1769:
1358:
1995:, or "dB", where 10 dB represents attenuation by a factor of 10. The units for attenuation coefficient are thus dB/m (or, in general, dB per unit distance). Note that in logarithmic units such as dB, the attenuation is a linear function of distance, rather than exponential. This has the advantage that the result of multiple attenuation layers can be found by simply adding up the dB loss for each individual passage. However, if intensity is desired, the logarithms must be converted back into linear units by using an exponential:
1764:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mu &=\mu _{\mathrm {a} }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} },\\\mu _{\nu }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\nu }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\nu },\\\mu _{\lambda }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\lambda }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\lambda },\\\mu _{\Omega }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\Omega }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\Omega },\\\mu _{\Omega ,\nu }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\Omega ,\nu }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\Omega ,\nu },\\\mu _{\Omega ,\lambda }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\Omega ,\lambda }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\Omega ,\lambda }.\end{aligned}}}
1265:
1031:
2697:
1260:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mu _{\Omega ,\nu }&=-{\frac {1}{L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\nu }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\nu }}{\mathrm {d} z}},\\\mu _{\Omega ,\lambda }&=-{\frac {1}{L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\lambda }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\lambda }}{\mathrm {d} z}},\end{aligned}}}
1774:
Just looking at the narrow beam itself, the two processes cannot be distinguished. However, if a detector is set up to measure beam leaving in different directions, or conversely using a non-narrow beam, one can measure how much of the lost radiant flux was scattered, and how much was absorbed.
254:. The attenuation coefficient is dependent upon the type of material and the energy of the radiation. Generally, for electromagnetic radiation, the higher the energy of the incident photons and the less dense the material in question, the lower the corresponding attenuation coefficient will be.
830:
2430:
1950:
1786:
loss of narrow-beam intensity, including scattering as well. "Narrow-beam attenuation coefficient" always unambiguously refers to the latter. The attenuation coefficient is at least as large as the absorption coefficient; they are equal in the idealized case of no scattering.
979:
729:
357:
2293:
2858:
2144:-fold reductions that occur over a unit length of material, this coefficient measures how many 10-fold reductions occur: a decadic coefficient of 1 m means 1 m of material reduces the radiation once by a factor of 10.
1324:. Absorption indicates energy that is lost from the beam, while scattering indicates light that is redirected in a (random) direction, and hence is no longer in the beam, but still present, resulting in diffuse light.
735:
2692:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mu (z)&=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\mu _{i}(z)=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\sigma _{i}n_{i}(z),\\\mu _{10}(z)&=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\mu _{10,i}(z)=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\varepsilon _{i}c_{i}(z),\end{aligned}}}
492:
1858:
884:
69:. A coefficient value that is large represents a beam becoming 'attenuated' as it passes through a given medium, while a small value represents that the medium had little effect on loss. The (derived)
634:
2392:
2944:(HVL) is the thickness of a layer of material required to reduce the radiant flux of the transmitted radiation to half its incident magnitude. The half-value layer is about 69% (ln 2) of the
2921:
2435:
1363:
1036:
2980:
2135:
4069:
Tables of X-Ray Mass
Attenuation Coefficients and Mass Energy-Absorption Coefficients from 1 keV to 20 MeV for Elements Z = 1 to 92 and 48 Additional Substances of Dosimetric Interest
281:
2172:
2059:
527:
576:
104:
one meter) thickness of material, so that an attenuation coefficient of 1 m means that after passing through 1 metre, the radiation will be reduced by a factor of
596:
547:
426:
406:
3810:
4073:
3877:
2987:
2792:
3998:
825:{\displaystyle \mu _{\lambda }=-{\frac {1}{\Phi _{\mathrm {e} ,\lambda }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi _{\mathrm {e} ,\lambda }}{\mathrm {d} z}},}
2948:. Engineers use these equations predict how much shielding thickness is required to attenuate radiation to acceptable or regulatory limits.
434:
1815:. Assuming that dz is so small that there will be no overlap of the cross section areas, the total area available for absorption will be
1945:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mu }{\rho _{m}}},\quad {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {a} }}{\rho _{m}}},\quad {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {s} }}{\rho _{m}}},}
974:{\displaystyle \mu _{\Omega }=-{\frac {1}{L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega }}{\mathrm {d} z}},}
724:{\displaystyle \mu _{\nu }=-{\frac {1}{\Phi _{\mathrm {e} ,\nu }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi _{\mathrm {e} ,\nu }}{\mathrm {d} z}},}
3760:
1317:
17:
4039:
3919:
2329:
2869:
1778:
In this context, the "absorption coefficient" measures how quickly the beam would lose radiant flux due to the absorption
2412:
The (Napierian) attenuation coefficient and the decadic attenuation coefficient of a material sample are related to the
2158:
rather than just simply "attenuation coefficient". The terms "decadic" and "Napierian" come from the base used for the
2089:
2973:
3939:
352:{\displaystyle \mu =-{\frac {1}{\Phi _{\mathrm {e} }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi _{\mathrm {e} }}{\mathrm {d} z}},}
1307:
2288:{\displaystyle T=e^{-\int _{0}^{\ell }\mu (z)\mathrm {d} z}=10^{-\int _{0}^{\ell }\mu _{10}(z)\mathrm {d} z},}
2753:
247:
70:
4109:
3830:
1998:
1835:
500:
136:
4063:
1352:
The attenuation coefficient of a volume is the sum of absorption coefficient and scattering coefficients:
552:
1988:
206:
106:
130:
counts forward-scattered radiation as transmitted rather than attenuated, and is more applicable to
3765:
30:
For "attenuation coefficient" as it applies to electromagnetic theory and telecommunications, see
3815:
3314:, divided by the spectral radiance incident onto that surface. This should not be confused with "
2956:
2715:
4031:
4068:
188:
1795:
The absorption coefficient may be expressed in terms of a number density of absorbing centers
152:
of a beam is reduced as it passes through a specific material. It is used in the context of:
3840:
3790:
3775:
2772:
2417:
2163:
2159:
31:
8:
4114:
3770:
2406:
2402:
131:
100:
distance of the original intensity as the energy of the intensity passes through a unit (
4058:
3264:, divided by the radiance incident onto that surface. This should not be confused with "
4119:
4024:
3991:"Thermal insulation — Heat transfer by radiation — Physical quantities and definitions"
3825:
3805:
3785:
581:
532:
411:
391:
3935:
246:
A small attenuation coefficient indicates that the material in question is relatively
4035:
3967:
Dukhin, A.S. and Goetz, P.J. "Ultrasound for characterizing colloids", Elsevier, 2002
3915:
3850:
2945:
2934:
217:
The attenuation coefficient is called the "extinction coefficient" in the context of
90:
4083:
3958:
ISO 20998-1:2006 "Measurement and characterization of particles by acoustic methods"
3887:
4087:
4078:
4019:
3891:
3882:
3845:
2941:
1316:) beam passes through a volume, the beam will lose intensity due to two processes:
1313:
251:
221:
74:
4095:
Error in template * unknown parameter name (GoldBookRef): "access-date"
3899:
Error in template * unknown parameter name (GoldBookRef): "access-date"
3820:
174:
3835:
3795:
2952:
2853:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{i}={\frac {N_{\text{A}}}{\ln {10}}}\,\sigma _{i},}
2734:
2413:
3229:, divided by that received by that surface. This should not be confused with "
3189:, divided by that received by that surface. This should not be confused with "
2783:
by definition of attenuation cross section and molar attenuation coefficient.
4103:
4082:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
3886:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
3855:
3555:
3524:
3488:
3462:
2306:
49:
characterizes how easily a volume of material can be penetrated by a beam of
4091:
3895:
2166:
for a material sample, in which the two attenuation coefficients take part:
1829:
3800:
2786:
Attenuation cross section and molar attenuation coefficient are related by
1965:
855:
844:
371:
149:
3990:
140:
is the attenuation coefficient normalized by the density of the material.
110:, and for material with a coefficient of 2 m, it will be reduced twice by
3780:
3416:
3385:
3349:
3323:
3273:
3238:
3198:
3168:
86:
82:
232:, albeit usually denoted with another symbol (given the standard use of
181:(although actually it is not a section dimensionally speaking), denoted
3315:
3265:
3230:
3190:
3118:
3083:
3047:
3021:
1321:
229:
202:
160:
94:
2315:
is the path length of the beam of light through the material sample.
487:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathrm {e} }=\Phi _{\mathrm {e0} }e^{-\mu z}}
1790:
1294:
1281:
992:
225:
58:
384:
Note that for an attenuation coefficient which does not vary with
2140:
Just as the usual attenuation coefficient measures the number of
1992:
1982:
1971:
601:
196:
170:
998:
66:
62:
148:
The attenuation coefficient describes the extent to which the
156:
54:
50:
4059:
Absorption
Coefficients α of Building Materials and Finishes
612:
spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient in wavelength
1349:, are defined the same way as the attenuation coefficient.
608:
spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient in frequency
4018:
3748:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
3698:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
3663:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
3623:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
2955:. Moreover, it is very closely related to the attenuation
1987:
Engineering applications often express attenuation in the
1009:
spectral directional attenuation coefficient in wavelength
1830:
Mass attenuation, absorption, and scattering coefficients
1301:
1005:
spectral directional attenuation coefficient in frequency
4064:
Sound
Absorption Coefficients for Some Common Materials
3811:
Computation of radiowave attenuation in the atmosphere
2387:{\displaystyle T=e^{-\mu \ell }=10^{-\mu _{10}\ell }.}
862:
3910:
Serway, Raymond; Moses, Clement; Moyer, Curt (2005).
2951:
Attenuation coefficient is also inversely related to
2872:
2795:
2433:
2332:
2175:
2092:
2001:
1861:
1811:, the total number of absorbing centers contained is
1361:
1034:
887:
738:
637:
584:
555:
535:
503:
437:
414:
394:
284:
2916:{\displaystyle c_{i}={\frac {n_{i}}{N_{\text{A}}}},}
250:, while a larger value indicates greater degrees of
4023:
2915:
2852:
2691:
2386:
2287:
2129:
2053:
1944:
1763:
1259:
973:
824:
723:
590:
570:
541:
521:
486:
420:
400:
351:
2962:
2130:{\displaystyle \mu _{10}={\frac {\mu }{\ln 10}}.}
118:. Other measures may use a different factor than
81:is another term for this quantity, often used in
4101:
3961:
3909:
1791:Expression in terms of density and cross section
3985:
3983:
3981:
3979:
3977:
3975:
3973:
2863:and number density and amount concentration by
1819:and the fraction of radiation absorbed is then
1782:, while "attenuation coefficient" measures the
3629:Spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient
1972:Napierian and decadic attenuation coefficients
602:Spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient
3914:. California, USA: Brooks/Cole. p. 529.
2981:
2156:Napierian narrow beam attenuation coefficient
93:of intensity, that is, the value of downward
3970:
3936:"2nd Edition of the Glossary of Meteorology"
3704:Spectral directional attenuation coefficient
3593:, divided by that received by that surface.
3550:, divided by that received by that surface.
3519:, divided by that received by that surface.
3483:, divided by that received by that surface.
3457:, divided by that received by that surface.
3411:, divided by that received by that surface.
3380:, divided by that received by that surface.
3344:, divided by that received by that surface.
999:Spectral directional attenuation coefficient
388:, this equation is solved along a line from
2074:decadic narrow beam attenuation coefficient
257:
89:. Most commonly, the quantity measures the
3928:
3873:
3871:
2988:
2974:
262:
3952:
3163:at the same temperature as that surface.
3113:at the same temperature as that surface.
3078:at the same temperature as that surface.
3042:at the same temperature as that surface.
2836:
4012:
27:Light or sound absorption in a substance
3868:
2063:
14:
4102:
3761:Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)
1302:Absorption and scattering coefficients
3599:Hemispherical attenuation coefficient
2054:{\displaystyle I=I_{o}10^{-(dB/10)}.}
1823:. The absorption coefficient is thus
522:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathrm {e0} }}
3489:Spectral hemispherical transmittance
2323:attenuation, these relations become
1799:and an absorbing cross section area
571:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathrm {e} }}
3669:Directional attenuation coefficient
869:directional attenuation coefficient
863:Directional attenuation coefficient
856:spectral radiant flux in wavelength
47:narrow-beam attenuation coefficient
24:
4079:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
4030:. Dover Publications Inc. p.
3883:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
3556:Spectral directional transmittance
3350:Spectral hemispherical reflectance
3199:Spectral hemispherical absorptance
2273:
2218:
1921:
1891:
1743:
1736:
1716:
1709:
1685:
1662:
1655:
1635:
1628:
1604:
1587:
1580:
1566:
1559:
1541:
1517:
1496:
1454:
1433:
1397:
1382:
1240:
1226:
1219:
1209:
1192:
1185:
1153:
1131:
1117:
1110:
1100:
1083:
1076:
1044:
958:
950:
943:
933:
922:
915:
893:
845:spectral radiant flux in frequency
809:
794:
789:
784:
766:
761:
708:
693:
688:
683:
665:
660:
562:
557:
529:is the incoming radiation flux at
510:
505:
459:
454:
444:
439:
336:
327:
322:
317:
305:
300:
128:broad-beam attenuation coefficient
73:of attenuation coefficient is the
25:
4131:
4052:
3048:Spectral hemispherical emissivity
2152:Napierian attenuation coefficient
3581:
3538:
3507:
3471:
3445:
3417:Spectral directional reflectance
3399:
3368:
3332:
3302:
3274:Spectral directional absorptance
3252:
3217:
3177:
3147:
3097:
3066:
3030:
3940:American Meteorological Society
3119:Spectral directional emissivity
3109:, divided by that emitted by a
2070:decadic attenuation coefficient
1912:
1882:
1295:spectral radiance in wavelength
380:is the path length of the beam.
124:decadic attenuation coefficient
3903:
3014:
2963:Other radiometric coefficients
2679:
2673:
2626:
2620:
2573:
2567:
2547:
2541:
2494:
2488:
2447:
2441:
2269:
2263:
2214:
2208:
2043:
2026:
1308:Optical extinction coefficient
1282:spectral radiance in frequency
628:respectively, are defined as:
39:linear attenuation coefficient
13:
1:
3861:
2754:molar attenuation coefficient
1025:respectively, are defined as
3831:Mass attenuation coefficient
1842:mass attenuation coefficient
1836:Mass attenuation coefficient
137:mass attenuation coefficient
7:
3754:
3463:Hemispherical transmittance
2775:of the attenuating species
2756:of the attenuating species
2737:of the attenuating species
2718:of the attenuating species
1976:
1850:mass scattering coefficient
1846:mass absorption coefficient
143:
10:
4136:
4020:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
1980:
1833:
1305:
228:radiative transfer in the
207:particle size distribution
29:
3525:Directional transmittance
3324:Hemispherical reflectance
3169:Hemispherical absorptance
3005:
3002:
2999:
578:is the radiation flux at
179:macroscopic cross section
3766:Absorption cross section
3022:Hemispherical emissivity
258:Mathematical definitions
4092:10.1351/goldbook.A00037
3896:10.1351/goldbook.A00516
3888:Attenuation coefficient
3816:Cross section (physics)
3386:Directional reflectance
3239:Directional absorptance
3159:, divided by that of a
3074:, divided by that of a
3070:Spectral exitance of a
3038:, divided by that of a
2969:Radiometry coefficients
2779:in the material sample,
2760:in the material sample;
2741:in the material sample;
2722:in the material sample;
2424:attenuating species as
2309:of the material sample;
269:attenuation coefficient
263:Attenuation coefficient
43:attenuation coefficient
4084:Absorption coefficient
3651:Spectral radiant flux
3084:Directional emissivity
3034:Radiant exitance of a
2917:
2854:
2693:
2652:
2603:
2520:
2477:
2388:
2289:
2131:
2055:
1946:
1765:
1340:scattering coefficient
1329:absorption coefficient
1261:
975:
826:
725:
592:
572:
543:
523:
488:
422:
402:
353:
209:, where it is denoted
191:, where it is denoted
189:ultrasound attenuation
163:, where it is denoted
79:Extinction coefficient
18:Absorption coefficient
2918:
2855:
2694:
2632:
2583:
2500:
2457:
2418:amount concentrations
2409:theory for instance.
2401:attenuation occur in
2389:
2290:
2132:
2056:
1947:
1803:. For a slab of area
1766:
1342:of a volume, denoted
1331:of a volume, denoted
1306:Further information:
1262:
1011:of a volume, denoted
976:
871:of a volume, denoted
827:
726:
614:of a volume, denoted
593:
573:
544:
524:
489:
423:
403:
354:
271:of a volume, denoted
177:, where it is called
3841:Propagation constant
3776:Acoustic attenuation
2870:
2793:
2773:amount concentration
2431:
2330:
2173:
2150:is sometimes called
2090:
2064:Naperian attenuation
1999:
1859:
1359:
1032:
885:
736:
635:
582:
553:
533:
501:
435:
412:
392:
282:
32:Attenuation constant
4110:Physical quantities
3771:Absorption spectrum
3316:spectral absorbance
3231:spectral absorbance
2996:
2714:is the attenuation
2407:radiation shielding
2403:atmospheric science
2252:
2204:
205:for characterizing
167:and measured in cm;
132:radiation shielding
4026:Radiative Transfer
3826:High-energy X-rays
3806:Compton scattering
3786:Attenuation length
3736:Spectral radiance
3585:Spectral radiance
3449:Spectral radiance
3306:Spectral radiance
3151:Spectral radiance
2967:
2913:
2850:
2689:
2687:
2384:
2285:
2238:
2190:
2127:
2051:
1942:
1761:
1759:
1257:
1255:
971:
822:
721:
588:
568:
539:
519:
484:
418:
398:
349:
213:and measured in m.
185:and measured in m;
4041:978-0-486-60590-6
3921:978-0-534-49339-4
3851:Scattering theory
3752:
3751:
2946:penetration depth
2935:Avogadro constant
2908:
2905:
2834:
2818:
2405:applications and
2122:
1989:logarithmic units
1937:
1907:
1877:
1825:μ = n σ
1248:
1203:
1139:
1094:
966:
927:
817:
778:
716:
677:
591:{\displaystyle z}
542:{\displaystyle z}
421:{\displaystyle z}
401:{\displaystyle z}
344:
311:
242:for slant paths);
91:exponential decay
16:(Redirected from
4127:
4096:
4046:
4045:
4029:
4016:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4006:
3987:
3968:
3965:
3959:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3946:
3932:
3926:
3925:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3875:
3846:Radiation length
3791:Beer–Lambert law
3730:
3718:
3680:
3645:
3638:
3605:
3579:
3567:
3536:
3505:
3498:
3469:
3443:
3431:
3397:
3366:
3359:
3330:
3300:
3288:
3250:
3215:
3208:
3175:
3145:
3133:
3095:
3064:
3057:
3028:
3016:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2976:
2966:
2942:half-value layer
2922:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2887:
2882:
2881:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2845:
2835:
2833:
2832:
2820:
2819:
2816:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2688:
2672:
2671:
2662:
2661:
2651:
2646:
2619:
2618:
2602:
2597:
2566:
2565:
2540:
2539:
2530:
2529:
2519:
2514:
2487:
2486:
2476:
2471:
2414:number densities
2393:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2374:
2354:
2353:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2262:
2261:
2251:
2246:
2226:
2225:
2221:
2203:
2198:
2164:Beer–Lambert law
2136:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2107:
2102:
2101:
2083:, is defined as
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2046:
2039:
2017:
2016:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1936:
1935:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1914:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1884:
1878:
1876:
1875:
1863:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1762:
1760:
1753:
1752:
1739:
1726:
1725:
1712:
1695:
1694:
1672:
1671:
1658:
1645:
1644:
1631:
1614:
1613:
1591:
1590:
1583:
1570:
1569:
1562:
1545:
1544:
1528:
1527:
1520:
1507:
1506:
1499:
1482:
1481:
1465:
1464:
1457:
1444:
1443:
1436:
1419:
1418:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1222:
1212:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1201:
1188:
1175:
1163:
1162:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1113:
1103:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1079:
1066:
1054:
1053:
980:
978:
977:
972:
967:
965:
961:
955:
954:
953:
946:
936:
930:
928:
926:
925:
918:
905:
897:
896:
878:, is defined as
831:
829:
828:
823:
818:
816:
812:
806:
805:
804:
797:
787:
781:
779:
777:
776:
769:
756:
748:
747:
730:
728:
727:
722:
717:
715:
711:
705:
704:
703:
696:
686:
680:
678:
676:
675:
668:
655:
647:
646:
597:
595:
594:
589:
577:
575:
574:
569:
567:
566:
565:
548:
546:
545:
540:
528:
526:
525:
520:
518:
517:
516:
493:
491:
490:
485:
483:
482:
467:
466:
465:
449:
448:
447:
427:
425:
424:
419:
407:
405:
404:
399:
358:
356:
355:
350:
345:
343:
339:
333:
332:
331:
330:
320:
314:
312:
310:
309:
308:
295:
275:, is defined as
241:
195:and measured in
175:nuclear reactors
75:reciprocal metre
21:
4135:
4134:
4130:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4125:
4124:
4100:
4099:
4094:
4055:
4050:
4049:
4042:
4017:
4013:
4004:
4002:
4001:catalogue. 1989
3989:
3988:
3971:
3966:
3962:
3957:
3953:
3944:
3942:
3934:
3933:
3929:
3922:
3908:
3904:
3898:
3876:
3869:
3864:
3821:Grey atmosphere
3757:
3729:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3708:
3679:
3673:
3644:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3603:
3578:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3560:
3535:
3529:
3504:
3500:
3499:
3497:
3493:
3467:
3442:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3421:
3396:
3390:
3365:
3361:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3328:
3299:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3278:
3249:
3243:
3214:
3210:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3173:
3144:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3123:
3094:
3088:
3063:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3052:
3026:
2995:
2994:
2965:
2932:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2888:
2886:
2877:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2841:
2837:
2828:
2821:
2815:
2811:
2809:
2800:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2770:
2751:
2732:
2713:
2686:
2685:
2667:
2663:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2636:
2608:
2604:
2598:
2587:
2576:
2561:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2521:
2515:
2504:
2482:
2478:
2472:
2461:
2450:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2343:
2339:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2272:
2257:
2253:
2247:
2242:
2234:
2230:
2217:
2199:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2111:
2106:
2097:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2066:
2035:
2022:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1985:
1979:
1974:
1963:
1931:
1927:
1920:
1919:
1915:
1913:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1883:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1852:are defined as
1838:
1832:
1793:
1758:
1757:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1696:
1684:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1483:
1477:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1420:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1348:
1337:
1312:When a narrow (
1310:
1304:
1292:
1279:
1254:
1253:
1239:
1238:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1184:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1164:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1130:
1129:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1098:
1096:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1055:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1017:
1001:
990:
957:
956:
942:
941:
937:
932:
931:
929:
914:
913:
909:
904:
892:
888:
886:
883:
882:
877:
865:
853:
842:
808:
807:
793:
792:
788:
783:
782:
780:
765:
764:
760:
755:
743:
739:
737:
734:
733:
707:
706:
692:
691:
687:
682:
681:
679:
664:
663:
659:
654:
642:
638:
636:
633:
632:
627:
620:
604:
583:
580:
579:
561:
560:
556:
554:
551:
550:
534:
531:
530:
509:
508:
504:
502:
499:
498:
472:
468:
458:
457:
453:
443:
442:
438:
436:
433:
432:
413:
410:
409:
393:
390:
389:
369:
335:
334:
326:
325:
321:
316:
315:
313:
304:
303:
299:
294:
283:
280:
279:
265:
260:
233:
146:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4133:
4123:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4098:
4097:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4054:
4053:External links
4051:
4048:
4047:
4040:
4011:
3969:
3960:
3951:
3927:
3920:
3912:Modern Physics
3902:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3859:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3836:Mean free path
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3796:Cargo scanning
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3756:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3734:
3731:
3724:
3712:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3684:
3681:
3677:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3649:
3646:
3642:
3635:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3609:
3606:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3583:
3580:
3573:
3564:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3527:
3521:
3520:
3511:Spectral flux
3509:
3506:
3502:
3495:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3473:
3470:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3447:
3444:
3437:
3425:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3401:
3398:
3394:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3372:Spectral flux
3370:
3367:
3363:
3356:
3352:
3346:
3345:
3334:
3331:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3304:
3301:
3294:
3282:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3254:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3235:
3234:
3221:Spectral flux
3219:
3216:
3212:
3205:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3179:
3176:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3149:
3146:
3139:
3127:
3121:
3115:
3114:
3099:
3096:
3092:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3068:
3065:
3061:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3032:
3029:
3024:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3007:
3004:
3001:
2993:
2992:
2985:
2978:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2961:
2953:mean free path
2930:
2924:
2923:
2912:
2901:
2895:
2891:
2885:
2880:
2876:
2861:
2860:
2849:
2844:
2840:
2831:
2827:
2824:
2814:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2781:
2780:
2766:
2761:
2747:
2742:
2735:number density
2728:
2723:
2709:
2700:
2699:
2684:
2681:
2678:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2645:
2642:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2601:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2436:
2395:
2394:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2335:
2317:
2316:
2310:
2296:
2295:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2138:
2137:
2126:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2080:
2065:
2062:
2050:
2045:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2004:
1981:Main article:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1941:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1918:
1911:
1904:
1900:
1893:
1888:
1881:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1834:Main article:
1831:
1828:
1807:and thickness
1792:
1789:
1772:
1771:
1756:
1751:
1748:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1678:
1675:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1597:
1594:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1346:
1335:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1290:
1285:
1277:
1268:
1267:
1252:
1246:
1242:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1143:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1022:
1015:
1000:
997:
988:
982:
981:
970:
964:
960:
952:
949:
945:
940:
935:
924:
921:
917:
912:
908:
903:
900:
895:
891:
875:
864:
861:
860:
859:
851:
848:
840:
833:
832:
821:
815:
811:
803:
800:
796:
791:
786:
775:
772:
768:
763:
759:
754:
751:
746:
742:
731:
720:
714:
710:
702:
699:
695:
690:
685:
674:
671:
667:
662:
658:
653:
650:
645:
641:
625:
618:
603:
600:
587:
564:
559:
538:
515:
512:
507:
495:
494:
481:
478:
475:
471:
464:
461:
456:
452:
446:
441:
417:
397:
382:
381:
375:
367:
360:
359:
348:
342:
338:
329:
324:
319:
307:
302:
298:
293:
290:
287:
264:
261:
259:
256:
244:
243:
215:
214:
200:
186:
168:
145:
142:
122:, such as the
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4132:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4056:
4043:
4037:
4033:
4028:
4027:
4021:
4015:
4000:
3996:
3995:ISO 9288:1989
3992:
3986:
3984:
3982:
3980:
3978:
3976:
3974:
3964:
3955:
3941:
3937:
3931:
3923:
3917:
3913:
3906:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3872:
3867:
3857:
3856:Transmittance
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3758:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3728:
3723:
3716:
3711:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3682:
3676:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3647:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3611:Radiant flux
3610:
3607:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3577:
3572:
3563:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3532:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3475:Radiant flux
3474:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3441:
3436:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3393:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3336:Radiant flux
3335:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3298:
3293:
3286:
3281:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3246:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3181:Radiant flux
3180:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3143:
3138:
3131:
3126:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3091:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3013:
3010:
3009:
2998:
2991:
2986:
2984:
2979:
2977:
2972:
2971:
2960:
2958:
2957:cross section
2954:
2949:
2947:
2943:
2938:
2936:
2929:
2910:
2899:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2829:
2825:
2822:
2812:
2806:
2801:
2797:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2784:
2778:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2716:cross section
2712:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2682:
2676:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2594:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2578:
2570:
2562:
2558:
2550:
2544:
2536:
2532:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2452:
2444:
2438:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2333:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2307:transmittance
2304:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2282:
2277:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2211:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2176:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2143:
2124:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2094:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2061:
2048:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2029:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2002:
1994:
1990:
1984:
1969:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1939:
1932:
1928:
1916:
1909:
1902:
1898:
1886:
1879:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1855:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1817:n A σ dz
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1754:
1749:
1746:
1740:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1719:
1713:
1704:
1700:
1698:
1691:
1688:
1681:
1673:
1668:
1665:
1659:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1638:
1632:
1623:
1619:
1617:
1610:
1607:
1600:
1592:
1584:
1575:
1571:
1563:
1554:
1550:
1548:
1537:
1529:
1524:
1521:
1512:
1508:
1503:
1500:
1491:
1487:
1485:
1478:
1474:
1466:
1461:
1458:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1437:
1428:
1424:
1422:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1392:
1388:
1377:
1373:
1371:
1366:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1309:
1296:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1250:
1244:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1214:
1198:
1195:
1189:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1159:
1156:
1149:
1141:
1135:
1123:
1120:
1114:
1105:
1089:
1086:
1080:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1050:
1047:
1040:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1014:
1010:
1006:
996:
994:
987:
968:
962:
947:
938:
919:
910:
906:
901:
898:
889:
881:
880:
879:
874:
870:
857:
849:
846:
838:
837:
836:
819:
813:
801:
798:
773:
770:
757:
752:
749:
744:
740:
732:
718:
712:
700:
697:
672:
669:
656:
651:
648:
643:
639:
631:
630:
629:
624:
617:
613:
609:
599:
585:
536:
513:
479:
476:
473:
469:
462:
450:
431:
430:
429:
415:
395:
387:
379:
376:
373:
365:
364:
363:
346:
340:
296:
291:
288:
285:
278:
277:
276:
274:
270:
255:
253:
249:
240:
236:
231:
227:
223:
220:
219:
218:
212:
208:
204:
201:
198:
194:
190:
187:
184:
180:
176:
172:
169:
166:
162:
158:
155:
154:
153:
151:
141:
139:
138:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
108:
103:
99:
97:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
4077:
4025:
4014:
4003:. Retrieved
3994:
3963:
3954:
3943:. Retrieved
3930:
3911:
3905:
3881:
3801:Compton edge
3745:
3741:
3737:
3726:
3721:
3714:
3709:
3703:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3674:
3668:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3628:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3598:
3590:
3586:
3575:
3570:
3561:
3547:
3543:
3530:
3516:
3512:
3480:
3476:
3454:
3450:
3439:
3434:
3427:
3422:
3408:
3404:
3391:
3377:
3373:
3341:
3337:
3311:
3307:
3296:
3291:
3284:
3279:
3261:
3257:
3244:
3226:
3222:
3186:
3182:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3141:
3136:
3129:
3124:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3089:
3075:
3071:
3039:
3035:
2950:
2939:
2927:
2925:
2862:
2785:
2782:
2776:
2767:
2763:
2757:
2748:
2744:
2738:
2729:
2725:
2719:
2710:
2706:
2701:
2421:
2411:
2398:
2396:
2320:
2318:
2312:
2302:
2297:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2139:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2067:
1986:
1966:mass density
1960:
1956:
1954:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1839:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1794:
1783:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1351:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1328:
1326:
1311:
1287:
1274:
1269:
1019:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1002:
985:
983:
872:
868:
866:
834:
622:
615:
611:
607:
605:
496:
385:
383:
377:
372:radiant flux
361:
272:
268:
266:
245:
238:
234:
216:
210:
192:
182:
178:
164:
150:radiant flux
147:
135:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
105:
101:
95:
78:
46:
42:
38:
36:
3781:Attenuation
3587:transmitted
3544:transmitted
3513:transmitted
3477:transmitted
2399:non-uniform
2319:In case of
2160:exponential
1821:n σ dz
248:transparent
126:below. The
87:climatology
83:meteorology
61:, or other
4115:Radiometry
4104:Categories
4005:2015-03-15
3945:2015-11-03
3862:References
3266:absorbance
3191:absorbance
3161:black body
3111:black body
3076:black body
3040:black body
2076:, denoted
1338:, and the
1322:scattering
1318:absorption
1314:collimated
230:atmosphere
161:gamma rays
4120:Acoustics
3742:scattered
3692:scattered
3686:Radiance
3657:scattered
3617:scattered
3542:Radiance
3451:reflected
3405:reflected
3403:Radiance
3374:reflected
3338:reflected
3256:Radiance
3101:Radiance
3003:SI units
3000:Quantity
2839:σ
2826:
2798:ε
2655:ε
2634:∑
2606:μ
2585:∑
2559:μ
2523:σ
2502:∑
2480:μ
2459:∑
2439:μ
2397:Cases of
2377:ℓ
2368:μ
2364:−
2351:ℓ
2348:μ
2345:−
2255:μ
2249:ℓ
2240:∫
2236:−
2206:μ
2201:ℓ
2192:∫
2188:−
2116:
2109:μ
2095:μ
2024:−
1929:ρ
1917:μ
1899:ρ
1887:μ
1869:ρ
1865:μ
1750:λ
1744:Ω
1732:μ
1723:λ
1717:Ω
1705:μ
1692:λ
1686:Ω
1682:μ
1669:ν
1663:Ω
1651:μ
1642:ν
1636:Ω
1624:μ
1611:ν
1605:Ω
1601:μ
1588:Ω
1576:μ
1567:Ω
1555:μ
1542:Ω
1538:μ
1525:λ
1513:μ
1504:λ
1492:μ
1479:λ
1475:μ
1462:ν
1450:μ
1441:ν
1429:μ
1416:ν
1412:μ
1393:μ
1378:μ
1367:μ
1233:λ
1227:Ω
1199:λ
1193:Ω
1172:−
1160:λ
1154:Ω
1150:μ
1124:ν
1118:Ω
1090:ν
1084:Ω
1063:−
1051:ν
1045:Ω
1041:μ
951:Ω
923:Ω
902:−
894:Ω
890:μ
802:λ
790:Φ
774:λ
762:Φ
753:−
745:λ
741:μ
701:ν
689:Φ
673:ν
661:Φ
652:−
644:ν
640:μ
558:Φ
506:Φ
477:μ
474:−
455:Φ
440:Φ
323:Φ
301:Φ
292:−
286:μ
203:acoustics
59:particles
4022:(1960).
3755:See also
3738:absorbed
3688:absorbed
3653:absorbed
3613:absorbed
3308:absorbed
3258:absorbed
3223:absorbed
3183:absorbed
2416:and the
1993:decibels
1977:Decibels
993:radiance
226:infrared
199:⋅cm⋅MHz;
171:neutrons
144:Overview
98:-folding
3591:surface
3548:surface
3517:surface
3481:surface
3455:surface
3409:surface
3378:surface
3342:surface
3312:surface
3262:surface
3227:surface
3187:surface
3157:surface
3153:emitted
3107:surface
3103:emitted
3072:surface
3036:surface
2933:is the
2771:is the
2752:is the
2733:is the
2420:of its
2321:uniform
2305:is the
2162:in the
1983:decibel
1964:is the
1293:is the
1280:is the
991:is the
854:is the
843:is the
549:=0 and
370:is the
252:opacity
71:SI unit
4038:
3918:
3746:volume
3696:volume
3661:volume
3621:volume
3006:Notes
2926:where
2702:where
2298:where
1955:where
1848:, and
1813:n A dz
1801:σ
1270:where
984:where
835:where
497:where
408:=0 to
362:where
237:= cos
157:X-rays
134:. The
67:matter
63:energy
4074:IUPAC
3878:IUPAC
3744:by a
3694:by a
3659:by a
3619:by a
3589:by a
3546:by a
3515:by a
3479:by a
3453:by a
3407:by a
3376:by a
3340:by a
3310:by a
3260:by a
3225:by a
3185:by a
3155:by a
3105:by a
3011:Name
1784:total
1780:alone
1291:e,Ω,λ
1278:e,Ω,ν
222:solar
114:, or
77:(m).
55:sound
51:light
45:, or
4036:ISBN
3916:ISBN
3740:and
3690:and
3655:and
3615:and
3015:Sym.
2940:The
2068:The
1840:The
1327:The
1320:and
1018:and
1007:and
1003:The
867:The
621:and
610:and
606:The
428:as:
267:The
224:and
173:and
102:e.g.
85:and
37:The
4088:doi
4086:".
4032:355
3999:ISO
3892:doi
3890:".
3565:Ω,ν
3318:".
3268:".
3233:".
3193:".
2154:or
2072:or
1991:of
1023:Ω,λ
1016:Ω,ν
989:e,Ω
852:e,λ
841:e,ν
159:or
65:or
4106::
4076:,
4034:.
3997:.
3993:.
3972:^
3938:.
3880:,
3870:^
3733:m
3725:Ω,
3713:Ω,
3683:m
3648:m
3608:m
3582:—
3574:Ω,
3539:—
3508:—
3472:—
3446:—
3438:Ω,
3426:Ω,
3400:—
3369:—
3333:—
3303:—
3295:Ω,
3283:Ω,
3253:—
3218:—
3178:—
3148:—
3140:Ω,
3128:Ω,
3098:—
3067:—
3031:—
2959:.
2937:.
2830:10
2823:ln
2610:10
2563:10
2372:10
2360:10
2259:10
2232:10
2119:10
2113:ln
2099:10
2081:10
2041:10
2020:10
1968:.
1844:,
1809:dz
995:.
598:.
197:dB
57:,
53:,
41:,
4090::
4044:.
4008:.
3948:.
3924:.
3894::
3727:λ
3722:μ
3715:ν
3710:μ
3678:Ω
3675:μ
3643:λ
3641:μ
3636:ν
3634:μ
3604:μ
3576:λ
3571:T
3562:T
3534:Ω
3531:T
3503:λ
3501:T
3496:ν
3494:T
3468:T
3440:λ
3435:R
3428:ν
3423:R
3395:Ω
3392:R
3364:λ
3362:R
3357:ν
3355:R
3329:R
3297:λ
3292:A
3285:ν
3280:A
3248:Ω
3245:A
3213:λ
3211:A
3206:ν
3204:A
3174:A
3142:λ
3137:ε
3130:ν
3125:ε
3093:Ω
3090:ε
3062:λ
3060:ε
3055:ν
3053:ε
3027:ε
2989:e
2982:t
2975:v
2931:A
2928:N
2911:,
2904:A
2900:N
2894:i
2890:n
2884:=
2879:i
2875:c
2848:,
2843:i
2817:A
2813:N
2807:=
2802:i
2777:i
2768:i
2764:c
2758:i
2749:i
2745:ε
2739:i
2730:i
2726:n
2720:i
2711:i
2707:σ
2683:,
2680:)
2677:z
2674:(
2669:i
2665:c
2659:i
2649:N
2644:1
2641:=
2638:i
2630:=
2627:)
2624:z
2621:(
2616:i
2613:,
2600:N
2595:1
2592:=
2589:i
2581:=
2574:)
2571:z
2568:(
2551:,
2548:)
2545:z
2542:(
2537:i
2533:n
2527:i
2517:N
2512:1
2509:=
2506:i
2498:=
2495:)
2492:z
2489:(
2484:i
2474:N
2469:1
2466:=
2463:i
2455:=
2448:)
2445:z
2442:(
2422:N
2382:.
2356:=
2341:e
2337:=
2334:T
2313:ℓ
2303:T
2283:,
2278:z
2274:d
2270:)
2267:z
2264:(
2244:0
2228:=
2223:z
2219:d
2215:)
2212:z
2209:(
2196:0
2184:e
2180:=
2177:T
2148:μ
2142:e
2125:.
2104:=
2078:μ
2049:.
2044:)
2037:/
2033:B
2030:d
2027:(
2014:o
2010:I
2006:=
2003:I
1961:m
1957:ρ
1940:,
1933:m
1922:s
1910:,
1903:m
1892:a
1880:,
1873:m
1805:A
1797:n
1755:.
1747:,
1741:,
1737:s
1728:+
1720:,
1714:,
1710:a
1701:=
1689:,
1674:,
1666:,
1660:,
1656:s
1647:+
1639:,
1633:,
1629:a
1620:=
1608:,
1593:,
1585:,
1581:s
1572:+
1564:,
1560:a
1551:=
1530:,
1522:,
1518:s
1509:+
1501:,
1497:a
1488:=
1467:,
1459:,
1455:s
1446:+
1438:,
1434:a
1425:=
1404:,
1398:s
1389:+
1383:a
1374:=
1347:s
1344:μ
1336:a
1333:μ
1297:.
1288:L
1284:;
1275:L
1251:,
1245:z
1241:d
1230:,
1224:,
1220:e
1215:L
1210:d
1196:,
1190:,
1186:e
1181:L
1177:1
1169:=
1157:,
1142:,
1136:z
1132:d
1121:,
1115:,
1111:e
1106:L
1101:d
1087:,
1081:,
1077:e
1072:L
1068:1
1060:=
1048:,
1020:μ
1013:μ
986:L
969:,
963:z
959:d
948:,
944:e
939:L
934:d
920:,
916:e
911:L
907:1
899:=
876:Ω
873:μ
858:.
850:Φ
847:;
839:Φ
820:,
814:z
810:d
799:,
795:e
785:d
771:,
767:e
758:1
750:=
719:,
713:z
709:d
698:,
694:e
684:d
670:,
666:e
657:1
649:=
626:λ
623:μ
619:ν
616:μ
586:z
563:e
537:z
514:0
511:e
480:z
470:e
463:0
460:e
451:=
445:e
416:z
396:z
386:z
378:z
374:;
368:e
366:Φ
347:,
341:z
337:d
328:e
318:d
306:e
297:1
289:=
273:μ
239:θ
235:μ
211:α
193:α
183:Σ
165:μ
120:e
116:e
112:e
107:e
96:e
34:.
20:)
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