3560:Encyclopedia Britannica 3499:SSRN Electronic Journal 3092:29 January 2018 at the 2935:Business Ethics Network 2906:31 October 2017 at the 2863:31 October 2017 at the 2802:29 January 2018 at the 2781:29 January 2018 at the 2065:10.1126/science.adh9578 1783:10.4324/9781315471532-2 1359:Transnational Institute 1097:Commonwealth Government 691:Catarina de Albuquerque 672:Catarina de Albuquerque 537:UN Human Rights Council 4117:Freedom of information 4102:Freedom of association 1152: 1136: 1078:Indigenous Australians 1032:Dakota Access Pipeline 1023: 929: 843:encroaching measures. 809: 468: 307:Other groups of rights 4429:Intersex human rights 4237:Right of self-defense 4192:Right to a fair trial 4026:Medical Knowledge app 3684:39.3 (2007): 430-455. 3581:"Indus Waters Treaty" 2738:"Biwater v. Tanzania" 2455:newsarchive.ohchr.org 2425:newsarchive.ohchr.org 2002:World Vision Advocacy 1708:(accessed 21/06/2012) 1327:Action against Hunger 1142: 1126: 1119:Transboundary effects 1114:Remaining discussions 1021: 923: 915:Constitution of India 807: 557:International context 517:(CEDAW) and the 1989 501:human rights treaties 466: 127:Rights by beneficiary 4316:Right to development 4197:Right to family life 4147:Freedom from torture 4132:Freedom from slavery 3507:10.2139/ssrn.3597519 3451:"FIAN International" 3110:4 March 2018 at the 3063:2 April 2012 at the 2705:4 March 2016 at the 2684:4 March 2016 at the 2666:4 March 2016 at the 1704:13 July 2001 at the 1183:country to another. 1177:human overpopulation 968:Eco Needs Foundation 895:Constitutional Court 668:Human Rights Council 425:Water and sanitation 4127:Freedom of religion 4122:Freedom of movement 4097:Freedom of assembly 4079:Civil and political 3796:"Freshwater Action" 3421:. 27 February 2018. 3383:2014COES...11...26G 3188:(8). Archived from 2401:on 29 November 2010 1880:3 July 2017 at the 1205:Indus Waters Treaty 1149:North Crimean Canal 1143:Following Russia's 1082:settler-colonialism 740:water privatization 109:Civil and political 4444:Right to sexuality 4321:Right to education 4247:Security of person 4142:Freedom of thought 3096:, NZLJ 289 at 299 2823:7 May 2014 at the 2599:7 May 2014 at the 2461:on 26 October 2020 2431:on 2 November 2020 2195:. Rochester, N.Y. 1976:Sustainable Review 1831:10.1163/ilwo-iiis8 1153: 1137: 1024: 930: 810: 762:Azurix Corporation 758:Argentine Republic 469: 4452: 4451: 4351:Right to property 4311:Right to clothing 4296:Fair remuneration 4264:Right to homeland 4212:Right to petition 4137:Freedom of speech 3896:The Water Project 3871:Pacific Institute 3652:(11): 1977–1995. 3646:World Development 3541:978-0-8213-5352-3 2059:(6710): 784–790. 1840:978-90-04-20870-4 1792:978-1-315-47153-2 1630:on 25 August 2017 1438:Environmental Law 1355:The Water Project 1351:Pacific Institute 1214:Jammu and Kashmir 1088:Mabo v Queensland 880:Pacific Institute 633:Stephen McCaffrey 497:international law 461: 460: 119:Three generations 16:(Redirected from 4482: 4341:Right to housing 4275:Economic, social 4222:Right to protest 4217:Right to privacy 4056: 4049: 4042: 4033: 4032: 4021: 3996:WaterLex Archive 3978: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3927: 3917:"Search results" 3913: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3902: 3888: 3882: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3863: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3838: 3832: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3817: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3742: 3736: 3735: 3733: 3731: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3699:www.eda.admin.ch 3691: 3685: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3661: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3602: 3596: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3525: 3519: 3518: 3490: 3479: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3439:. 29 March 2020. 3429: 3423: 3422: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3315: 3306: 3305: 3265: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3192:on 1 August 2021 3177: 3166: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3147: 3141: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3121: 3115: 3103: 3097: 3083: 3077: 3074: 3068: 3056: 3050: 3042: 3033: 3024: 3018: 3017:2010 (2011) 141 3010: 3004: 2996: 2990: 2985: 2979: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2968: 2962:. 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August 2010 1564: 1560: 1554: 1539: 1535: 1529: 1527: 1522: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1491:Water justice 1489: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1460: 1456: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1430: 1424: 1419: 1416: 1410: 1405: 1402: 1396: 1391: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1315: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1293: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1259: 1254:Organizations 1251: 1249: 1248:right to food 1243: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1226: 1217: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1184: 1181: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1169:North America 1167:and parts of 1166: 1165:Mediterranean 1162: 1158: 1150: 1146: 1141: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1111: 1109: 1104: 1100: 1098: 1092: 1090: 1089: 1083: 1079: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1020: 1014: 1009: 1007: 1000:United States 997: 988: 986: 982: 978: 973: 969: 959: 957: 956:right to life 953: 946: 941: 935: 927: 922: 918: 916: 912: 902: 900: 896: 891: 889: 884: 881: 877: 872: 868: 867: 860: 853: 848: 844: 840: 838: 834: 827: 822: 819: 815: 806: 797: 795: 784: 782: 778: 771: 766: 763: 759: 755: 748: 743: 741: 737: 727: 725: 721: 719: 714: 699: 695: 692: 687: 685: 679: 677: 673: 669: 665: 660: 657: 653: 648: 646: 642: 638: 634: 628: 622: 618: 615: 611: 608: 604: 603: 602: 600: 596: 592: 582: 579: 575: 571: 568: 564: 554: 550: 546: 543: 538: 533: 531: 527: 522: 520: 516: 512: 511: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 465: 454: 449: 447: 442: 440: 435: 434: 432: 431: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 312: 311: 310: 306: 305: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 243: 240: 238: 235: 234: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 216: 213: 212: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 136: 133: 132: 131: 130: 126: 125: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 106: 105: 104: 101: 98: 97: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 73: 72: 71: 67: 66: 62: 58: 57: 54: 51: 50: 36: 27: 19: 4406:reproductive 4385: 4301:Labor rights 4277:and cultural 4187:Right to die 4064:human rights 4062:Substantive 4024: 3970:. 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