252:. Akathisia is also associated with threatening behaviour and physical aggression in mentally disordered patients. However, the attempts to find potential links between akathisia and emerging suicidal or homicidal behaviour were not systematic and were mostly based on a limited number of case reports and small case series. Apart from these few low-quality studies, there is another more recent and better quality study (a systematic review from 2021) that concludes akathisia cannot be reliably linked to the presence of suicidal behaviour in patients treated with antipsychotic medication.
883:"In 1954, two separate researchers, Professor Hans Steck of Lausanne, and German psychiatrist Hans Joachim Haase provided the first unambiguous descriptions of a syndrome of abnormally reduced and restricted movement that was associated with chlorpromazine. They also described the drug-induced agitation known as akathisia (Hasse, 1954; Steck, 1954)."
282:
from akathisia. Akathisia is often included as a component of activation syndrome. However, the two phenomena are not the same since the former, namely antipsychotic-induced akathisia, suggests a known neuroreceptor mechanism (e.g., dopamine-receptor blockade). Diagnosis is based on the symptoms. It
428:
Visible signs of akathisia include repetitive movements, such as crossing and uncrossing the legs and constant shifting from one foot to the other. Other noted signs include rocking back and forth, fidgeting, and pacing. However, not all observable restless motion is akathisia. For example, while
447:, who was diagnosed with akathisia, described the sensation in 1981 as: "You ache with restlessness, so you feel you have to walk, to pace. And then as soon as you start pacing, the opposite occurs to you; you must sit and rest. Back and forth, up and down you go … you cannot get relief …"
49:
692:
The primary distinguishing features of akathisia in comparison with other syndromes are primarily subjective characteristics, such as the feeling of inner restlessness and tension. Akathisia can commonly be mistaken for agitation secondary to psychotic symptoms or
248:, rock back and forth, or pace, while some may just have an uneasy feeling in their body. The most severe cases may result in poor adherence to medications, exacerbation of psychiatric symptoms, and, because of this, aggression, violence, and/or
52:
287:
in that akathisia is not associated with sleeping. However, despite a lack of historical association between restless leg syndrome and akathisia, this does not guarantee that the two conditions do not share symptoms in individual cases.
50:
618:
is poorly understood. Even so, drugs with successful therapeutic effects in the treatment of medication-induced akathisia have provided additional insight into the involvement of other transmitter systems. These include
2280:
Berna, F.; Misdrahi, D.; Boyer, L.; Aouizerate, B.; Brunel, L.; Capdevielle, D.; Chereau, I.; Danion, J. M.; Dorey, J. M.; Dubertret, C.; Dubreucq, J.; Faget, C.; Gabayet, F.; Lancon, C.; Mallet, J. (1 December 2015).
51:
3419:
3404:
420:
When misdiagnosis occurs in antipsychotic-induced akathisia, more antipsychotics may be prescribed, potentially worsening the symptoms. If not identified, akathisia symptoms can increase in severity and lead to
689:, which assesses both objective and subjective criteria. Precise assessment of akathisia is problematic, as there are various types making it difficult to differentiate from disorders with similar symptoms.
1764:
Hansen, Lars (2003). "Fluoxetine Dose-Increment
Related Akathisia in Depression: Implications for Clinical Care, Recognition and Management of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor-Induced Akathisia".
2148:
Kane, John M.; Fleischhacker, Wolfgang W.; Hansen, Lars; Perlis, Roy; Pikalov a, Andrei; Assunção-Talbott, Sheila (2009). "Akathisia: An
Updated Review Focusing on Second-Generation Antipsychotics".
1917:
Kane, John M.; Fleischhacker, Wolfgang W.; Hansen, Lars; Perlis, Roy; Pikalov a, Andrei; Assunção-Talbott, Sheila (2009). "Akathisia: An
Updated Review Focusing on Second-Generation Antipsychotics".
365:
concern, however, as it can be experienced purely subjectively without apparent movement abnormalities. Akathisia is generally associated with antipsychotics, but was previously described in
2929:
3315:
3310:
274:, though any medication listing agitation as a side effect may trigger it. It may also occur upon stopping antipsychotics. The underlying mechanism is believed to involve
3327:
3305:
393:
Symptoms of akathisia are often described in vague terms, such as feeling nervous, uneasy, tense, twitchy, restless, and unable to relax. Reported symptoms also include
53:
2478:
2079:
Kim, JH; Byun, HJ (2003). "Prevalence and characteristics of subjective akathisia, objective akathisia, and mixed akathisia in chronic schizophrenic subjects".
1096:
Laoutidis, ZG; Luckhaus, C (May 2014). "5-HT2A receptor antagonists for the treatment of neuroleptic-induced akathisia: a systematic review and meta-analysis".
739:, an antipsychotic antidote, commonly used to improve acute extrapyramidal side effects related to antipsychotic drug therapy, is also used to treat akathisia.
791:
Approximately one out of four individuals treated with first-generation antipsychotics have akathisia. Prevalence rates may be lower for modern treatment as
333:, who described the phenomenon in 1901 long before the discovery of antipsychotics, with drug-induced akathisia first being described in 1960. It is from
1697:
413:. When caused by psychiatric drugs, akathisia usually disappears quickly once the medication is reduced or stopped. However, late-onset akathisia, or
2674:
795:
carry a lower risk of akathisia. In 2015, a French study found an overall prevalence rate of 18.5% in a sample of outpatients with schizophrenia.
2669:
2471:
3503:
783:, may be of help. Although they are sometimes used to treat akathisia, benzodiazepines and antidepressants can actually cause akathisia.
2283:"Akathisia: prevalence and risk factors in a community-dwelling sample of patients with schizophrenia. Results from the FACE-SZ dataset"
2123:
3297:
244:
accompanied by mental distress and/or an inability to sit still. Usually, the legs are most prominently affected. Those affected may
1146:
Poyurovsky M, Weizman A (June 2020). "Treatment of
Antipsychotic-Induced Akathisia: Role of Serotonin 5-HT2a Receptor Antagonists".
438:
3287:
2464:
263:
124:
3267:
2940:
1484:"Cyproheptadine versus propranolol for the treatment of acute neuroleptic-induced akathisia: a comparative double-blind study"
3292:
2924:
2416:
2388:
1967:
1602:
3130:
3118:
2580:
1414:"MISSD - The Medication-Induced Suicide Prevention and Education Foundation in Memory of Stewart Dolin - Akathisia Support"
1296:"Relationship of akathisia to aggressive and self-injurious behaviour: A prevalence study in a UK tertiary referral centre"
1247:"The Incidence of Akathisia in the Treatment of Schizophrenia with Aripiprazole, Asenapine and Lurasidone: A Meta-Analysis"
302:, although paradoxically associated the development of akathisia in some individuals, has demonstrated benefit, as have
3349:
3282:
2837:
1069:
3052:
2855:
1733:
1631:
3171:
1482:
Fischel, T.; Hermesh, H.; Aizenberg, D.; Zemishlany, Z.; Munitz, H.; Benjamini, Y.; Weizman, A. (December 2001).
1015:
Lohr, JB; Eidt, CA; Abdulrazzaq
Alfaraj, A; Soliman, MA (December 2015). "The clinical challenges of akathisia".
441:
may present like akathisia, movements resulting from them feel voluntary, rather than being due to restlessness.
369:
and other neuropsychiatric disorders. It can also present with the use of non-psychiatric medications, including
2686:
2662:
2492:
259:
1878:"The Hunter Serotonin Toxicity Criteria: simple and accurate diagnostic decision rules for serotonin toxicity"
3365:
3250:
3166:
3108:
2878:
2657:
2432:
Why was Jordan
Peterson placed in a medically induced coma? What we know about benzodiazepines and treatment
771:
may also be of help in treating acute akathisia but are much less effective for treating chronic akathisia.
3334:
2708:
1354:
Kalniunas, Arturas; Chakrabarti, Ipsita; Mandalia, Rakhee; Munjiza, Jasna; Pappa, Sofia (3 December 2021).
725:
611:
2844:
3322:
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2544:
662:
and related syndromes, with descriptions of akathisia predating the existence of pharmacologic agents.
2282:
1808:
Altshuler, L. L.; Pierre, J. M.; Wirshing, W. C.; Ames, D. (August 1994). "Sertraline and akathisia".
1356:"The Relationship Between Antipsychotic-Induced Akathisia and Suicidal Behaviour: A Systematic Review"
3272:
3240:
3214:
3192:
3041:
2620:
1720:
665:
Akathisia can be miscoded in side effect reports from antidepressant clinical trials as "agitation,
3438:
3339:
3113:
2527:
1851:
539:
370:
2431:
3344:
3277:
3033:
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3209:
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2832:
2804:
2652:
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698:
686:
659:
410:
366:
262:, are a leading cause. Other agents commonly responsible for this side-effect may also include
149:
2406:
1953:
1059:
278:. When antidepressants are the cause, there is no agreement regarding the distinction between
3224:
3098:
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2732:
2642:
2629:
2554:
670:
398:
284:
241:
174:
88:
3161:
2978:
2867:
2188:
Bratti IM, Kane JM, Marder SR (November 2007). "Chronic restlessness with antipsychotics".
1876:
Dunkley, E.J.C.; Isbister, G.K.; Sibbritt, D.; Dawson, A.H.; Whyte, I.M. (18 August 2003).
764:
628:
444:
804:
330:
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3423:
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that was associated with an autoimmune disorder and was subsequently treated in Russia.
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1215:
1190:
1171:
1040:
947:
923:"Revisiting Antipsychotic-induced Akathisia: Current Issues and Prospective Challenges"
922:
724:
Acute akathisia induced by medication, often antipsychotics, is treated by reducing or
710:
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1024:
942:
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851:
was diagnosed with akathisia after being treated for insomnia and depression with
401:, marked anxiety, and panic. Symptoms have also been said to resemble symptoms of
3443:
3068:
2759:
2378:
2298:
1957:
1560:
848:
807:, who described the phenomenon in a non-medication induced presentation in 1901.
780:
776:
756:
706:
636:
632:
615:
578:
362:
303:
205:
197:
185:
3481:
3454:
3125:
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2902:
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2488:
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appeared in 1954. Later in 1960 there were reports of akathisia in response to
811:
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620:
563:
530:
315:
296:
267:
128:
120:
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3151:
3103:
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2306:
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1829:
1778:
1544:"Antidepressants and Violence: Problems at the Interface of Medicine and Law"
1507:
1468:
1381:
1319:
815:
694:
607:
551:
474:
334:
319:
255:
217:
158:
2354:
2337:
2036:
Barnes, Thomas R. E. (2003). "The Barnes
Akathisia Rating Scale–Revisited".
1483:
1445:"SSRI-Induced Activation Syndrome in Children and Adolescents—What Is Next?"
1444:
1295:
382:
2647:
2517:
2500:
2444:
Mikhaila
Peterson's Response to The Times Article (and subsequent articles)
2363:
2314:
2266:
2209:
2169:
2100:
2057:
1938:
1903:
1894:
1877:
1786:
1698:"Akathisia: Is restlessness a primary condition or an adverse drug effect?"
1579:
1515:
1399:
1327:
1280:
1224:
1167:
1117:
1036:
956:
833:, an antipsychotic medication, was used to induce intense restlessness and
826:
748:
624:
571:
491:
406:
311:
170:
2014:
2006:
1837:
1682:
1626:(5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association. 2013. pp. 711–712.
822:
along with other movement disorders that can be caused by antipsychotics.
2606:
2567:
2509:
2161:
1930:
830:
760:
752:
732:
547:
535:
499:
487:
483:
479:
323:
299:
213:
209:
2124:"RACGP - Beyond anxiety and agitation: A clinical approach to akathisia"
1962:(illustrated ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 215.
1443:
Amitai, Maya; Chen, Alon; Weizman, Abraham; Apter, Alan (1 March 2015).
1372:
669:, and hyperkinesis (overactivity)"; misdiagnosis of akathisia as simple
2717:
2587:
845:
674:
647:
558:
523:
519:
515:
511:
495:
378:
374:
192:
75:
3396:
417:
may persist for months or years after the medication is discontinued.
3473:
2827:
2766:
2749:
2681:
829:, akathisia-inducing drugs were allegedly used as a form of torture.
772:
744:
736:
716:
The controversial diagnosis of "pseudoakathisia" is sometimes given.
651:
543:
307:
271:
245:
201:
132:
71:
3302:
Spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance (SMALED)
3007:
2999:
2965:
2819:
2722:
1993:
Barnes, T. R. (1989). "A rating scale for drug-induced akathisia".
1353:
864:
702:
394:
275:
166:
1624:
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5
1191:"Antipsychotic-induced akathisia in delirium: A systematic review"
1014:
291:
If akathisia is caused by an antipsychotic, treatment may include
2486:
1481:
685:
The presence and severity of akathisia can be measured using the
655:
154:
3408:
3046:
2787:
2754:
2380:
The
Bitterest Pills: The Troubling Story of Antipsychotic Drugs
1951:
1724:(1981/1991). Vintage Books, 35–36. Quoted in Robert Whitaker,
2147:
1916:
1875:
430:
349:, meaning "to sit", or in other words an "inability to sit".
341:
2279:
642:
Akathisia involves increased levels of the neurotransmitter
1807:
1542:
Healy, David; Herxheimer, Andrew; Menkes, David B. (2006).
506:
16:
Movement disorder involving a feeling of inner restlessness
1244:
920:
2122:
Practitioners, The Royal
Australian College of General.
1300:
International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice
1294:
Stubbs, J. H.; Hutchins, D. A.; Mountjoy, C. Q. (2000).
357:
Akathisia is usually classified as a medication-induced
1442:
1293:
1541:
1061:
Kaufman's Clinical Neurology for Psychiatrists E-Book
3386:
2338:"Ladislav Haskovec and akathisia: 100th anniversary"
2230:
1413:
1189:
Forcen, FE; Matsoukas, K; Alici, Y (February 2016).
1188:
1098:
The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology
646:, which is associated with mechanisms that regulate
2233:"Mirtazapine adjunct for people with schizophrenia"
803:The term was first used by Czech neuropsychiatrist
329:The term was first used by Czech neuropsychiatrist
1245:Thomas, JE; Caballero, J; Harrington, CA (2015).
1145:
1095:
1058:Kaufman, David Myland; Milstein, Mark J. (2012).
921:Salem H, Nagpal C, Pigott T, Teixeira AL (2017).
3495:
2187:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
818:(a related drug). Akathisia is classified as an
713:, or other neurological and medical conditions.
2434:Published 11 February 2020 by the National Post
1959:Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry
1057:
240:characterized by a subjective feeling of inner
2472:
2370:
1124:
810:Reports of medication-induced akathisia from
631:. Another major cause of the syndrome is the
606:and is frequently associated with the use of
2376:
2231:Perry LA, Ramson D, Stricklin S (May 2018).
1954:"Chapter 14: Pharmacotherapy in the Elderly"
1537:
1535:
1533:
3191:
2411:. Princeton University Press. p. 392.
2335:
1745:
1597:. Cambridge University Press. p. 299.
916:
914:
912:
910:
908:
906:
904:
902:
900:
673:occurred, but was more properly classed as
2479:
2465:
1689:
47:
2353:
2256:
2224:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2121:
1952:Marc E. Agronin; Gabe J. Maletta (2006).
1893:
1759:
1757:
1672:
1569:
1559:
1530:
1389:
1371:
1270:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1214:
1064:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 429.
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
946:
184:Reduce or switch antipsychotics, correct
1910:
1852:"Remeron (Mirtazapine) Drug Information"
1091:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1081:
984:
982:
980:
978:
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
897:
439:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
295:with a lower risk of the condition. The
2141:
2078:
1988:
1986:
1646:
1640:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1592:
1449:Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry
602:Medication-induced akathisia is termed
461:Medication related causes of akathisia
264:selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
125:selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
3496:
3268:Distal hereditary motor neuronopathies
2941:Template:Demyelinating diseases of CNS
2404:
2176:
2035:
1992:
1810:Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology
1763:
1754:
1695:
1488:Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology
1360:Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment
1231:
1182:
2460:
2336:Mohr, P; Volavka, J (December 2002).
2115:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1078:
963:
455:
388:
3119:Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
2508:
1983:
1611:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1586:
13:
3504:Symptoms and signs: Nervous system
3350:Infantile progressive bulbar palsy
2377:J. Moncrieff (15 September 2013).
2150:The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
1919:The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
1750:. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
1431:
14:
3515:
3053:Template:Cerebrovascular diseases
2856:Frontotemporal lobar degeneration
2452:
2342:The British Journal of Psychiatry
1995:The British Journal of Psychiatry
1342:
1263:10.2174/1570159x13666150115220221
939:10.2174/1570159X14666161208153644
352:
91:, inability to stay still, uneasy
19:For the album by Hovercraft, see
3073:For more detailed coverage, see
3051:For more detailed coverage, see
3022:For more detailed coverage, see
2988:For more detailed coverage, see
2939:For more detailed coverage, see
2093:10.1097/00002826-200311000-00010
1822:10.1097/00004714-199408000-00010
1500:10.1097/00004714-200112000-00013
1195:Palliative & Supportive Care
793:second-generation antipsychotics
2437:
2425:
2397:
2329:
2273:
2072:
2029:
1945:
1869:
1844:
1801:
1739:
1712:
1708:(1): 14–18 – via mededge.
1475:
1406:
877:
786:
260:first generation antipsychotics
2249:10.1002/14651858.CD011943.pub2
2202:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07071150
1287:
1051:
658:. It has been correlated with
361:. It can also be considered a
1:
3366:Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
3251:Hereditary spastic paraplegia
3109:Normal pressure hydrocephalus
2405:Darius Rejali (8 June 2009).
2038:Journal of Psychopharmacology
1767:Journal of Psychopharmacology
890:
837:-type symptoms in prisoners.
293:switching to an antipsychotic
3335:Progressive muscular atrophy
2299:10.1016/j.schres.2015.10.040
1748:How Drugs Influence Behavior
1561:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030372
1023:(Suppl 1): 1–14, quiz 15–6.
726:discontinuing the medication
719:
680:
236:(IPA: /æ.kə.ˈθɪ.si.ə/) is a
7:
2845:Primary progressive aphasia
1595:Akathisia and Restless Legs
1593:Sachdev, Perminder (2006).
858:
697:, antipsychotic dysphoria,
425:, aggression and violence.
10:
3520:
3167:Hashimoto's encephalopathy
2873:Posterior cortical atrophy
2694:Striatonigral degeneration
2545:Cavernous sinus thrombosis
2237:Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2081:Clinical Neuropharmacology
1696:Forcen FE (January 2015).
1649:"Akathisia—or not sitting"
1160:10.1007/s40265-020-01312-0
820:extrapyramidal side effect
798:
342:
18:
3464:
3390:
3273:Spinal muscular atrophies
3241:Primary lateral sclerosis
3223:
3200:
3184:
3139:
3099:Intracranial hypertension
3089:
3061:
3032:
2998:
2960:
2949:
2915:
2893:
2879:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
2818:
2628:
2619:
2605:
2565:
2499:
1721:In the Belly of the Beast
1665:10.1136/bmj.292.6527.1034
1461:10.1007/s40501-015-0034-9
1312:10.1080/13651500050517894
1251:Current Neuropharmacology
1207:10.1017/S1478951515000784
1110:10.1017/S1461145713001417
1029:10.1017/S1092852915000838
583:Antipsychotic withdrawal
450:
397:, a sense of discomfort,
223:
191:
180:
148:
138:
116:
108:
95:
81:
65:
60:
46:
38:
33:
3340:Progressive bulbar palsy
3131:Intracranial hypotension
3114:Choroid plexus papilloma
2528:Herpesviral encephalitis
2050:10.1177/0269881103174013
1779:10.1177/0269881103174003
870:
612:block dopamine receptors
593:Harmful combinations of
371:calcium channel blockers
256:Antipsychotic medication
61:Common sign of akathisia
2852:Frontotemporal dementia
2538:Encephalitis lethargica
2355:10.1192/bjp.181.6.537-a
3157:Hepatic encephalopathy
2287:Schizophrenia Research
699:restless legs syndrome
687:Barnes Akathisia Scale
411:restless legs syndrome
150:Differential diagnosis
3215:Ataxia–telangiectasia
3172:Static encephalopathy
2895:Mitochondrial disease
2733:Spasmodic torticollis
2643:Basal ganglia disease
2408:Torture and Democracy
2007:10.1192/bjp.154.5.672
842:clinical psychologist
765:serotonin antagonists
629:serotonin antagonists
625:β-adrenergic blockers
340:, meaning "not", and
285:restless leg syndrome
175:restless leg syndrome
169:, medication-induced
3162:Toxic encephalopathy
2868:Lewy bodies dementia
2162:10.4088/JCP.08r04210
1931:10.4088/JCP.08r04210
1895:10.1093/qjmed/hcg109
1746:Diaz, Jaime (1996).
777:iron supplementation
3210:Friedreich's ataxia
2593:Meningoencephalitis
2533:Limbic encephalitis
1647:Szabadi, E (1986).
1373:10.2147/NDT.S337785
927:Curr Neuropharmacol
728:. Low doses of the
660:Parkinson's disease
462:
435:agitated depression
367:Parkinson's disease
280:activation syndrome
258:, particularly the
112:Short- or long-term
3465:External resources
3246:Pseudobulbar palsy
2984:Status epilepticus
2935:Multiple sclerosis
2772:Myoclonic epilepsy
2635:movement disorders
2581:Acute disseminated
2523:Viral encephalitis
1702:Current Psychiatry
711:tardive dyskinesia
671:motor restlessness
667:emotional lability
595:psychotropic drugs
589:Serotonin syndrome
460:
456:Medication-induced
415:tardive akathisia,
399:motor restlessness
389:Signs and symptoms
383:anti-vertigo drugs
163:tardive dyskinesia
3491:
3490:
3384:
3383:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3180:
3179:
3085:
3084:
3024:Template:Headache
2990:Template:Epilepsy
2911:
2910:
2885:Vascular dementia
2728:Status dystonicus
2601:
2600:
2576:Encephalomyelitis
2418:978-1-4008-3087-9
2390:978-1-137-27744-2
1969:978-0-7817-4810-0
1718:Jack Henry Abbot
1604:978-0-521-03148-6
844:and professor of
805:Ladislav Haškovec
735:may be of help.
610:. Antipsychotics
600:
599:
445:Jack Henry Abbott
423:suicidal thoughts
359:movement disorder
331:Ladislav Haškovec
250:suicidal thoughts
238:movement disorder
231:
230:
227:Relatively common
144:Based on symptoms
140:Diagnostic method
103:suicidal thoughts
54:
28:Medical condition
21:Akathisia (album)
3511:
3388:
3387:
3198:
3197:
3189:
3188:
3147:Brain herniation
2958:
2957:
2798:Intention tremor
2793:Essential tremor
2658:Postencephalitic
2626:
2625:
2617:
2616:
2506:
2505:
2487:Diseases of the
2481:
2474:
2467:
2458:
2457:
2446:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2357:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2260:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2185:
2174:
2173:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2033:
2027:
2026:
1990:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1897:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1761:
1752:
1751:
1743:
1737:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1676:
1659:(6527): 1034–5.
1644:
1638:
1637:
1620:
1609:
1608:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1573:
1563:
1539:
1528:
1527:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1440:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1393:
1375:
1351:
1340:
1339:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1274:
1242:
1229:
1228:
1218:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1143:
1122:
1121:
1093:
1076:
1075:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1012:
961:
960:
950:
918:
884:
881:
757:anticholinergics
568:prochlorperazine
463:
459:
403:neuropathic pain
363:neuropsychiatric
345:
344:
56:
55:
31:
30:
3519:
3518:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3487:
3486:
3460:
3459:
3399:
3385:
3372:
3298:Congenital DSMA
3219:
3176:
3135:
3081:
3069:Sleep disorders
3057:
3034:Cerebrovascular
3028:
2994:
2951:
2945:
2907:
2889:
2814:
2760:Choreoathetosis
2633:
2610:
2597:
2561:
2495:
2485:
2455:
2450:
2449:
2442:
2438:
2430:
2426:
2419:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2375:
2371:
2334:
2330:
2278:
2274:
2243:(5): CD011943.
2229:
2225:
2196:(11): 1648–54.
2190:Am J Psychiatry
2186:
2177:
2146:
2142:
2132:
2130:
2120:
2116:
2077:
2073:
2034:
2030:
1991:
1984:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1950:
1946:
1915:
1911:
1874:
1870:
1860:
1858:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1806:
1802:
1762:
1755:
1744:
1740:
1717:
1713:
1694:
1690:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1622:
1621:
1612:
1605:
1591:
1587:
1540:
1531:
1480:
1476:
1441:
1432:
1422:
1420:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1352:
1343:
1292:
1288:
1243:
1232:
1187:
1183:
1144:
1125:
1094:
1079:
1072:
1056:
1052:
1013:
964:
919:
898:
893:
888:
887:
882:
878:
873:
861:
853:benzodiazepines
849:Jordan Peterson
801:
789:
741:Benzodiazepines
722:
707:drug withdrawal
683:
621:benzodiazepines
616:pathophysiology
604:acute akathisia
579:Drug withdrawal
531:Antidepressants
458:
453:
391:
355:
322:, particularly
304:diphenhydramine
206:benzodiazepines
198:Diphenhydramine
186:iron deficiency
48:
29:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3517:
3507:
3506:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3484:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3446:
3435:
3416:
3400:
3395:
3394:
3392:
3391:Classification
3382:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3337:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3319:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3270:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3229:
3227:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3212:
3206:
3204:
3195:
3186:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3143:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3133:
3128:
3126:Cerebral edema
3123:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3095:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3075:Template:Sleep
3065:
3063:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3055:
3049:
3044:
3038:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3004:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2992:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2970:
2968:
2955:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2921:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2903:Leigh syndrome
2899:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2887:
2876:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2864:
2863:
2849:
2848:
2847:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2824:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2801:
2800:
2795:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2752:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2679:
2678:
2677:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2639:
2637:
2630:Extrapyramidal
2623:
2614:
2612:encephalopathy
2603:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2572:
2570:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2547:
2542:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2514:
2512:
2503:
2497:
2496:
2489:nervous system
2484:
2483:
2476:
2469:
2461:
2454:
2453:External links
2451:
2448:
2447:
2436:
2424:
2417:
2396:
2389:
2369:
2328:
2293:(1): 255–261.
2272:
2223:
2175:
2140:
2114:
2071:
2028:
1982:
1968:
1944:
1909:
1888:(9): 635–642.
1868:
1843:
1816:(4): 278–279.
1800:
1753:
1738:
1726:Mad in America
1711:
1688:
1639:
1632:
1610:
1603:
1585:
1529:
1494:(6): 612–615.
1474:
1430:
1405:
1341:
1306:(4): 319–325.
1286:
1230:
1181:
1154:(9): 871–882.
1123:
1077:
1071:978-1455740048
1070:
1050:
962:
933:(5): 789–798.
895:
894:
892:
889:
886:
885:
875:
874:
872:
869:
868:
867:
860:
857:
825:In the former
816:phenothiazines
812:chlorpromazine
800:
797:
788:
785:
769:cyproheptadine
730:antidepressant
721:
718:
682:
679:
644:norepinephrine
637:drug-dependent
608:antipsychotics
598:
597:
591:
585:
584:
581:
575:
574:
564:Metoclopramide
561:
555:
554:
533:
527:
526:
509:
503:
502:
477:
475:Antipsychotics
471:
470:
467:
457:
454:
452:
449:
390:
387:
354:
353:Classification
351:
316:cyproheptadine
297:antidepressant
268:metoclopramide
229:
228:
225:
221:
220:
195:
189:
188:
182:
178:
177:
152:
146:
145:
142:
136:
135:
129:metoclopramide
121:Antipsychotics
118:
114:
113:
110:
106:
105:
99:
93:
92:
85:
79:
78:
69:
63:
62:
58:
57:
44:
43:
40:
36:
35:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3516:
3505:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3483:
3480:
3476:
3475:
3471:
3470:
3467:
3463:
3456:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3445:
3441:
3440:
3436:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3398:
3393:
3389:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3257:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3226:
3222:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3190:
3187:
3183:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3152:Reye syndrome
3150:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3138:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3104:Hydrocephalus
3102:
3101:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3088:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3060:
3054:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3025:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2948:
2942:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2917:Demyelinating
2914:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2896:
2892:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2817:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2805:Restless legs
2803:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2765:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2744:
2743:Blepharospasm
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2699:Hemiballismus
2697:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2673:
2672:
2671:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2646:
2645:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2631:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2564:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2551:
2550:Brain abscess
2548:
2546:
2543:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2482:
2477:
2475:
2470:
2468:
2463:
2462:
2459:
2445:
2440:
2433:
2428:
2420:
2414:
2410:
2409:
2400:
2392:
2386:
2382:
2381:
2373:
2365:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2276:
2268:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2227:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2184:
2182:
2180:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2156:(5): 627–43.
2155:
2151:
2144:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2075:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2044:(4): 365–70.
2043:
2039:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1987:
1971:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1948:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1925:(5): 627–43.
1924:
1920:
1913:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1760:
1758:
1749:
1742:
1735:
1734:0-7382-0799-3
1731:
1727:
1723:
1722:
1715:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1655:(editorial).
1654:
1650:
1643:
1635:
1633:9780890425541
1629:
1625:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1606:
1600:
1596:
1589:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1548:PLOS Medicine
1545:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1419:
1415:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1366:: 3489–3497.
1365:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1290:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1257:(5): 681–91.
1256:
1252:
1248:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1104:(5): 823–32.
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1038:
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1022:
1018:
1017:CNS Spectrums
1011:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
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749:beta blockers
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695:mood disorder
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159:tic disorders
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137:
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126:
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119:
115:
111:
107:
104:
100:
98:
97:Complications
94:
90:
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84:
80:
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73:
70:
68:
64:
59:
45:
41:
37:
32:
26:
22:
3472:
3448:
3437:
3418:
3403:
3360:
3259:
3232:
3193:Degenerative
2930:Inflammatory
2877:
2810:Stiff-person
2778:
2648:Parkinsonism
2621:Degenerative
2518:Encephalitis
2501:Inflammation
2491:, primarily
2439:
2427:
2407:
2399:
2383:. Springer.
2379:
2372:
2345:
2341:
2331:
2290:
2286:
2275:
2240:
2236:
2226:
2193:
2189:
2153:
2149:
2143:
2131:. Retrieved
2128:racgp.org.au
2127:
2117:
2087:(6): 312–6.
2084:
2080:
2074:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2001:(5): 672–6.
1998:
1994:
1973:. Retrieved
1958:
1947:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1885:
1881:
1871:
1859:. Retrieved
1855:
1846:
1813:
1809:
1803:
1773:(4): 451–2.
1770:
1766:
1747:
1741:
1725:
1719:
1714:
1705:
1701:
1691:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1623:
1594:
1588:
1551:
1547:
1491:
1487:
1477:
1455:(1): 28–37.
1452:
1448:
1421:. Retrieved
1417:
1408:
1363:
1359:
1303:
1299:
1289:
1254:
1250:
1201:(1): 77–84.
1198:
1194:
1184:
1151:
1147:
1101:
1097:
1060:
1053:
1020:
1016:
930:
926:
879:
839:
827:Soviet Union
824:
809:
802:
790:
787:Epidemiology
723:
715:
691:
684:
664:
641:
635:observed in
603:
601:
572:promethazine
492:aripiprazole
443:
427:
419:
414:
407:fibromyalgia
392:
356:
346:
337:
328:
312:benzatropine
290:
254:
242:restlessness
233:
232:
171:parkinsonism
101:Violence or
89:restlessness
87:Feelings of
25:
3345:Fazio–Londe
3185:Both/either
2979:Generalised
2838:Early-onset
2833:Alzheimer's
2568:spinal cord
1975:23 November
1554:(9): e372.
835:Parkinson's
831:Haloperidol
761:benztropine
753:propranolol
733:mirtazapine
701:, anxiety,
559:Antiemetics
548:mirtazapine
536:Venlafaxine
500:ziprasidone
488:risperidone
484:amisulpride
480:Haloperidol
405:similar to
379:anti-nausea
375:antibiotics
324:propranolol
300:mirtazapine
214:mirtazapine
210:benztropine
39:Other names
3450:DiseasesDB
2953:paroxysmal
2925:Autoimmune
2718:Dyskinesia
2588:Meningitis
2566:Brain and
2348:(6): 537.
2239:(Review).
2152:(Review).
1921:(Review).
1550:(Review).
1253:(Review).
1197:(Review).
1150:(Review).
1100:(Review).
1019:(Review).
929:(Review).
891:References
846:psychology
743:, such as
675:dyskinesia
648:aggression
633:withdrawal
614:, but the
540:tricyclics
524:sertraline
520:citalopram
516:paroxetine
512:Fluoxetine
496:lurasidone
193:Medication
76:psychiatry
3482:emerg/338
3479:neuro/362
3474:eMedicine
2950:Episodic/
2828:Tauopathy
2779:Akathisia
2767:Myoclonus
2750:Athetosis
2682:Tauopathy
2307:0920-9964
2133:12 August
1830:0271-0749
1508:0271-0749
1469:2196-3061
1423:26 August
1382:1176-6328
1320:1365-1501
1176:218541032
781:deficient
773:Vitamin B
745:lorazepam
737:Biperiden
720:Treatment
681:Diagnosis
652:alertness
544:trazodone
469:Examples
347:kathízein
308:trazodone
272:reserpine
234:Akathisia
224:Frequency
202:trazodone
181:Treatment
133:reserpine
72:Neurology
67:Specialty
42:Acathisia
34:Akathisia
3498:Category
3316:SMALED2B
3311:SMALED2A
3008:Migraine
3000:Headache
2966:epilepsy
2962:Seizures
2820:Dementia
2723:Dystonia
2364:12456534
2323:26752064
2315:26589388
2267:29802811
2218:35725021
2210:17974927
2170:19389331
2109:23393707
2101:14646611
2066:29435046
2058:14870947
1939:19389331
1904:12925718
1861:28 March
1795:40974047
1787:14870959
1580:16968128
1524:22663143
1516:11763011
1418:missd.co
1400:34887662
1336:26486432
1328:24926584
1281:26467415
1225:26087817
1168:32385739
1118:24286228
1037:26683525
957:27928948
865:Stimming
859:See also
840:In 2020
767:such as
759:such as
751:such as
709:states,
703:insomnia
466:Category
395:insomnia
343:καθίζειν
276:dopamine
167:dystonia
109:Duration
83:Symptoms
3444:D011595
3328:SMA-PME
3323:SMA-PCH
3306:SMALED1
3018:Tension
3013:Cluster
2738:Meige's
2555:Amoebic
2258:6494505
2023:9969975
2015:2574607
1838:7962686
1736:), 187.
1728:(2002,
1683:2870759
1674:1340104
1571:1564177
1391:8651045
1272:4761637
1216:5516628
1045:4253429
948:5771055
799:History
656:arousal
550:, and
155:Anxiety
3433:333.99
3047:Stroke
2861:Pick's
2788:Tremor
2755:Chorea
2415:
2387:
2362:
2321:
2313:
2305:
2265:
2255:
2216:
2208:
2168:
2107:
2099:
2064:
2056:
2021:
2013:
1966:
1937:
1902:
1856:RxList
1836:
1828:
1793:
1785:
1732:
1681:
1671:
1630:
1601:
1578:
1568:
1522:
1514:
1506:
1467:
1398:
1388:
1380:
1334:
1326:
1318:
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1166:
1116:
1068:
1043:
1035:
955:
945:
775:, and
763:; and
654:, and
627:, and
570:, and
451:Causes
437:, and
318:, and
270:, and
246:fidget
117:Causes
3455:32479
3429:781.0
3414:G21.1
3361:both:
3293:DSMA1
3288:SMAX2
3283:SMAX1
3263:only:
3236:only:
3140:Other
3062:Other
2974:Focal
2607:Brain
2510:Brain
2319:S2CID
2214:S2CID
2105:S2CID
2062:S2CID
2019:S2CID
1791:S2CID
1520:S2CID
1332:S2CID
1172:S2CID
1148:Drugs
1041:S2CID
871:Notes
507:SSRIs
431:mania
335:Greek
3439:MeSH
3424:9-CM
2964:and
2675:PKAN
2670:NBIA
2413:ISBN
2385:ISBN
2360:PMID
2311:PMID
2303:ISSN
2263:PMID
2241:2018
2206:PMID
2166:PMID
2135:2020
2097:PMID
2054:PMID
2011:PMID
1977:2013
1964:ISBN
1935:PMID
1900:PMID
1863:2016
1834:PMID
1826:ISSN
1783:PMID
1730:ISBN
1679:PMID
1628:ISBN
1599:ISBN
1576:PMID
1512:PMID
1504:ISSN
1465:ISSN
1425:2022
1396:PMID
1378:ISSN
1324:PMID
1316:ISSN
1277:PMID
1221:PMID
1164:PMID
1114:PMID
1066:ISBN
1033:PMID
953:PMID
409:and
381:and
3420:ICD
3405:ICD
3278:SMA
3261:LMN
3234:UMN
3225:MND
3091:CSF
3042:TIA
2687:PSP
2663:NMS
2632:and
2493:CNS
2350:doi
2346:181
2295:doi
2291:169
2253:PMC
2245:doi
2198:doi
2194:164
2158:doi
2089:doi
2046:doi
2003:doi
1999:154
1927:doi
1890:doi
1882:QJM
1818:doi
1775:doi
1669:PMC
1661:doi
1657:292
1653:BMJ
1566:PMC
1556:doi
1496:doi
1457:doi
1386:PMC
1368:doi
1308:doi
1267:PMC
1259:doi
1211:PMC
1203:doi
1156:doi
1106:doi
1025:doi
943:PMC
935:doi
779:if
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