Alchemy - Knowledge

2028:(also known as internal alchemy) was adopted by Daoists as a new form of alchemy. Neidan emphasized appeasing the inner gods that inhabit the human body by practising alchemy with compounds found in the body, rather than the mixing of natural resources that was emphasized in early Dao alchemy. For example, saliva was often considered nourishment for the inner gods and did not require any conscious alchemical reaction to produce. The inner gods were not thought of as physical presences occupying each person, but rather a collection of deities that are each said to represent and protect a specific body part or region. Although those who practised Neidan prioritized meditation over external alchemical strategies, many of the same elixirs and constituents from previous Daoist alchemical schools of thought continued to be utilized in tandem with meditation. Eternal life remained a consideration for Neidan alchemists, as it was believed that one would become immortal if an inner god were to be immortalized within them through spiritual fulfilment. 2316: 3116: 2098: 2960:, which makes up talcum powder, is a mineral which, when combined with water and distilled, was said to produce a solution which yielded many benefits. These supposed benefits included turning silver to gold and rejuvenation. When combined with white wine, its powder form could be ingested to counteract poison. Furthermore, if that powder was mixed and drunk with white wine, it was said to be a source of protection from any poison, sickness, or plague. Other recipes were for making hair dyes, lotions, lip colours. There was also information on how to treat a variety of ailments from fevers and coughs to epilepsy and cancer. In addition, there were instructions on producing the quintessence (or 1741: 1514:. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. 3641:Ānandakanda, Āyurvedaprakāśa, Gorakṣasaṃhitā, Kākacaṇḍeśvarīmatatantra, Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra, Kūpīpakvarasanirmāṇavijñāna, Pāradasaṃhitā, Rasabhaiṣajyakalpanāvijñāna, Rasādhyāya, Rasahṛdayatantra, Rasajalanidhi, Rasakāmadhenu, Rasakaumudī, Rasamañjarī, Rasamitra, Rasāmṛta, Rasapaddhati, Rasapradīpa, Rasaprakāśasudhākara, Rasarājalakṣmī, Rasaratnadīpikā, Rasaratnākara, Rasaratnasamuccaya, Rasārṇava, Rasārṇavakalpa, Rasasaṃketakalikā, Rasasāra, Rasataraṅgiṇī, Rasāyanasāra, Rasayogasāgara, Rasayogaśataka, Rasendracintāmaṇi, Rasendracūḍāmaṇi, Rasendramaṅgala, Rasendrapurāṇa, Rasendrasambhava, Rasendrasārasaṅgraha, Rasoddhāratantra 44: 2800: 2528: 2458: 2512: 86: 2834:(1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries and ideas of 930: 2702: 2939:, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that required gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of 3783:), in which humans and nature collaborate. It exists in many cultures (China, India, Islam; in the Western world since Hellenistic times) under different specifications: aiming at the production of gold and/or other perfect substances from baser ones, or of the elixir that prolongs life, or even of life itself. Because of its purpose, the alchemists' quest is always strictly linked to the religious doctrine of redemption current in each civilization where alchemy is practised. 10920: 9502: 1968: 10910: 3317:) highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' hid a 2446:. c. 4) (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of 8471: 2846:

In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the 18th-century scientific Enlightenment attempted to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries.

3669: 2810: 2256:

theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical confirmed the theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend, he became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a

6773: 2861:, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both rebuffed the growing successes of chemistry, developing a completely esoteric view of alchemy. Atwood wrote: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy." Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including 2434:, written in 1376, associated alchemy with the performance of demonic rituals, which Eymerich differentiated from magic performed in accordance with scripture. This did not, however, lead to any change in the Inquisition's monitoring or prosecution of alchemists. In 1404, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals by the passing of the 2276:

had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the

2950:, the Countess of Forlì and Lady of Imola, is one of the few confirmed female alchemists after Mary the Jewess. As she owned an apothecary, she would practice science and conduct experiments in her botanic gardens and laboratories. Being knowledgeable in alchemy and pharmacology, she recorded all of her alchemical ventures in a manuscript named 6737: 3383:, he discovered a direct correlation or parallel between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in his patients' dreams, visions, or fantasies. He observed these alchemical images occurring during the psychic process of transformation, a process that Jung called " 1346:(also known as the "Final Count"). Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures" (the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered them sacrifices. Since Zosimos also called the demons "the guardians of places" ( 2081:, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favour of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the 1855:. According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the 2849:

During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school that arose during the 19th century held the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense,

2845:

Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between "alchemy" and "chemistry". By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.

2827:

claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic,

2275:

remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy

1382:

where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to

3333:

then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist, the twin goal symbolized their evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are believed to have been

2822:

The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred

3013:

As the sixteenth century went on, scientific culture flourished and people began collecting "secrets". During this period "secrets" referred to experiments, and the most coveted ones were not those which were bizarre, but the ones which had been proven to yield the desired outcome. In this period,

2605:

His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances

2255:

and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and

1963:

at some point over the proceeding several hundred years. Other commonalities shared between the two alchemical schools of thought include discrete naming for ingredients and heavy influence from the natural elements. The silk road provided a clear path for the exchange of goods, ideas, ingredients,

1305:

was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Following the work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different

2206:

and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common

4430:

The title of the τελευταὶα ἀποχή is traditionally translated as the "Final Count". Considering that the treatise does not mention any count nor counting and that it makes a case against the use of sacrifice in the practice of alchemy, a preferable translation would be "the Final Abstinence". See

2738:

The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into

2250:

curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced

1814:

It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which

1810:

The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible

860:

Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and genetic relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands,

2935:). Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the 1806:

The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugière and others, could make clear only few

3785:

In the Western world alchemy presented itself at its advent as a sacred art. But when, after a long detour via Byzantium and Islamic culture, it came back again to Europe in the twelfth century, adepts designated themselves philosophers. Since then alchemy has confronted natural philosophy for

1341:

Recent scholarship tends to emphasize the testimony of Zosimus, who traced the alchemical arts back to Egyptian metallurgical and ceremonial practices. It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its

3488:

Visual artists have had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some used it as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular

1278: 1370:), it is fairly clear that he was referring to the gods of Egypt and their priests. While critical of the kind of alchemy he associated with the Egyptian priests and their followers, Zosimos nonetheless saw the tradition's recent past as rooted in the rites of the Egyptian temples. 3047:

The history of alchemy has become a recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analysed, historians are becoming more aware of the connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and

2008:(317 AD), Hong argued that alchemical solutions such as elixirs were preferable to traditional medicinal treatment due to the spiritual protection they could provide. In the centuries following Ge Hong's death, the emphasis placed on alchemy as a spiritual practice among Chinese 2987:

and anonymous works, however, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. This contributed to a broader pattern in which male authors credited prominent noblewomen for beauty products with the purpose of appealing to a female audience. For example, in

1458:. Dating from AD 250–300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of 1647:: nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was restricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and medicines, many of which have mercury as their core element. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age. 5975:

Carlson, Kathie; Flanagin, Michael N.; Martin, Kathleen; Martin, Mary E.; Mendelsohn, John; Rodgers, Priscilla Young; Ronnberg, Ami; Salman, Sherry; Wesley, Deborah A. (2010). Arm, Karen; Ueda, Kako; Thulin, Anne; Langerak, Allison; Kiley, Timothy Gus; Wolff, Mary (eds.).

1552:, we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that 2850:

less than as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation claimed that the obscure language of the alchemical texts, which 19th century practitioners were not always able to decipher, were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.

1902:, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and 1958:

Researchers have found evidence that Chinese alchemists and philosophers discovered complex mathematical phenomena that were shared with Arab alchemists during the medieval period. Discovered in BC China, the "magic square of three" was propagated to followers of

4557: 2401:

In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin-speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.

7214: 6883: 2181:

Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century,

2647:

Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.

1722:) gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. 2892:

published the Message Retrouvé, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium.

2877:(1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron 2602:. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." 3338:, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. 2016:

refuted Hong's statement that alchemy is as important a spiritual practice as Shangqing meditation. While Hongjing did not deny the power of alchemical elixirs to grant immortality or provide divine protection, he ultimately found the

3432:

have contributed significantly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Among the volumes Jung wrote on alchemy, his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works,

761:

by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. The first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis (3rd–4th centuries), who derived it from the name of a book, the

3239:' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the 1979:

Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the

2292:

about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.

2177:

used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.

5058: 3274:

reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances", which has contributed to a merger of

1608:

texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim.

2164:

Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century

4128:

On the ancient definitions of alchemy in ancient Greek and Syriac texts see Matteo Martelli. 2014. "The Alchemical Art of Dyeing: The Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition", In: Dupré S. (eds)

1815:

Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the

3507:

One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by means of traditional chemistry, but possible by other physical means. Although not financially worthwhile,

3471:. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of the late Sir 1725:

A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.

2003:

as texts containing fundamental alchemical information. He also described alchemy, along with meditation, as the sole spiritual practices that could allow one to gain immortality or to transcend. In his work

6738:"Meredith K. Ray, Daughters of Alchemy: Women and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015. Pp. 291. ISBN 978-0-674-50423-3. $ 45.00, £33.95 (hardback)" 4417: 3407:

and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites are brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the

2125:

rather than to the art itself) was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century

5362: 1659:). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī. 1795:

To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the

2946:

Towards the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the Renaissance, due to the emergence of print, women were able to access the alchemical knowledge from texts of the preceding centuries.

1714:. The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, 6865: 6109: 1803:

from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages.

2580:

Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German

1450:

ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the

5042: 2565:

and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent.

1529:

later affirmed this in the 4th and 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period.

4544:

A survey of the literary and archaeological evidence for the background of Hermes Trismegistus in the Greek Hermes and the Egyptian Thoth may be found in Bull, Christian H. 2018.

3020:('The Secrets of Signora Isabella Cortese'). This book contained information on how to turn base metals into gold, medicine, and cosmetics. However, it is rumoured that a man, 5000: 2173:

followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century,

8201:

Sergio Knipe, " Sacrifice and self-transformation in the alchemical writings of Zosimus of Panopolis ", in Christopher Kelly, Richard Flower, Michael Stuart Williams (eds.),

3346: 2956:('Experiments'). The manuscript contained more than four hundred recipes covering alchemy as well as cosmetics and medicine. One of these recipes was for the water of talc. 4072: 1839:, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analysed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of 8036:

Papyrus graecus holmiensis (P. holm.); Recepte für Silber, Steine und Purpur, bearb. von Otto Lagercrantz. Hrsg. mit Unterstützung des Vilh. Ekman'schen Universitätsfonds

2280:). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded 3223:, the general understanding of alchemy in the 19th and 20th centuries was influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the 6999: 6997: 2964:), an elixir which was believed to be able to heal all sicknesses, defend against diseases, and perpetuate youthfulness. She also wrote about creating the illustrious 1833:

Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was

852:. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "black Land", by contrast with the "red Land", the surrounding desert). 3329:

are held to symbolize evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the

2554:, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. 8068: 8042: 7998: 2815: 1760:

alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word

6994: 517:

often referred to their craft as “the Art” (τέχνη) or “Knowledge” (ἐπιστήμη), and it was often characterised as mystic (μυστική), sacred (ἱɛρά), or divine (θɛíα).

1556:

sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.

1863:

whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.

1776:

thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through

2628:, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom 2598:(Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from 3073: 2922: 2462: 593:

gave birth to a flourishing tradition of Latin alchemy. This late medieval tradition of alchemy would go on to play a significant role in the development of

5737: 4381: 8664: 5271:

An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina

3354:

Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver?

2190:

were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a

5351: 2644:. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels. 3219:

Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century diffusion of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of

9274: 7983: 4167: 3811: 3094: 1866:

The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five

1587: 1984:

sought by Chinese alchemists. In the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the

1596:

describe a connection between eternal life and gold. A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a third-century AD text called

1572:, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period. 962: 6838:

Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology. Spagyrical discovery and invention: magisteries of gold and immortality.

5907: 10436: 9051: 6862: 6099:

is not a traditional alchemical work, but has important theoretical insights about a cosmic vision, in which alchemy played an important part."

2723:

would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as

2169:

put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century,

4617:

Caley, E. R. (1927) "The Stockholm Papyrus : An English Translation with brief notes" Journal of Chemical Education IV:8 : 979-1002.

6899:

Roos, Anna Marie (2013). "The experimental approach towards a historiography of alchemy (reviewing L. M. Principe, the Secrets of Alchemy)".

5142: 6102: 1600:

which provides ingredients of explosives (Agniyoga) and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains (Yavakshara) such as saltpetre/

9964: 8253: 2616:(13 July 1527 – December 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as 2284:

set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practised their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made

1914:, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir. 5025: 3417:, but especially to those who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols, and the unconscious archetypal forces ( 2207:

practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student

4147: 2652:, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate 1995:

documented the use of metals, minerals, and elixirs in early Chinese medicine. Hong identified three ancient Chinese documents, titled

2632:. During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the 9538: 9086: 3403:

of key phrases with cross-references, and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote shed new light onto understanding the art of

3080:'s Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the 2054:, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. 5130:

Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,

2914: 4086: 2034:

may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a

7841:(the second part of volume 1 was never published; the other volumes deal with the modern period and are not relevant for alchemy) 2121:. Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy (here still referring to the 1735: 1613: 498: 4900: 901:. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. 9828: 2338: 2149:. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, 582: 2665: 9892: 8392: 8366: 8332: 8267: 8220: 7975: 7918: 7899: 7877: 7854: 7834: 7811: 7763: 7743: 7723: 7704: 7684: 7664: 7587: 7544: 7506: 7477: 7443: 7415: 7370: 7345: 6720: 6632: 6582: 6557: 6526: 6501: 6058: 5989: 5814: 5709: 5649: 5510: 5485: 5457: 5432: 5407: 5225: 5180: 5113: 4937: 4910: 4850: 4704: 4676: 4602: 4520: 4483: 4444: 4352: 4296: 4253: 4225: 3772: 2719:

Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance.

1264: 992: 586: 445: 6901:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences

3913: 2661: 1427:

of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the

3751: 3369:

has been important in analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist

3127:

Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from

2983:, the Marchioness of Mantua, made perfumes herself to serve as gifts. Due to the proliferation in alchemical literature of 1917:

From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including

1494:

which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by

5606:"Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages" 4788: 3115: 2767:

alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling

1922: 9840: 9105: 9058: 8146:

Régine Charron and Louis Painchaud, " 'God is a Dyer,' The Background and Significance of a Puzzling Motif in the Coptic

2783:) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include 2592:, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy. 1318:

c. 300 AD), can help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors, such as

8248:

Kyle A. Fraser, " Distilling Nature's Secrets: The Sacred Art of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.),

4927: 3536: 10853: 10179: 9924: 9482: 9288: 7234: 4489: 4450: 4358: 4066: 3081: 2885:, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. 2677: 1209: 8315:

Martelli, Matteo (2014). "The Alchemical Art of Dyeing: The Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition".

7148: 3453:

Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment.

3064:, and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at 10174: 9919: 8518: 8416:

Vlachou, C.; McDonnell, J.G.; Janaway, R.C. (2002). "Experimental investigation of silvering in late Roman coinage".

7028: 6988: 6454: 3708: 3292: 1470:. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art. 1214: 283: 5232:

a corpuscularian tradition in alchemy stemming from the speculations of the medieval author Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)

766:

Hermann Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from χύμα, used to describe metallic objects formed by casting.

10797: 10059: 9912: 9907: 9902: 9423: 9072: 8401:

Daniel Stolzenberg, " Unpropitious Tinctures: Alchemy, Astrology & Gnosis According to Zosimos of Panopolis ",

8139:

Alberto Camplani and Marco Zambon, " Il sacrificio come problema in alcune correnti filosofice di età imperiale ",

3448: 2780: 2477:

imitators. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.

1693:

translates to "mercury", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.

625: 8408:

Cristina Viano, " Byzantine Alchemy, or the Era of Systematization ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.),

6811: 6103:"'Layers of Meaning in Alchemy in John Dee's Monas hieroglyphica and its Relevance in a Central European Context'" 3679: 897:. In contrast, Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of but influenced by various 9863: 9833: 9038: 3375: 2112: 2097: 1825:. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the 6812:"Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism. School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Exeter, UK" 6004:

Peter J. Forshaw. '"Chemistry, That Starry Science" – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy' (2013)

4319: 3509: 3391:

as symbolic expressions of the origin and goal of this "process of individuation". Together with his alchemical

2606:

of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.

8884: 3591: 3010:

is even referred to in an anonymous manuscript about a hand lotion created with rose powder and crushed bones.

2543:, meaning "redness", was adopted by alchemists and signalled alchemical success, and the end of the great work. 1137: 7296: 7251: 6715:] (in Italian). Translated by Pasolini, Pier Desiderio; Sylvester, Paul. Rome: Loescher. pp. 617–18. 3983: 1620: 9531: 9473: 9468: 9355: 9009: 8132:

Alberto Camplani, " Procedimenti magico-alchemici e discorso filosofico ermetico " in Giuliana Lanata (ed.),

5864:"Between Aquinas and Eymerich: The Roman Inquisition's Use of Dominican Thought in the Censorship of Alchemy" 5746: 5742: 3556: 2791:. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. 2673: 2649: 2146: 1236: 1142: 956: 170: 10954: 10949: 8954: 7362: 7041: 3596: 3380: 2858: 2062: 1753: 7429: 7401: 7331: 1740: 10964: 10959: 10730: 10466: 10069: 9881: 9327: 9313: 7407: 7058: 4159: 2669: 2424:

forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. Roman Catholic Inquisitor General

2021:

to be ambiguous and spiritually unfulfilling, aiming to implement more accessible practising techniques.

757:

being the Arabic definite article 'the'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of

3808: 3373:. Jung was initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images but after being given a copy of 58: 10316: 9971: 9206: 9192: 9130: 8208: 8073: 8047: 8003: 7961: 7385: 7337: 7228: 3746: 3104: 2961: 2581: 2420: 1871: 1617: 1147: 1049: 1020: 85: 31: 17: 7889: 10775: 10326: 10074: 9185: 9178: 8949: 8843: 8773: 7216:

Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy

6885:

Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy

5863: 5132:. Cairo (1942–1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67–68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. 4038: 2105:

The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of

1887: 1879: 1507: 1499: 1498:

and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements:

1257: 929: 438: 8341:

Matteo Martelli, " Alchemy, Medicine and Religion: Zosimus of Panopolis and the Egyptian Priests ",

8157:

Régine Charron, " The Apocryphon of John (NHC II,1) and the Greco-Egyptian Alchemical Literature ",

6013:

Peter J. Forshaw, 'Cabala Chymica or Chemia Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala' (2013)

4842: 4594: 4546:

The Tradition of Hermes Trismegistus: The Egyptian Priestly Figure as a Teacher of Hellenized Wisdom

1940:

From the 14th century onwards, many materials and practices originally belonging to Indian alchemy (

1431:

by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.

10431: 10378: 10184: 9934: 9760: 9573: 9524: 9306: 8644: 8550: 8475: 7469: 5217: 3686: 3356:

A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.

2570: 2430: 1883: 1678: 1511: 1421:, he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge. The 1327: 1094: 570: 347: 43: 35: 8102:

11 : Recettes alchimiques (Par. Gr. 2419; Holkhamicus 109) – Cosmas le Hiéromoine – Chrysopée

5138: 2584:(1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his 10895: 10521: 9858: 9750: 9251: 8909: 8649: 8560: 4830: 4043: 3435: 3270:

have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "

3151:

who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of

3077: 2972: 2910: 2788: 2223: 1875: 1537: 1503: 578: 8234:

Kyle A. Fraser, " Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch: Alchemy as Forbidden Knowledge ",

7023:(A new and authoritiative introduction to Jung's life and thought), Penguin Books, London 1990, 4721:

Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution.

3779:

Alchemy is the quest for an agent of material perfection, produced through a creative activity (

3244: 3177:

The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colours.

2756: 10748: 10252: 9897: 9873: 9823: 9443: 8763: 8031: 7435: 7425: 7170:

Aleklett, K.; Morrissey, D. J.; Loveland, W.; McGaughey, P. L.; Seaborg, G. T. (1 March 1981).

7003: 6085:. Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. pp. 6–12. 5022: 4535:

Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'. University of Chicago Press, 1992. pp. 211–213

3425: 3396: 3388: 3330: 3160: 3057: 2979:, the following Queen of France, who carried out experiments in her personal laboratory. Also, 2965: 2943:. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently in alchemical literature. 2799: 2621: 2122: 1934: 1856: 1306:

religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the

1000: 878: 669: 621: 559: 510: 392: 10104: 6493: 6487: 4873: 2198:

where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like

1604:, perfume making (different qualities of perfumes are mentioned), granulated (refined) Sugar. 10039: 10003: 9818: 9619: 9428: 9164: 9065: 8914: 8798: 8511: 8035: 5083: 4972: 4953: 4243: 4051: 3566: 3502: 3477: 3172: 3148: 3007: 2999: 2824: 2328: 2320: 1784: 1745: 1707: 1418: 1330:, but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works, The 758: 653: 590: 566: 553: 205: 7356: 7073:""Contending with the Fretful Element": Shakespeare and the (Gendered) Great Chain of Being" 5928:

D. Geoghegan, "A licence of Henry VI to practise Alchemy" Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10–17

5701: 5695: 4874:"Arthasastra_English_Translation : R Shamasastry: Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming" 4587: 10873: 10765: 9950: 9943: 9614: 8697: 8595: 8590: 7865: 7516: 7494: 7397: 7183: 7124: 6794: 6549: 6543: 6489:

Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century

6254: 6171: 3804: 3551: 3513: 3475:. Another literary work taking inspiration from the alchemical tradition is the 1988 novel 3318: 3307: 3276: 3228: 3069: 2940: 2918: 2689: 2657: 2566: 2386: 2166: 1788: 1756:, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about 1532:

Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as

1311: 1282: 1250: 1177: 1081: 985: 913: 629: 598: 431: 309: 135: 69: 8279:

Paul Keyser, " The Longue Durée of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.),

4668: 4662: 2533:

The red sun rising over the city, the final illustration of 16th-century alchemical text,

8: 10760: 10257: 10146: 10109: 10084: 9887: 9738: 9438: 9334: 9281: 9243: 9199: 8929: 8580: 7939: 7453: 3606: 3467: 3458: 3288: 3258:

New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from

3240: 3144: 2976: 2866: 2694: 2685: 2527: 2247: 2199: 2138: 1533: 1399: 1132: 1041: 935: 874: 870: 633: 602: 417: 372: 245: 105: 100: 8980: 7316: 7187: 7128: 6207:, vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409. 5942:

From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages.

3295:

practitioners, alchemy is primarily spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of

2101:"An illuminated page from a book on alchemical processes and receipts", ca. 15th century 520:

Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials. Common aims were

10913: 10426: 10406: 10396: 10269: 10207: 10164: 9978: 9850: 9810: 9765: 9680: 9665: 9563: 9558: 9341: 9267: 8535: 8286:

Jean Letrouit, "Chronologie des alchimistes grecs," in Didier Kahn and Sylvain Matton,

8241:

Kyle A. Fraser, " Baptized in Gnosis: The Spiritual Alchemy of Zosimos of Panopolis ",

7774: 7620: 7312: 7288: 7094: 6765: 6684: 6282: 6078: 5899: 5560: 5290: 4812: 4409: 4094: 3975: 3571: 3561: 3489:

performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and

3418: 3404: 3065: 2995: 2980: 2457: 2451: 2174: 2086: 1985: 1526: 1467: 1286: 1204: 617: 545: 478: 8088:

10 : L'Anonyme de Zuretti ou l'Art sacré and divin de la chrysopée par un anonyme

6861:

Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was."

6709:

Experimenti de la Exma Sra Caterina da Furlj Matre de lo inlluxmo S Giovanni de Medici

793:

soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand. According to the Egyptologist

569:, theories, and terms, some of which are still in use today. They did not abandon the 10878: 10792: 10471: 10346: 10089: 9743: 9654: 9648: 9609: 9597: 9478: 9403: 9348: 9092: 9032: 8939: 8889: 8803: 8778: 8565: 8452: 8433: 8388: 8362: 8328: 8263: 8224: 8216: 8203:

Unclassical Traditions. Volume II: Perspectives from East and West in Late Antiquity,

8164:

Philippe Derchain, "L'Atelier des Orfèvres à Dendara et les origines de l'alchimie,"

7992: 7988: 7971: 7914: 7895: 7873: 7850: 7830: 7807: 7782: 7759: 7739: 7719: 7700: 7680: 7660: 7624: 7583: 7567: 7540: 7520: 7502: 7473: 7439: 7411: 7393: 7366: 7341: 7292: 7244:"Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy" 7140: 7098: 7024: 6991:). London: Routledge. E.g. § 41, § 116, § 427, § 431, § 448. 6984: 6769: 6757: 6716: 6688: 6676: 6638: 6628: 6578: 6553: 6522: 6497: 6450: 6274: 6133: 6054: 5985: 5891: 5883: 5810: 5705: 5645: 5564: 5552: 5506: 5481: 5453: 5428: 5403: 5221: 5176: 5109: 5054: 4992: 4933: 4906: 4846: 4700: 4672: 4598: 4516: 4479: 4440: 4401: 4348: 4292: 4249: 4221: 3967: 3959: 3935: 3879: 3850: 3768: 3581: 3526: 3366: 3335: 3303:

is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.

3232: 3136: 3021: 2835: 2772: 2728: 2562: 2497: 2425: 2366: 2203: 2130: 2106: 1911: 1899: 1867: 1800: 1541: 1463: 1451: 1335: 1323: 1298: 970: 842: 770: 506: 387: 188: 145: 53: 8319:. Archimedes. Vol. 37. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–22. 7911:

L'alchimie et ses racines philosophiques. La tradition grecque et la tradition arabe

7284: 7171: 6968:

L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects.

6286: 5903: 4413: 3979: 3325:

interpretation, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal

1988:; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. 1898:, "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and 10944: 10923: 10787: 10633: 10489: 10458: 10159: 9957: 9727: 9629: 9568: 9505: 9157: 9124: 9025: 8995: 8869: 8859: 8838: 8722: 8717: 8672: 8613: 8504: 8425: 8380: 8354: 8320: 8023: 7822: 7799: 7650: 7610: 7462: 7358:

Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration

7280: 7191: 7132: 7084: 6908: 6749: 6668: 6266: 5875: 5802: 5617: 5544: 5307: 5282: 5168: 5101: 5050: 4984: 4838: 4692: 4397: 4393: 4032: 3951: 3875: 3842: 3760: 3190: 3140: 3028: 2878: 2854: 2215: 2118: 1960: 1903: 1891: 1663: 1624: 1565: 1553: 1455: 1219: 1086: 898: 894: 831: 594: 362: 357: 337: 327: 10311: 7955: 7951: 7947: 5879: 5578: 2823:

years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781

10868: 10416: 10014: 9789: 9732: 9486: 9231: 9212: 8985: 8959: 8864: 8818: 8783: 8758: 8682: 8605: 8575: 7571: 7555: 7528: 7524: 7322: 6983:

Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12

6869: 5029: 3905: 3815: 3764: 3576: 3472: 3248: 2947: 2906: 2558: 2511: 2268: 2242: 2191: 2183: 2134: 2077:, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest 1953: 1777: 1706:

The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in

1459: 1319: 1307: 1127: 1027: 862: 807: 490: 407: 304: 273: 240: 8324: 8121:

Dylan M. Burns, " μίξεώς τινι τέχνῃ κρείττονι : Alchemical Metaphor in the

7556:"Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's 6912: 4267: 4265: 3869: 3685:

The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of

2994:("Gallant Recipe-Book"), the distillation of lemons and roses was attributed to 790: 10848: 10843: 10341: 10169: 10119: 10044: 9868: 9705: 9624: 9418: 9408: 9260: 9111: 8874: 8457:

Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry

8304: 6950: 6074: 5352:""China and Islamic Civilization: Exchange of Techniques and Scientific Ideas"" 5134: 4776: 4745: 3690: 3490: 3263: 3099: 3061: 3036: 2984: 2889: 2870: 2610:

refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.

2607: 2535: 2474: 2470: 2415: 2233: 2208: 1981: 1796: 1667: 1651:

The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit

1479: 1466:), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the 1224: 1182: 1162: 1035: 686: 541: 412: 293: 8904: 8384: 8358: 7803: 7248:

Sky and Symbol, edited by Nicholas Campion and Liz Greene, Sophia Centre Press

7089: 7072: 6753: 6672: 3119:

Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From

3024:, was the real author and only used a female voice to attract female readers. 1799:. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by 1703:

A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White.

1167: 332: 10938: 10743: 10620: 10593: 10289: 10198: 10131: 10099: 10054: 10049: 9772: 9755: 9448: 9362: 9225: 8975: 8924: 8788: 8707: 8437: 7786: 7224: 7195: 7144: 6761: 6680: 6642: 6232: 6216: 6188: 5887: 5829: 5637: 5556: 5244: 5200: 4988: 4262: 3963: 3854: 3462: 3384: 3152: 2902: 2724: 2653: 2641: 2633: 2501: 2407: 2170: 2126: 1907: 1748:(Geber), Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence 1444: 1379: 1109: 641: 608:

Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its

574: 482: 367: 193: 8195: 7269:"Cabala Chymica or Chemica Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala" 5532: 4473: 4434: 4342: 3871:

Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers

3002:, the daughter of Alfonso II of Naples, is accredited for recipes involving 2701: 2454:, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova. 1964:

religion, and many other aspects of life with which alchemy is intertwined.

1783:

In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, the Arabic works attributed to

1631:

have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in

648:

contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of

609: 10770: 10411: 10154: 10094: 10034: 9806: 9700: 9675: 9670: 9636: 9143: 8944: 8899: 8894: 8879: 8823: 8808: 8768: 8429: 7112: 6278: 5895: 5248: 4996: 4405: 3971: 3493:

role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.

3482: 3409: 3128: 2862: 2831: 2803: 2784: 2776: 2748: 2744: 2637: 2447: 2356: 2264: 2074: 2031: 2013: 1817: 1597: 1518: 1230: 1172: 882: 794: 657: 637: 486: 352: 268: 235: 8379:. De Diversis Artibus. Vol. 104. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. 2018. 8260:

Becoming Gold: Zosimos of Panopolis and the Alchemical Arts in Roman Egypt

8228: 7655: 7615: 7598: 7172:"Energy dependence of Bi fragmentation in relativistic nuclear collisions" 5636:

Halleux, Robert (1996). "The Reception of Arabic Alchemy in the West". In

5548: 2731:

wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the

2484:

chain of wise men that link heaven and earth" that included ancient pagan

2480:

A common idea in European alchemy in the medieval era was a metaphysical "

1787:(Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus") introduced a new approach to alchemy. 1640: 660:. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. 624:

that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by

10837: 10822: 10755: 10598: 10583: 10573: 10526: 10484: 10476: 10306: 10079: 9985: 9695: 9660: 9398: 9320: 9171: 9150: 8833: 8828: 8793: 8623: 7457: 5621: 3601: 3546: 3541: 3322: 3267: 3156: 2839: 2740: 2712: 2707: 2599: 2551: 2518: 2285: 2257: 2252: 2187: 2117:("Book on the Composition of Alchemy") from an Arabic work attributed to 2070: 2066: 1930: 1569: 1428: 1006: 921: 886: 861:

which appear to be mostly independent, at least in their earlier stages:

649: 533: 521: 278: 140: 125: 6625:

Daughters of alchemy: women and scientific culture in early modern Italy

4625: 4623: 3251:, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same 2333:

It shall be felony to use the craft of multiplication of gold or silver.

2006:

Inner Chapters of the Book of the Master Who Embraces Spontaneous Nature

1685:, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote 10832: 10683: 10608: 10578: 10558: 10553: 10516: 10506: 10499: 10494: 10480: 10448: 10141: 10064: 9782: 9722: 9717: 9592: 9413: 9079: 8990: 8934: 8742: 8737: 8727: 8628: 8272:

Paul T. Keyser, " Greco-Roman Alchemy and Coins of Imitation Silver ",

6815: 5937: 5294: 5214:

Distilling knowledge: alchemy, chemistry, and the scientific revolution

3414: 3198: 3049: 2936: 2882: 2732: 2681: 2617: 2595: 2485: 2228: 1860: 1681:

and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book,

1522: 1495: 1491: 1447: 1440: 1417:

or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to

1302: 1152: 977: 718: 675: 525: 402: 397: 230: 225: 220: 200: 7847:

Arcana Sapienza: Storia dell'alchimia occidentale dalle origini a Jung

7599:"Rasāyana and Rasaśāstra in the Persian Medical Culture of South Asia" 6447:

Croire l'Incroyable. L'Ancien et le Nouveau dans l'étude des religions

5605: 3846: 2779:

devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see

2414:

all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars.

577:, and they tended to guard their work in secrecy, often making use of 10883: 10673: 10588: 10568: 10401: 10386: 10237: 9777: 9433: 8813: 8712: 8702: 8687: 8677: 8570: 7579: 7536: 7136: 5256: 4620: 4313: 3756: 3531: 3429: 3370: 3220: 3132: 2752: 2047: 2039: 1791:, who wrote the standard reference work on Jabir, put it as follows: 1773: 1483: 1423: 1099: 1014: 947: 382: 377: 288: 250: 210: 165: 150: 115: 48: 10009: 8496: 5286: 3830: 2771:

in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to

1944:) were assimilated in the Persian texts written by Muslim scholars. 1297:

The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and

10817: 10668: 10563: 10511: 10443: 10299: 10247: 10136: 9710: 9641: 9463: 8919: 8732: 8692: 8654: 7268: 7243: 6270: 3955: 3939: 3586: 3224: 3053: 2828:

and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof."

2613: 2589: 2443: 2343: 2142: 2078: 1967: 1941: 1926: 1918: 1768:(الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. 1636: 1632: 1605: 1581: 1487: 1443:, extending back to 3500 BC. Many writings were lost when the 1414: 1310:

nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of

1157: 1104: 866: 819: 645: 613: 494: 342: 215: 130: 10368: 9516: 7169: 6073: 5847:

John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition.

4065:

Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; Jones, Henry Stuart (1940).

2921:. Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and 2739:

alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example,

1666:

tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of

10693: 10688: 10663: 10628: 10603: 10391: 10363: 10351: 10294: 9547: 9388: 9383: 8618: 8585: 7045: 5981: 3400: 3326: 3259: 3182: 3087:

Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include

2574: 2411: 2158: 1992: 1972: 1662:

Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the

1545: 1439:

The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of

1342:

doctrines in a systematic way. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the

1315: 1277: 160: 6485: 3052:, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, 2905:

names four women who were able to make the philosophers' stone:

1933:. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the 1859:

was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate

505:. In its Western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of 10782: 10698: 10678: 10658: 10356: 10321: 10262: 9690: 9685: 9458: 8555: 8470: 8410:

Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World,

8281:

Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World,

8250:

Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World,

8196:

Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity

8192:

Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity

6659:

Boschiero, Luciano (1 July 2017). "The secret lives of women".

6138:

Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe

5764:

Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy."

5700:(6th ed.). Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw–Hill College. pp. 4761:

Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar.

4344:

Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity

3626:

For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see

3282: 3271: 3206: 2768: 2764: 2540: 2381: 2289: 2281: 2219: 2154: 2150: 2058: 2051: 2043: 2035: 2025: 2009: 1895: 1835: 1674:

of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.

1670:. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise 1549: 1410: 1388: 890: 696: 548:

able to cure any disease. The perfection of the human body and

502: 462: 299: 155: 120: 3413:, or divine marriage. His writings are influential in general 10888: 10858: 10827: 10738: 10720: 10653: 10648: 10533: 10331: 10284: 10242: 10230: 10225: 10220: 10215: 9602: 9453: 9393: 6433:

Gnosis: An Esoteric Tradition of Mystical Visions and Unions.

3089: 2481: 2403: 2038:

for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in

1769: 1757: 1601: 1593: 1406: 1403: 1392: 8487:

ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism

8018:

1 : Papyrus de Leyde – Papyrus de Stockholm – Recettes,

7382:

The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton

5809:. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 149. 5023:

https://openlibrary.org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body

4478:. Berkeley: California Classical Studies. pp. 118–141. 4439:. Berkeley: California Classical Studies. pp. 127–131. 2928:

The first alchemist whose name we know was Mary the Jewess (

2809: 10863: 10705: 10538: 10421: 10336: 10279: 8183:

Korshi Dosoo, " A History of the Theban Magical Library ",

7891:

The Experimental Fire: Inventing English Alchemy, 1300–1700

6957:

The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34.

6037:

The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction.

5974: 5579:"Gunpowder | Facts, History, & Definition | Britannica" 5175:. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 29. 5108:. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 46. 4699:. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 66. 3387:". Specifically, he regarded the conjuring up of images of 3300: 3296: 3003: 2957: 2277: 1384: 549: 537: 529: 6931: 5139:"A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three" 3457:

appears throughout the history of English literature from

1971:

Taoist alchemists often use this alternate version of the

789:), meaning 'black earth', which refers to the fertile and 616:

spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as

10715: 10710: 10643: 10638: 10274: 8491: 7798:. De Diversis Artibus. Vol. 104. Turnhout: Brepols. 7576:

Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe

7533:

Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe

6313: 6311: 6168:

The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest

5503: