Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley

4111: 7619:

mane with one series arranged like sea waves is somewhat non-Indian in approach . But, to be exact, we have an example of a lion from a sculptural frieze from Persepolis of 5th century BCE in which it is overpowering a bull which may be compared with the Masarh lion."... Page 122: "This particular example of a foreign model gets added support from the male heads of foreigners from Patna city and Sarnath since they also prove beyond doubt that a section of the elite in the Gangetic Basin was of foreign origin. However, as noted earlier, this is an example of the late Mauryan period since this is not the type adopted in any Ashoka pillar. We are, therefore, visualizing a historical situation in India in which the West Asian influence on Indian art was felt more in the late Mauryan than in the early Mauryan period. The term West Asia in this context stands for Iran and Afghanistan, where the Sakas and Pahlavas had their basecamps for eastward movement. The prelude to future inroads of the Indo-Bactrians in India had after all started in the second century B.C."... in

1673: 1960: 1721: 4035: 1157: 1458: 4131: 3484: 4972:"The region was soon to appear as Hidūš in the Old Persian inscriptions... Transparent though the name appears at first sight, its location is not without problems. Foucher, Kent and many subsequent writers have identified Hidūš with its etymological equivalent, Sind, thereby placing it on the lower Indus towards the delta. However, (...) no material evidence of Achaemenid activity in this region is so far available. (...) There seems no evidence at present of gold production in the Indus delta, so this detail seems to weight against the location of the Hidūš province in Sind. (...) The alternative location to Sind for an Achaemenid province of Hidūš is naturally at Taxila and in the West Punjab, where there are indications that a Persian satrapy may have existed, though no clear evidence of its name." in 8277:: "This particular example of a foreign model gets added support from the male heads of foreigners from Patna city and Sarnath since they also prove beyond doubt that a section of the elite in the Gangetic Basin was of foreign origin. However, as noted earlier, this is an example of the late Mauryan period since this is not the type adopted in any Ashoka pillar. We are, therefore, visualizing a historical situation in India in which the West Asian influence on Indian art was felt more in the late Mauryan than in the early Mauryan period. The term West Asia in this context stands for Iran and Afghanistan, where the Sakas and Pahlavas had their base-camps for eastward movement. The prelude to future inroads of the Indo-Bactrians in India had after all started in the second century B.C."... in 3512: 2485: 1657: 1032: 605: 4055: 2667: 2299: 2726: 1689: 2403: 4234:"Hystaspes, a very wise monarch, the father of Darius. Who while boldly penetrating into the remoter districts of upper India, came to a certain woody retreat, of which with its tranquil silence the Brahmans, men of sublime genius, were the possessors. From their teaching he learnt the principles of the motion of the world and of the stars, and the pure rites of sacrifice, as far as he could; and of what he learnt he infused some portion into the minds of the Magi, which they have handed down by tradition to later ages, each instructing his own children, and adding to it their own system of divination". 3570: 3500: 3829: 2357: 2373: 9032: 1450: 2415: 1737: 2431: 2176: 3789: 2385: 3853: 2070: 3813: 1705: 520: 1770: 1816: 333: 3675: 4075: 3543: 149: 140: 114: 736: 4147: 1901: 764: 321: 190: 1991: 2457: 1762: 4172:

foreign features. These figurines might reflect the increased contacts of Indians with Iranian people during this period. Several of these seem to represent foreign soldiers who visited India during the Mauryan period and influenced modellers in Mathura with their peculiar ethnic features and uniforms. One of the terracotta statuettes, a man nicknamed the "Persian nobleman" and dated to the 2nd century BCE, can be seen wearing a coat, scarf, trousers and a turban.

697: 3375: 2246:". According to modern estimates, the Bactrians, Indians and Sakae probably numbered about 20,000 men altogether, whereas the Persian troops on their left amounted to about 40,000. There were also Greek allies of the Persians, positioned on the right, whom Herodotus numbers at 50,000, a number which however might be "extravagant", and is nowadays estimated to around 20,000. Indians also supplied part of the cavalry, the total of which was about 5,000. 8470:"Soldier heads. During the Mauryan period, the military activity was more evidenced in the public life. Possibly, foreign soldiers frequently visited India and attracted Indian modellers with their ethnic features and uncommon uniform. From Mathura in Uttar Pradesh and Basarh in Bihar, some terracotta heads have been reported, which represent soldiers. Artistically, the Basarh terracotta soldier-heads are better, executed than those from Mathura." in 9071: 3528: 2493: 1888:(equivalent to about 8300 kg or 8.3 tons of gold annually, a volume of gold that would fit in a cube of side 75 cm). The exchange rate between gold and silver at the time of Herodotus being 13 to 1, this was equal in value to the very large amount of 4680 Euboean talents of silver, equivalent to 3600 Babylonian talents of silver (equivalent in value to about 108 tons of silver annually). The country of the "Indians" ('Ινδοι, 3695: 3592: 29: 5756:, pp. 291–292: "...the official tribute list incorporated by Herodotus shows decided administrative change. As under Cyrus, there were again twenty satrapies, but the larger number of Darius had been reduced by the union of some hitherto separate. This process, already to be detected in the army list of Xerxes, but accelerated in the tribute list of Artaxerxes, again suggests actual loss of territory. 2690: 2674: 2583:"The punch-marked bars were up to now considered to be Indian (...) However the weight standard is considered by some expert to be Persian, and now that we see them also being uncovered in the soil of Afghanistan, we must take into account the possibility that their country of origin should not be sought beyond the Indus, but rather in the oriental provinces of the Achaemenid Empire" 6211:"A Sindhu contingent formed a part of his army which invaded Greece and stormed the defile at Thermopylae in 480 BC, thus becoming the first ever force from India to fight on the continent of Europe. It, apparently, distinguished itself in battle because it was followed by another contingent which formed a part of the Persian army under Mardonius which lost the battle of Platea" 6824:

local coins, using technology adapted from Greek coins, which provided the prototypes for punch-marked coins made in India." p.57 "In the territories to the south of the Hindu Kush the punch-marked coins, descendants of the local coins of the Achaemenid administration in the same area, were issued by the Mauryan kings of India for local circulation." in

8434:"Iranian Heads From Mathura, some terracotta male-heads were recovered, which portray the Iranian people with whom the Indians came into closer contact during the fourth and third centuries B.C. Agrawala calls them the representatives of Iranian people because their facial features present foreign ethnic affinities." 2342:(331 BCE). He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of Bessus, the Satrap of Bactria". The Indians in questions were probably from the area of Gandara. Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the 3638:, while describing the very progressive evolution from wooden architecture to stone architecture in various ancient civilizations, has commented that "In India, the form and construction of the older Buddhist temples resemble so singularly these examples in Lycia". The structural similarities, down to many architectural details, with the 8026:"The derivation of the Kharosthī script from Aramaic, which was used throughout the Achaemenid realm, is relatively straightforward, but the development of Brāhmī as a chancellery script for writing Aśokan inscriptions may have also been related to an effort to emulate the royal inscriptions of Achaemenid or later Seleukid rulers." in 3365:"India today is estimated to have about thirty million manuscripts, the largest body of handwritten reading material anywhere in the world. The literate culture of Indian science goes back to at least the fifth century B.C. ... as is shown by the elements of Mesopotamian omen literature and astronomy that entered India at that time." 2287:, and therefore does not have such depictions. The soldiers from India are characterized by their particular clothing, only composed of a loin cloth and sandals, with bare upper body, in contrast to all the other ethnicities of the Achaemenid army, who are fully clothed, and in contrast also to the neighbouring provinces of 3434:. It is possible that this sculpture was made by an Achaemenid or Greek sculptor in India and either remained without effect, or was the Indian imitation of a Greek or Achaemenid model, somewhere between the fifth century B.C. and the first century B.C., although it is generally dated from the time of the 636:

Throughout its existence, the Achaemenid were constantly engaging in wars. Either through conquering new territories or by quelling rebellions throughout the empire. To fulfil this need, the Achaemenid Empire had to maintain a professional standing army which levied and employed personnel from all of

7618:

Page 88: "There is one fragmentary lion head from Masarh, Distt. Bhojpur, Bihar. It is carved out of Chunar sandstone and it also bears the typical Mauryan polish. But it is undoubtedly based on the Achaemenian idiom. The tubular or wick-like whiskers and highly decorated neck with long locks of the

6823:

About the hoard in Kabul: "In the same hoard there were also discovered two series of local silver coins which appear to be the product of local Achaemenid administration. One series (...) was made in a new way, which relates it to the punch-marked silver coins of India. It appears that it was these

4171:

in northern India. Most of these terracottas show what appears to be female deities or mother goddesses. However, several figures of foreigners also appear in the terracottas from the 4th to the 2nd century BCE, which are either described simply as "foreigners" or Persian or Iranian because of their

5821:

Macedonian army in the Indus Valley, there is no mention of officers of the Persian kings in India; but this does not mean (Dittmann, 1984, p. 185) that the Achaemenids had no power there. Other data indicate that they still exercised control over the area, although in ways that differed from those

2349:

Fifteen Indian war elephants were also part of the army of Darius III at Gaugamela. They had specifically been brought from India. Still, it seems they did not participate to the final battle, probably because of fatigue. This was a relief for the armies of Alexander, who had no previous experience

2205:

and Bactrians and Indians, alike their footmen and the rest of the horsemen. He chose these nations entire; of the rest of his allies he picked out a few from each people, the goodliest men and those that he knew to have done some good service... Thereby the whole number, with the horsemen, grew to

7899:, "In the British Museum we find a Lycian building, the roof of which is clearly the descendant of an ancient South Asian style.", "For this is the so-called "Tomb of Payava" a Graeco-Indian Pallava if ever there was one." in "Masks and metaphysics in the ancient world: an anthropological view" in 3445:

palace with its pillared hall shows decorative influences of the Achaemenid palaces and Persepolis and may have used the help of foreign craftsmen. Mauryan rulers may have even imported craftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments. This may be the result of the formative influence of craftsmen

244:

gives a date before or around 518 BCE. Persian penetration into the Indian subcontinent occurred in multiple stages, beginning from the northern parts of the Indus River and moving southward. As mentioned in several Achaemenid-era inscriptions, the Indus Valley was formally incorporated into the

8316:

a non-Indian face of a foreigner with a conical hat: "If there are a few faces which are nonIndian, such as one head from Sarnath with conical cap ( Bachhofer, Vol . I, Pl . 13 ), they are due to the presence of the foreigners their costumes, tastes and liking for portrait art and not their art

2128:

The Bactrians in the army wore a headgear most like to the Median, carrying their native bows of reed, and short spears. (...) The Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, Gandarians, and Dadicae in the army had the same equipment as the Bactrians. The Parthians and Chorasmians had for their commander

1785:

describe tribute bearers from 23 satrapies visiting the Achaemenid court. These are located at the southern end of the Apadana Staircase. Among the foreigners the Arabs, the Thracians, the Bactrians, the Indians (from the Indus valley area), the Parthians, the Cappadocians, the Elamites or the

1896:

was the richest Achaemenid region in the subcontinent, much richer than Gandara or Sattagydia. However the amount of gold in question is quite enormous, so there is a possibility that Herodotus was mistaken and that his own sources actually only meant something like the gold equivalent of 360

1936:) are named separately, and were aggregated together for taxation purposes, forming the 7th Achaemenid Province, and paying overall a much lower tribute of 170 talents together (about 5151 kg, or 5.1 tons of silver), hence only about 1.5% of the total revenues of the Achaemenid Empire: 2573:, since it is one of the very rare instances when punch-marked coins can actually be dated, due to their association with known and dated Greek and Achaemenid coins in the hoard. The hoard supports the view that punch-marked coins existed in 360 BCE, as suggested by literary evidence. 7328:"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62-4 567:

remains the "most plausible candidate for the capital of Achaemenid India", based on the fact that numerous pottery styles similar to those of the Achaemenids in the East have been found there, and that "there are no other sites in the region with Bhir Mound's potential".

5817:(Chattopadhyaya, 1974, pp. 25-26) appears to be contradicted by Ctesias's reference to gifts received from the kings of India and by the fact that even Darius III still had some Indian units in his army (Briant, 1996, pp. 699, 774). At the time of the arrival of the 1589:

Herodotus (III-91 and III-94), gives a list with a slightly different structure, as some province which are presented separately in the Achaemenid inscriptions are grouped together by Herodotus when he described the tribute paid by each territory. Herodotus presents

4034: 640:

The Achaemenid army was not uniquely Persian. Rather it was composed of many different ethnicities that were part of the vast and diverse Achaemenid Empire. Herodotus gives a full list of the ethnicities of the Achaemenid army, in which are included

2638:

circa 500/490-485/0 BCE, typically used as a currency for trade in the Achaemenid Empire, together with a number of local types as well as silver cast ingots. The Athens coin is the earliest known example of its type to be found so far to the east.

2254:

Indian soldiers of the three territories of Gandara, Sattagydia (Tathagatus) and Hindush are shown, together with soldiers of all the other nations, supporting the throne of their Achaemenid ruler, at Naqsh-e Rostam on the tombs of Darius I,

1434:, with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and the Indus lies, latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly belonged to the Persians. 579:, heading a team of spies, in order to explore the course of the Indus river. After a periplus of 30 months, Scylax is said to have returned to Egypt near the Red Sea, and the seas between the Near East and India were made use of by Darius. 3148:), the "most plausible candidate for the capital of Achaemenid India", was at the crossroad of the main trade roads of Asia, was probably populated by Persians, Greeks and other people from throughout the Achaemenid Empire. As reported by 225:, who began to re-conquer former provinces and further expand the Achaemenid Empire's political boundaries. Around 518 BCE, the Persian army pushed further into India to initiate a second period of conquest by annexing regions up to the 3430:) and the geometrical representation of inflated veins flush with the entire face. The mane, on the other hand, with tufts of hair represented in wavelets, is rather naturalistic. Very similar examples are however known in Greece and 7377:: "The Mudrarakshasa further informs us that his Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army ... Among these are mentioned the following : Sakas, Yavanas (probably Greeks), Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas and Bahlikas." 5544:, pp. 291–292: "The Gandarians thus make their last appearance as Persian tribute paying subjects in the lists of Artaxerxes, though the land continued to be known under the name of Gandhara down to classic Indian times." 3646:. The Lycian tombs, dated to the 4th century BCE, are either free-standing or rock-cut barrel-vaulted sarcophagi, placed on a high base, with architectural features carved in stone to imitate wooden structures. There are 4270:

also coincided with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley. The Achaemenid occupation of the areas of Gandara and Hinduš, which was to last for about two centuries, was accompanied by Achaemenid religions, reformed

2221:

in 479 BCE, Indians formed one of the main corps of Achaemenid troops (one of "the greatest of the nations"). They were one of the main battle corps, positioned near the center of the Achaemenid battle line, between the

4279:, to which Buddhism might also have in part reacted. In particular, the ideas of the Buddha may have partly consisted in a rejection of the "absolutist" or "perfectionist" ideas contained in these Achaemenid religions. 1672: 5436:

Alcock, Susan E.; Alcock, John H. D'Arms Collegiate Professor of Classical Archaeology and Classics and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor Susan E.; D'Altroy, Terence N.; Morrison, Kathleen D.; Sinopoli, Carla M. (2001).

4130: 1473:

The nature of the administration under the Achaemenids is uncertain. Even though the Indian provinces are called "satrapies" by convention, there is no evidence of there being any satraps in these provinces. When

1720: 1861:

The Indians ( Ἰνδῶν) made up the twentieth province. These are more in number than any nation known to me, and they paid a greater tribute than any other province, namely three hundred and sixty talents of gold

1262:

King Darius says: By the favor of Ahuramazda these are the countries which I seized outside of Persia; I ruled over them; they bore tribute to me; they did what was said to them by me; they held my law firmly;

2055:

The Indians wore garments of tree-wool, and carried bows of reed and iron-tipped arrows of the same. Such was their equipment; they were appointed to march under the command of Pharnazathres son of Artabates.

1884:)), as separate from the Gandarei and the Sattagydians, formed the 20th taxation Province, and were required to supply gold dust in tribute to the Achaemenid central government for an amount of 360 Euboean 2473: 1606:" together form "the 7th Province". According to historian A. T. Olmstead, the fact that some Achaemenid regions are grouped together in this list may have represented some loss of territory. 1830:

The conquered area was the most fertile and populous region of the Achaemenid Empire. An amount of tribute was fixed according to the richness of each territory. India was already fabled for its gold.

2160:

After the first part of the campaign directly under the orders Xerxes I, the Indian troops are reported to have stayed in Greece as one of the 5 main nations among the 300,000 elite troops of General

3511: 8403:"The largest number of mother-goddess figurines has been found in western Uttar Pradesh in Mathura, which in the Mauryan period became an important terracotta making centre outside Magadh." in 5866:"Furthermore the second member of Delegation XVIII is carrying four small but evidently heavy jars on a yoke, probably containing the gold dust which was the tribute paid by the Indians." in 3483: 2579:

also considers that punch-marked bars, similar to the many punch-marked bars found in north-western India, initially originated in the Achaemenid Empire, rather than in the Indian heartland:

3657:

Art historian David Napier has also proposed a reverse relationship, claiming that the Payava tomb was a descendant of an ancient South Asian style, and that Payava may actually have been a

2566:

coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Approximately one thousand coins were in the hoard. The hoard is dated to approximately 380 BCE as no coins in the hoard were later than that date.

4186:", which according to him attest to the presence of a foreign elite in the Gangetic plains during the Mauryan or late Mauryan period. This elite was West Asian, specifically related to the 4110: 559:, where there are indications that a Persian satrapy may have existed. There are few remains of Achaemenid presence in the east, but, according to Fleming, the archaeological site of 7427: 4054: 6682:"Silver bent-bar punch-marked coin of Kabul region under the Achaemenid Empire, c.350 BC: Coins of this type found in quantity in Chaman Hazouri and Bhir Mound hoards" Article by 3354:

was the first form of astronomy to fully develop and likely influenced other civilizations. The spread of knowledge may have hastened with the expansion of the Achaemenid Empire.

7075:"The Dhammapada Commentary furnishes us with some interesting information regarding Kosala. We learn from this work that Pasenadi, son of Mahākosala, was educated at Taxila." in 7818:

The Illustrated Handbook of Architecture Being a Concise and Popular Account of the Different Styles of Architecture Prevailing in All Ages and All Countries by James Fergusson

2666: 3251:

to Taxila as a child, and had him educated there in "all the sciences and arts" of the period, including military sciences, for a period of 7 to 8 years. These legends match

7092:"One account suggests that, as a young man, Jivaka had travelled across India to Taxila, in the distant west, to study medicine under the well-known Disapamok Achariya" in 582:

Also according to Herodotus, the territories of Gandhara, Sattagydia, Dadicae and Aparytae formed the 7th province of the Achaemenid Empire for tax-payment purposes, while

10011: 3915:

but with extensive modifications to support the sounds found in Indic languages. One model is that the Aramaic script arrived with the Achaemenid Empire's conquest of the

1656: 8348:"The relatively high quality of terracotta sculptures recovered from Maurya strata at Mathura suggests some level of artistic activity prior to the second century BCE." 5331: 5259: 3919:(modern Pakistan) in 500 BCE and evolved over the next 200+ years, reaching its final form by the 3rd century BCE where it appears in some of the Edicts of Ashoka. 3939:

inscriptions), and the very act of engraving edicts on rocks and mountains (compare for example Behistun inscription). To describe his own edicts, Ashoka used the word

1790:. They bring baskets with vases inside, carry axes, and drive along a donkey. One man in the Indian procession carries a small but visibly heavy load of four jars on a 10056: 1892:) was the Achaemenid district paying the largest tribute, and alone represented 32% of the total tribute revenues of the whole Achaemenid Empire. It also means that 796:(483–431 BCE). The Greek Scylax of Caryanda, who had been appointed by Darius I to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez left an account, the 792:

These events were recorded in the imperial inscriptions of the Achaemenids (the Behistun inscription and the Naqsh-i-Rustam inscription, as well as the accounts of

6852:

O. Bopearachchi, "Premières frappes locales de l'Inde du Nord-Ouest: nouvelles données," in Trésors d'Orient: Mélanges offerts à Rika Gyselen, Fig. 1 (this coin)

2356: 2725: 1565:

who was vanquished by Alexander at Gaugamela, suggesting that the Indians were under Achaemenid dominion at least until 338 BCE, date of the end of the reign of

4795:

Tauqeer Ahmad, University of the Punjab, Lahore, South Asian Studies, A Research Journal of South Asian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1, January–June 2012, pp. 221-232

4074: 3650:

to the free-standing structures and decorated with reliefs. Fergusson went on to suggest an "Indian connection", and some form of cultural transfer across the

3982: 2414: 2384: 1941:

The Sattagydae (Σατταγύδαι), Gandarii (Γανδάριοι), Dadicae, and Aparytae (Ἀπαρύται) paid together a hundred and seventy talents; this was the seventh province

8987: 1959: 955:

From the dating of the Behistun inscription, it is possible to infer that the Achaemenids first conquered the areas of Gandara and Sattagydia circa 518 BCE.

8998: 4389:

Ctesias: "The Indians also include this substance among their most precious gifts for the Persian king who receives it as a prize revered above all others."

8325:

The Roots of Indian Art: A Detailed Study of the Formative Period of Indian Art and Architecture, Third and Second Centuries B.C., Mauryan and Late Mauryan

8285:

The Roots of Indian Art: A Detailed Study of the Formative Period of Indian Art and Architecture, Third and Second Centuries B.C., Mauryan and Late Mauryan

7627:

The Roots of Indian Art: A Detailed Study of the Formative Period of Indian Art and Architecture, Third and Second Centuries B.C., Mauryan and Late Mauryan

1688: 1482:("Vice-Regents"), a term that connotes subordination to the Achaemenid rulers. The local rulers may have reported to the satraps of Bactria and Arachosia. 6058:

The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas

8221: 7706:"The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE-200 CE" Robin Coningham, Ruth Young Cambridge University Press, 31 aout 2015, p.414 4786:, p. 177: "One should, therefore, be careful to distinguish the limited geographical unit of Gandhāra from the political one bearing the same name." 4424: 3949:), now generally simply translated as "writing" or "inscription". It is thought the word "lipi", which is also orthographed "dipi" (𐨡𐨁𐨤𐨁) in the two 8100: 5193:

The sculptures and inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock of Behistûn in Persia : a new collation of the Persian, Susian and Babylonian texts

2705: 1096:

Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the

8142:"The word dipi appears in the Old Persian inscription of Darius I at Behistan (Column IV. 39) having the meaning inscription or "written document" in 3788: 7663: 3499: 1736: 1156: 8774:; Cribb, Joe (1992), "Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia", in Errington, Elizabeth; Cribb, Joe; Claringbull, Maggie (eds.), 7408:: "Among those who helped Chandragupta in his struggle against the Nandas, were the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks), and Parasikas (Persians)" 9836: 4517: 221:, consolidating the early eastern borders of their new realm. With a brief pause after Cyrus' death around 530 BCE, the campaign continued under 9813: 3130: 2006:. The Susa inscriptions of Darius explain that Indian ivory and teak were sold on Persian markets, and used in the construction of his palace. 2326:, before the accession of Darius III, that is, less than 10 years before the campaigns of Alexander in the East and his victory at Gaugamela. 2035:, during the winter of 481-480 BCE to prepare for the invasion. In the spring of 480 BCE "Indian troops marched with Xerxes's army across the 10187: 6032: 6739: 1457: 9770: 3828: 963:

Hinduš is also mentioned as one of 24 subject countries of the Achaemenid Empire, illustrated with the drawing of a kneeling subject and a

3361:, elements of Achaemenid scientific knowledge, particularly works on omens and astronomy, were adopted by India from the 5th century BCE: 10202: 9020: 7330: 3778:, which likely originated from Greek and Near-Eastern arts. Such examples can also be seen in the remains of the Mauryan capital city of 2402: 1704: 448:) in the Behistun inscription. It was probably contiguous to Gandhara, but its actual location is uncertain. Fleming locates it between 3338:

theorized upon Chandragupta Maurya's conquest and claimed that "it was with largely the Persian army that he won the throne of India."

2002:

The Indians also supplied Yaka wood (teak) for the construction of Achaemenid palaces, as well as war elephants such as those used at

1638:(c. 380 – July 330 BC) still had Indian units in his army, albeit very few in comparison to his predecessors. In particular he had 15 2197:

their general, who said that he would not quit the king's person; and next, the Persian cuirassiers, and the thousand horse, and the

8452:"Mathura has also yielded a special class of terracotta heads in which the facial features present foreign ethnic affinities." 2372: 1569:, before the accession of Darius III, that is, less than 10 years before the campaigns of Alexander in the East and his victory at 261: 8919:

Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia

8031:

Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange within and beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia

3627:), suggests that the designs of the Lycian rock-cut tombs travelled to India along the trade routes across the Achaemenid Empire. 1628:

By about 380 BC, the Persian hold on the region was weakening, but the area continued to be a part of the Achaemenid Empire until

1554:

between 1913 and 1934. Fortified structures and canals were found dating to the Achaemenid period, as well as ornamental jewelry.

1226: 1196: 1176: 1117: 829: 497: 441: 5760:.... Two satrapies are united in the case of the Sattagydians, Gandarians, Dadicae, and Aparytae, whose tribute was 170 talents." 1574: 3390:

Various Indian artefacts tend to suggest some Perso-Hellenistic artistic influence in India, mainly felt during the time of the

2484: 2430: 2302:

The three types of Indian soldiers still appear (upper right corner) among the soldiers of the Achaemenid Empire on the tomb of

1233:) also appears later as a Satrapy in the Naqsh-i-Rustam inscription at the end of the reign of Darius, who died in 486 BCE. The 9060: 293: 6856: 5602: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5586: 5584: 5328: 5256: 3228:

of the Achaemenid Empire following the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, which technically made him a Persian subject.

2109:

The Indians were armed in like manner as their foot; they rode swift horses and drove chariots drawn by horses and wild asses.

10192: 9028: 8947: 8927: 8841: 8821: 8785: 8333: 8293: 7635: 7105: 5690: 5660: 5478: 5311: 5077: 4673: 4629: 6004: 6002: 6000: 5998: 5996: 4796: 3204:, the Buddha may have been influenced by the experiences and knowledge acquired by some of his closest followers in Taxila. 2554:, also called the Chaman Hazouri, Chaman Hazouri or Tchamani-i Hazouri hoard, is a coin hoard discovered in the vicinity of 2104:

Herodotus also explains that the Indian cavalry under the Achaemenids had an equipment similar that of their foot soldiers:

10197: 5581: 3446:

employed from Persia following the disintegration of the Achaemenid Empire after the conquests of Alexander the Great. The

2050:

Herodotus, in his description of the multi-ethnic Achaemenid army invading Greece, described the equipment of the Indians:

9487: 8865: 6911: 6059: 5993: 5813:

The hypothesis that the region had already become independent by the end of the reign of Darius I or during the reign of

4081: 4017: 3743: 994: 984: 687: 7679: 3931:(circa 250 BCE) may show Achaemenid influences, including formulaic parallels with Achaemenid inscriptions, presence of 2350:

of combat against war elephants. The elephants were captured with the baggage train by the Greeks after the engagement.

9963: 9806: 9644: 9639: 9336: 8313: 8172: 6559: 5848: 2322:, suggests that the Indians were under Achaemenid dominion at least until 338 BCE, the date of the end of the reign of 1841: 1819: 1810: 3642:-type Indian Buddhist temple designs, such as the "same pointed form of roof, with a ridge", are further developed in 10167: 10162: 10157: 10120: 10088: 9941: 9055: 8967: 8907: 8712: 8690: 8659: 8632: 8584: 8500: 8416: 8388: 8361: 8255: 8199: 8127: 8066: 8039: 8011: 7984: 7912: 7776: 7544: 7517: 7490: 7401: 7358: 7313: 7280: 7253: 7223: 7189: 7159: 7132: 7060: 7033: 6988: 6961: 6934: 6837: 6703: 6626: 6586: 6532: 6505: 6478: 6451: 6421: 6375: 6270: 6224: 6191: 6161: 6114: 5984: 5934: 5896: 5523: 5448: 5399: 5222: 5109: 5038: 4984: 4952: 4887: 4727: 4700: 4602: 4548: 2097: 2024: 1995: 1773:

A small but heavy load: Indian tribute bearer at Apadana, probably carrying gold dust. 1 liter of gold weighs 19.3kg.

1140:: "Spardâ") - what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house! 1010: 3946: 1188: 817: 385: 9936: 9401: 9253: 7718:

Report on the excavations at Pātaliputra (Patna); the Palibothra of the Greeks by Waddell, L. A. (Laurence Austine)

5305: 3168:

became the greatest learning centre in the region, and allowed for exchanges between people from various cultures.

1629: 8770: 6659: 6304:

Naqs-e Rostam – Encyclopaedia Iranica List of nationalities of the Achaemenid military with corresponding drawings

1786:

Medians. The Indians from the Indus valley are bare-chested, except for their leader, and barefooted and wear the

1557:

The three regions remained represented among Achaemenid Provinces on all the tombs of the Achaemenid rulers after

1538:

The Achaemenid Satrapy of Hindush incorporated the Greater Punjab region in the Indus Valley. It was bound by the

1031: 547:

says was produced in vast quantities by this Province, are also unknown in the Indus delta region. Alternatively,

10182: 10177: 10172: 9013: 6044: 1983: 1542:

to the north, the Indus River to the west, and the Jhelum River in the south and east. The satrapy's capital was

9978: 9973: 5238: 3876:

language, official language of the Achaemenid Empire, started to be used in the Indian territories. Some of the

1794:, suggesting that he was carrying some of the gold dust paid by the Indians as tribute to the Achaemenid court. 673:, etc. These ethnicities are likely to have been included in the Achaemenid army during the invasions of India. 604: 9085: 8858: 8003:

Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages

7798:

An historical inquiry into the true principles of beauty in art, more especially with reference to architecture

6895: 5572: 4644:(Fussman, 1993, p. 84). "This is inferred from the fact that Gandhara (OPers. Gandāra) is already mentioned at 4575: 4215: 3647: 3542: 970: 8993: 8743:"Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest)" 6789: 6787: 5556: 5174: 5156: 4450: 3812: 2039:". It was the "first-ever force from India to fight on the continent of Europe", storming Greek troops at the 1059:

Four identical foundation tablets of gold and silver, found in two deposition boxes in the foundations of the

10093: 10066: 9916: 9799: 9341: 8720: 8515:"The figure of a Persian youth (35.2556) wearing coat, scarf, trousers and turban is a rare item." 6021: 5418: 5346: 5324: 4021: 3857: 1913: 1551: 1304: 1184: 918: 783: 7741:"A griffin carved from milky white chalcedony represents a blend of Greek and Achaemenid Persian cultures", 6810:

Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest)

6091: 5376: 5361: 4906: 3654:. The ancient transfer of Lycian designs for rock-cut monuments to India is considered as "quite probable". 10081: 10061: 9863: 9292: 6784: 4921: 3243:, is also said to have been a professor teaching in Taxila. According to Buddhist legend, Kautilya brought 2596:

Modern numismatists now tend to consider the Achaemenid punch-marked coins as the precursors of the Indian

2138: 8678: 6302: 6048: 6008: 5682:

The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys

5652:

The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys

5069:

The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys

1478:, he did not encounter Achaemenid satraps in the Indian provinces, but local Indian rulers referred to as 10049: 9492: 9430: 8777:

The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan

6885: 6829:

The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan

6695:

The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan

6618:

The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan

4594:

The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan

4565: 4089: 3631: 2310:

The presence of the three ethnicities of Indian soldiers on all the tombs of the Achaemenid rulers after

1475: 418:

versions of the Behistun inscription. The geographical extent of this province was wider than the Indian

349: 301: 8863: 6391: 6348: 6243: 6131: 5961: 5721: 5717: 5606: 5125: 3160:, noticed that in the city the dead were being fed to the vultures, a clear allusion to the presence of 2148: 2116: 2062: 1951: 1872: 1801:(circa 490 BCE), there were three Achaemenid Satrapies in the subcontinent: Sattagydia, Gandara, Hidūš. 10001: 9841: 9547: 9189: 9006: 8492:

Material Life of Northern India: Based on an Archaeological Study, 3rd Century B.C. to 1st Century B.C.

8247:

Material Life of Northern India: Based on an Archaeological Study, 3rd Century B.C. to 1st Century B.C.

7004: 6805:"the local coins of the Achaemenid era (...) were the precursors of the bent and punch-marked bars" in 3201: 3157: 2190: 1087:

in the south. This is known as the DPh inscription. The deposition of these foundation tablets and the

9911: 5494: 4771: 4514: 10207: 10125: 10076: 10016: 10006: 9996: 9435: 7729: 2298: 360:(c.600–530 BC), leading the dynasty to take a direct interest into the region of northwestern India. 6719: 6717: 6715: 4222:, studied under the Brahmanas in India, thus contributing to the development of the religion of the 3962: 1465:

provinces still appear in trilingual cuneiform labels above their respective figures on the tomb of

632:) soldiers of the Achaemenid army, as described on Achaemenid royal tombs from circa 500 to 338 BCE. 543:, but there is no known evidence of Achaemenid presence in this region, and deposits of gold, which 516:. The Hamadan Gold and Silver Tablet inscription of Darius I also refers to his conquests in India. 9968: 9896: 9482: 9318: 9164: 7695:

Monuments, Power and Poverty in India: From Ashoka to the Raj, A. S. Bhalla, I.B.Tauris, 2015 p.18

7686:. In: Journal of Subcontinent Researches. Article 8, Volume 6, Issue 19, Summer 2014, Page 149-174. 2650:, the earliest coins developed in India, which used minting technology derived from Greek coinage. 7843: 7802: 4495: 4493: 4491: 4489: 1849: 1595: 10103: 10021: 9533: 9441: 9359: 9128: 7882: 6762: 6760: 6743: 6712: 5814: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4283: 3559: 2272: 988: 289: 5926: 5197: 3527: 2496:"Bent bar" minted under Achaemenid administration, of the type found in large quantities in the 436:, also suggest that Cyrus conquered parts of India. Another Indian Province was conquered named 260:

Persian rule over the Indus Valley decreased over successive rulers and formally ended with the

10108: 10098: 10044: 9754: 9526: 9512: 9498: 9050: 7469:

is explicit on this point, and we have no reason to doubt its accuracy in matter of this kind."

7368: 3969:

in his Behistun inscription, suggesting borrowing and diffusion. There are other borrowings of

3733: 3700: 3569: 3335: 2760: 2532:

coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. These circulated in the area, at least as far as the

2130: 1856:) formed the 20th Province, and was the richest and most populous of the Achaemenid Provinces. 508:

since the nasal "n" before consonants was omitted in the Old Persian script, and simplified as

396:

since the nasal "n" before consonants was omitted in the Old Persian script, and simplified as

8957: 8917: 8831: 8811: 8680: 8649: 8245: 8189: 8162: 8117: 8081: 7766: 7707: 7563:

Pingree, David (1988). "Review of The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science".

7534: 7480: 7149: 7122: 7050: 7023: 6978: 6757: 6495: 6260: 6104: 5974: 5468: 5438: 4974: 4942: 4717: 4466: 3266:

The Persians may have later participated, together with Sakas and Greeks, in the campaigns of

9853: 9848: 9718: 9387: 9238: 8833:

Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of Harmatelia

8700: 8574: 8490: 8351: 8086: 8056: 8001: 7974: 7958: 7946: 7696: 7657: 7507: 7465:, it was with largely the Persian army that he won the throne of India. The testimony of the 7348: 7303: 7299: 7270: 7243: 7179: 7095: 6951: 6924: 6865: 6772: 6576: 6549: 6522: 6468: 6441: 6411: 6365: 6181: 5886: 5838: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5729: 5680: 5650: 5389: 5212: 5067: 5028: 4877: 4690: 4538: 4338: 3747: 3350:

during the 5th century BCE as a consequence of the Achaemenid presence in the sub-continent.

2814: 2447: 2346:

under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the Sattagydians or the Hindush.

2165: 2040: 1449: 1230: 1064: 493: 8829: 8622: 8378: 7822: 7097:

The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities

6926:

The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities

6151: 5099: 4783: 4746: 3615:, in the western part of the Achaemenid Empire, with the Indian architectural design of the 122: 10026: 9780: 9394: 9248: 9184: 8600: 8552: 8319: 8279: 7621: 7215: 4756: 4753: 4749: 4645: 4239: 4211: 4175: 3835: 3459: 3419: 3351: 3165: 2619: 2609: 2509: 2497: 2175: 1885: 1535:

in 1962 who discovered structures built during the Achaemenid period as well as artifacts.

943: 801: 477: 401: 241: 8866:"The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan" 5763: 5726: 5047: 4745:

Some sounds are omitted in the writing of Old Persian, and are shown with a raised letter.

4302:, which had been introduced in India from the time of the Achaemenid conquest of Gandara. 2536:

during the reign of the Achaemenids, who were in control of the areas as far as Gandhara.

8: 9698: 9576: 9540: 9149: 8793: 8771: 8738: 7878:

A catalogue of sculpture in the Department of Greek and Roman antiquities, British museum

7876: 7837: 6793: 6687: 6610: 5818: 5191: 4752:. In particular Old Persian nasals such as "n" were omitted in writing before consonants 4311: 4136:"Persian Nobleman clad in coat dupatta trouser and turban", Mathura, c. 2nd Century BCE. 3518: 3447: 3426:. This is particularly the case for the well-ordered tubular representation of whiskers ( 3267: 3256: 3244: 3240: 3193: 3153: 3066: 2913: 2588: 2576: 2339: 2284: 2161: 1647: 1643: 411: 265: 210: 7796: 7717: 4692:

A Short History of India: From the Earliest Civilisations to Today's Economic Powerhouse

4294:, rebirth, and affirming that good deeds will be rewarded in this life and the next, in 2569:

This numismatic discovery has been very important in studying and dating the history of

217:. In this initial incursion, the Persian army annexed a large region to the west of the 9931: 9906: 9746: 9712: 9688: 9631: 9380: 9346: 9095: 8937: 8885: 8809: 7588: 7452: 7444: 6660:

Bopearachchi & Cribb, Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia 1992

6330: 5919: 5628: 5537: 5535: 5287: 5009: 4932: 4849: 4817: 3852: 3216:

lived in an Achaemenid environment. He is said to have been born in the north-west, in

2647: 2597: 2451: 2069: 886: 842: 670: 572: 461: 283: 8915: 6286: 6076: 4936: 4090:

Figurines of West Asian foreigners in Mathura, Sarnath and Patna (4th-2nd century BCE)

1617:

related that the Persian king was receiving numerous gifts from the kings of "India" (

10115: 10071: 9948: 9888: 9704: 9693: 9455: 9449: 9415: 9408: 9311: 9036: 9031: 8963: 8943: 8923: 8903: 8854: 8837: 8817: 8781: 8708: 8686: 8655: 8628: 8580: 8496: 8412: 8408:

Terracotta Art of Rajasthan: From Pre-Harappan and Harappan Times to the Gupta Period

8384: 8357: 8329: 8289: 8251: 8195: 8168: 8123: 8062: 8035: 8007: 7980: 7908: 7856:

M. Caygill, The British Museum A-Z companion (London, The British Museum Press, 1999)

7772: 7631: 7580: 7540: 7513: 7486: 7456: 7397: 7354: 7309: 7276: 7249: 7219: 7185: 7155: 7128: 7101: 7056: 7029: 6984: 6957: 6930: 6891: 6833: 6699: 6622: 6582: 6555: 6528: 6501: 6474: 6447: 6417: 6371: 6266: 6220: 6187: 6157: 6110: 5980: 5930: 5892: 5844: 5686: 5656: 5519: 5474: 5444: 5395: 5218: 5105: 5073: 5034: 4980: 4948: 4883: 4723: 4696: 4669: 4625: 4598: 4571: 4544: 4370: 4061: 3932: 3795: 3725: 3721: 3715: 3651: 3474: 3451: 3411: 2562:. The hoard, discovered in 1933, contained numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many 2180: 1837: 1614: 726: 519: 353: 214: 117: 8889: 5532: 3346:

Astronomical and astrological knowledge was also probably transmitted to India from

3189: 2832: 1769: 10137: 9953: 9775: 9726: 9571: 9505: 9474: 9463: 9422: 9373: 9304: 9233: 9194: 8877: 7572: 7436: 6853: 6671: 6641: 4649: 4287: 4045: 4013: 3990: 3936: 3928: 3912: 3908: 3889: 3877: 3803: 3759: 2985: 2570: 2218: 2169: 2044: 1815: 1532: 1312: 1168: 1109: 524: 432: 415: 222: 152: 77: 34: 9610: 8799:"Investigating the introduction of coinage in India - A review of recent research" 7816: 7209: 10036: 9988: 9901: 9858: 9740: 9566: 9519: 9285: 9207: 8897: 8775: 8518: 8473: 8455: 8437: 8406: 8323: 8283: 8145: 7902: 7683: 7625: 7391: 7077: 6860: 6827: 6826:

Errington, Elizabeth; Trust, Ancient India and Iran; Museum, Fitzwilliam (1992).

6693: 6692:

Errington, Elizabeth; Trust, Ancient India and Iran; Museum, Fitzwilliam (1992).

6616: 6615:

Errington, Elizabeth; Trust, Ancient India and Iran; Museum, Fitzwilliam (1992).

6214: 5869: 5513: 5335: 5263: 5190:

King, L. W. (Leonard William); Thompson, R. Campbell (Reginald Campbell) (1907).

4663: 4619: 4592: 4591:

Errington, Elizabeth; Trust, Ancient India and Iran; Museum, Fitzwilliam (1992).

4521: 3681: 2922: 2886: 2841: 2089: 1234: 1164: 1105: 1084: 1067:, which describes the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms, from the 599: 489: 369: 357: 206: 143: 8535: 4163:

Some relatively high quality terracotta statuettes have been recovered from the

3674: 368:

The conquest is often thought to have started circa 535 BCE, during the time of

9958: 9468: 9366: 9326: 9279: 9263: 9214: 9179: 9174: 8864:

Magee, Peter; Petrie, Cameron; Knox, Richard; Khan, Farid; Thomas, Ken (2005),

7762: 7677:

The Analysis of Indian Muria Empire affected from Achaemenid's architecture art

6602: 6009:

Archibald, Davies & Gabrielsen, The Economies of Hellenistic Societies 2011

5874:. Institut français de recherches en Iran (section archéologique). p. 146. 5278:

Zournatzi, Antigoni (2003). "The Apadana Coin Hoards, Darius I, and the West".

4276: 4227: 4164: 4137: 4121: 3901: 3897: 3771: 3612: 3578: 3470: 3423: 3391: 3383: 3307: 3248: 3161: 3102: 3048: 2949: 2931: 2778: 2563: 2529: 2323: 2303: 2276: 1925: 1905: 1778: 1743: 1566: 1524: 1418:

The geographical position of the tribes is as follows: along the Indus are the

1414:

in his "Geography" (Book XV), describing the Persian holdings along the Indus:

1393: 1380: 1276: 1264: 1161: 1060: 1036: 934: 902: 625: 457: 406: 305: 7945:

A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 2003,

7440: 3406:, and on the western origins of stone carving in India. The lion is carved in 3402:, raises the question of the Achaemenid and Greek influence on the art of the 1523:

in the north, Afghanistan in the West, the Indus River to the south east, and

148: 139: 113: 10151: 9926: 9655: 9352: 9169: 9101: 9090: 8737: 7676: 7584: 7466: 6871: 6778: 6766: 6723: 6605:(deposited c.350 BC) and Bhir Mound hoards (deposited c.300 BC)." Article by 5607:

Magee et al., The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations 2005

4866:

Marshall, John (1975) . Taxila: Volume I. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 83.

4413: 3861: 3763: 3624: 3435: 3358: 3276: 3039: 2805: 2787: 2769: 2653: 1963: 1727: 1639: 1578: 1573:. The last known appearance of Gandhara in name as an Achaemenid province is 1539: 1520: 1466: 1462: 1419: 1088: 870: 845:

says: These are the countries which are subject unto me, and by the grace of

735: 332: 309: 8955: 8895: 8602:

Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History. London: Bohn (1862) Book 23. pp.316-345

8554:

Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History. London: Bohn (1862) Book 23. pp.316-345

7901:

Malik, Subhash Chandra; Arts, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the (2001).

5921:

Alexander and the East : The Tragedy of Triumph: The Tragedy of Triumph

5741: 4499: 4146: 3213: 3188:, a close friend of the Buddha, Bandhula, the commander of Pasedani's army, 1900: 356:

underwent a considerable expansion, both east and west, during the reign of

9878: 9868: 9828: 4437: 4419: 4399: 4202:, and their presence was a consequence of their eastern forays into India. 3775: 3597: 3407: 3003: 2940: 2859: 2615: 2517: 2260: 1853: 1695: 1528: 1513: 1129: 1068: 964: 804:(circa 500 BCE) also wrote about the "Indus Satrapies" of the Achaemenids. 763: 536: 513: 348:

For millennia, the northwestern part of India had maintained some level of

226: 189: 49: 8881: 2456: 1990: 1625:

making demonstrations of the elephant's strength at the Achaemenid court.

296:. The Achaemenid Empire set a precedence of governance through the use of 9243: 8274: 7758: 7644:

Kumar, Vinay (Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Faculty Member) (2015).

4398:

For example, according to Hultzsch, the first line of the First Edict at

4256: 4199: 4095: 3970: 3954: 3916: 3885: 3779: 3620: 3582: 3442: 3415: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3379: 2823: 2796: 2631: 2559: 2551: 2545: 2528:

hoard in Taxila, have revealed numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many

2469: 1761: 1547: 1137: 1113: 576: 484:

in Punjab. Darius I later conquered an additional province that he calls

381: 373: 320: 218: 198: 45: 8760:"Achaemenids and Mauryans: Emergence of Coins and Plastic Arts in India" 8732: 8698: 7865:

E. Slatter, Xanthus: travels and discovery (London, Rubicon Press, 1994)

7448: 6334: 5632: 5291: 5013: 4853: 4821: 3732:

have similarities, and the "rather cold, hieratic style" of the Sarnath

3374: 3302:" was used by Chandragupta Maurya in his campaign to take the throne in 2123:

The Gandharis had a different equipment, akin to that of the Bactrians:

696: 9873: 9791: 9649: 9596: 9200: 9136: 8935: 5798: 5782: 5769: 5753: 5705: 5541: 5053: 4879:

Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE

4433: 4330: 4247:

In ancient sources, Hystapes is sometimes considered as identical with

4006: 3986: 3892:(the official language of the former Achaemenid Empire), together with 3729: 3685: 3658: 3431: 3145: 2967: 2710: 2696: 2525: 2501: 2477: 2315: 2280: 2268: 2081: 2036: 1967: 1917: 1782: 1635: 1562: 1543: 1492: 1423: 1348: 1300: 1254: 1238: 1172: 1040: 926: 890: 846: 825: 755: 560: 437: 337: 254: 8757: 7592: 4318: 3477:, may also have been a technique imported from the Achaemenid Empire. 1502: 535:

is uncertain. Some scholars have described it as the middle and lower

246: 233:. At peak, the Persians managed to take control of most of modern-day 9258: 8794: 8029: 6683: 6606: 4510: 4508: 4357: 4345: 4260: 4248: 3950: 3839: 3737: 3463: 3315: 3282: 3217: 3197: 2643: 2521: 2488:

Achaemenid Empire coin minted in the Kabul Valley. Circa 500-380 BCE.

2343: 2319: 2292: 2264: 2223: 2202: 2134: 2003: 1947: 1868: 1833: 1823: 1711: 1570: 1427: 1328: 1324: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1097: 1076: 1020: 930: 906: 898: 793: 666: 650: 642: 544: 449: 9070: 8798: 8759: 8742: 8651: