20:
300:
291:
737:. Likewise, the Almohads officially regarded all non-Almohads, including non-Almohad Muslims, as false monotheists and in multiple cases massacred or punished the entire population of a town, both Muslim and non-Muslim, for defying them. Generally, however, the enforcement of this ideological position varied greatly from place to place and appears to have been especially tied to whether or not local communities resisted the Almohad armies as they advanced. However, as the Almohads were on a self-declared
697:
801:
157:. Andalusi Jews, an urban and visible population, faced intense, often violent Almohad pressure to convert, and many, instead of leaving life as a minority in one place to hazard life as a minority in another, converted at least superficially, though many of these converts continued to face discrimination. After the 13th century collapse of the Almohad Caliphate, an Arabized Jewish population reappeared in the Maghreb, but a Christian one did not.
206:
537:, with whom the Almohads were already at odds. After the decline of Almohadism, Maliki Sunnism ultimately became the dominant official religious doctrine of the region. By contrast, the teachings of Ibn Rushd and other philosophers like him were far more influential for Jewish philosophers – including
855:
By 1270, the
Almohads were no longer a force of any significance on the Iberian Peninsula or Morocco. After their fall, the fundamentalist religious doctrine that they supported was relaxed once again. Some scholars consider that Ibn Tumart's overall ideological mission ultimately failed, but that,
759:
also encouraged them to flee by offering them lands if they migrated to his territory. Jews, however, were particularly vulnerable as they faced an uncertain minority status in both
Christian or Muslim territory, as well as because they lived mainly in urban areas where they were especially visible
863:
The
Hafsids of Tunisia, in turn, officially declared themselves the true "Almohads" after their independence from Marrakesh but this identity and ideology lessened in importance over time. The early Hafsid leadership mainly attempted to keep the Almohads as a political elite more than a religious
692:
At their peak in the 1170s, the
Almohads had firm control over most of Islamic Spain, and were not threatened by the Christian forces to the north. Once the Almohads took control of southern Spain and Portugal, they introduced a number of very strict religious laws. Even before they took complete
835:
Following 1212 the
Almohad Caliphate's power declined and the revolutionary religious dogmatism of Ibn Tumart began to fade as later Almohad dynastic rulers were more preoccupied with the practicalities of maintaining the empire over a wide region whose population largely did not subscribe to
456:
oversaw the banning of any religious material written by non-Zahirites. Abu Yaqub's son Abu Yusuf went even further, actually burning non-Zahirite religious works instead of merely banning them. They trained new judges, who were given schooling in both the religious and military arts.
787:
a few centuries later. The
Almohads recognized that many of the conversions by Jews were not particularly sincere, which certainly did not help to promote social and religious unity. They responded to this by imposing severe regulations on the business of former Jews.
743:, they were willing to use brutal techniques to back up their holy war. In some cases the threats of violence were carried out locally as a warning to others even if the authorities did not have the ability to actually follow through on a larger scale. Native
763:
This pressure to convert resulted in many conversions under duress which were insincere, with many
Christians and Jews officially converting in order to escape violence while preserving their livelihoods. Even the famous Jewish philosopher
776:, before finally leaving for Egypt where he was able to live openly as a Jew again. Half-hearted oaths were certainly not looked to as ideal and brought a lot of problems for the population of al-Andalus, much as it did during the
831:
movement in Spain. Not only was it a decisive defeat of the Muslim forces, it was also one of the first times the fractured
Christian kingdoms of the north came together for the common goal of reclaiming the peninsula.
178:, or other religions that held the Old Testament as a holy text, practice their religion freely. The Almoravids, were more fundamentalist than previous Muslim rulers of Spain, championing a strict adherence to the
273:, who effectively founded the ruling Almohad dynasty. He and his successors had very different personalities from Ibn Tumart but nonetheless pursued his reforms, culminating in a particularly aggressive push by
603:
described it—as an official liturgical language; bilingualism became a feature of
Almohad preaching in both al-Andalus and the Maghreb. Ibn Tumart was described by an anonymous chronicler of the Almohads as
593:
792:
set up a strict dress code for Jews living within
Almohad territory: Jews had to wear dark blue or black, the traditional colors of mourning in Islam, which further entrenched discrimination.
473:, their Zahirite-Ash'arism giving rise to a complicated blend of literalist jurisprudence and esoteric dogmatics. Some authors occasionally describe Almohads as heavily influenced by
269:
Ibn Tumart himself died in 1130, well before the Almohads' main military successes, and had no spiritual successor. However, the political leadership of his movement passed on to
258:
in 1146. Their rule quickly spread across the Muslim territories of the peninsula (known as Al-Andalus). At their height they were one of the most powerful forces in the western
868:
Sunni in orientation. Eventually, the Almohads were merely one among multiple factions competing for power in their state. After 1311, when Sultan al-Lihyani took power with
436:
The Almohad judicial system has been described as looking to the letter of the law rather than the deeper intended purpose of the law. They primarily followed the
784:
574:, the Friday sermon) of the Almohads were essential to the dissemination of Almohad doctrine and ideology. One of the most important Almohad innovations in the
104:) for many decades. They marked a major departure from the social policies and attitudes of earlier Muslim governments in the region, including the preceding
19:
598:
123:, or renewer—not only of Islam, but of "the pure monotheistic message" common to Islam, Christianity, and Judaism—the Almohads rejected the status of
721:(the official protected but subordinate status of Jews and Christians under Islamic rule) and insisted that all people should accept Ibn Tumart as
878:(the main community sermon on Fridays), effectively signaling the end of public support for Almohad doctrine. Over the 14th century the Maliki
747:
who were living under Muslim rule up until this point had the option to escape to Christian-controlled lands to the north, and many did so.
840:
This declaration may have been an attempt to appease the Muslim population of al-Andalus, but it also allowed for one Almohad faction, the
860:
in the region. One holdover for Jews was a law that stated that people who converted to Islam would be put to death if they reconverted.
386:
which predominated in the region up to that point. Central to his philosophy, Ibn Tumart preached a fundamentalist or radical version of
227:
or leader of a redemption of righteous Islamic order. He was an intelligent and charismatic man; he claimed to be a direct descendant of
217:, regarded by historians as a fundamentalist who was convinced that it was his destiny to reform Islam. Ibn Tumart claimed to be the
193:
in al-Andalus. It was generally a time when Jews were free to conduct business and practice their religion under the limitations of
428:, the Almohads established their own rival caliphate, rejecting Abbasid moral authority as well as the local Maliki establishment.
531:) saw rationalism and philosophy as complimentary to religion and revelation, his views failed to convince the traditional Maliki
1649:
Amira Bennison, "The Almohads and the Qur’ān of Uthm ān: The Legacy of the Umayyads of Cordoba in the Twelfth Century Maghrib",
412:", which was adapted to "Almohads" in European writings. Ibn Tumart saw his movement as a revolutionary reform movement much as
777:
715:
Jews and Christians were denied freedom of religion, with many sources relating that the Almohads rejected the very concept of
174:(in present-day Spain and Portugal) was open to a good deal of religious tolerance. For the most part the Almoravids let other
1674:
1201:
1174:
186:
1607:, "Decapitation of Christians and Muslims in the Medieval Iberian Peninsula: Narratives, Images, Contemporary Perceptions",
1422:
1292:
1679:
262:. They were a determined military and economic force, defeating Christian forces primarily composed of Castilians at the
748:
527:(Averroes) to the Almohad court, to whom Al-Mansur gave patronage and protection. Although Ibn Rushd (who was also an
1566:
1492:
1432:
1409:
1401:
1357:
1302:
1120:
1094:
1078:
1066:
1058:
974:
493:(which was likely edited by others after him), demonstrates a much clearer Ash'arite position on a number of issues.
1218:
413:
1258:, "The Almohads and the Qur'ān of Uthm ān: The Legacy of the Umayyads of Cordoba in the Twelfth Century Maghrib",
489:), identifying him with Mu'tazilites would be an exaggeration. She points out that another of his main texts, the
1624:
1620:
1608:
1517:
1278:
1010:
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in Fes, Mahdī b. ‘Īsā, was replaced by Abū l-Ḥasan b. ‘Aṭiyya khaṭīb because the latter was fluent in Berber.
299:
290:
824:
805:
149:
led to the emigration of Andalusi Christians from southern Iberia to the Christian north, especially to the
780:
108:
dynasty which had followed its own reformist agenda. The teachings of Ibn Tumart were compiled in the book
1061:, pg. 170. Volume 3 of Studies in the History and Society of the Maghrib. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2012.
1404:, p. 170. Volume 3 of Studies in the History and Society of the Maghrib. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2012.
613:
65:
during the 12th to 13th centuries. Fundamental to Almohadism was Ibn Tumart's radical interpretation of
1669:
1149:, "North Africa and the Twelfth-century Renaissance: Christian Europe and the Almohad Islamic Empire",
628:
to repeat the "Almohad creed," with blessings upon the Mahdi Ibn Tumart and affirmation of his claimed
482:
392:– referring to a strict monotheism or to the "oneness of God". This notion gave the movement its name:
84:
The literalist ideology and policies of the Almohads involved a series of attempted radical changes to
836:
Almohadism. This culminated in 1229 when Caliph al-Ma'mun publicly repudiated Ibn Tumart's status as
789:
497:
310:
274:
110:
1026:
1684:
1038:
363:
420:
and leader. Whereas the Almoravids before him saw themselves as emirs nominally acknowledging the
811:
In al-Andalus the Almohad caliphate was decisively defeated by the combined Christian forces of
190:
1166:
The Reconquest Kings of Portugal: Political and Cultural Reorientation on the Medieval Frontier
145:
of the Muslim majority—to accept Almohad Islam, depart, or risk death. The Almohad conquest of
1424:
Islam in Global History: Volume One: From the Death of Prophet Muhammed to the First World War
1191:
1164:
1636:
Isabel O’Connor, "The Fall of the Almohad Empire in the Eyes of Modern Spanish Historians",
236:
1086:
416:
saw itself relative to the Christianity and Judaism which preceded it, with himself as its
88:
religious and social doctrine under their rule. These policies affected large parts of the
477:. Scholar Madeline Fletcher argues that while one of Ibn Tumart's original teachings, the
8:
812:
768:
was reported to have officially converted to Islam under Almohad rule when he moved from
734:
485:
which might be construed as moderately Mu'tazilite (and which were criticized as such by
255:
816:
756:
453:
175:
1623:, "The Decline of the Almohads: Reflections on the Viability of Religious Movements",
1547:"The Preaching of the Almohads: Loyalty and Resistance across the Strait of Gibraltar"
752:
707:
and his family were converted to Islam for a time under the Almohads before moving to
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1513:
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1353:
1298:
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1170:
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1116:
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to authorities. Many were killed in the course of Almohad invasions or repressions.
263:
259:
251:
105:
62:
35:
31:
769:
340:
1554:
1460:
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control in the 1170s, they had begun removing non Muslims from positions of power.
642:, Ibn Tumart's sermon became institutionalized as what contemporary sources called
639:
579:
466:
314:, which contained the teachings of Ibn Tumart, the fundamental ideas of Almohadism.
270:
130:
1451:
Fletcher, Madeleine (1991). "The Almohad Tawhīd: Theology Which Relies on Logic".
1402:
Governing the Empire: Provincial Administration in the Almohad Caliphate 1224–1269
1085:, Volume 12 of Handbook of Oriental Studies : The Near and Middle East. Eds.
1059:
Governing the Empire: Provincial Administration in the Almohad Caliphate 1224-1269
1384:
1243:
733:, Abd al-Mu'min infamously declared that Christians and Jews must choose between
708:
672:
608:(the most eloquent of the people) in Arabic and Berber." Under the Almohads, the
516:
449:
421:
401:
46:
1604:
1546:
1337:
1255:
1219:"Some Overlooked Realities of Jewish Life under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain"
1146:
962:
841:
827:, in 1212. The battle is recognized as one of the most important events in the
700:
542:
511:. This effectively provided a religious justification for philosophy and for a
481:
s (a collection of sayings memorized by his followers), holds positions on the
328:
1558:
856:
like the Almoravids, his movement nonetheless played a role in the history of
696:
277:(who arguably ruled at the apogee of Almohad power in the late 12th century).
250:
He presented a different religious view that caused outright hostility on the
1663:
1345:
486:
437:
179:
154:
27:
1464:
1130:
1274:
857:
773:
1242:
Madeleine Fletcher, "The Almohad Tawhīd: Theology Which Relies on Logic",
1031:
Brockelmann in English: The History of the Arabic Written Tradition Online
844:, to disavow his leadership and declare the eastern part of the empire in
474:
1368:
1110:
828:
519:, had also shown some favour towards philosophy and kept the philosopher
512:
445:
383:
331:
as a "sophisticated hybrid form of Islam that wove together strands from
247:, and his charismatic preaching earned him a devoted group of followers.
800:
765:
704:
538:
520:
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359:
349:
232:
214:
171:
146:
142:
134:
93:
58:
30:, built in the mid-12th century at the site of the base from which the
1349:
884:(scholars) increasingly occupied positions in the state and were the
677:
546:
524:
425:
133:
ordered Jews and Christians in conquered territories—as well as the
1344:, pg. 142. Part of Landmarks in Linguistic Thought series, vol. 3.
886:
845:
744:
228:
101:
1324:
Maribel Fierro, "Alfonso X 'The Wise': The Last Almohad Caliph?",
515:
intellectualism in Almohad religious thought. Al-Mansur's father,
874:
849:
726:
681:
629:
564:
496:
Nonetheless, the Almohads, particularly from the reign of Caliph
378:
244:
224:
89:
1196:. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. pp. xiv, 206 (and elsewhere).
1109:
Ibn Tūmart, Muḥammad (1997) . Abū al-ʻAzm, ʻAbd al-Ghanī (ed.).
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730:
717:
635:
504:
388:
373:
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336:
332:
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138:
124:
66:
57:
was the ideology underpinning the Almohad movement, founded by
23:
507:
as a method of validating the more central Almohad concept of
372:". This contrasted with the highly orthodox or traditionalist
205:
189:
is considered to be under the relatively tolerant rule of the
71:—"unity" or "oneness"—from which the Almohads get their name:
880:
739:
533:
501:
368:
240:
219:
150:
118:
97:
85:
327:
The Almohad ideology preached by Ibn Tumart is described by
117:
On the grounds that Ibn Tumart proclaimed himself to be the
528:
441:
344:
1591:
Norman Roth, "The Jews and the Muslim Conquest of Spain",
1277:, "The Early Reconquest Episcopate at Cuenca, 1177–1284",
541:, his contemporary – and Christian Latin scholars – like
223:, a title which elevated him to something similar to a
852:) to be independent, thus founding the Hafsid state.
1297:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 99.
1587:
1585:
1583:
1270:
1268:
1238:
1236:
165:
1089:and Manuela Marín. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1992.
864:elite in a region that was otherwise predominantly
280:
1580:
1265:
1233:
1661:
1651:Al-Masaq: Islam & the Medieval Mediterranean
1260:Al-Masaq: Islam & the Medieval Mediterranean
1216:
1142:
1140:
592:'the western tongue') as the Andalusi historian
523:as his confidant. Ibn Tufayl in turn introduced
209:Almohad dynasty and surrounding states, c. 1200.
129:completely. As the Almohad Caliphate expanded,
1510:A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period
1387:, "Ibn Mada's Criticism of Arab Grammarians."
1039:10.1163/97890043200862542-8098_breo_com_122070
1003:A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period
92:and altered the existing religious climate in
1137:
872:help, Ibn Tumart's name was dropped from the
557:
1420:
804:The monument constructed on the site of the
657:
647:
587:
569:
187:golden age for Jews in the Iberian Peninsula
76:
687:
1229:(68): 16 – via BYU Scholars Archive.
1108:
1512:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1507:
1217:Fernandez-Morera, Dario (April 1, 2013).
1005:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1000:
545:– who later promoted his commentaries on
1482:
1450:
1290:
1193:The Almoravids and the Meanings of Jihad
1115:. Rabat: Muʼassasat al-Ghanī lil-Nashr.
961:
799:
695:
204:
18:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1189:
408:), meaning roughly "those who advocate
1662:
1638:Islam & Christian-Muslim Relations
1553:, BRILL, pp. 71–101, 2013-01-01,
1446:
1444:
1400:Pascal Buresi and Hicham El Aallaoui,
1246:, v. 38, no. 1 (June 1, 1991): 110-127
1151:Islam & Christian-Muslim Relations
1057:Pascal Buresi and Hicham El Aallaoui,
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1328:15, no. 2-4 (December 2009): 175-198.
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986:
921:
919:
917:
915:
913:
911:
909:
907:
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676:of the sultan and his courts between
1627:, v. 4, no. 1 (July 1, 1964): 23-29.
1501:
1471:
1104:
1102:
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658:
648:
588:
570:
405:
77:
50:
13:
1526:
1284:
983:
900:
14:
1696:
1595:38, no. 2 (Spring 1976): 145-158.
1485:The Almoravid and Almohad Empires
1421:Nazeer Ahmed, Dr (10 July 2001).
1099:
967:The Almoravid and Almohad Empires
662:, 'the well-known sermon'). This
358:), and spiritual engagement with
166:Religious climate before Almohads
1223:Comparative Civilizations Review
1153:20, no. 1 (January 2009): 43-59.
619:
552:
298:
289:
200:
1643:
1630:
1614:
1611:, v. 45, no. 2 (2008): 137-164.
1598:
1414:
1394:
1378:
1362:
1342:The Arabic Linguistic Tradition
1331:
1318:
1249:
1210:
725:. During his siege against the
666:was delivered by every Almohad
652:, 'khuṭba of the Almohads') or
281:Religious doctrine and ideology
254:after the Almohads crossed the
1621:Comparative Literature Studies
1609:Comparative Literature Studies
1487:. Edinburgh University Press.
1279:The Catholic Historical Review
1183:
1156:
1071:
1051:
1019:
969:. Edinburgh University Press.
34:launched their attacks on the
1:
1373:Refutation of the Grammarians
1371:, Introduction to Ibn Mada's
1294:Almoravid and Almohad Empires
893:
825:Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
806:Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
1675:Medieval history of Portugal
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778:forced conversion of Muslims
500:onward, embraced the use of
7:
1640:14, no. 2 (April 2003): 145
1483:Bennison, Amira K. (2016).
1190:Messier, Ronald A. (2010).
460:
10:
1701:
1680:12th century in al-Andalus
1653:19, no. 2 (2007): 131-154.
1262:19, no. 2 (2007): 131-154.
1083:The Legacy of Muslim Spain
795:
558:Arabic-Berber bilingualism
498:Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur
160:
1559:10.1163/9789004256644_004
1508:Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987).
1391:, v. 10, pp. 89–113. 1974
1001:Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987).
790:Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur
624:It was obligatory in the
320:
213:The Almohads were led by
51:الدَّعوَة المُوَحِّدِيَّة
1291:Bennison, Amira (2016).
1169:. Springer. p. 31.
745:Christians in al-Andalus
688:Treatment of non-Muslims
16:Ideology of the Almohads
1465:10.1163/156852791X00060
1079:The Ulama of al-Andalus
890:religious authorities.
170:During its golden age,
1081:, pg. 868. Taken from
808:
712:
612:, or sermon-giver, of
578:was the imposition of
431:
308:An 1183 manuscript of
210:
39:
1593:Jewish Social Studies
1375:, pg. 6. Cairo, 1947.
1163:Lay, Stephen (2008).
803:
699:
644:khuṭbat al-Muwaḥḥidīn
448:; under the reign of
208:
22:
1625:History of Religions
1087:Salma Khadra Jayyusi
614:al-Qarawiyyīn Mosque
469:, the Almohads were
231:. He had studied in
61:, which created the
1551:Spanning the Strait
1326:Medieval Encounters
735:conversion or death
654:al-khuṭba l-ma‘lūma
256:Strait of Gibraltar
963:Bennison, Amira K.
809:
713:
670:, and also on the
594:Ibn Ṣāḥib aṣ-Ṣalāt
584:al-lisān al-gharbī
211:
176:People of the Book
40:
1670:Almohad Caliphate
1203:978-0-313-38590-2
1176:978-0-230-58313-9
1077:Dominique Urvoy,
636:prophetic lineage
483:attributes of God
264:Battle of Alarcos
252:Iberian Peninsula
191:Umayyad Caliphate
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311:Aʿazzu Mā Yuṭlab
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275:Ya'qub al-Mansur
182:of Islamic law.
111:Aʿazzu Mā Yuṭlab
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43:Almohad doctrine
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177:
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1293:
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1030:
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1459:: 110–127.
1369:Shawqi Daif
829:reconquista
749:Alfonso VII
597: [
513:rationalist
475:Mu'tazilism
446:Sunni Islam
414:early Islam
384:Sunni Islam
1664:Categories
1574:2023-02-13
1519:0521337674
1310:19 October
1044:2022-10-20
1012:0521337674
894:References
766:Maimonides
705:Maimonides
539:Maimonides
521:Ibn Tufayl
471:Ash'arites
398:Muwaḥḥidūn
233:Alexandria
215:Ibn Tumart
172:al-Andalus
147:al-Andalus
135:Kharijites
94:al-Andalus
59:Ibn Tumart
55:Almohadism
36:Almoravids
1350:Routledge
1027:"7. Fiqh"
870:Aragonese
783:in Spain
678:Marrakesh
547:Aristotle
525:Ibn Rushd
505:reasoning
454:Ibn Maḍāʾ
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106:Almoravid
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887:de facto
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102:Portugal
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426:caliphs
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237:Córdoba
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