Russian Revolution

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the October revolution forced the political parties behind the newly dissolved provisional government to move and move fast for immediate elections. All happened so fast that the left SR fraction did not have time to reach out and be represented in ballots of the SR party which was part of the coalition in the provisional government. This non-elected government supported continuation of the war on the side of the allied forces. The elections to the State Duma 25 November 1917 therefore did not mirror the true political situation among peasants even if we don't know how the outcome would be if the anti-war left SR fraction had a fair chance to challenge the party leaders. In the elections, the Bolshevik party received 25% of the votes and the Socialist-Revolutionaries as much as 58%. It is possible the left SR had a good chance to reach more than 25% of the votes and thereby legitimate the October revolution but we can only guess.

3352:. This armed uprising was fought against the antagonizing Bolshevik economic policies that farmers were subjected to, including seizures of grain crops by the Communists. This all amounted to large-scale discontent. When delegates representing the Kronstadt sailors arrived at Petrograd for negotiations, they raised 15 demands primarily pertaining to the Russian right to freedom. The Government firmly denounced the rebellions and labelled the requests as a reminder of the Social Revolutionaries, a political party that was popular among Soviets before Lenin, but refused to cooperate with the Bolshevik Army. The Government then responded with an armed suppression of these revolts and suffered ten thousand casualties before entering the city of Kronstadt. This ended the rebellions fairly quickly, causing many of the rebels to flee seeking political exile. 3216: 2472:

the cities, was much more likely to protest and go on strike than the peasantry had been in previous times. One 1904 survey found that an average of 16 people shared each apartment in Saint Petersburg, with six people per room. There was also no running water, and piles of human waste were a threat to the health of the workers. The poor conditions only aggravated the situation, with the number of strikes and incidents of public disorder rapidly increasing in the years shortly before World War I. Because of late industrialization, Russia's workers were highly concentrated. By 1914, 40% of Russian workers were employed in factories of 1,000+ workers (32% in 1901). 42% worked in 100–1,000 worker enterprises, 18% in 1–100 worker businesses (in the US, 1914, the figures were 18%, 47% and 35% respectively).

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civilians throughout the duration of the civil war. This was in part due to their skillful use propaganda. Bolshevik propaganda portrayed the Red Army as liberators and stewards of the poor and downtrodden. Bolshevik support was further elevated by Lenin's initiatives to distribute land to the peasantry, and ending the war with Germany. During the civil war, the Bolsheviks were able to raise an army numbering around five million active soldiers. Domestic support and patriotism played a decisive role in the Russian Civil War. By 1923 the Bolsheviks had controlled the last of the White Army holdouts and the Russian Civil War concluded with a Bolshevik victory. This victory ultimately influenced how the Soviet Union interpreted its own ideology and the October Revolution itself. Starting in 1919,

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safety and sanitary conditions, harsh discipline (not only rules and fines, but foremen's fists), and inadequate wages (made worse after 1914 by steep wartime increases in the cost of living). At the same time, urban industrial life had its benefits, though these could be just as dangerous (in terms of social and political stability) as the hardships. There were many encouragements to expect more from life. Acquiring new skills gave many workers a sense of self-respect and confidence, heightening expectations and desires. Living in cities, workers encountered material goods they had never seen in villages. Most importantly, workers living in cities were exposed to new ideas about the social and political order.

2274: 101: 2983: 3399:" that was determined on a case-by-case basis. The "Decree on Revolutionary Tribunals" used by the People's Commissar of Justice, states in article 2 that "In fixing the penalty, the Revolutionary Tribunal shall be guided by the circumstances of the case and the dictates of the revolutionary conscience." Revolutionary tribunals ultimately demonstrated that a form of justice was still prevalent in Russian society where the Russian Provisional Government failed. This, in part, triggered the political transition of the October Revolution and the Civil War that followed in its aftermath. 110: 90: 3165:, in a series of battles that would become known as the Russian Civil War. This did not happen in 1917. The Civil War began in early 1918 with domestic anti-Bolshevik forces confronting the nascent Red Army. In autumn of 1918 Allied countries needed to block German access to Russian supplies. They sent troops to support the "Whites" with supplies of weapons, ammunition and logistic equipment being sent from the main Western countries but this was not at all coordinated. Germany did not participate in the civil war as it surrendered to the Allied. 2725: 2589:(1904–1905). Nicholas also sought to foster a greater sense of national unity with a war against a common and old enemy. The Russian Empire was an agglomeration of diverse ethnicities that had demonstrated significant signs of disunity in the years before the First World War. Nicholas believed in part that the shared peril and tribulation of a foreign war would mitigate the social unrest over the persistent issues of poverty, inequality, and inhumane working conditions. Instead of restoring Russia's political and military standing, 3472: 2872:

Workers' Deputies. The model for the Soviets were workers' councils that had been established in scores of Russian cities during the 1905 Revolution. In February 1917, striking workers elected deputies to represent them and socialist activists began organizing a citywide council to unite these deputies with representatives of the socialist parties. On 27 February, socialist Duma deputies, mainly Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, took the lead in organizing a citywide council. The Petrograd Soviet met in the

3414: 2409:. Lenin rejected both the defence of Russia and the cry for peace. Since the autumn of 1914, he had insisted that "from the standpoint of the working class and of the labouring masses the lesser evil would be the defeat of the Tsarist Monarchy"; the war must be turned into a civil war of the proletarian soldiers against their own governments, and if a proletarian victory should emerge from this in Russia, then their duty would be to wage a revolutionary war for the liberation of the masses throughout Europe. 2887:" to rule and to introduce extensive democratic reforms in Russia (the replacement of the monarchy by a republic, guaranteed civil rights, a democratic police and army, abolition of religious and ethnic discrimination, preparation of elections to a constituent assembly, and so on). They met in the same building as the emerging Provisional Government not to compete with the Duma Committee for state power, but to best exert pressure on the new government, to act, in other words, as a popular democratic lobby. 2745: 2737: 2251: 2537: 2648: 9318: 4147: 2782:

regime were rapidly torn down around the city, and governmental authority in the capital collapsed – not helped by the fact that Nicholas had prorogued the Duma that morning, leaving it with no legal authority to act. The response of the Duma, urged on by the liberal bloc, was to establish a Temporary Committee to restore law and order; meanwhile, the socialist parties established the Petrograd Soviet to represent workers and soldiers. The remaining loyal units switched allegiance the next day.

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had been in the minority in the two leading cities of Russia – St. Petersburg and Moscow behind the Mensheviks and the Socialist Revolutionaries, by September the Bolsheviks were in the majority in both cities. Furthermore, the Bolshevik-controlled Moscow Regional Bureau of the Party also controlled the Party organizations of the 13 provinces around Moscow. These 13 provinces held 37% of Russia's population and 20% of the membership of the Bolshevik faction.

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Bolsheviks, Lenin began pressing for the immediate overthrow of the Kerensky government by the Bolsheviks. Lenin was of the opinion that taking power should occur in both St. Petersburg and Moscow simultaneously, parenthetically stating that it made no difference which city rose up first. The Bolshevik Central Committee drafted a resolution, calling for the dissolution of the Provisional Government in favor of the Petrograd Soviet. The resolution was passed 10–2 (

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in liberating the proletariat and building a workers' state that practiced equality. Outside of Eastern Europe this view was heavily criticized as following the death of Lenin the Soviet Union became more authoritarian. Even though the Soviet Union no longer exists, the Soviet-Marxist view is still interpreted in academia today. Both academics and Soviet supporters argue this view is supported by several events. First, the RSFSR made substantial advances to

2671:, and chaotic flight were not uncommon. By 1916, however, the situation had improved in many respects. Russian troops stopped retreating, and there were even some modest successes in the offensives that were staged that year, albeit at great loss of life. Also, the problem of shortages was largely solved by a major effort to increase domestic production. Nevertheless, by the end of 1916, morale among soldiers was even worse than it had been during the 3046: 2556:, Nicholas assumed that the Russian people were devoted to him with unquestioning loyalty. This ironclad belief rendered Nicholas unwilling to allow the progressive reforms that might have alleviated the suffering of the Russian people. Even after the 1905 Revolution spurred the Tsar to decree limited civil rights and democratic representation, he worked to limit even these liberties in order to preserve the ultimate authority of the crown. 2891:

interference which would create an unacceptable situation of dual power. In fact, this was precisely what was being created, though this "dual power" (dvoyevlastiye) was the result less of the actions or attitudes of the leaders of these two institutions than of actions outside their control, especially the ongoing social movement taking place on the streets of Russia's cities, factories, shops, barracks, villages, and in the trenches.

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hierarchy and a sense of duty to the country. Religious faith helped bind all of these tenets together as a source of comfort and reassurance in the face of difficult conditions and as a means of political authority exercised through the clergy. Perhaps more than any other modern monarch, Nicholas II attached his fate and the future of his dynasty to the notion of the ruler as a saintly and infallible father to his people.

4133: 2563:, Russian intellectuals had promoted Enlightenment ideals such as the dignity of the individual and the rectitude of democratic representation. These ideals were championed most vociferously by Russia's liberals, although populists, Marxists, and anarchists also claimed to support democratic reforms. A growing opposition movement had begun to challenge the Romanov monarchy openly well before the turmoil of World War I. 4105: 2440:, believed by many peasants, was that land should belong to those who work on it. At the same time, peasant life and culture was changing constantly. Change was facilitated by the physical movement of growing numbers of peasant villagers who migrated to and from industrial and urban environments, but also by the introduction of city culture into the village through material goods, the press, and word of mouth. 3106: 2528:, workers abandoned the cities in droves seeking food. Finally, the soldiers themselves, who suffered from a lack of equipment and protection from the elements, began to turn against the Tsar. This was mainly because, as the war progressed, many of the officers who were loyal to the Tsar were killed, being replaced by discontented conscripts from the major cities who had little loyalty to the Tsar. 3571:.The confusion regarding Stalin's position on the issue stems from the fact that, after Lenin's death in 1924, he successfully used Lenin's argument – the argument that socialism's success needs the support of workers of other countries in order to happen – to defeat his competitors within the party by accusing them of betraying Lenin and, therefore, the ideals of the October Revolution. 3029:, the recently appointed Supreme Commander of Russian military forces, to believe that the Petrograd government had already been captured by radicals, or was in serious danger thereof. In response, he ordered troops to Petrograd to pacify the city. To secure his position, Kerensky had to ask for Bolshevik assistance. He also sought help from the Petrograd Soviet, which called upon armed 2717: 2675:. The fortunes of war may have improved, but the fact of war remained which continually took Russian lives. The crisis in morale (as was argued by Allan Wildman, a leading historian of the Russian army in war and revolution) "was rooted fundamentally in the feeling of utter despair that the slaughter would ever end and that anything resembling victory could be achieved." 2656:

throughout the war as staggering losses continued to mount. The officer class also saw remarkable changes, especially within the lower echelons, which were quickly filled with soldiers rising up through the ranks. These men, usually of peasant or working-class backgrounds, were to play a large role in the politicization of the troops in 1917.

2975:, which outlined central Bolshevik policies. These included that the Soviets take power (as seen in the slogan "all power to the Soviets") and denouncing the liberals and social revolutionaries in the Provisional Government, forbidding co-operation with it. Many Bolsheviks, however, had supported the Provisional Government, including 2768:, which gradually turned into economic and political gatherings. Demonstrations were organised to demand bread, and these were supported by the industrial working force who considered them a reason for continuing the strikes. The women workers marched to nearby factories bringing out over 50,000 workers on strike. By 10 March [ 3306:, the "bourgeoisie", and political groups ranging from the far Right, to the Socialist Revolutionaries who opposed the drastic restructuring championed by the Bolsheviks following the collapse of the Provisional Government, to the Soviets (under clear Bolshevik dominance). The Whites had backing from other countries such as the 2460:'s land reforms of the early 20th century. Increasing peasant disturbances and sometimes actual revolts occurred, with the goal of securing ownership of the land they worked. Russia consisted mainly of poor farming peasants and substantial inequality of land ownership, with 1.5% of the population owning 25% of the land. 3395:

the Cheka as a more moderate force that acted under the banner of revolutionary justice, rather than a utilizer of strict brute force as the former did. However, these tribunals did come with their own set of inefficiencies, such as responding to cases in a matter of months and not having a concrete definition of "

2687:, where distance from supplies and poor transportation networks made matters particularly worse. Shops closed early or entirely for lack of bread, sugar, meat, and other provisions, and lines lengthened massively for what remained. Conditions became increasingly difficult to afford food and physically obtain it. 3735:"enemies of the party", "had worked with Lenin during his life". He also contrasted the "severe methods" used by Lenin in the "most necessary cases" as a "struggle for survival" during the Civil War with the extreme methods and mass repressions used by Stalin even when the Revolution was "already victorious". 3042:

organized opposition party that had refused to compromise with the Provisional Government, and they benefited from growing frustration and even disgust with other parties, such as the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, who stubbornly refused to break with the idea of national unity across all classes.

2022:, a Bolshevik armed insurrection by workers and soldiers in Petrograd that overthrew the Provisional Government, transferring all its authority to the Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks, acting in the framework of the soviet councils, established their own government and later proclaimed the establishment of the 3748:

states, "he (Lenin) aided the foundations of dictatorship and lawlessness. He had consolidated the principle of state penetration of the whole society, its economy and its culture. Lenin had practiced terror and advocated revolutionary amoralism." Lenin allowed for certain disagreement and debate but

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Views from the west were mixed. Socialists and labor organizations tended to support the October Revolution and the Bolshevik seizure of power. On the other hand, western governments were mortified. Western leaders, and later some academics concluded that the Russian Revolution only replaced one form

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The Soviet-Marxist interpretation is the belief that the Russian Revolution under the Bolsheviks was a proud and glorious effort of the working class which saw the removal of the Tsar, nobility, and capitalists from positions of power. The Bolsheviks and later the Communist Party took the first steps

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were present during both the Revolution and the Civil War, intended for the purpose of combatting forces of counter-revolution. At the Civil War's zenith, it is reported that upwards of 200,000 cases were investigated by approximately 200 tribunals. These tribunals established themselves more so from

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increased steadily. Over the course of the spring, public dissatisfaction with the Provisional Government and the war, in particular among workers, soldiers and peasants, pushed these groups to radical parties. Despite growing support for the Bolsheviks, buoyed by maxims that called most famously for

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Tsar Nicholas was blamed for all of these crises, and what little support he had left began to crumble. As discontent grew, the State Duma issued a warning to Nicholas in November 1916, stating that, inevitably, a terrible disaster would grip the country unless a constitutional form of government was

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Strikes increased steadily from the middle of 1915, and so did crime, but, for the most part, people suffered and endured, scouring the city for food. Working-class women in St. Petersburg reportedly spent about forty hours a week in food lines, begging, turning to prostitution or crime, tearing down

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region by the end of the year. In the autumn of 1915, Nicholas had taken direct command of the army, personally overseeing Russia's main theatre of war and leaving his ambitious but incapable wife Alexandra in charge of the government. Reports of corruption and incompetence in the Imperial government

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named, "Napoleon". Trotsky is represented by a pig called Snowball who is a brilliant talker and makes magnificent speeches. However, Napoleon overthrows Snowball as Stalin overthrew Trotsky and Napoleon takes over the farm the animals live on. Napoleon becomes a tyrant and uses force and propaganda

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in Moscow. However, this claim has never been confirmed. The murder may have been carried out on the initiative of local Bolshevik officials, or it may have been an option pre-approved in Moscow as White troops were rapidly approaching Yekaterinburg. Radzinsky noted that Lenin's bodyguard personally

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26 February], when the Tsar ordered the army to suppress the rioting by force, troops began to revolt. Although few actively joined the rioting, many officers were either shot or went into hiding; the ability of the garrison to hold back the protests was all but nullified, symbols of the Tsarist

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To quell the riots, the Tsar looked to the army. At least 180,000 troops were available in the capital, but most were either untrained or injured. Historian Ian Beckett suggests around 12,000 could be regarded as reliable, but even these proved reluctant to move in on the crowd, since it included so

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The army quickly ran short of rifles and ammunition (as well as uniforms and food), and by mid-1915, men were being sent to the front bearing no arms. It was hoped that they could equip themselves with arms recovered from fallen soldiers, of both sides, on the battlefields. The soldiers did not feel

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and poor conditions for urban industrial workers (as mentioned above). Between 1890 and 1910, the population of the capital, Saint Petersburg, nearly doubled from 1,033,600 to 1,905,600, with Moscow experiencing similar growth. This created a new 'proletariat' which, due to being crowded together in

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The Bolshevik failure in the July Days proved temporary. The Bolsheviks had undergone a spectacular growth in membership. Whereas, in February 1917, the Bolsheviks were limited to only 24,000 members, by September 1917 there were 200,000 members of the Bolshevik faction. Previously, the Bolsheviks

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Following the death of Vladimir Lenin, the Bolshevik government was thrown into a crisis. Lenin failed to designate who his successor would be or how they would be chosen. A power struggle broke out in the party between Leon Trotsky and his enemies. Trotsky was defeated by the anti-Trotsky bloc by

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The provisional government with its second and third coalition was led by a right wing fraction of the Socialist-Revolutionary party, SR. This non-elected provisional government faced the revolutionary situation and the growing mood against the war by avoiding elections to the state Duma. However,

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in use under tsarist Russia, was organized by the Bolshevik party. Lenin did not have any direct role in the revolution and he was hiding for his personal safety. However, in late October, Lenin secretly and at great personal risk entered Petrograd and attended a private gathering of the Bolshevik

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In early September, the Petrograd Soviet freed all jailed Bolsheviks and Trotsky became chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. Growing numbers of socialists and lower-class Russians viewed the government less as a force in support of their needs and interests. The Bolsheviks benefited as the only major

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These staggering losses played a definite role in the mutinies and revolts that began to occur. In 1916, reports of fraternizing with the enemy began to circulate. Soldiers went hungry, lacked shoes, munitions, and even weapons. Rampant discontent lowered morale, which was further undermined by a

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Many sections of the country had reason to be dissatisfied with the existing autocracy. Nicholas II was a deeply conservative ruler and maintained a strict authoritarian system. Individuals and society in general were expected to show self-restraint, devotion to community, deference to the social

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was held. Despite the Bolsheviks being the party that overthrew the Provisional Government and organizing the assembly, they lost the election. Rather than govern as a coalition, the Bolsheviks banned all political opposition. Historians point to this as the start of communist authoritarianism.

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which relied on personal persuasion and recommended the removal of Stalin from the position of General Secretary. Khrushchev contrasted this with the "despotism" of Stalin which require absolute submission to his position and also highlighted that many of the people who were later annihilated as

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Though Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik Party, it has been argued that since Lenin was not present during the actual takeover of the Winter Palace, it was really Trotsky's organization and direction that led the revolution, merely spurred by the motivation Lenin instigated within his party.

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have asserted that Lenin's exhortations for the Soviet Council to take power were intended to arouse indignation both with the Provisional Government, whose policies were viewed as conservative, and the Soviets themselves, which were viewed as subservients to the conservative government. By some

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A series of political crises – see the chronology below – in the relationship between population and government and between the Provisional Government and the Soviets (which developed into a nationwide movement with a national leadership). The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of

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across Russia resulted in unwilling citizens being sent off to war. The vast demand for factory production of war supplies and workers resulted in many more labor riots and strikes. Conscription stripped skilled workers from the cities, who had to be replaced with unskilled peasants. When famine

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as a representation of the October Revolution in 1917, eventually becoming the official symbol of the USSR in 1924, and later the symbol of Communism as a whole. Although the Bolsheviks did not have extensive political experience, their portrayal of the revolution itself as both a political and

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sailors – who had tried and executed many officers, including one admiral – further fueled the growing revolutionary atmosphere. Sailors and soldiers, along with Petrograd workers, took to the streets in violent protest, calling for "all power to the Soviets". The revolt, however, was

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Casualty rates were the most vivid sign of this disaster. By the end of 1914, only five months into the war, around 390,000 Russian men had lost their lives and nearly 1,000,000 were injured. Far sooner than expected, inadequately trained recruits were called for active duty, a process repeated

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Workers also had good reasons for discontent: overcrowded housing with often deplorable sanitary conditions, long hours at work (on the eve of the war, a 10-hour workday six days a week was the average and many were working 11–12 hours a day by 1916), constant risk of injury and death from poor

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The conditions during the war resulted in a devastating loss of morale within the Russian army and the general population of Russia itself. This was particularly apparent in the cities, owing to a lack of food in response to the disruption of agriculture. Food scarcity had become a considerable

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The outbreak of war in August 1914 initially served to quiet the prevalent social and political protests, focusing hostilities against a common external enemy, but this patriotic unity did not last long. As the war dragged on inconclusively, war-weariness gradually took its toll. Although many

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The Bolsheviks were further at a disadvantage due to factors such as: the small land area under their control, lack of professional officers, and supply shortages. In spite of this, the Red Army prevailed. The Red Army unlike many White factions maintained a high morale among their troops and

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to protect them from the rising tide of revolution. After the Bolsheviks came to power in October 1917, the conditions of their imprisonment grew stricter and talk of putting Nicholas on trial increased. In April and May 1918, the looming civil war led the Bolsheviks to move the family to the

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revolution. Although return to Russia had become a possibility, the war made it logistically difficult. Eventually, German officials arranged for Lenin to pass through their territory, hoping that his activities would weaken Russia or even – if the Bolsheviks came to power – lead to

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The effective power of the Provisional Government was challenged by the authority of an institution that claimed to represent the will of workers and soldiers and could, in fact, mobilize and control these groups during the early months of the revolution – the Petrograd Soviet Council of

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and allowed women to be educated, which was forbidden under the Tsar. Furthermore, the RSFSR decriminalized homosexuality between consenting adults, which was seen as radical for the time period. The Bolshevik government also actively recruited working class citizens into positions of party

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failed largely due to the efforts of the Bolsheviks, whose influence over railroad and telegraph workers proved vital in stopping the movement of troops. With his coup failing, Kornilov surrendered and was relieved of his position. The Bolsheviks' role in stopping the attempted coup further

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took place 25 November 1917. The Bolsheviks gained 25% of the vote. When it became clear that the Bolsheviks had little support outside of the industrialized areas of Saint Petersburg and Moscow, they simply barred non-Bolsheviks from membership in the Soviets. The Bolsheviks dissolved the

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and continued to lead his party, writing newspaper articles and policy decrees. By October, he returned to Petrograd (present-day St. Petersburg), aware that the increasingly radical city presented him no legal danger and a second opportunity for revolution. Recognising the strength of the

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Liberal parties too had an increased platform to voice their complaints, as the initial fervor of the war resulted in the Tsarist government creating a variety of political organizations. In July 1915, a Central War Industries Committee was established under the chairmanship of a prominent

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The relationship between these two major powers was complex from the beginning and would shape the politics of 1917. The representatives of the Provisional Government agreed to "take into account the opinions of the Soviet of Workers' Deputies", though they were also determined to prevent

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Central Committee on the evening of October 23. The Revolutionary Military Committee established by the Bolshevik party was organizing the insurrection and Leon Trotsky was the chairman. 50,000 workers had passed a resolution in favour of Bolshevik demand for transfer of power to the

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argued the Bolshevik–Left Socialist Revolutionary coalition government dissolved the Constituent Assembly due to a number of reasons. They cited the outdated voter-rolls which did not acknowledge the split among the Socialist Revolutionary party and the assemblies conflict with the

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whether he would be prepared to take over the throne from his nephew, Tsar Nicholas II. None of these incidents were in themselves the immediate cause of the February Revolution, but they do help to explain why the monarchy survived only a few days after it had broken out.

2327:(1862–1936), including ten workers' representatives. The Petrograd Mensheviks agreed to join despite the objections of their leaders abroad. All this activity gave renewed encouragement to political ambitions, and in September 1915, a combination of Octobrists and 3643:. The schism between Trotsky and Stalin is the focal point where the Revisionist view comes into existence. Trotsky traveled across the world denouncing Stalin and the Soviet Union under his leadership. He specifically focused his criticism on Stalin's doctrine, 2306:

notes, and by 1917, inflation had made prices increase up to four times what they had been in 1914. Farmers were consequently faced with a higher cost of living, but with little increase in income. As a result, they tended to hoard their grain and to revert to

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was represented in policymaking. One of the most important aspects to this view was the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War. On paper, the Bolsheviks should have been defeated in part due to the broad international support their enemies were receiving.

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faith, formally known as communist messianism. Portrayals of notable revolutionary figures such as Lenin were done in iconographic methods, equating them similarly to religious figures, though religion itself was banned in the USSR and groups such as the

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On 18 June, the Provisional Government launched an attack against Germany that failed miserably. Soon after, the government ordered soldiers to go to the front, reneging on a promise. The soldiers refused to follow the new orders. The arrival of radical

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25 February], virtually every industrial enterprise in Petrograd had been shut down, together with many commercial and service enterprises. Students, white-collar workers, and teachers joined the workers in the streets and at public meetings.

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ordinary Russians joined anti-German demonstrations in the first few weeks of the war, hostility toward the Kaiser and the desire to defend their land and their lives did not necessarily translate into enthusiasm for the Tsar or the government.

3322:, while the Reds possessed internal support, proving to be much more effective. Though the Allied nations, using external interference, provided substantial military aid to the loosely knit anti-Bolshevik forces, they were ultimately defeated. 2923:(which, however, was no more successful than its predecessors). Nevertheless, Kerensky still faced several great challenges, highlighted by the soldiers, urban workers, and peasants, who claimed that they had gained nothing by the revolution: 2825:

3 March], stating that he would take it only if that was the consensus of democratic action. Six days later, Nicholas, no longer Tsar and addressed with contempt by the sentries as "Nicholas Romanov", was reunited with his family at the

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dealing major defeats on the war front, and increasing logistical problems in the rear causing shortages of bread and grain, the Russian Army was steadily losing morale, with large scale mutiny looming. High officials were convinced that if

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would rise to assume unchallenged party leadership by 1928. In 1927, Trotsky was expelled from the party and in 1929 he lost his citizenship and was sent into exile. While in exile he began honing his own interpretation of Marxism called

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Soviets (VTsIK) undermined the authority of the Provisional Government but also of the moderate socialist leaders of the Soviets. Although the Soviet leadership initially refused to participate in the "bourgeois" Provisional Government,

6803:. L'An l de la revolution russe, 1930. Year One of the Russian Revolution, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Translation, editor's Introduction, and notes © 1972 by Peter Sedgwick. Reprinted on Victor Serge Internet Archive by permission. 3739:

of tyranny (Tsarism), with another (communism). Initially, the Bolsheviks were tolerant of opposing political factions. Upon seizing state power, they organized a parliament, the Russian Constituent Assembly. On November 25, an

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The war did not only devastate soldiers. By the end of 1915, there were manifold signs that the economy was breaking down under the heightened strain of wartime demand. The main problems were food shortages and rising prices.

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were formed by the locals in Petrograd that initially did not oppose the new Provisional Government; however, the Soviets did insist on their influence in the government and control over various militias. By March, Russia had

2911:(SRP), agreed to join the new cabinet, and became an increasingly central figure in the government, eventually taking leadership of the Provisional Government. As minister of war and later Prime Minister, Kerensky promoted 7362: 3017:

confirmed the popularity of the anti-war, radical Bolsheviks, but their unpreparedness at the moment of revolt was an embarrassing gaffe that lost them support among their main constituent groups: soldiers and workers.

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other historians' accounts, Lenin and his followers were unprepared for how their groundswell of support, especially among influential worker and soldier groups, would translate into real power in the summer of 1917.

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depicts the Revolution and the Civil War in a grotesque way in a form of a Modernist parable, as a struggle between the Utopia and the Dystopia that confounds the both, and as associated by the motifs of death and

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Lenin did not believe that a socialist revolution necessarily presupposed a fully developed capitalist economy. A semi-capitalist country would suffice and Russia had a working class base of 5% of the population.

3142:. However, Lenin played a crucial role in the debate in the leadership of the Bolshevik party for a revolutionary insurrection as the party in the autumn of 1917 received a majority in the soviets. An ally in the 2639:

campaign. By the end of October 1916, Russia had lost between 1,600,000 and 1,800,000 soldiers, with an additional 2,000,000 prisoners of war and 1,000,000 missing, all making up a total of nearly 5,000,000 men.

1961:. The Provisional Government held state power in military and international affairs, whereas the network of Soviets held more power concerning domestic affairs. Critically, the Soviets held the allegiance of the 2447:

The social causes of the Russian Revolution can be derived from centuries of oppression of the lower classes by the Tsarist regime and Nicholas's failures in World War I. While rural agrarian peasants had been

3146:, with huge support among the peasants who opposed Russia's participation in the war, supported the slogan 'All power to the Soviets'. The initial stage of the October Revolution which involved the assault on 2702:

put in place. Nicholas ignored these warnings and Russia's Tsarist regime collapsed a few months later during the February Revolution of 1917. One year later, the Tsar and his entire family were executed.

80: 3329:, four years after the war began, an occupation that is believed to have ended all significant military campaigns in the nation. Less than one year later, the last area controlled by the White Army, the 2007:: cease war with Germany, give land to the peasantry, and end the wartime famine. Despite the virtually universal hatred of the war, the Provisional Government chose to continue fighting to support its 7409: 3532:, as Marx's ideals of how a socialist state ought to be created were based on the formation being natural and not artificially incited (i.e. by means of revolution). Leon Trotsky said that the goal of 2582:

one year later, he subsequently dismissed the first two Dumas when they proved uncooperative. Unfulfilled hopes of democracy fueled revolutionary ideas and violent outbursts targeted at the monarchy.

2570:

massacre of January 1905, in which hundreds of unarmed protesters were shot by the Tsar's troops. Workers responded to the massacre with a crippling general strike, forcing Nicholas to put forth the

2223:, left to rule while the Tsar commanded at the front, was German born, leading to suspicion of collusion, only to be exacerbated by rumors relating to her relationship with the controversial mystic 2338:

discussed with senior army officers and members of the Central War Industries Committee about a possible coup to force the abdication of the Tsar. In December, a small group of nobles assassinated

2382:

supported the German war effort as the best means of ensuring a revolution in Russia. The Mensheviks largely maintained that Russia had the right to defend herself against Germany, although

2315:, in part aided by German funds, led to widespread strikes. This resulted in growing criticism of the government, including an increased participation of workers in revolutionary parties. 2242:, which worsened the economic crisis and the munitions shortages. Meanwhile, Germany was able to produce great amounts of munitions whilst constantly fighting on two major battlefronts. 49: 9942: 8237: 4160: 3174:

After the majority of the petrograd Soviet passed into the hands of the Bolsheviks, was elected its chairman and in that position organized and led the insurrection of October 25.

2386:(a prominent Menshevik), now on the left of his group, demanded an end to the war and a settlement on the basis of national self-determination, with no annexations or indemnities. 3788:, led by Leon Trotsky, was a political movement "which offered a real alternative to Stalinism, and that to crush this movement was the primary function of the Stalinist terror". 2311:. Thus the cities were constantly short of food. At the same time, rising prices led to demands for higher wages in the factories, and in January and February 1916, revolutionary 3661:

which outlined his ideological contradictions with Stalin, and how Stalin was guilty of subverting and debasing the 1917 revolution. He continued to vocally criticize Stalin and

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The soldiers were dissatisfied and demoralised and had started to defect. (On arrival back in Russia, these soldiers were either imprisoned or sent straight back into the front.)

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dragged incomes down at an alarmingly rapid rate, and shortages made it difficult for an individual to sustain oneself. These shortages were a problem especially in the capital,

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with a military parade and a public holiday. This tradition lasted up until the collapse of the Soviet Union. As time went on the Soviet-Marxist interpretation evolved with an "

3630:(and the USSR) in Russia in 1991, the Western-Totalitarian view has again become dominant and the Soviet-Marxist view has practically vanished in mainstream political analysis. 2456:

in 1861, they still resented paying redemption payments to the state, and demanded communal tender of the land they worked. The problem was further compounded by the failure of

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was created in this chaos. While the 1905 Revolution was ultimately crushed, and the leaders of the St. Petersburg Soviet were arrested, this laid the groundwork for the later

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Although the Bolsheviks held large support in urban areas, they had many foreign and domestic enemies that refused to recognize their government. Russia erupted into a bloody

2011:, giving the Bolsheviks and other socialist factions a justification to advance the revolution further. The Bolsheviks merged various workers' militias loyal to them into the 3426:

The Bolsheviks murdered the Tsar and his family on 16 July 1918. In early March 1917, the Provisional Government had placed Nicholas and his family under house arrest in the

2631: – better led, better trained, and better supplied – was quite effective against the ill-equipped Russian forces, driving the Russians out of Galicia, as well as 8641: 8624: 8671: 2694:

Government officials responsible for public order worried about how long people's patience would last. A report by the St. Petersburg branch of the security police, the

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During the early morning of 16 July, Nicholas, Alexandra, their children, their physician, and several servants were taken into the basement and shot. According to

2092:. While key events occurred in Moscow and Petrograd, every city in the empire was convulsed, including the provinces of national minorities, and in the rural areas 7917: 2343: 1917:. The Russian Revolution can also be seen as the precursor for the other European revolutions that occurred during or in the aftermath of World War I, such as the 430: 8614: 2698:, in October 1916, warned bluntly of "the possibility in the near future of riots by the lower classes of the empire enraged by the burdens of daily existence." 9134: 8634: 7874: 2841:

3 March], a provisional government was announced. The center-left was well represented, and the government was initially chaired by a liberal aristocrat,

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on a national and international scale. Their promise to end Russia's participation in the First World War was fulfilled when the Bolshevik leaders signed the

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agreed that Lenin’s influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky’s, not to Lenin’s plan.

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Lyandres, Semion, and Andrei Borisovich Nikolaev. "Contemporary Russian Scholarship on the February Revolution in Petrograd: Some Centenary Observations."

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Scholarly literature on peasants is now extensive. Major recent works that examine themes discussed above (and can serve as a guide to older scholarship)

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of the population, not the whole nation. They also believed Russia was not ready for socialism. They viewed their role as limited to pressuring hesitant "

8619: 8571: 7352: 6638: 2302:, which had not been significantly altered during wartime. The indirect reason was that the government, in order to finance the war, printed millions of 2070: 1973: 371: 298: 268: 5839: 2968:: Germany would not take the chance that he would foment revolution in Germany. After passing through the front, he arrived in Petrograd in April 1917. 5234:

Rendle, Matthew (25 November 2016). "Quantifying Counter-Revolution: Legal Statistics and Revolutionary Justice during Russia's Civil War, 1917–1922".

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which was constructed around Stalin whereas Lenin stressed "the role of the people as the creator of history". He also emphasized that Lenin favored a

2334:

All these factors had given rise to a sharp loss of confidence in the regime, even within the ruling class, growing throughout the war. Early in 1916,

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States, Diana JohnstoneTopics: Human Rights Media Movements Philosophy Revolutions Strategy Places: Americas Europe Soviet UnionUnited (1 July 2017).

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One of the Tsar's principal rationales for risking war in 1914 was his desire to restore the prestige that Russia had lost amid the debacles of the

302: 5431: 3723: 3325:

The Bolsheviks firstly assumed power in Petrograd, expanding their rule outwards. They eventually reached the Easterly Siberian Russian coast in

2359: 1880: 4576:"Doklad petrogradskogo okhrannogo otdeleniia osobomu otdelu departamenta politsii" , October 1916, Krasnyi arkhiv 17 (1926), 4–35 (quotation 4). 3784:

believed Stalinism had "discredited the idea of socialism in the eyes of millions of people throughout the world". Rogovin also argued that the

9962: 3847:(1925), partially autobiographical novel, portraying the life of one family torn apart by uncertainty of the Civil War times; his short novel 3294:, resulted in the deaths and suffering of millions of people regardless of their political orientation. The war was fought mainly between the 8566: 8179: 7017: 2593:

led to the slaughter of Russian troops and military defeats that undermined both the monarchy and Russian society to the point of collapse.

2219:

in 1915, a challenge far beyond his skills. He was now held personally responsible for Russia's continuing defeats and losses. In addition,

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This vision of the Romanov monarchy left him unaware of the state of his country. With a firm belief that his power to rule was granted by

2124: 2023: 423: 355: 290: 6753:

Wade, Rex A. "The Revolution at One Hundred: Issues and Trends in the English Language Historiography of the Russian Revolution of 1917."

5717:

Carley, Michael Jabara (1989). Kettle, Michael; Luckett, Richard; Got'e, Iurii Vladimirovich; Emmons, Terence; Raleigh, Donald J. (eds.).

3215: 2995:"all power to the Soviets", the party held very little real power in the moderate-dominated Petrograd Soviet. In fact, historians such as 9366: 8751: 8721: 3716:" version of it. This subsection attempts to draw a distinction between the "Lenin period" (1917–24) and the "Stalin period" (1928–53). 2227:. Rasputin's influence led to disastrous ministerial appointments and corruption, resulting in a worsening of conditions within Russia. 9967: 9008: 8968: 8878: 8689: 8205: 7952: 7867: 7382: 7006: 3740: 3252: 2818: 1972:

political organizations were struggling for influence within the Provisional Government and the Soviets. Notable factions included the

4868: 4841: 2894: 8996: 8891: 8763: 8549: 8039: 3865:, a novel with a controversial reputation sometimes described as an example of Modernist literature, portrays the decline of Russian 2837:

The immediate effect of the February Revolution was a widespread atmosphere of elation and excitement in Petrograd. On 16 March [

2764:, Petrograd's largest industrial plant was closed by a workers' strike. The next day, a series of meetings and rallies were held for 6883:. Includes private letters, press editorials, government decrees, diaries, philosophical tracts, belles-lettres, and memoirs; 416pp. 2821:, to succeed him. But the Grand Duke realised that he would have little support as ruler, so he declined the crown on 16 March [ 8901: 8818: 8711: 8074: 6781:. 1919, 1st ed., published by BONI & Liveright, Inc. for International Publishers. Transcribed and marked by David Walters for 5196: 3754: 5412: 4962: 4935: 4908: 8841: 8648: 8515: 7932: 7394: 7337: 7028: 6663: 3364: 2814: 2615:, over 30,000 Russian troops were killed or wounded and 90,000 captured, while Germany suffered just 12,000 casualties. However, 2559:

Despite constant oppression, the desire of the people for democratic participation in government decisions was strong. Since the

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Kronstadtin kapina 1921 ja sen perilliset Suomessa (Kronstadt Rebellion 1921 and Its Descendants in Finland) by Erkki Wessmann.

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Critics on the Right have long argued that the financial and logistical assistance of German intelligence via their key agent,

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In 1915, things took a critical turn for the worse when Germany shifted its focus of attack to the Eastern Front. The superior

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article "Civil War and military intervention in Russia 1918–20", Big Soviet Encyclopedia, third edition (30 volumes), 1969–78

5047: 4972: 4945: 4918: 4878: 4851: 4170: 2853:(or workers' council) four days earlier. The Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government competed for power over Russia. 1588: 1528: 8953: 9063: 8831: 7084: 5037: 4814: 4471: 2220: 2108: 1661: 2939:

There were great shortages of food and supplies, which was difficult to remedy because of the wartime economic conditions.

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As the war progressed, the RSFSR began to establish Soviet power in the newly independent republics that seceded from the

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The Russian Revolution has been portrayed in or served as backdrop for many films. Among them, in order of release date:

3383:" (peasants defending their property against the opposing forces) played a secondary role in the war, mainly in Ukraine. 2944: 2140: 2120: 1873: 1731: 1357: 1048: 359: 348: 6231:

The Russian Revolution, Volume I: 1917–1918: From the Overthrow of the Tsar to the Assumption of Power by the Bolsheviks

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allied to the Bolsheviks thrice, with one of the powers ending the alliance each time. However, a Bolshevik force under

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Kevin Murphy's Isaac and Tamara Deutscher Memorial Prize lecture "Can we Write the History of the Russian Revolutionæ

6833: 6808: 6790: 6452: 6291: 6255: 6223: 6215: 6074: 5324: 4423: 4042:, E. Aron, and I. Simkov. Historical-revolutionary film about Lenin's activities in the first years of Soviet power. 2152: 1910: 1898: 1838: 1303: 1088: 323: 6951: 5856: 393: 9866: 9461: 9273: 9261: 9085: 9075: 9031: 8846: 8522: 8471: 8354: 7372: 7126: 5288: 3545: 1706: 1377: 385: 5934: 5479: 3611:

Few events in historical research have been as conditioned by political influences as the October Revolution. The

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was a key component as well, though historians are divided, since there is little evidence supporting that claim.

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theoreticians have disputed the view that a one-party state was a natural outgrowth of the Bolsheviks' actions.

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and other revolutionary movements during the leadup to 1917. The 1905 Revolution also led to the creation of a

2026:(RSFSR). Under pressure from German military offensives, the Bolsheviks soon relocated the national capital to 1942: 1866: 712: 260: 6154: 3009:

disowned by Lenin and the Bolshevik leaders and dissipated within a few days. In the aftermath, Lenin fled to

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The Crimes Of The Stalin Era, Special Report To The 20th Congress Of The Communist Party Of The Soviet Union

3949:, a cycle of novels that describes the fall of the Russian Empire and the establishment of the Soviet Union. 3871:

from the early 1870s to the Revolution as seen by a middle class intellectual during the course of his life.

2003:

Initially the Bolsheviks were a marginal faction; however, they won popularity with their program promising

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Germany and the Revolution in Russia, 1915–1918: Documents from the Archives of the German Foreign Ministry

3553: 3519: 3419: 3408: 3348:. This was a naval mutiny engineered by Soviet Baltic sailors, former Red Army soldiers, and the people of 3256: 3220: 2964:

Russia's withdrawal from the war. Lenin and his associates, however, had to agree to travel to Russia in a

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The political group that proved most troublesome for Kerensky, and would eventually overthrow him, was the

2936:

There was enormous discontent with Russia's involvement in the war, and many were calling for an end to it.

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began to emerge, and the growing influence of Grigori Rasputin in the Imperial family was widely resented.

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Several revolts were initiated against the Bolsheviks and their army near the end of the war, notably the

3251:, anarchists, and other leftists created opposition to the Bolsheviks through the Soviets themselves. The 2982: 9927: 9845: 9840: 9456: 9167: 9149: 8915: 8773: 8734: 8701: 8391: 8379: 8295: 8197: 7262: 7119: 6925: 4594: 3963: 2628: 2612: 2602: 2449: 2273: 2212: 1968:

During this chaotic period, there were frequent mutinies, protests and strikes. Many socialist and other

1946: 1563: 342: 100: 3722:, Stalin's successor, argued that Stalin's regime differed greatly from the leadership of Lenin in his " 9957: 9901: 9896: 9352: 9162: 9139: 9112: 7841: 7816: 7483: 7414: 7060: 5212:

Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924 (New York: Viking Press 1997), 767.

4054:, filmed in Europe with a largely European cast, loosely based on the famous novel of the same name by 4046: 3745: 3647:, claiming that it was incongruent with the ideology of the revolution. Eventually, Trotsky settled in 3563:

This issue is subject to conflicting views on communist history by various Marxist groups and parties.

2955:

and, due to democratization of politics after the February Revolution, which legalized formerly banned

1666: 1367: 1038: 31: 6962: 5882:"A Century of 1917s: Ideas, Representations, and Interpretations of the October Revolution, 1917–2017" 3606: 2898:

The 2nd Moscow Women Death Battalion protecting the Winter Palace as the last guards of the stronghold

9871: 9625: 9586: 9204: 9177: 9080: 8084: 8069: 8064: 7988: 7811: 6778: 5980: 5413:"Qualls, Karl D., "The Russian Revolutions: The Impact and Limitations of Western Influence" (2003). 4747:(in Russian). Vol. 25. Jim Riordan (4th ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. pp. 370–77. 3549: 3282:

American, British, and Japanese Troops parade through Vladivostok in armed support to the White Army.

3092: 2908: 2541: 1676: 1643: 1543: 1538: 1208: 825: 62: 9172: 6825: 3434:, 24 kilometres (15 mi) south of Petrograd. But in August 1917, they evacuated the Romanovs to 9285: 8089: 7927: 7826: 7806: 7228: 7218: 7094: 6995: 6299:

The February Revolution, Petrograd, 1917: The End of the Tsarist Regime and the Birth of Dual Power

4713:

The February Revolution, Petrograd, 1917: The End of the Tsarist Regime and the Birth of Dual Power

4190: 3644: 3568: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1593: 1168: 571: 318: 6023: 5584:"Review of Homosexual Desire in Revolutionary Russia: The Regulation of Sexual and Gender Dissent" 4699:, ed. and trans. Joel Carmichael (Oxford, 1955; originally published in Russian in 1922), 101–108. 2566:

Dissatisfaction with Russian autocracy culminated in the huge national upheaval that followed the

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The French Revolutionary Tradition in Russian and Soviet Politics, Political Thought, and Culture

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caused by the Russian Revolution lasted until 1923, but despite initial hopes for success in the

3507: 2308: 2131:(USSR). Historians generally consider the end of the revolutionary period to be in 1923 when the 2039: 1726: 1716: 1681: 1397: 1043: 634: 546: 338: 6091: 3615:

of the Revolution generally divides into three schools of thought: the Soviet-Marxist view, the

9700: 9529: 9214: 8806: 8744: 8099: 8003: 7993: 7836: 7292: 7081:, which examines historical accounts of 1917 in the light of newly accessible archive material. 6774: 4361:"Food and Nutrition (Russian Empire) | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)" 4268:

Roots of Rebellion: Workers' Politics and Organizations in St. Petersburg and Moscow, 1900–1914

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groups across the world. This was given further credence with the Soviet Union supporting many

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Archival footage of the Russian Revolution // Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive

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Events That Changed the Course of History: The Story of the Russian Revolution 100 Years Later

6235:

The Russian Revolution, Volume II: 1918–1921: From the Civil War to the Consolidation of Power

5907: 5193: 2397:, attended by 35 Socialist leaders in September 1915. Inevitably, Vladimir Lenin supported by 850: 9780: 9645: 9333: 8305: 8044: 7831: 7508: 7315: 7252: 6908: 6854: 4080: 4018: 3912:(1945) is an allegory of the Russian Revolution and its aftermath. It describes the dictator 3828: 3750: 3731: 3692: 3623: 3471: 3463:

delivered the telegram ordering the killing and that he was ordered to destroy the evidence.

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The Tsar directed the royal train back towards Petrograd, which was stopped on 14 March [

2553: 2406: 2375: 2216: 2200: 2185: 2065:, which pitted the Reds (Bolsheviks), against their enemies, collectively referred to as the 2008: 1938: 1781: 1603: 1417: 1298: 910: 890: 800: 644: 526: 6520: 6064: 5314: 2813:

2 March], on behalf of himself, and then, having taken advice on behalf of his son, the

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Smith, Steve. "Writing the History of the Russian Revolution after the Fall of Communism."

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They Fought for the Motherland: Russia's Women Soldiers in World War I & the Revolution

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and founded a base of operations for him and his supporters. In 1937 at the height of the

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under threat of arrest while Trotsky, among other prominent Bolsheviks, was arrested. The

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Daniel Orlovsky, "Corporatism or democracy: the Russian Provisional Government of 1917".

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The Fall of the Romanovs: Political Dreams and Personal Struggles in a Time of Revolution

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the mid-1920s and his hopes for party leadership were dashed. Among Trotsky's opponents,

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Revolutionaries attacking the tsarist police in the early days of the February Revolution

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concluded with the defeat of the White Army and all rival socialist factions, leading to

2047: 2012: 1985: 1941:

abdicated, the unrest would subside. Nicholas agreed and stepped down, ushering in a new

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This article is about the revolution that began in 1917. For the revolution in 1905, see

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The Bolsheviks and workers' control: the state and counter-revolution - Maurice Brinton

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in the Duma demanded the forming of a responsible government, which the Tsar rejected.

2287: 2196:(parliament) that would later form the Provisional Government following February 1917. 2176:

was a major factor contributing to the cause of the Revolutions of 1917. The events of

2173: 2030:. The RSFSR began the process of reorganizing the former empire into the world's first 2019: 1969: 1822: 1796: 1638: 1628: 1598: 1498: 1484: 1347: 1288: 1063: 978: 697: 474: 213: 157: 7043: 7032: 7021: 7010: 6999: 6988: 6977: 6966: 6955: 6944: 2358:, had been the glum spectators of the collapse of international socialist solidarity. 9785: 9760: 9740: 9720: 9710: 9600: 9582: 9551: 9484: 9401: 9375: 9297: 9237: 9016: 8802: 8498: 8300: 8285: 8227: 7907: 7902: 7713: 7642: 7559: 7536: 7235: 7208: 7146: 7050:

Orlando Figes's free educational website on the Russian Revolution and Soviet history

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Labor and Society in Tsarist Russia: The Factory Workers of St. Petersburg, 1855–1870

4215: 3987: 3968: 3887: 3803: 3719: 3674: 3497: 3455: 3298:("Reds"), consisting of the uprising majority led by the Bolshevik minority, and the 3287: 3269: 3240: 3151: 3129:

The October Revolution, which unfolded on Wednesday 7 November 1917 according to the

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By the spring of 1915, the army was in steady retreat, which was not always orderly;

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The revolution ultimately led to the establishment of the future Soviet Union as an

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with Germany in March 1918. To secure the new state, the Bolsheviks established the

1913:

and adopt a socialist form of government following two successive revolutions and a

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Gatrell, Peter. "Tsarist Russia at War: The View from Above, 1914–February 1917"

5734: 5247: 2834:. He was placed under house arrest with his family by the Provisional Government. 2691:

wooden fences to keep stoves heated for warmth, and continued to resent the rich.

2127:

prompted the RSFSR to begin unifying these nations under one flag and created the

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Three Who Made a Revolution: A Biographical History of Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin

6577: 6373: 6245: 6181: 6037: 5953: 5905: 5790: 5639:"The Bolsheviks' Dilemma: Class, Culture, and Politics in the Early Soviet Years" 5062: 4495: 4055: 3930: 3880: 3839: 3785: 3700: 3619: 3496:

is perhaps the most notable of this time period, such as the debut of the iconic

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Russia's poor performance in 1914–1915 prompted growing complaints directed at

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Wydra, Harald (September 2012). "The Power of Symbols—Communism and Beyond".

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Between the Fields and the City: Women, Work, and Family in Russia, 1861–1914

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stressed the initial efforts by the Bolsheviks to form a government with the

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suggested in unison that he abdicate the throne. He did so on 15 March [

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Meanwhile, Socialist Revolutionary leaders in exile, many of them living in

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Group of forces in battle with the counterrevolution in the South of Russia

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problem in Russia, but the cause of this did not lie in any failure of the

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Smith, S. A. "The historiography of the Russian revolution 100 years on."

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to oppress the animals, while culturally teaching them that they are free.

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It was these views of Martov that predominated in a manifesto drawn up by

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Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914–1918

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A revolutionary meeting of Russian soldiers in March 1917 in Dalkarby of

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The Crisis of the Russian Autocracy: Nicholas II and the 1905 Revolution

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and bring other parties such as the Mensheviks into political legality.

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sent aid to the White Army and expedition forces against the Bolsheviks.

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Soviet membership was initially freely elected, but many members of the

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Caught in the Revolution: Petrograd, Russia, 1917 – A World on the Edge

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as if they were valuable, rather they felt as if they were expendable.

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The Unconquerable World: Power, Nonviolence and the Will of the People

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Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938

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Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938

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only within the highest organs of the Bolshevik party, and practicing

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Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Russian Empire)

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Warth, Robert D. "On the Historiography of the Russian Revolution."

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Tereshchuk, Andrei V. "The Last Autocrat Reassessing Nicholas II"

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Was Revolution Inevitable?: Turning Points of the Russian Revolution

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Peasant Russia: Family and Community in the Post Emancipation Period

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Lenin on the organization of the October Revolution, Vol.XIV of the

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began organizing workers' militias loyal to the Bolsheviks into the

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