296:. A charge distribution occurs across the electrode, which creates a potential which can be measured against a reference electrode. The method of neuronal potential recording is dependent on the type of electrode used. Non-polarizable electrodes are reversible (ions in the solution are charged and discharged). This creates a current flowing through the electrode, allowing for voltage measurement through the electrode with respect to time. Typically, non-polarizable electrodes are glass micropipettes filled with an ionic solution or metal. Alternatively, ideal polarized electrodes do not have the transformation of ions; these are typically metal electrodes. Instead, the ions and electrons at the surface of the metal become polarized with respect to the potential of the solution. The charges orient at the interface to create an electric double layer; the metal then acts like a capacitor. The change in capacitance with respect to time can be measured and converted to voltage using a bridge circuit. Using this technique, when neurons fire an action potential they create changes in potential fields that can be recorded using microelectrodes. Single unit recordings from the cortical regions of rodent models have been shown to dependent on the depth at which the microelectrode sites were located. When comparing anestheized vs. awake states, single unit activity in rodent models under 2% isoflurane has shown to lower the noise level in the neurological recordings; eventhough the awake state recordings showed an 14% increase in peak-to-peak voltage magnitude.
371:(KCl) solution. With Ag-AgCl electrodes, ions react with it to produce electrical gradients at the interface, creating a voltage change with respect to time. Electrically, glass microelectrode tips have high resistance and high capacitance. They have a tip size of approximately 0.5-1.5 μm with a resistance of about 10-50 MΩ. The small tips make it easy to penetrate the cell membrane with minimal damage for intracellular recordings. Micropipettes are ideal for measurement of resting membrane potentials and with some adjustments can record action potentials. There are some issues to consider when using glass micropipettes. To offset high resistance in glass micropipettes, a
107:, postsynaptic potentials and spikes through the soma (or axon). Alternatively, when the microelectrode is close to the cell surface extracellular recordings measure the voltage change (with respect to time) outside the cell, giving only spike information. Different types of microelectrodes can be used for single-unit recordings; they are typically high-impedance, fine-tipped and conductive. Fine tips allow for easy penetration without extensive damage to the cell, but they also correlate with high impedance. Additionally, electrical and/or ionic conductivity allow for recordings from both non-polarizable and
94:(fMRI)—but these do not allow for single-neuron resolution. Neurons are the basic functional units in the brain; they transmit information through the body using electrical signals called action potentials. Currently, single-unit recordings provide the most precise recordings from a single neuron. A single unit is defined as a single, firing neuron whose spike potentials are distinctly isolated by a recording microelectrode.
423:
for information assessing the relationship between brain structure, function, and behavior. By looking at brain activity at the neuron level, researchers can link brain activity to behavior and create neuronal maps describing flow of information through the brain. For example, Boraud et al. report the use of single unit recordings to determine the structural organization of the basal ganglia in patients with
404:
electrodes are very rugged and provide very stable recordings. This allows manufacturing of tungsten electrodes with very small tips to isolate high-frequencies. Tungsten, however, is very noisy at low frequencies. In mammalian nervous system where there are fast signals, noise can be removed with
456:
pilot clinical trial was initiated to "test the safety and feasibility of a neural interface system based on an intracortical 100-electrode silicon recording array". This initiative has been successful in advancement of BCIs and in 2011, published data showing long term computer control in a patient
349:
There are two main types of microelectrodes used for single-unit recordings: glass micropipettes and metal electrodes. Both are high-impedance electrodes, but glass micropipettes are highly resistive and metal electrodes have frequency-dependent impedance. Glass micropipettes are ideal for resting-
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Intracellularly, the electrodes directly record the firing of action, resting and postsynaptic potentials. When a neuron fires, current flows in and out through excitable regions in the axons and cell body of the neuron. This creates potential fields around the neuron. An electrode near a neuron can
422:
Noninvasive tools to study the CNS have been developed to provide structural and functional information, but they do not provide very high resolution. To offset this problem invasive recording methods have been used. Single unit recording methods give high spatial and temporal resolution to allow
320:
of microelectrode used will depend on the application. The high resistance of these electrodes creates a problem during signal amplification. If it were connected to a conventional amplifier with low input resistance, there would be a large potential drop across the microelectrode and the amplifier
111:
electrodes. The two primary classes of electrodes are glass micropipettes and metal electrodes. Electrolyte-filled glass micropipettes are mainly used for intracellular single-unit recordings; metal electrodes (commonly made of stainless steel, platinum, tungsten or iridium) and used for both types
384:
Metal electrodes are made of various types of metals, typically silicon, platinum, and tungsten. They "resemble a leaky electrolytic capacitor, having a very high low-frequency impedance and low high-frequency impedance". They are more suitable for measurement of extracellular action potentials,
451:
or neurological disease. This technology has potential to reach a wide variety of patients but is not yet available clinically due to lack of reliability in recording signals over time. The primary hypothesis regarding this failure is that the chronic inflammatory response around the electrode
120:
patients to determine the position of epileptic foci. More recently, single-unit recordings have been used in brain machine interfaces (BMI). BMIs record brain signals and decode an intended response, which then controls the movement of an external device (such as a computer cursor or prosthetic
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characteristics of the different ions within the electrode should be similar. The ion must also be able to "provide current carrying capacity adequate for the needs of the experiment". And importantly, it must not cause biological changes in the cell it is recording from. Ag-AgCl electrodes are
102:
regions. This current creates a measurable, changing voltage potential within (and outside) the cell. This allows for two basic types of single-unit recordings. Intracellular single-unit recordings occur within the neuron and measure the voltage change (with respect to time) across the membrane
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has electrical properties. Since then, single unit recordings have become an important method for understanding mechanisms and functions of the nervous system. Over the years, single unit recording continued to provide insight on topographical mapping of the cortex. Eventual development of
115:
Single-unit recordings have provided tools to explore the brain and apply this knowledge to current technologies. Cognitive scientists have used single-unit recordings in the brains of animals and humans to study behaviors and functions. Electrodes can also be inserted into the brain of
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Single-unit recordings have allowed the ability to monitor single-neuron activity. This has allowed researchers to discover the role of different parts of the brain in function and behavior. More recently, recording from single neurons can be used to engineer "mind-controlled" devices.
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provide a method to couple behavior to brain function. By stimulating different responses, one can visualize what portion of the brain is activated. This method has been used to explore cognitive functions such as perception, memory, language, emotions, and motor control.
362:(Ag-AgCl) electrode is dipped into the filling solution as an electrical terminal. Ideally, the ionic solutions should have ions similar to ionic species around the electrode; the concentration inside the electrode and surrounding fluid should be the same. Additionally, the
394:
electrodes are platinum black plated and insulated with glass. "They normally give stable recordings, a high signal-to-noise ratio, good isolation, and they are quite rugged in the usual tip sizes". The only limitation is that the tips are very fine and fragile.
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1978: Schmidt et al. implanted chronic recording micro-cortical electrodes into the cortex of monkeys and showed that they could teach them to control neuronal firing rates, a key step to the possibility of recording neuronal signals and using them for
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must be used as the first-stage amplifier. Additionally, high capacitance develops across the glass and conducting solution which can attenuate high-frequency responses. There is also electrical interference inherent in these electrodes and amplifiers.
325:
device to collect the voltage and feed it to a conventional amplifier. To record from a single neuron, micromanipulators must be used to precisely insert an electrode into the brain. This is especially important for intracellular single-unit recording.
149:, a Spanish neuroscientist, revolutionized neuroscience with his neuron theory, describing the structure of the nervous system and presence of basic functional units— neurons. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this work in 1906.
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due to lower impedance for the frequency range of spike signals. They also have better mechanical stiffness for puncturing through brain tissue. Lastly, they are more easily fabricated into different tip shapes and sizes at large quantities.
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electrodes are alloy electrodes doped with silicon and an insulating glass cover layer. Silicon technology provides better mechanical stiffness and is a good supporting carrier to allow for multiple recording sites on a single electrode.
443:(BMIs) have been developed within the last 20 years. By recording single unit potentials, these devices can decode signals through a computer and output this signal for control of an external device such as a computer cursor or
1833:
Boraud T.; Bezard E.; et al. (2002). "From single extracellular unit recording in experimental and human
Parkinsonism to the development of a functional concept of the role played by the basal ganglia in motor control".
97:
The ability to record signals from neurons is centered around the electric current flow through the neuron. As an action potential propagates through the cell, the electric current flows in and out of the soma and axons at
227:
1967: The first record of multi-electrode arrays for recording was published by Marg and Adams. They applied this method to record many units at a single time in a single patient for diagnostic and therapeutic brain
221:. They used single neuron recordings to map the visual cortex in unanesthesized, unrestrained cats using tungsten electrodes. This work won them the Nobel Prize in 1981 for information processing in the visual system.
350:
and action-potential measurement, while metal electrodes are best used for extracellular spike measurements. Each type has different properties and limitations, which can be beneficial in specific applications.
256:(ALS), a neurological condition affecting the ability to control voluntary movement, they were able to successfully record action potentials using microelectrode arrays to control a computer cursor.
51:
matching; they are primarily glass micro-pipettes, metal microelectrodes made of platinum, tungsten, iridium or even iridium oxide. Microelectrodes can be carefully placed close to the
245:
1994: The
Michigan array, a silicon planar electrode with multiple recording sites, was developed. NeuroNexus, a private neurotechnology company, is formed based on this technology.
2273:
875:
López-Muñoz F.; Boya J.; et al. (2006). "Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to
Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal".
47:. A microelectrode is inserted into the brain, where it can record the rate of change in voltage with respect to time. These microelectrodes must be fine-tipped,
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1981: Kruger and Bach assemble 30 individual microelectrodes in a 5x6 configuration and implant the electrodes for simultaneous recording of multiple units.
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Finally, the signals must be exported to a recording device. After amplification, signals are filtered with various techniques. They can be recorded by an
1994:
Baker S. N.; Philbin N.; et al. (1999). "Multiple single unit recording in the cortex of monkeys using independently moveable microelectrodes".
1661:
Usoro, Joshua O.; Dogra, Komal; Abbott, Justin R.; Radhakrishna, Rahul; Cogan, Stuart F.; Pancrazio, Joseph J.; Patnaik, Sourav S. (October 2021).
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in his 1928 publication "The Basis of
Sensation". In this, he describes his recordings of electrical discharges in single nerve fibers using a
1712:
Sturgill, Brandon; Radhakrishna, Rahul; Thai, Teresa Thuc Doan; Patnaik, Sourav S.; Capadona, Jeffrey R.; Pancrazio, Joseph J. (2022-03-20).
267:, which aims to develop ultra-high bandwidth BMIs. In 2019, he and Neuralink published their work followed by a live-stream press conference.
1936:"Neural control of cursor trajectory and click by a human with tetraplegia 1000 days after implant of an intracortical microelectrode array"
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39:, the signal propagates down the neuron as a current which flows in and out of the cell through excitable membrane regions in the
321:
would only measure a small portion of the true potential. To solve this problem, a cathode follower amplifier must be used as an
1305:
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in the 1790s with his studies on dissected frogs. He discovered that you can induce a dead frog leg to twitch with a spark.
527:
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causes neurodegeneration that reduces the number of neurons it is able to record from (Nicolelis, 2001). In 2004, the
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to react with the electrode creating an electrode-electrolyte interface. The forming of this layer has been termed the
242:
which can access the columnar structure of the cerebral cortex for neurophysiological or neuroprosthetic applications".
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a high-pass filter. Slow signals are lost if filtered so tungsten is not a good choice for recording these signals.
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although glass micropipettes can also be used. Metal electrodes are beneficial in some cases because they have high
1773:
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The basis of single-unit recordings relies on the ability to record electrical signals from neurons.
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1663:"Influence of Implantation Depth on the Performance of Intracortical Probe Recording Sites"
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When a microelectrode is inserted into an aqueous ionic solution, there is a tendency for
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1928: One of the earliest accounts of being able to record from the nervous system was by
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1998: A key breakthrough for BMIs was achieved by Kennedy and Bakay with development of
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1790s: The first evidence of electrical activity in the nervous system was observed by
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1023:"Microelectrode Studies of the Electrical Activity of the Cerebral Cortex in the Cat"
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Glass micropipettes are filled with an ionic solution to make them conductive; a
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160:. He won the Nobel Prize in 1932 for his work revealing the function of neurons.
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32:
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1575:"An integrated brain-machine interface platform with thousands of channels"
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1730:
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444:
238:
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224:
1960: Glass-insulated platinum microelectrodes developed for recording.
134:
microelectrode arrays allowed recording from multiple units at a time.
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There are many techniques available to record brain activity—including
40:
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The basic equipment needed to record single units is microelectrodes,
1903:
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193:
447:. BMIs have the potential to restore function in patients with
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detect these extracellular potential fields, creating a spike.
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28:
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1993:
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70:. This information can then be applied to
62:Single-unit recordings are widely used in
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936:10.1136/bmj.1.4857.287
918:Adrian, E. D. (1954).
799:Proceedings of the IRE
503:Electroencephalography
488:Deep brain stimulation
367:primarily used with a
360:silver-silver chloride
147:Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal
88:magnetoencephalography
84:electroencephalography
25:single-unit recordings
2031:Barlow H. B. (1972).
1027:Journal of Physiology
755:Baars, B. J. (2010).
158:Lippmann electrometer
2309:Neurology procedures
1162:Green J. D. (1958).
518:Multielectrode array
498:Electrocorticography
183:Hodgkin–Huxley model
178:with platinum wires.
1952:2011JNEng...8b5027S
1895:2001Natur.409..403N
1573:Musk, Elon (2019).
1233:1960Sci...132.1309W
1227:(3436): 1309–1310.
1180:1958Natur.182..962G
1133:1953Sci...118...22D
759:. Oxford: Elsevier.
721:10.1038/nature09510
715:(7319): 1104–1108.
676:10.1002/jbm.b.34442
600:10.1002/jbm.b.31223
425:Parkinson's disease
354:Glass micropipettes
252:. In patients with
1731:10.3390/mi13030480
1680:10.3390/mi12101158
1415:10.1007/bf02368134
1372:10.1007/bf00236609
369:potassium chloride
323:impedance matching
304:Experimental setup
100:excitable membrane
2274:Neural Recordings
1889:(6818): 403–407.
1501:10.1109/10.335862
930:(4857): 287–290.
805:(11): 1856–1862.
508:Electrophysiology
429:Evoked potentials
418:Cognitive science
314:micromanipulators
272:Electrophysiology
213:1959: Studies by
105:resting potential
64:cognitive science
2316:
2253:
2243:
2210:
2173:
2144:
2119:(1–2): 251–254.
2107:
2070:
2052:
2027:
1982:
1981:
1971:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1906:
1904:10.1038/35053191
1874:
1868:
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1823:
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1751:
1733:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1692:
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1658:
1652:
1651:
1642:(6): 1065–1071.
1631:
1625:
1624:
1614:
1604:
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1570:
1564:
1563:
1538:(8): 1707–1711.
1527:
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1484:
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1435:
1434:
1398:
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1189:10.1038/182962a0
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1012:
1011:
991:
985:
984:
964:
958:
957:
947:
915:
909:
908:
883:(4–6): 391–405.
872:
866:
865:
829:
823:
822:
794:
785:
784:
776:
761:
760:
752:
743:
742:
732:
703:Cerf, M (2010).
700:
689:
688:
678:
654:
648:
647:
639:
622:
621:
611:
579:
573:
572:
544:
513:Intracranial EEG
373:cathode follower
187:squid giant axon
68:cortical mapping
37:action potential
2324:
2323:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2299:Neurophysiology
2289:
2288:
2260:
2232:10.1038/nn.2731
2050:10.1068/p010371
1990:
1985:
1932:
1928:
1875:
1871:
1831:
1827:
1787:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1765:
1710:
1706:
1659:
1655:
1632:
1628:
1571:
1567:
1528:
1524:
1495:(12): 1136–46.
1485:
1481:
1442:
1438:
1399:
1395:
1363:10.1.1.320.7615
1346:
1342:
1303:
1299:
1268:
1264:
1217:
1213:
1160:
1156:
1127:(3053): 22–24.
1117:
1113:
1068:
1064:
1019:
1015:
992:
988:
965:
961:
916:
912:
873:
869:
840:(10): 443–448.
830:
826:
795:
788:
777:
764:
753:
746:
701:
692:
655:
651:
640:
625:
580:
576:
545:
541:
537:
532:
463:
445:prosthetic limb
438:
420:
411:
387:signal-to-noise
382:
356:
347:
339:Data-processing
306:
294:Helmholtz layer
282:
274:
208:Stainless steel
176:cerebral cortex
165:pyramidal cells
127:
112:of recordings.
80:
57:extracellularly
17:
12:
11:
5:
2322:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2287:
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2259:
2258:External links
2256:
2255:
2254:
2226:(2): 139–142.
2211:
2185:(6): 915–924.
2174:
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2113:Brain Research
2108:
2082:(2): 230–241.
2071:
2043:(4): 371–394.
2028:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1983:
1926:
1869:
1842:(4): 265–283.
1825:
1798:(3): 238–246.
1775:
1763:
1704:
1653:
1626:
1592:10.1101/703801
1585:(10): e16194.
1565:
1522:
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1340:
1313:(2): 349–369.
1297:
1278:(3): 277–280.
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1211:
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1082:(4): 500–544.
1062:
1033:(1): 117–140.
1013:
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824:
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744:
690:
669:(3): 880–891.
649:
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53:cell membrane
50:
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2304:Neuroimaging
2223:
2220:Nat Neurosci
2219:
2182:
2178:
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2112:
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2075:
2040:
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1995:
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1396:
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409:Applications
383:
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331:oscilloscope
328:
307:
298:
283:
275:
154:Edgar Adrian
128:
114:
96:
81:
61:
24:
21:neuroscience
18:
2002:(1): 5–17.
1532:NeuroReport
1452:(1): 1–15.
555:: 275–309.
523:Patch clamp
201:John Eccles
169:hippocampus
109:polarizable
90:(MEG), and
2293:Categories
2037:Perception
1988:References
1724:(3): 480.
310:amplifiers
2284:BrainGate
1740:2072-666X
1358:CiteSeerX
478:BrainGate
454:BrainGate
449:paralysis
364:diffusive
265:Neuralink
261:Elon Musk
118:epileptic
49:impedance
31:using a
2250:21270781
2207:18323877
2170:10221571
2141:20139805
2104:26878763
2067:17487970
2024:12846443
2016:10638811
1978:21436513
1913:11201755
1864:23389986
1856:11960681
1820:11414381
1758:35334770
1699:34683209
1621:31642810
1474:24981753
1466:10223510
1431:11214935
1335:37539476
1249:17753062
1198:13590200
1149:13076162
1106:12991237
1057:13085304
1008:14789543
954:13115699
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897:17027775
862:23394494
819:51641398
739:20981100
685:31353822
618:18837458
569:18429704
461:See also
402:Tungsten
392:Platinum
228:surgery.
78:Overview
2241:3410539
2199:4631839
2133:9237542
2096:3957372
2059:4377168
1969:3715131
1948:Bibcode
1921:4386663
1891:Bibcode
1812:5431636
1749:8955818
1690:8539313
1612:6914248
1587:bioRxiv
1560:5681602
1552:9665587
1517:6694261
1509:7851915
1423:1510294
1380:7202614
1292:4167928
1229:Bibcode
1221:Science
1206:4256169
1176:Bibcode
1129:Bibcode
1121:Science
1097:1392413
1048:1366060
945:2093300
854:9347609
730:3010923
609:7442142
397:Silicon
286:cations
194:Iridium
167:in the
125:History
121:limb).
86:(EEG),
2248:
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2205:
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2168:
2139:
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2014:
1976:
1966:
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1883:Nature
1862:
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683:
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290:anions
259:2016:
206:1958:
199:1957:
192:1953:
145:1888:
29:neuron
2203:S2CID
2137:S2CID
2100:S2CID
2063:S2CID
2020:S2CID
1917:S2CID
1860:S2CID
1816:S2CID
1788:(PDF)
1556:S2CID
1513:S2CID
1470:S2CID
1427:S2CID
1388:61329
1384:S2CID
1331:S2CID
1253:S2CID
1202:S2CID
901:S2CID
858:S2CID
815:S2CID
535:Notes
380:Metal
232:BMIs.
2246:PMID
2195:PMID
2166:PMID
2129:PMID
2092:PMID
2055:PMID
2012:PMID
1974:PMID
1909:PMID
1852:PMID
1808:PMID
1754:PMID
1736:ISSN
1695:PMID
1617:PMID
1548:PMID
1505:PMID
1462:PMID
1419:PMID
1376:PMID
1323:PMID
1288:PMID
1245:PMID
1194:PMID
1145:PMID
1102:PMID
1053:PMID
1004:PMID
950:PMID
893:PMID
850:PMID
735:PMID
681:PMID
614:PMID
565:PMID
318:type
288:and
217:and
45:axon
43:and
41:soma
2236:PMC
2228:doi
2187:doi
2158:doi
2121:doi
2117:760
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2004:doi
1964:PMC
1956:doi
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1800:doi
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557:doi
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2000:94
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