313:. Prior to the boycott, the organizers asked the UFT Executive Board to join the boycott or ask teachers to join the picket lines. The union, however, declined, promising only to protect from reprisals any teachers who participated. More than 400,000 New Yorkers participated in a one-day February 3, 1964, boycott, and newspapers were astounded both by the numbers of black and Puerto Rican parents and children who boycotted and by the complete absence of violence or disorder from the protestors. It was, a newspaper account accurately reported, "the largest civil rights demonstration" in American history, and, Rustin argued that "the movement to integrate the schools will create far-reaching benefits" for teachers as well as students. However, when protesters announced plans to follow up the February 3 boycott with a second one on March 16, the UFT declined to defend boycotting teachers from reprisals. Later, at the time of the 1968 school crisis, Brooklyn
686:, Julius Lester interviewed Leslie Campbell, a history teacher, who read a poem written by one of his students entitled "Antisemitism: Dedicated to Albert Shanker" that began with the words "Hey, Jewboy, with that yarmulke on your head / You pale-faced Jew boy – I wish you were dead." The poem then goes on to say the author is sick about hearing about the Holocaust because it lasted only 15 years compared to the 400 years blacks had been suffering. Lester suggested he read that particular poem. Campbell asked Lester "Are you crazy?". Lester replied "No. I think it's important for people to know the kinds of feelings being aroused in at least one child because of what's happening in Ocean Hill-Brownsville." The union filed a complaint with the
880:
which had become the main- stay of the
American bureaucratic structure. It raised the issue of accountability of public service professionals and pointed to the distribution of power in the system and the inequities of the policy output of that structure. In a short three years, the Ocean Hill-Brownsville districts and IS 201, through such seemingly simple acts as hiring their own principals, allocating larger sums of money for the use of paraprofessionals, transfer- ring or dismissing teachers, and adopting a variety of new educational programs, had brought all of these issues into the forefront of the political arena.
1699:, p. 230. "The governing board appointed, over the objections of the UFT, five new principals: one white, two black, one Chinese, and the first Puerto Rican in the city. The Latino principal, Luis Fuentes, struggled to gain the support of the teachers, but, according to the CCHR, he 'quickly gained the respect of the students, parents, and the community. By establishing a rapport with Spanish-speaking parents, the principal served students for whom English was a second language. Parent participation increased dramatically as a result of his efforts."
1624:, p. 230. "The 1967–1968 school year was a period of positive change in Ocean Hill–Brownsville schools, according to the Ford Foundation and other evaluators. Ford reviewers felt that Rhody McCoy was 'strong and capable,' and the board was 'consistent in its approach'. Given its limited financial support, the governing board appeared to be functioning 'as well as can be expected.' The New York City Commission on Human Rights (CCHR) also reported positive changes at Ocean Hill–Brownsville schools."
19:
362:, but frustrated by resistance to desegregation, African Americans began to demand authority over the schools in which their children were educated. The ATA called for community-controlled schools, educating with a "Black value system" that emphasized "unity" and "collective work and responsibility" (as opposed to the "middle class" value of "individualism"). Leftist white allies, including teachers from the recently eclipsed Teachers Union, supported these demands.
755:'s "Ten Plagues". Scholars have agreed with Shanker's assessment that "the whole alliance of liberals, blacks and Jews broke apart on this issue. It was a turning point in this way." The strike created a serious rift between white liberals, who supported the teachers' union, and blacks who wanted community control. The strike made it clear that these groups, previously allied in the
327:(ATA; originally the Negro Teachers Association), a group whose founders in 1964 were also part of the UFT. The ATA felt that New York City's teachers and schools perpetuated a system of entrenched racism, and in 1966 it began campaigning actively for community control. The UFT opposed both involuntary assignment and extra incentives for experienced teachers to come to poor schools.
1006:, p. 19: "Reading and math scores were among the lowest in the city, with 73 percent of its pupils below grade level in reading and 85 percent in math. In a typical graduating class, only 2 percent went to the city's specialized high schools, which required applicants to pass written entrance examinations and served as feeders to major universities and the city colleges."
2335:
privileged Jews had. There was a sense among some upper-middle-class liberals — Jewish and non-Jewish — that, well, we can overlook black antisemitism, because look what they've gone through. I think that was an insulting way to look at that issue, that discrimination had to be taken seriously no matter what the source was, and that Al
Shanker was right on this.
954:, pp. 10–11: "The years after 1945 in New York were dominated by urban renewal. High-rise office buildings and white-collar employees began to replace tenement factories and working-class New Yorkers. These were also years in which centralization as an operational and philosophical tenet of municipal governance went virtually unchallenged in city life."
1030:, pp. 32–33: "Given a choice between angering politically potent white voters or a marginalized black community, the board, predictably, took the path of least resistance. By 1966, with the campaign to integrate the city's public school at a dead end, Galamison, EQUAL, and New York's civil rights activists searched for new goals and strategies."
778:, further polarizing race relations in the city. He argues that the shift in coalitions after the 1968 strike pushed New York City to the political right for decades to come—in part because race came to eclipse class as the main axis of social conflict. The events surrounding the strike were a factor in the decision by
186:, demanded the teachers' reinstatement and accused the community-controlled school board of anti-semitism. At the start of the school year in September 1968, the UFT held a strike that shut down New York City's public schools for nearly two months, leaving a million students without schools to attend.
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Mrs. Frances Julty, a Negro leader of the Union of
Concerned Parents, charged that racism by Albert Shanker, president of the United Federation of Teachers, helped turn the Jewish community into 'an armed camp' in the city. ... Complaining that the issue of black anti-Semitism had been distorted
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who saw
Shanker as a hero for standing up to the Black Power movement. But I think the fact that he knew what antisemitism was all about as a child — and there was one point at which he was strung up in a tree, just horrible incidents — so he wasn't going to just kind of dismiss it, the way some more
712:
The conflict at Ocean Hill–Brownsville smoldered after the end of the strike. Eight people charged with harassing strikers counter-sued the city, alleging that law enforcement had been discriminatory and excessive. In 1969 some charged that the schools underwent "a purge of militant black teachers".
655:
Superintendent
Donovan ordered many schools locked; in many places, people smashed windows and broke locks to re-enter their school buildings (sealed by union janitors sympathetic to the strike). Some camped on school grounds overnight to prevent further lockouts by janitors and custodians. Some were
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Not all UFT teachers supported the strike, and some actively opposed it with 1,716 union delegates opposing the strike and 12,021 supporting. A statistical study published in 1974 found that teachers—white and Black—of Black students were significantly more likely to oppose the strike. A coalition of
326:
The UFT's program for poor black schools was called "More
Effective Schools". Under this program class sizes would shrink and teachers would double or triple up for individual classes. Although the UFT expected this program to be popular, it was challenged by the African-American Teachers Association
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In the years before the strike, Brownsville's schools had become extremely overcrowded, and students were attending in shifts. Junior High School 271, which became the nexus of the strike, was constructed in 1963 to accommodate
Brownsville's expanding population of youth. The school's performance was
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Teachers were taken aback by the level of control exercised by the school board, and many objected to the board's new policies concerning personnel and curriculum. The UFT opposed the new principals denounced the Ocean Hill–Brownsville curriculum, saying that awareness of one's racial heritage would
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created by the city. In July 1967, the Ford
Foundation issued Ocean Hill–Brownsville a $ 44,000 grant. The new district operated under a separate, community-elected governing board with the power to hire administrators. If successful, the experiment could have led to citywide decentralization. While
259:
New York City's school system was controlled by the
Central Board of Education, a large centralized bureaucracy. It became clear to activists in the 1960s that the Central School Board was uninterested in pursuing mandatory integration; their frustration led them away from desegregation and into the
170:
Thousands of New York City teachers went on strike in 1968 when the school board of the neighborhood, which is now two separate neighborhoods, fired nineteen teachers and administrators without notice. The newly created school district, in a heavily black neighborhood, was an experiment in community
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How fundamental was this effort at institutional change? At a minimum it attacked the structure on the delivery of services and the allocation of resources. At a maximum it potentially challenged the institutionalization of racism in
America. It seriously challenged the "merit" civil service system
330:
In 1967, the ATA opposed the UFT directly over the "disruptive child clause", a contract provision that allowed teachers to have children removed from classrooms and placed in special schools. The ATA argued that this provision exemplified and accelerated the system's overall racism. In the fall of
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From May 22–24, 350 UFT members stayed out of school in protest. On June 20, these 350 strikers were also dismissed by the governing board. Under the terms of the decentralization agreement, the teachers were returned to the control of the New York City public school system, where they sat idle in
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On May 15, 300 police officers, including at least 60 in plainclothes, cordoned off the school (making five arrests), effectively breaking the parent blockade and allowing the teachers to return. The city's Board of Education and the Ocean Hill–Brownsville board both announced on the same day that
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In 1940, blacks made up 6 percent of Brownsville's population, a portion that doubled over the next decade. Most of these new residents were poor and occupied the neighborhood's most undesirable housing. Although the neighborhood was racially segregated, there was more public mixing and solidarity
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and were overall less concerned with the issues of the lower income blacks who had moved into Brownsville, thus further isolating Brownsville's population. These changes corresponded to overall increases in segregation and inequality in New York City, as well as to the replacement of blue-collar
193:
and teachers' universal rights as workers. Although the school district itself was quite small, the outcome of its experiment had great significance because of its potential to alter the entire educational system—in New York City and elsewhere. As one historian wrote in 1972: "If these seemingly
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When the original teachers were restored to their posts at JHS 271, students refused to attend their classes. New York School Superintendent Bernard E. Donovan attempted to close schools in the district and to remove McCoy and most of the principals. When they refused to vacate their positions,
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district was not antisemitic. The district's third graders were shown to have fallen from four months behind before community control to twelve months behind after it. The reading skills of the district's eighth graders were shown to have barely improved by the end of their time in ninth grade.
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When the teachers tried to return to the school, they were blocked by hundreds of community members and teachers who supported the administration's decision. One sign displayed in the window of the occupied school read, "Black people control your schools". (At the same time, other teachers were
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On September 9, 93 percent of the city's 58,000 teachers walked out. They agreed to return two days later after the Board of Education ordered the reinstatement of the dismissed teachers, but walked out again on September 13, once it became clear that the Board could not enforce this decision.
251:
Whites on the neighborhood's periphery lobbied with the school board against the building of a new school that would draw a racially diverse population. They were opposed by blacks, Latinos, and pro-integration whites, but nevertheless succeeded in functionally limiting the new school's racial
639:
Schools ran more smoothly in the Ocean Hill–Brownsville neighborhood than elsewhere, due to the fact that system was less reliant on the striking teachers and keys to the buildings. The board hired new teachers to replace the strikers, including many local Jews, in an effort to prove that the
230:
Around 1960, the neighborhood underwent a rapid demographic shift. Citing increased crime and their desire for social mobility, Jews left Brownsville en masse, to be replaced by more blacks and some Latinos. By 1970, Brownsville was 77 percent black and 19 percent Puerto Rican. Furthermore,
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Donovan called in the police. The returning teachers were told to go to an auditorium to meet with Unit Administrator McCoy. When they arrived they were threatened and bullets were thrown at them by audience members, a pregnant teacher was punched in the stomach as she left the auditorium.
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of Ocean-Hill Brownsville began to select principals from outside the approved civil service list. The schools appointed a racially diverse set of five new principals—including New York City's first Puerto Rican principal—winning broad support from the community but angering some teachers.
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On May 9, 1968, the administration requested the transfer of 13 teachers and 6 administrators from Junior High School 271. The governing board accused these workers of attempting to sabotage the project. All received short letters similar to the following, sent to teacher Fred Nauman:
708:
The strike ended on November 17, when the New York State Education Commissioner asserted state control over the Ocean Hill–Brownsville district. The dismissed teachers were reinstated, three of the new principals were transferred, and the trusteeship ran the district for four months.
966:, p. 19: "Ocean Hill–Brownsville's social ills were a by-product of its boxed-in economic status. A contemporary observer was blunt: 'Brownsville has no middle class. ... There are no resident doctors, no resident lawyers; Negroes own less than 1 percent of the businesses.
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I didn't find strong evidence of this, but there was some interesting reaction and split within the Jewish community over Ocean Hill-Brownsville. It tended to be upper-middle-class Jews who were much more supportive of the Black Power movement than lower-middle-class Jews in the
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This unilateral decision violated the rules of the union's contract. The teachers were nearly unanimously Jewish. One black teacher included on the list, seemingly by accident, was quickly reinstated. In total, 83 workers were dismissed from the Ocean Hill–Brownsville district.
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The governing board of the Ocean Hill–Brownsville Demonstration School District has voted to end your employment in the schools of the District. This action was taken on the recommendation of the Personnel Committee. This termination of employment is to take effect immediately.
1998:
Buder, Leonard (May 16, 1968). "3 Schools Closed to Ease Tensions in Brooklyn Area: Local Board Counters City Action by Ordering All 8 in Test District to Shut: Police Break Blockade: 5 Ousted Teachers Escorted Into J.H.S. 271—Hundreds of Pupils are Kept Home".
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In the following weeks, hostility continued between the returning teachers and their students and replacement teachers. During the week of December 2 disorders by black students were reported in schools in four of the five of the city's boroughs as well in the
679:. Shanker distributed 500,000 copies of a pamphlet some of his members found behind the schools in dispute worded "The Idea Behind This Program is Beautiful, But When the Money Changers Heard About It, They Took Over, As is Their Custom in the Black Community"
473:
In April 1968, the administration sought additional control over personnel, finance, and curriculum. When the city did not grant these powers, the district's parents initiated a boycott of the schools. The boycotts coincided with unrest due to the April 4
163:. It began with a one day walkout in the Ocean Hill-Brownsville school district. It escalated to a citywide strike in September of that year, shutting down the public schools for a total of 36 days and increasing racial tensions between blacks and
317:
leader Oliver Leeds and Afro-American Teachers Association President Al Vann would cite the UFT's refusal to support the 1964 integration campaign as proof that an alliance between the teachers' union and the black community was impossible.
1018:, p. 23: "The culture of centralization may have been more entrenched in New York's public education system more than anywhere else in the city. By the early 1960s, the system had become a classic example of top-heavy bureaucracy."
659:
Other parents sent their children to Ocean Hill–Brownsville because the schools there were operational. Most of these outside students were black but some were white; some came long distances to attend the community–controlled schools.
2836:
McCoy, Rhody. "Analysis of Critical Issues and Incidents in the New York City School Crisis, 1967–1970, and Their Implications for Urban Education" (Ed.D. dissertation., University of Massachusetts; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,
413:, and the UFT opposed the board's decision to appoint him in July 1967. McCoy often frequented a mosque Malcolm X preached at and often visited the preacher's home. McCoy was reported to be influenced by the Harold Cruise book
404:
Rhody McCoy, the new superintendent of the board, began working as a substitute teacher in 1949. He worked in the city's public school system ever since, as a teacher and then principal of a special needs school. He told the
2024:"'Ousted' Teachers Are Backed by 350 in Union Walkout: Shanker, Charging Lockout, Vows None Will Return Until Allowed to Teach M'Coy Charges a 'Lie' Says Brooklyn Instructors Left After Ignoring Call to 'Clarify Situations'"
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Hereafter, when the 43,500 public schoolteachers of this city want to negotiate with the Board of Education regarding salary, pension, and other working rights, they will do so through the United Federation of Teachers,
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Residents of Brownsville continued to feel neglected by the city, and in 1970 some staged the "Brownsville Trash Riots". When the schools agreed to impose a standardized reading test in 1971, its scores had fallen.
2669:{{cite book|last=Eisenstadt|first=Peter R.|title=Rochdale Village: Robert Moses, 6,000 Families, and New York City's Great Experiment in Integrated Housing|year=2010|publishers=N.Y: Cornell University Press
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1967, the UFT held a two-week strike, seeking approval for the disruptive child clause; most of the ATA's members withdrew from the union. In February 1968, some ATA teachers helped to produce a tribute to
668:
Shanker was routinely branded a racist, and many African-Americans accused the UFT of being 'Jewish-dominated'. A Puerto Rican group in the Ocean Hill–Brownsville neighborhood burnt Shanker in effigy.
381:, the city decided to experiment in three areas—over the objections of some members of the white middle-classes, who disliked the ideological tendencies that black-controlled schools might embrace.
268:
Brownsville's teachers were members of the United Federation of Teachers (UFT), a new union local that had recently displaced the more leftist Teachers' Union (TU). The TU, which contained active
427:
in which he wrote his ideal school would have lessons on "instructions in gun weaponry, gun handling, and gun safety" as survival skills in a hostile society. The nomination was withdrawn.
763:, would sometimes come into conflict. Some groups allied with the civil rights movement and Black Liberation struggles moved towards the creation of independent African Schools, including
243:
The newly black Brownsville neighborhood had few community institutions or economic opportunities. It lacked a middle class, and its residents did not own the businesses they relied upon.
492:
In the event you wish to question this action, the Governing Board will receive you on Friday, May 10, 1968, at 6:00 P.M., at Intermedia School 55, 2021 Bergen Street, Brooklyn, New York.
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355:, 4,000 students in Ocean Hill–Brownsville were bused to white schools, where they complained of mistreatment. Faith in the controllers of the school system sank lower and lower.
675:. During the strike, the UFT distributed an official pamphlet called "Preaching Violence Instead of Teaching Children in Ocean Hill-Brownsville", citing a lesson that advocated
453:
However, the district still relied on the school board for funding, and many of its requests (e.g., for a telephone and new library books) were reportedly met slowly if at all.
283:, according to which different cultures could maintain some individuality under the umbrella of an open democratic society. The union also championed individualist values and
98:
450:
Reports on the 1967–1968 school year were generally positive. Visitors, students, and parents who supported the schools raved about the shift to student-focused education.
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Shanker emerged from the strike a figure of national prominence. He was jailed for 15 days in February 1969 for sanctioning the strikes, in contravention of New York's
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Buffett, Neil Philip. "Crossing the Line: High School Student Activism, the New York High School Student Union, and the 1968 Ocean Hill-Brownsville Teachers' Strike"
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Parents in Brownsville generally supported the governing board. Outsiders appreciated the black school board's attempt to regain control over its own school system.
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black and Puerto Rican UFT members, supported by members of other local unions, released a statement supporting Ocean Hill–Brownsville and opposing the strike.
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401:—a reduction in the collective bargaining power of the union who would now have to deal with 33 separate, local bodies, rather than a central administration.
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and inflated to the chagrin of Negroes, Mrs. Julty said, 'We don't condone it, and we don't agree with it, but damn it, we won't take responsibility for it.'
1975:
Buder, Leonard (May 15, 1968). "Parents Occupy Brooklyn School As Dispute Grows: Negroes Blocking Doors of J. H. S. 271 Keep Ousted Teachers From Entering".
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the local black population viewed it as empowerment against what it saw as an intransigent white bureaucracy, the teachers' union and other unions saw it as
1880:
Buder, Leonard (October 10, 1968). "Donovan Orders J.H.S. 271 Closed After Disorders: Says Teaching 'Just Cannot Go On at Tumultuous School in Ocean Hill".
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744:, accusing the ATA of excluding white teachers. The UFT also sought to cut off the ATA's sources of funding and remove its leaders from the school system.
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When school opened in September 1969, the school district shut itself down for a day in protest of new regulations that deprived it of further autonomy.
207:
From the 1880s through the 1960s, Brownsville was predominantly Jewish and politically radical. The Jewish population consistently elected socialist and
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low from the outset, with most students testing below grade level in reading and math, and few advancing to the city's network of elite high schools.
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Delaney, Paul (September 13, 1969). "Ocean Hill Shuts Schools for Day: Local Board Protests Cut in Welfare and Failure to Get Teachers It Wants".
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simple acts had not been such a serious threat to the system, it would be unlikely that they would produce such a strong and immediate response."
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A series of citywide strikes at the start of the 1968 school year shut down the public schools for a total of 36 days. The union defied the new
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issued a statement countermanding the district's decision and condemning "anarchy and lawlessness". The dismissals were also condemned by the
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287:. Some called its policies 'race-blind' because it preferred to frame issues in terms of class. The UFT contained a high proportion of Jews.
47:
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They charged the city with incarcerating them unnecessarily and argued that the real obstruction of government had been the strike itself:
1952:
Buder, Leonard (May 11, 1968). "11 Teachers Defy Local Dismissals: Six Supervisors Ousted by Experimental Board in Brooklyn Also Show Up".
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Podair, Gerald (Spring 1994). "White Values, "Black" Values: The Ocean Hill-Brownsville Controversy and New York City Culture, 1965–1975".
1088:(3, "New Directions in African American Women's History"). Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc.: 223–240.
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737:. The Ocean Hill–Brownsville district lost direct control over its schools; other districts never gained control over their schools.
294:, the national union of which the UFT is a part, had increased dramatically during the 1960s, as had the rate of teachers' strikes.
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completely. The schools expanded the role of black and African history and culture in the curriculum. Some schools began to teach
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Podair, Jerald. " 'White' Values, 'Black' Values: The Ocean Hill–Brownsville Controversy and New York City Culture, 1965–1975,"
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Daniel Perlstein "The dead end of despair: Bayard Rustin, the 1968 New York school crisis, and the struggle for racial justice"
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he was gentle but ambitious, and eager to change schools for neglected children. Some described him as a militant follower of
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Why They Couldn't Wait: A Critique of the Black–Jewish Conflict Over Community Control in Ocean-Hill Brownsville, 1967–1971
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Green, Philip (Summer 1970). "Decentralization, Community Control, and Revolution: Reflections on Ocean Hill-Brownsville".
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chose Brownsville as the site of America's first birth control clinic because she knew the community would be supportive.
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Goldstein, Dana (2014). "'We Both Got Militant': Union Teachers Versus Black Power During the Era of Community Control".
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Johnson, Lauri (Summer 2004). "A Generation of Women Activists: African American Female Educators in Harlem, 1930–1950".
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Students and teachers returned to a chaotic atmosphere in the fall. Classes were held despite UFT picket lines outside.
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Buder, Leonard (April 12, 1968). "Brooklyn Pupils Stay Out 2d Day: Parents Keep Up Pressure for Control at 8 Schools".
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Educational stratification in elementary schools was reduced. Fewer grades were issued, and one school abolished grade
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Striking teachers were in and out of school during the first weeks of the year, affecting over one million students.
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Gansberg, Martin (April 11, 1968). "More Blazes Set in Brownsville: Firemen Blame Rampaging Teen-Agers for Arson".
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Cannato, Vincint (2001). "Community Control and the 1968 Teacher Strikes The Debacle at Ocean-Hill Brownsville".
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Ritterband, Paul (Spring 1974). "Ethnic Power and the Public Schools: The New York City School Strike of 1968".
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and wealthy business leaders, supported community control as a pathway to social stability.) When in 1967 the
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Bigart, Homer (May 10, 1968). "Negro School Panel Ousts 19, Defies City: Negro Unit Tries to Oust Teachers".
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Allen, Walter R.; Joseph O. Jewell (Winter 1995). "African American Education since "An American Dilemma"".
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to go out on strike, and more than a million students were not able to attend school during strike days.
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Of the district's new hires, 70 percent were neither Hispanic nor black, and half of these were Jewish.
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Lubasch, Arnold H. (February 17, 1969). "Racism Aired at Rally Backing Community Control of Schools".
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Buder, Leonard (May 28, 1968). "Teachers Call For a New Boycott After McCoy Suspends 7 in Brooklyn".
1285:. CUNY Graduate Center, 365 5th Ave., @ 34th St.: Conference on New York City History. Archived from
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Sibley, John (December 31, 1968). "8 Ocean Hill Negroes File Suit, Charging Indictment Conspiracy".
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The NAACP announced support for the strike even though community control deviated from the official
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members, campaigned actively for racial equality, desegregation, and other radical political goals.
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The UFT won the right to represent NYC teachers for the purpose of collective bargaining in 1961:
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and African counting. One school with a large number of Puerto Rican students became completely
421:. McCoy nominated Herman Ferguson as the principal of JHS 271. Ferguson had penned an article in
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and tried to get Campbell fired. The incident further divided the black and Jewish Communities.
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Shanker called the dismissals "a kind of vigilante activity" and said the schools had neglected
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You will report Friday morning to Personnel, 110 Livingston Street, Brooklyn, for reassignment.
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Handler, M. S. (July 3, 1969). "Ocean Hill Board Member Quits, Charging 'Atmosphere of Fear'".
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Ravich, Diane (1973). "Community Control Revisited". In Donna E. Shalala, Andrew Fishel (ed.).
861:(Curriculum Essays on Citizens, Politics, and Administration in Urban Neighborhoods): 670–686.
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Farber, M. A. (April 3, 1968). "Boycott of Experimental Schools Is Threatened Over Control".
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Currivan, Gene (June 21, 1968). "Ocean Hill Unit 'Dismisses' 350: McCoy Notifies Teachers".
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Johnson, Thomas A. (September 16, 1968). "Brownsville Negroes See Need for District Board".
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Fox, Sylvan (October 1, 1968). "Some Hostility Marks Return Of 83 Teachers to Ocean Hill".
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The strike pitted community against union, highlighting a conflict between local rights to
144:
8:
3504:
3337:
3102:
764:
444:
1827:
Kifner, John (December 1, 1968). "Militant Priest of Ocean Hill Decries 'Bureaucracy'".
3473:
3468:
3452:
3421:
3286:
3281:
3169:
2817:
2779:
Tough Liberal: Albert Shanker and the Battles Over Schools, Unions, Race, and Democracy
2162:"Negro Unionists Back Ocean Hill: Break With Central Labor Council on Teacher Strike".
2140:
2116:
1505:
1374:
1226:
1175:
1105:
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280:
236:
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2613:
Tough Liberal Albert Shanker and the Battles over Schools, Unions, Race, and Democracy
774:, these events also pushed New York's Jewish population into accepting an identity of
3403:
3214:
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2656:
2637:
2616:
2597:
2245:
1644:
1583:
1305:
1184:
1109:
775:
423:
2712:
The Movement for Community Control of New York City's Schools, 1966–1970: Class Wars
3221:
3164:
2215:
Buder, Leonard (October 19, 1968). "Parents Smash Windows, Doors to Open Schools".
1366:
1218:
1155:
1089:
1041:
Kelly, Mark (December 18, 1961). "N.Y. Teachers Pick AFL-CIO Union: Vote Results".
862:
676:
609:. Rustin and Randolph were shunned from the black community due to their position.
440:
378:
351:, only 8 percent of teachers and 3 percent of administrators were black. Following
302:
231:
Brownsville was frequently ignored by black civil rights organizations such as the
3199:
3092:
2859:
2540:
2239:
1638:
850:
671:
Shanker and some Jewish groups attributed the original firing of the teachers to
393:
374:
220:
172:
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2008:
1984:
1961:
1938:
1912:
1889:
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1787:
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1718:
1683:
1517:
1484:
1283:
Like Strangers: Blacks, Whites and New York City's Ocean Hill-Brownsville Crisis
1159:
1050:
3602:
3581:
3189:
3122:
2331:
183:
2653:
Brownsville, Brooklyn : Blacks, Jews, and the changing face of the ghetto
2023:
3641:
3609:
3567:
3490:
3383:
3261:
3236:
3097:
2894:
2805:
2577:
Terrorist Organization Profile: Jewish Defense League University of Maryland
740:
The UFT crippled the ATA during the 1970s through a lawsuit, filed under the
594:
398:
298:
156:
1863:
Confrontation at Ocean Hill-Brownsville; the New York school strikes of 1968
1610:
When They Come for Us, We'll Be Gone: The Epic Struggle to Save Soviet Jewry
18:
3532:
2698:
1926:
853:(October 1972). "Decentralization and Citizen Participation in Education".
752:
727:
672:
528:
370:
366:
140:
2688:
To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City
1778:
Buder, Leonard (April 14, 1968). "Pressure by Boycott for Local Control".
697:, accused Shanker of playing up antisemitism to win sympathy and support.
3595:
3553:
3539:
3511:
3497:
3291:
2736:
779:
527:. The Board of Education urged the teachers to ignore the letters. Mayor
524:
336:
284:
212:
2120:
1674:
Mayer, Martin (May 19, 1968). "Frustration Is the Word For Ocean Hill".
833:
2185:
Farber, M. A. (September 10, 1968). "Brownsville has school as usual".
1378:
1335:
1230:
1101:
734:
566:
227:
among blacks and Jews than could be found in most other neighborhoods.
2264:
Sometimes the students were led into a separate room by a co-teacher:
1181:
Justice, justice : schools politics and the eclipse of liberalism
874:
55:
3204:
2979:
2705:
The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and His Struggle to Save New York
2289:
Johnson, Rudy (November 5, 1968). "Some pupils sent to Brownsville".
410:
332:
273:
269:
139:
was a months-long confrontation between the new community-controlled
2810:
The great school wars: A history of the New York City public schools
1580:
The Ungovernable City John Lindsey and His Struggle to Save New York
1370:
1222:
1093:
3574:
2772:
Someone Else's House: America's Unfinished Struggle for Integration
866:
389:
152:
2241:
The Teacher Wars: A History of America's Most Embattled Profession
1334:(M.A.). Florida State University DigiNole Commons. Archived from
339:; the UFT successfully asked that these teachers be disciplined.
3174:
3064:
2793:
Justice, Justice: School Politics and the Eclipse of Liberalism
2155:
1919:
211:
candidates to the state assembly and was a strong supporter of
235:
and Urban League whose Brooklyn chapters were based in nearby
2831:
Inside Ocean Hill–Brownsville: A Teacher's Education, 1968–69
2594:
Inside Ocean Hill–Brownsville: A Teacher's Education, 1968–69
751:
The strike badly divided the city and became known as one of
232:
2751:
Teacher Wars A History of Americas Most Embattled Profession
1508:(April 25, 2008). "Ocean Hill-Brownsville, 40 Years Later".
1331:
Ocean Hill-Brownsville and the Change in American Liberalism
478:
During disturbances in JHS 271 three teachers were injured.
1357:
Gittell, Marilyn (1968). "Community Control of Education".
683:
2842:
The Year Without An Autumn: Portrait of a School in Crisis
2732:
2384:
2382:
2373:
Displays of Power Controversy from Enola Gay to Sensation
164:
1748:
1276:"The Ocean Hill-Brownsville Crisis: New York's Antigone"
2100:
2065:
1799:
1797:
1468:
1397:
1385:
2506:
2379:
335:
that presented African music and dance, and glorified
2855:
News video containing interviews with people involved
2798:
Perlstein, Daniel. "Community Control of Schools" in
2483:
2347:
The Soul That Wanders New York Times January 31, 1988
2106:
1771:
1725:
1702:
1365:(1. Urban Riots: Violence and Social Change): 60–71.
693:
Some members of the school community, as well as the
171:
control over schools—those dismissed were almost all
2731:(February 12, 2020), a two part podcast produced by
2459:
1794:
1248:
430:
2655:( ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2042:
2015:
1991:
1968:
1945:
1843:
1820:
1550:
1456:
347:In the New York City school system, regulated by a
2889:
1669:
1667:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1176:"Race, Class, and the Triumph of Teacher Unionism"
1174:
417:and to believe Jews had too much influence in the
2210:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2178:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1217:(2). American Sociological Association: 251–267.
3639:
2724:Black Parents Take Control, Teachers Strike Back
2673:
2394:
2258:
1664:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1359:Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science
1197:
1141:
1139:
593:The strike did have support from black leaders
388:established the Ocean Hill–Brownsville area of
2231:
2201:
1868:
1632:
1630:
1491:
1475:"Ambitious' Educator: Rhody Arnold McCoy Jr".
1166:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
828:(3). The Massachusetts Review, Inc.: 415–441.
549:staying off the job as per UFT instructions.)
3683:Education labor disputes in the United States
2875:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
845:
843:
560:
321:
41:
2802:ed by Kofo Lomotey (Sage, 2010) pp 182–184.
2742:Gittell, Marilyn, and Maurice Berube, eds.,
1896:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1562:
1073:
647:
631:
2800:Encyclopedia of African American Education,
2305:
2136:"Ocean Hill-Brownsville, Fifty Years Later"
2115:(1–An American Dilemma Revisited): 77–100.
1640:Readings in American Politics and Education
1627:
1350:
1328:Childs, Andrew Geddings (August 21, 2008).
1116:
767:'s Uhuru Sasa Shule in Bedford-Stuyvesant.
2882:
2868:
2679:Berube, Maurice, and Marilyn Gittell, ed.
2610:
1929:(May 15, 1968). "Statement by the Mayor".
1524:
1504:
1260:
1208:
840:
663:
48:
34:
3673:African-American history in New York City
2650:
2553:
2453:
2388:
2237:
2094:
1696:
1621:
1596:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1415:
1323:
1321:
1172:
1067:
991:
979:
939:
927:
915:
903:
891:
612:
3703:Multiracial affairs in the United States
2699:https://doi.org/10.1177/0096144218796455
2071:
1861:Berube, Maurice R. and Marilyn Gittell.
1754:
813:
17:
3713:Race and education in the United States
3328:African Burial Ground National Monument
2781:(Columbia UP, 2007). ISBN 0-231-13496-7
2744:Confrontation at Ocean Hill-Brownsville
2681:Confrontation at Ocean Hill-Brownsville
2512:
2489:
2400:
2311:
2288:
2282:
2133:
1925:
1902:
1577:
1356:
1274:Podair, Jerald E. (October 5–7, 2001).
1082:The Journal of African American History
1079:
849:
476:assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
3640:
2629:
2591:
2466:
2427:
2184:
1849:
1826:
1803:
1708:
1636:
1556:
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1462:
1421:
1403:
1391:
1327:
1318:
1273:
1254:
1145:
1027:
1015:
1003:
963:
951:
504:Ocean Hill–Brownsville Governing Board
137:New York City teachers' strike of 1968
3688:Anti-black racism in New York (state)
3333:Bohemian Citizens' Benevolent Society
2863:
2536:"Public Schools: Strike's Bitter End"
2214:
2048:
2021:
1997:
1974:
1951:
1879:
1777:
1731:
1673:
1040:
1033:
819:
796:History of education in New York City
730:and JHS 271 teacher Leslie Campbell.
279:The UFT held a philosophy of limited
29:
2636:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
2244:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
2134:Stivers, Mike (September 12, 2018).
621:
415:The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual
342:
3448:1968 New York City teachers' strike
2314:"Al Shanker and the Strike of 1968"
2265:
601:, who had gained prominence in the
581:
93:1968 New York City teachers' strike
76:1964 Democratic National Convention
13:
3663:1960s strikes in the United States
3412:Philippine Independence Day Parade
2823:
2428:Kifner, John (December 22, 1996).
1440:. November 1, 1968. Archived from
457:not be helpful in the job market.
14:
3724:
3708:Public education in New York City
3668:African American–Jewish relations
2848:
2707:(Basic Books, 2001). pp. 301–373.
688:Federal Communications Commission
682:On December 26, on radio station
656:arrested on trespassing charges.
431:Curriculum and school environment
263:
2774:(Free Press, 1998), pp. 158–226.
2633:The Strike That Changed New York
2312:Treiman, Daniel (May 30, 2008).
2166:. October 26, 1968. p. 24.
386:New York City Board of Education
260:struggle for community control.
112:Pennsylvania Human Relations Act
3698:Labor disputes in New York City
3678:American Federation of Teachers
3658:1968 labor disputes and strikes
3363:New York Filipino Film Festival
2719:Griffith, Mark Winston Griffith
2611:Kahlenberg, Richard D. (2009).
2570:
2559:
2547:
2529:
2447:
2430:"Echoes of a New York Waterloo"
2421:
2365:
2351:
2340:
2127:
2088:
2022:Buder, Leonard (May 23, 1968).
1855:
1690:
1615:
1409:
1237:
1061:
1021:
1009:
997:
985:
973:
501:Rev C. Herbert Oliver, Chairman
292:American Federation of Teachers
118:Pennsylvania v. Board of Trusts
3399:German-American Steuben Parade
1865:New York, Praeger OCLC: 19279
957:
945:
933:
921:
909:
897:
885:
695:New York Civil Liberties Union
392:as one of three decentralized
202:
1:
3438:New York Slave Revolt of 1712
2674:Further reading and listening
2615:. Columbia University Press.
1510:Chronicle of Higher Education
1173:Perlstein, Daniel H. (2004).
801:
703:
626:
557:the school district offices.
197:
180:United Federation of Teachers
161:United Federation of Teachers
3693:Jews and Judaism in Brooklyn
3526:Il Progresso Italo-Americano
3358:New York Asian Film Festival
1531:Maeder, Jay (June 1, 2001).
1479:. May 14, 1968. p. 44.
1434:"John Lindsay's Ten Plagues"
855:Public Administration Review
806:
716:
576:
460:
99:Kanter v. Secretary of State
88:New York City school boycott
7:
3453:Crown Heights riots of 1991
3443:New York Conspiracy of 1741
3343:Hispanic Society of America
2760:. (RoutledgeFalmer, 2001).
2727:(February 5, 2020) and its
2651:Pritchett, Wendell (2002).
2592:Isaacs, Charles S. (2014).
2359:Jewish Identity and The JDL
1160:10.1215/01636545-1994-59-36
789:
10:
3729:
3348:Indo-American Arts Council
2714:(Edwin Mellen Press, 1998)
2683:(Frederick Praeger, 1969).
2585:
561:September through November
538:
322:Black schools and teachers
246:
3619:
3561:New Yorker Staats-Zeitung
3482:
3461:
3430:
3376:
3320:
3088:8th Avenue/Lapskaus Blvd.
3078:
2901:
1043:Christian Science Monitor
648:In New York City at large
632:In Ocean Hill–Brownsville
553:the schools would close.
349:civil service examination
307:boycott of public schools
68:
2695:Journal of Urban History
1310:: CS1 maint: location (
822:The Massachusetts Review
742:Civil Rights Act of 1964
533:American Jewish Congress
240:with white-collar jobs.
3627:Undocumented immigrants
3417:Puerto Rican Day Parade
3353:Irish Repertory Theatre
2788:59 (Spring 1994): 36–59
2777:Kahlenberg, Richard D.
2630:Podair, Jerald (2004).
2566:Terrorism 2000/2001 FBI
770:According to historian
664:Racism and antisemitism
305:coordinated a citywide
124:Chester school protests
3368:Wales Week in New York
2786:Radical History Review
2596:. Albany: SUNY Press.
1506:Kahlenberg, Richard D.
1211:Sociology of Education
1148:Radical History Review
613:Dissent within the UFT
605:as well as within the
543:
513:
465:Once created, the new
23:
3653:1968 in New York City
3519:Freie Arbeiter Stimme
2816:pp 308–391. Also see
2544:. November 29, 1968.
1183:. New York: P. Lang.
784:Jewish Defense League
757:Civil Rights Movement
607:civil rights movement
485:
419:civil rights movement
377:, recommended trying
360:civil rights movement
217:collective bargaining
143:in the largely black
106:State of Pennsylvania
58:Civil Rights Movement
21:
3394:Feast of San Gennaro
3389:Dominican Day Parade
2844:(R. N. Baron, 1969).
2703:Cannato, Vincent J.
2318:Jewish Daily Forward
1338:on December 10, 2012
724:New York City Subway
373:, a creation of the
311:de facto segregation
209:American Labor Party
3505:El Diario La Prensa
3338:El Museo del Barrio
2829:Isaacs, Charles S.
2791:Perlstein, Daniel.
2756:Gordon, Jane Anna.
2690:(Harvard UP, 2003).
2361:. by Janet L. Dugan
1444:on February 2, 2009
982:, pp. 165–166.
930:, pp. 148–149.
71:State of New Jersey
3474:Nuyorican Movement
3469:Harlem Renaissance
3422:Pulaski Day Parade
3302:Washington Heights
2833:(SUNY Press, 2014)
2795:(Peter Lang, 2004)
2717:Freedman, Max and
2515:The New York Times
2492:The New York Times
2469:The New York Times
2434:The New York Times
2403:The New York Times
2375:by Steven C. Dubin
2291:The New York Times
2268:The New York Times
2219:. pp. 1, 26.
2217:The New York Times
2187:The New York Times
2164:The New York Times
2074:The New York Times
2051:The New York Times
2028:The New York Times
2003:. pp. 1, 41.
2001:The New York Times
1977:The New York Times
1954:The New York Times
1931:The New York Times
1905:The New York Times
1884:. pp. 1, 41.
1882:The New York Times
1829:The New York Times
1806:The New York Times
1780:The New York Times
1757:The New York Times
1734:The New York Times
1711:The New York Times
1676:The New York Times
1533:"Absolute Control"
1477:The New York Times
599:A. Philip Randolph
510:Unit Administrator
290:Membership in the
237:Bedford-Stuyvesant
191:self-determination
24:
3635:
3634:
3431:Historical events
3408:NY Persian Parade
3404:Korean Day Parade
2921:African Americans
2840:Rossner, Robert.
2749:Goldstein, Dana.
2643:978-0-300-10940-5
2622:978-0-231-13497-2
2603:978-1-4384-5296-8
2251:978-0-385-53696-7
1650:978-0-8422-0342-5
1406:, pp. 37–38.
1394:, pp. 39–40.
1292:on April 14, 2012
1190:978-0-8204-6787-0
918:, pp. 95–98.
894:, pp. 33–37.
622:Immediate effects
358:Bolstered by the
343:Community control
151:neighborhoods of
132:
131:
82:State of New York
3720:
3222:Le Petit Senegal
3065:Native Americans
2884:
2877:
2870:
2861:
2860:
2818:full text online
2686:Biondi, Martha.
2666:
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1643:. Ardent Media.
1634:
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1612:by Gal Beckerman
1607:
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895:
889:
883:
882:
851:Gittell, Marilyn
847:
838:
837:
817:
677:Black separatism
582:Black leadership
394:school districts
379:decentralization
303:Milton Galamison
63:
50:
43:
36:
27:
26:
3728:
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3648:1968 in Judaism
3638:
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3377:Cultural events
3372:
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3195:Jackson Heights
3080:Ethnic enclaves
3074:
2897:
2888:
2851:
2837:1971. 7125304.)
2826:
2824:Primary sources
2770:Jacoby, Tamar.
2746:(Praeger, 1969)
2710:Edgell, Derek.
2676:
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1920:
1901:
1897:
1878:
1869:
1860:
1856:
1848:
1844:
1831:. p. 153.
1825:
1821:
1802:
1795:
1782:. p. E13.
1776:
1772:
1753:
1749:
1730:
1726:
1707:
1703:
1695:
1691:
1672:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1635:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1608:
1597:
1590:
1582:. Basic Books.
1576:
1563:
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1551:
1541:
1539:
1529:
1525:
1503:
1492:
1474:
1473:
1469:
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1078:
1074:
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1002:
998:
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914:
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898:
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792:
719:
706:
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629:
624:
615:
584:
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563:
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541:
514:
493:
491:
488:
463:
433:
375:Ford Foundation
345:
324:
266:
249:
221:Margaret Sanger
213:unionized labor
205:
200:
133:
128:
64:
61:
60:in northeastern
56:
54:
12:
11:
5:
3726:
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3705:
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3633:
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3617:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3606:
3603:The Irish Echo
3599:
3592:
3589:The Daily Star
3585:
3582:Sing Tao Daily
3578:
3571:
3564:
3557:
3550:
3543:
3536:
3529:
3522:
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3315:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3292:Spanish Harlem
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3242:Little Germany
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3212:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3190:Italian Harlem
3187:
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3180:Hell's Kitchen
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3125:
3123:Brighton Beach
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
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3095:
3090:
3084:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3072:
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2903:
2899:
2898:
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2857:
2850:
2849:External links
2847:
2846:
2845:
2838:
2834:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2806:Ravitch, Diane
2803:
2796:
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2587:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2569:
2558:
2556:, p. 239.
2554:Pritchett 2002
2546:
2528:
2505:
2494:. p. 27.
2482:
2458:
2456:, p. 235.
2454:Pritchett 2002
2446:
2420:
2405:. p. 68.
2393:
2391:, p. 233.
2389:Pritchett 2002
2378:
2364:
2350:
2339:
2332:outer boroughs
2304:
2281:
2257:
2250:
2230:
2200:
2177:
2154:
2126:
2099:
2097:, p. 231.
2095:Pritchett 2002
2087:
2076:. p. 24.
2064:
2053:. p. 18.
2041:
2014:
1990:
1967:
1944:
1933:. p. 44.
1918:
1895:
1867:
1854:
1842:
1819:
1793:
1770:
1759:. p. 36.
1747:
1736:. p. 49.
1724:
1713:. p. 27.
1701:
1697:Pritchett 2002
1689:
1663:
1649:
1626:
1622:Pritchett 2002
1614:
1595:
1589:978-0465008438
1588:
1561:
1549:
1523:
1490:
1467:
1455:
1420:
1418:, p. 229.
1416:Pritchett 2002
1408:
1396:
1384:
1349:
1317:
1259:
1247:
1236:
1196:
1189:
1165:
1115:
1072:
1070:, p. 223.
1068:Pritchett 2002
1060:
1045:. p. 11.
1032:
1020:
1008:
996:
994:, p. 221.
992:Pritchett 2002
984:
980:Pritchett 2002
972:
956:
944:
940:Pritchett 2002
932:
928:Pritchett 2002
920:
916:Pritchett 2002
908:
904:Pritchett 2002
896:
892:Pritchett 2002
884:
867:10.2307/975232
839:
811:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
799:
798:
791:
788:
761:labor movement
718:
715:
705:
702:
665:
662:
649:
646:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
614:
611:
603:labor movement
588:integrationist
583:
580:
578:
575:
562:
559:
545:
542:
540:
537:
512:
511:
508:
505:
502:
499:
484:
467:administration
462:
459:
432:
429:
407:New York Times
353:Brown v. Board
344:
341:
323:
320:
265:
264:Teachers union
262:
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204:
201:
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184:Albert Shanker
182:(UFT), led by
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69:
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53:
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45:
38:
30:
22:Albert Shanker
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3624:
3622:
3618:
3612:
3611:
3610:World Journal
3607:
3605:
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3600:
3598:
3597:
3593:
3591:
3590:
3586:
3584:
3583:
3579:
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3570:
3569:
3568:Nowy Dziennik
3565:
3563:
3562:
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3513:
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3491:Asahi Shimbun
3488:
3487:
3485:
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3475:
3472:
3470:
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3460:
3454:
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3392:
3390:
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3384:Brazilian Day
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3359:
3356:
3354:
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3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3262:Little Saigon
3260:
3258:
3257:Little Poland
3255:
3253:
3252:Little Manila
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3237:Little Fuzhou
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3227:Little Brazil
3225:
3223:
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3213:
3211:
3208:
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3198:
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3160:Dyker Heights
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3150:Crown Heights
3148:
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3141:
3139:
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3134:
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3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
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3098:Arthur Avenue
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3086:
3085:
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3044:
3042:
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3034:
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3031:Puerto Ricans
3029:
3028:
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2915:
2912:
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2910:
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2906:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2895:New York City
2892:
2891:Ethnic groups
2885:
2880:
2878:
2873:
2871:
2866:
2865:
2862:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2828:
2827:
2819:
2815:
2814:partly online
2811:
2807:
2804:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2769:
2767:
2766:0-415-92910-5
2763:
2759:
2755:
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2748:
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2741:
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2734:
2730:
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2700:
2696:
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2685:
2682:
2678:
2677:
2668:
2664:
2662:0-226-68446-6
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2060:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1979:. p. 1.
1978:
1971:
1963:
1959:
1956:. p. 1.
1955:
1948:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1927:Lindsay, John
1922:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1899:
1891:
1887:
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1876:
1874:
1872:
1864:
1858:
1851:
1846:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1823:
1815:
1811:
1808:. p. 1.
1807:
1800:
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1743:
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1600:
1591:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1568:
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1558:
1553:
1538:
1537:NY Daily News
1534:
1527:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1501:
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1497:
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1486:
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1471:
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1332:
1324:
1322:
1313:
1307:
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1284:
1277:
1270:
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1266:
1264:
1257:, p. 16.
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1220:
1216:
1212:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1192:
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1177:
1169:
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1157:
1154:(59): 36–59.
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1128:
1126:
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1024:
1017:
1012:
1005:
1000:
993:
988:
981:
976:
965:
960:
953:
948:
942:, p. 88.
941:
936:
929:
924:
917:
912:
906:, p. 84.
905:
900:
893:
888:
881:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
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852:
846:
844:
835:
831:
827:
823:
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812:
797:
794:
793:
787:
785:
781:
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773:
772:Jerald Podair
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619:
610:
608:
604:
600:
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595:Bayard Rustin
591:
589:
574:
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554:
550:
536:
534:
530:
526:
521:
518:
509:
507:Rody A. McCoy
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451:
448:
446:
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428:
426:
425:
420:
416:
412:
408:
402:
400:
399:union busting
395:
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376:
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363:
361:
356:
354:
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304:
301:and Reverend
300:
299:Bayard Rustin
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157:New York City
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62:United States
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51:
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44:
39:
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32:
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28:
20:
16:
3620:Other topics
3608:
3601:
3594:
3587:
3580:
3573:
3566:
3559:
3552:
3547:Little India
3545:
3538:
3533:India Abroad
3531:
3524:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3496:
3489:
3447:
3321:Institutions
3307:Williamsburg
3272:Little Syria
3267:Little Spain
3247:Little Italy
3232:Little Egypt
3185:Howard Beach
3118:Borough Park
2841:
2830:
2809:
2799:
2792:
2785:
2778:
2771:
2757:
2750:
2743:
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2687:
2680:
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2612:
2593:
2572:
2561:
2549:
2539:
2531:
2514:
2508:
2491:
2485:
2468:
2461:
2449:
2437:. Retrieved
2433:
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3297:Sunset Park
3282:Morris Park
3113:Bensonhurst
3046:Salvadorans
2985:Belarusians
2737:Code Switch
2729:second part
2697:(Dec 2018)
2030:. p. 1
1850:Podair 2004
1557:Podair 2004
1463:Podair 2004
1404:Podair 2004
1392:Podair 2004
1255:Podair 2004
1028:Podair 2004
1016:Podair 2004
1004:Podair 2004
964:Podair 2004
952:Podair 2004
780:Meir Kahane
525:due process
337:Black power
309:to protest
285:meritocracy
203:Brownsville
149:Brownsville
3642:Categories
3287:Ozone Park
3205:Koreatowns
3155:Curry Hill
3128:Chinatowns
3058:Black Jews
3036:Dominicans
3022:Caribbeans
3015:Ukrainians
2933:Brazilians
2926:Black Jews
2902:Ancestries
2439:August 14,
2323:August 14,
2034:August 31,
1656:August 31,
1542:August 14,
1448:August 14,
1342:August 16,
1296:August 16,
802:References
735:Taylor Law
704:Resolution
627:On schools
567:Taylor Law
498:Sincerely,
198:Background
145:Ocean Hill
3462:Movements
3312:Yorkville
3210:Manhattan
3143:Manhattan
3103:Bay Ridge
3026:Hispanics
2980:Albanians
2975:Europeans
2968:Taiwanese
2948:Filipinos
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2500:118603484
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1485:118398846
1110:144188669
1051:143064304
807:Citations
776:whiteness
717:Aftermath
577:Reactions
487:Dear Sir,
461:Personnel
445:bilingual
411:Malcolm X
333:Malcolm X
297:In 1964,
281:pluralism
274:communist
270:socialist
3575:Proletar
3277:Loisaida
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3165:Elmhurst
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3108:Bed–Stuy
3041:Mexicans
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3005:Italians
2958:Japanese
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1481:ProQuest
1306:cite web
1056:AFL–CIO.
1047:ProQuest
834:25088003
790:See also
765:The East
759:and the
590:agenda.
390:Brooklyn
252:makeup.
153:Brooklyn
3200:Jamaica
3093:Astoria
2995:Germans
2963:Koreans
2953:Indians
2943:Chinese
2914:Syrians
2812:(1974)
2586:Sources
2147:May 10,
2141:Jacobin
1379:3700907
1231:2112107
1102:4134076
539:Strikes
441:Swahili
247:Schools
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1106:S2CID
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871:JSTOR
830:JSTOR
233:NAACP
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