225:
historian De Jonge the Royal Navy at the time had 137 ships of the line and France 68. After much discussion the States-General had decided on a programme of naval construction in 1778. Twenty-four new ships of the line were to be built, but this programme progressed only slowly, mainly because only the province of
Holland paid its share of the cost. None of the new ships were as yet available. This did not bode well for a future naval conflict between the Republic and Great Britain and may help explain a certain lack of enthusiasm in the Dutch navy to engage in such a conflict. Though the Republic did not concede the British interpretation of the Commercial Treaty that naval stores were to be considered contraband after all, the stadtholder prevailed in his policy of nevertheless excluding such stores from the convoys, to minimize friction with the British.
150:
209:. When diplomatic means did not suffice, the Royal Navy resorted increasingly to seizure of what it considered "contraband" in Dutch bottoms on the high seas. This elicited considerable protest from the affected merchants, for which the Dutch government at first ignored completely. France then started to exert pressure on the Dutch government to "defend its treaty rights" by selectively imposing economic sanctions on the Dutch cities that supported the stadtholder in his opposition to taking countermeasures against the seizures. This soon convinced those cities to fall in line with Amsterdam and start clamouring for escort by Dutch naval vessels of
434:
orders to his captains before departure from the Texel that they had to surrender when he gave a designated signal. He later explained that he had written these secret orders, because he foresaw that he would be confronted with an overwhelming superiority in numbers and guns, against which resistance would be useless. He had decided to offer only token resistance in such a case, just enough to "satisfy honour", but that it was imperative to restrain his captains of undue displays of aggressiveness in such a case, as that would defeat his purpose of avoiding needless conflict.
487:, consisting of no less than seven admirals, soon acquitted him of all charges brought against him though his secret surrender orders required some suppleness of mind in explaining them away. However, the prosecutor delivered a statement for the prosecution that might easily have been taken for a statement for the defence, thereby giving a strong impression of a whitewash to contemporaries (though not to sympathetic historians like De Jonge). Many even suspected that Bylandt's conduct was the result of a conspiracy by the stadtholder to avoid supporting the Americans.
498:, shocked by the incident and even more by a similar incident involving some Spanish merchantmen by two Russian warships, decided to issue a manifesto in which she demanded respect of the "free ship, free goods" principle for all neutrals by the belligerents. France and Spain were quick to comply (Spain issued abject apologies), but the British government demurred: the declaration was mainly aimed at the Royal Navy. Catherine then started negotiations with other neutral powers, including the Republic, to form what was to become the (First)
494:. The Dutch would henceforth try to defend their full treaty rights, to the satisfaction of France, which suspended its economic sanctions. The British, on the other hand, ceased all pretence of respecting those treaty rights. In April, 1780 the British abrogated the Commercial Treaty of 1668, and declared that they would henceforth treat the Dutch like any other neutral nation in the conflict, and refrain from continuing to grant the Dutch the "free ship, free goods" rights they had previously enjoyed. Meanwhile, however, Empress
457:
20:
126:
principle of "free ship, free goods"). The concept "contraband" was narrowly defined in these treaties as "arms and munitions." So-called "naval stores" (by which were commonly understood: ship's timbers, masts and spars, rope, canvas, tar and pitch) were not to be considered contraband. This right became important during wars in which
Britain was a participant, but the Republic remained neutral, like the
506:
grant. Eventually the Dutch settled for what was on offer and joined the League in
December, 1780. The British then negated this gambit by declaring war on the Dutch for their secret support of the American rebels, thereby providing the other members of the League with an excuse to withhold their armed assistance to the Dutch. The
505:
The
Republic saw an opportunity in it to protect itself from the Royal Navy seizures of its trade without having to join the war against Great Britain. However, the Dutch overplayed their hand by asking for a guarantee of their colonies by the other members of the League. This Catherine was loath to
437:
This was a typical example of eighteenth-century warfare that, more than modern warfare, was aimed at avoiding needless casualties. The
British interpreted the striking of the colours as it was intended: to break off the fight and not as an actual surrender. They made no attempt to board the Dutch
224:
convoy services to Dutch shipping. This despite the fact that the Dutch navy, because of long neglect, had become only a shadow of its former self. The 20 ships of the line that were not too old to serve, were no match for the larger Royal Navy ships armed with 90 or 80 guns. According to the Dutch
196:
power was therefore very useful for the French and their war effort. Britain, of course, viewed these developments with disfavour, and lobbied the Dutch government to put a end to them. Diplomatic means failed, however. The
Republic refused to provide military assistance in the form of the "loan" of
382:
of the naval escorts of the convoy were usually accepted when the commanding officer asserted on his word of honour that the convoy did not transport contraband. He produced the manifests of the ships in the convoy and sworn statements of the captains of the merchantmen that they did not transport
125:
of 1674) an important concession from
England: the right to transport non-contraband goods in its ships to countries with which Britain was at war, without these goods being subject to seizure by Britain even if they were owned by subjects of belligerent powers (this was usually referred to as the
116:
of 1688) as the senior partner in the alliance, but later in the eighteenth century as the increasingly junior partner. The Dutch had signed a number of treaties of military alliance with the
British (notably those of 1678, 1689 and 1716) which obliged it to offer armed support in case the British
433:
and signalled the other Dutch ships to do the same. This was remarkable, as the Dutch standing orders explicitly prohibited Dutch ships from surrendering if they were still capable of fighting, even when the flagship surrendered. It transpired at
Bylandt's court martial that he had given sealed
627:
because he wished to marry off his only daughter to the Prince of Wales. However, in reality this happened much later (the daughter, Frederika Luise
Wilhelmina, was born in 1770), and is unlikely to have had an influence at the time. To illustrate William's personal animosity toward the American
387:
or iron (he apparently was well informed) and Bylandt admitted that they did and that this had never been considered contraband. Marshall replied that according to his new orders these particular commodities now constituted contraband. Seeing that Marshall was refusing to budge to his demands,
241:
under Rear-Admiral Count Lodewijk van Bylandt), the stadtholder gave written instructions that these should exclude ships that transported naval stores (as he at the time understood that the British defined those: in essence ships' timbers). He also prohibited allowing ships from "nations not
447:
as he was entitled to under the several Anglo-Dutch treaties. Normally the Dutch did not object to this procedure, but in this case Bylandt hesitated. However, to avoid the possibility of starting an engagement in which his fleet was outmatched, and because he wished to carefully observe the
448:
treaties, Bylandt complied with this demand. Dutch public opinion would later hold it against him. Finally, the British sailed with their prizes to Portsmouth, followed into port by Bylandt, who sent a complaint to the Dutch ambassador in Britain, count Van Welderen, as soon as he arrived.
421:
then fired two shots across its bow to make it veer away. About what happened next the British and Dutch versions differ. According to Bylandt and his captains in their depositions under oath during his court martial the three British ships immediately replied with a
392:
to negotiate directly with Fielding. This too failed to produce agreement. Fielding announced that he would start searching the Dutch vessels the next morning (as night had now fallen) and the younger Bylandt replied that in that case the Dutch would open fire.
442:
being stashed in the hold. He then sent a message to Bylandt allowing him to rehoist his colours and proceed on his way. Bylandt replied, however, that he would stay with the merchantmen. Fielding then demanded that the Dutch warships would salute the
171:
and his autocratic regime, who were inclined against supporting the Americans. However, the highly federalized structure of the Republic prevented the central government from effectively interfering with the commerce of cities like
426:, to which the Dutch ships replied with one broadside of their own. According to Fielding he fired a single shot, which was answered by a broadside, to which the British answered with broadsides of their own.
204:
in 1779, and refused to embargo the export of arms and munitions. These refusals were due to the influence of Amsterdam, but also to diplomatic counter-pressure of France, exerted by its highly able ambassador
83:
Bylandt attempted to avoid the engagement by offering to allow the British to inspect the ships' manifests, but when Fielding insisted on a physical inspection, Bylandt put up a brief show of force, before
396:
During the night twelve of the Dutch merchantmen managed to slip away so that the next morning the convoy only consisted of the remaining five. Fielding now closed in with three of his ships of the line
383:
contraband, and added that he had personally satisfied himself that the convoy did not contain ship's timbers, though the Dutch did not consider this contraband. Marshall asked whether the ships carried
628:
Revolution: there exists a letter by him from August 1776 in which he calls the American Declaration of Independence "the parody of the proclamation issued by our forefathers against King Philip II.";
197:
its mercenary Scottish Brigade, when Britain requested that brigade for service in America. It also (reluctantly) provided shelter in Dutch territorial waters for the squadron of the American
92:, followed by the Dutch squadron. The incident worsened the already strained diplomatic relations between Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. It also contributed to the formation of the
220:(the governing body of the Republic) changed its position in November, 1779 and ordered the stadtholder, in his quality of commander-in-chief of the Dutch armed forces, to start offering
250:
863:
947:
917:
576:
555:
138:
and their allies, France and Spain. Arguably it exempted Dutch bottoms from inspection by the Royal Navy (or at least from confiscation of the goods in British
871:
188:. The Amsterdam merchants also supplied France with naval stores, which that country needed for its naval construction, but was unable to procure itself in
569:
545:
68:, escorting a Dutch convoy. The Dutch and British were not yet at war, but the British wished to inspect the Dutch merchantmen for what they considered
353:(Captain Anthony Hunt), the 32-gun HMS Emerald (Captain Samuel Marshall), the 20-gun ships HMS Seaford (Captain Isaac Prescott) and HMS Camel (Captain
471:
Dutch public opinion was incensed, both by the inspection and by what they considered Bylandt's pusillanimity, that in the view of many amounted to
438:
warships. Fielding proceeded with his inspection of the five merchantmen and duly arrested them when he found the contraband in question, bales of
176:, which conducted a highly profitable trade with the American rebels (exchanging arms and munitions for colonial wares, like tobacco) via the
962:
922:
957:
246:) to become part of the convoys. Finally, he enjoined Bylandt to avoid anything that might jeopardize the neutrality of the Republic.
952:
146:
on the trade of her enemies, especially because Dutch shipping at the time still played a major role in the European carrying trade.
206:
937:
108:
The Dutch Republic had, after a period of strife during the second half of the seventeenth century, become a steadfast ally of the
932:
912:
836:
641:
373:
Marshall. Marshall demanded Bylandt's acquiescence in a physical inspection of the Dutch merchantmen by the British.
217:
149:
942:
620:
499:
93:
927:
308:
122:
168:
153:
854:
281:
131:
77:
300:
the convoy encountered a British squadron in the morning of 30 December. This consisted of the 90-gun
296:(Captain Mulder). They escorted 17 Dutch merchantmen. After progressing calmly a few days through the
88:(ie. surrendering). The British squadron then seized the Dutch merchantmen and took them as prizes to
490:
As a consequence of the political unrest, the stadtholder had to cease his resistance to unlimited
181:
109:
507:
495:
118:
97:
51:
562:
461:
354:
322:
65:
388:
Bylandt then sent his own flag captain, his nephew Frederik Sigismond van Bylandt, to the
357:), the 12-gun HMS Hawk (Captain Richard Murray) and the 8-gun HMS Wolf (Captain M. Cole).
8:
720:
347:
161:
127:
113:
85:
725:
430:
340:
329:
315:
832:
637:
484:
423:
135:
73:
301:
270:
254:
54:
24:
96:
to which the Dutch tried to accede in December of 1780. Britain then declared the
297:
243:
201:
31:
456:
533:
336:
58:
160:
Though public opinion in the Republic became more and more sympathetic to the
906:
886:
873:
552:
480:
366:
238:
185:
43:
465:
444:
370:
62:
376:
Bylandt replied that such a request was unprecedented as in peacetime the
234:
192:
and the Baltic countries, due to the British blockade. The Republic as a
165:
139:
177:
378:
89:
69:
47:
624:
623:. Edler suggests that he had a personal stake in good relations with
542:
472:
198:
173:
19:
164:
in the years after 1776, the Dutch government that was dominated by
307:, flying the broad pennant of Commodore Fielding, the 74-gun ships
266:
249:
233:
When the first convoys were prepared in December 1779 (one to the
142:), thereby undermining Britain's ability to maintain an effective
121:
and its offshoot, the Commercial Treaty of 1668 (confirmed in the
476:
143:
237:, under Rear-Admiral Willem Crul, and another to France and the
16:
Brief naval engagement off the Isle of Wight on 31 December 1779
491:
362:
210:
189:
818:
Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain, from 1727 to 1783
413:(the other two Dutch ships were out of reach). Nevertheless,
365:
to which Bylandt agreed. Fielding then sent a boat with two
262:
757:
Fiske, p. 153; De Jonge, pp. 412– 413 and fn. 2 on 412
439:
384:
117:
requested it. On the other hand, it had obtained in the
417:sent a launch to one of the Dutch merchantmen and
261:The squadron of Admiral Bylandt departed from the
634:The declaration of independence: a global history
904:
429:After this exchange of fire Bylandt immediately
918:Diplomacy during the American Revolutionary War
697:
695:
479:. To defend his honour Bylandt then demanded a
242:recognized by the Republic" (i.e. the ships of
829:The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution
733:
948:Netherlands–United Kingdom military relations
820:. Vol. 6. Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme.
401:and two 74s) but was blocked by Bylandt with
766:De Jonge, pp. 413–414 and p. 413 fn. 1
692:
619:Edler, p. 209; William was a cousin of king
860:Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen
361:hailed the Dutch flagship and asked for a
464:depicted in a caricature during the 1782
265:on 27 December 1779. It consisted of his
134:, in which Britain opposed the rebelling
719:
613:
455:
248:
148:
18:
815:
531:A subsequent prize money notice in the
905:
513:
207:Paul François de Quelen de la Vauguyon
42:was a brief naval engagement off the
274:Prinses Royal Frederika Sophia Maria
923:Military history of the Netherlands
831:. University Press of the Pacific,
292:(Captain Silvester) and the 26-gun
13:
346:(Captain H. Bromedge), the 50-gun
14:
974:
253:The British commander, Commodore
218:States-General of the Netherlands
94:First League of Armed Neutrality
963:Dutch Republic–France relations
938:1779 in international relations
796:
787:
778:
769:
760:
751:
742:
713:
704:
525:
228:
958:France–Great Britain relations
683:
674:
665:
656:
647:
604:
595:
57:, and a naval squadron of the
46:on 31 December 1779 between a
40:affair of Fielding and Bylandt
1:
729:. 23 October 1781. p. 2.
103:
953:France–Netherlands relations
739:De Jonge, pp. 408– 409
662:De Jonge, pp. 391– 395
636:. Harvard University Press,
451:
288:(Captain Nauman), the 26-gun
78:American War of Independence
7:
933:1770s in the Dutch Republic
784:De Jonge, pp. 418–428
775:De Jonge, pp. 414–416
748:De Jonge, pp. 409–411
671:De Jonge, pp. 396–398
328:(Captain James Bradby) and
154:William V, Prince of Orange
30:, here depicted during the
10:
979:
913:American Revolutionary War
808:
500:League of Armed Neutrality
282:Jan Hendrik van Kinsbergen
132:American Revolutionary War
541:, but also includes the
321:(Captain J. N. P. Nott),
816:Beatson, Robert (1804).
802:Edler, pp. 138–173
793:Edler, pp. 134–136
680:De Jonge, p. 407, note 1
653:Edler, pp. 100–117
483:to clear his name. This
314:(Captain Thomas Allen),
182:Dutch West India Company
110:Kingdom of Great Britain
943:International incidents
846:The American Revolution
827:(2001; repr. 1911 ed.)
369:, one of which was his
112:, initially (after the
50:squadron, commanded by
508:Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
496:Catherine II of Russia
468:
258:
157:
98:Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
76:, then engaged in the
35:
23:The British flagship,
928:1779 in Great Britain
459:
252:
152:
123:Treaty of Westminster
22:
462:Lodewijk van Bylandt
460:The Dutch commander
355:Richard Rodney Bligh
100:shortly afterwards.
86:striking his colours
66:Lodewijk van Bylandt
883: /
514:Notes and citations
162:American Revolution
130:and after 1778 the
114:Glorious Revolution
726:The London Gazette
469:
431:struck his colours
259:
158:
36:
537:does not mention
485:blue-ribbon panel
184:in its colony of
136:American colonies
970:
898:
897:
895:
894:
893:
888:
887:50.233°N 1.583°W
884:
881:
880:
879:
876:
857:
852:
843:
826:
821:
803:
800:
794:
791:
785:
782:
776:
773:
767:
764:
758:
755:
749:
746:
740:
737:
731:
730:
717:
711:
708:
702:
699:
690:
689:De Jonge, p. 407
687:
681:
678:
672:
669:
663:
660:
654:
651:
645:
631:
617:
611:
608:
602:
599:
583:
529:
409:and the frigate
271:ship of the line
255:Charles Fielding
213:of merchantmen.
128:Seven Years' War
55:Charles Fielding
978:
977:
973:
972:
971:
969:
968:
967:
903:
902:
891:
889:
885:
882:
877:
874:
872:
870:
869:
867:
862:(third edition)
853:
850:
841:
824:
811:
806:
801:
797:
792:
788:
783:
779:
774:
770:
765:
761:
756:
752:
747:
743:
738:
734:
718:
714:
710:Beatson, p. 198
709:
705:
700:
693:
688:
684:
679:
675:
670:
666:
661:
657:
652:
648:
629:
618:
614:
609:
605:
600:
596:
587:
586:
530:
526:
516:
454:
298:English Channel
244:John Paul Jones
231:
202:John Paul Jones
119:Treaty of Breda
106:
61:, commanded by
32:Battle of Lagos
17:
12:
11:
5:
976:
966:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
915:
892:50.233; -1.583
866:
865:
855:Jonge, J.C. de
848:
839:
822:
812:
810:
807:
805:
804:
795:
786:
777:
768:
759:
750:
741:
732:
712:
703:
691:
682:
673:
664:
655:
646:
612:
603:
593:
592:
591:
585:
584:
534:London Gazette
523:
522:
521:
520:
515:
512:
453:
450:
367:parlimentaires
339:), the 60-gun
337:Samuel Goodall
284:), the 44-gun
230:
227:
105:
102:
59:Dutch Republic
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
975:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
910:
908:
901:
899:
896:
864:
861:
856:
849:
847:
840:
838:
837:0-89875-269-8
834:
830:
823:
819:
814:
813:
799:
790:
781:
772:
763:
754:
745:
736:
728:
727:
722:
716:
707:
701:Fiske, p. 153
698:
696:
686:
677:
668:
659:
650:
643:
642:0-674-02282-3
639:
635:
626:
622:
616:
610:Edler, p. 100
607:
598:
594:
589:
588:
581:
580:
574:
573:
567:
566:
560:
559:
554:
550:
549:
544:
540:
536:
535:
528:
524:
518:
517:
511:
510:had started.
509:
503:
501:
497:
493:
488:
486:
482:
481:court martial
478:
474:
467:
463:
458:
449:
446:
441:
435:
432:
427:
425:
420:
419:Prinses Royal
416:
412:
408:
404:
403:Prinses Royal
400:
394:
391:
386:
381:
380:
374:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
351:
345:
344:
338:
334:
333:
327:
326:
320:
319:
313:
312:
306:
305:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
276:, the 40-gun
275:
272:
269:, the 54-gun
268:
264:
256:
251:
247:
245:
240:
239:Mediterranean
236:
226:
223:
219:
214:
212:
208:
203:
200:
195:
191:
187:
186:St. Eustatius
183:
179:
175:
170:
167:
163:
155:
151:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
124:
120:
115:
111:
101:
99:
95:
91:
87:
81:
79:
75:
72:destined for
71:
67:
64:
60:
56:
53:
49:
45:
44:Isle of Wight
41:
33:
29:
28:
21:
900:
868:
859:
845:
828:
817:
798:
789:
780:
771:
762:
753:
744:
735:
724:
715:
706:
685:
676:
667:
658:
649:
633:
630:Armitage, D.
615:
606:
601:Edler, p. 96
597:
578:
571:
564:
557:
547:
538:
532:
527:
504:
489:
470:
466:Brest Affair
445:White Ensign
436:
428:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
395:
389:
377:
375:
371:flag captain
358:
349:
342:
331:
324:
317:
310:
303:
293:
289:
285:
277:
273:
260:
232:
229:The incident
221:
215:
193:
159:
156:, c. 1768-69
140:prize courts
107:
82:
63:rear-admiral
39:
37:
26:
890: /
721:"No. 12236"
579:Flying Fish
235:West Indies
166:stadtholder
907:Categories
851:(in Dutch)
621:George III
558:Expedition
551:, and the
379:bona fides
257:, c. 1780
104:Background
90:Portsmouth
70:contraband
48:Royal Navy
842:Fiske, J.
825:Edler, F.
625:the Crown
590:Citations
577:HMS
570:HMS
565:Sprightly
563:HMS
556:HMS
546:HMS
543:post ship
475:, if not
473:cowardice
452:Aftermath
424:broadside
359:Courageux
348:HMS
335:(Captain
330:HMS
325:Thunderer
323:HMS
316:HMS
311:Courageux
309:HMS
302:HMS
280:(Captain
199:privateer
174:Amsterdam
169:William V
52:Commodore
25:HMS
350:Portland
267:flagship
178:entrepĂ´t
875:50°14′N
858:(1869)
844:(1919)
809:Sources
644:, p. 43
632:(2007)
553:cutters
477:treason
343:Buffalo
332:Valiant
318:Centaur
286:Zwieten
222:limited
211:convoys
194:neutral
180:of the
144:embargo
34:in 1759
878:1°35′W
835:
640:
575:, and
572:Nimble
548:Daphne
492:convoy
363:parley
190:Norway
74:France
519:Notes
415:Namur
411:Alarm
399:Namur
390:Namur
304:Namur
294:Alarm
263:Texel
27:Namur
833:ISBN
638:ISBN
539:Wolf
440:hemp
407:Argo
385:hemp
341:HMS
290:Valk
278:Argo
216:The
38:The
909::
723:.
694:^
568:,
561:,
502:.
405:,
80:.
582:.
397:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
