Ancient Egypt - Knowledge

4815: 2601: 5781:, p. 2: "First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term "Sea Peoples" encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). Footnote: The modern term "Sea Peoples" refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from "islands"... The use of quotation marks in association with the term "Sea Peoples" in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designation "of the sea" appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III." 1752: 4875: 3589: 3647: 3496: 788: 3627: 2351: 4835: 2164: 1091: 5787:, pp. 48–61: "The thesis that a great "migration of the Sea Peoples" occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about 'the sea peoples', one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some things are unclear, "eins ist aber sicher: Nach den agyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'Volkerwanderung' zu tun." Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation." 3519: 3669: 2098: 3405: 3186: 4795: 3423: 616: 3701: 3443: 3858: 14477: 14343: 13502: 13435: 13304: 12687: 12289: 73: 3787: 3467: 1276: 2368: 4565: 3296: 1105: 3166: 4511: 4253: 1543: 1415: 1017:

Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the king, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes. In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the

1071: 2199:, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference. 3607: 2253: 3230: 4062: 4294:'s Punt, expedition onto the open ocean. Some of the site's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles. In 2013, a team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Khufu, on the Red Sea coast, near Wadi el-Jarf (about 110 miles south of 11697: 3725:

brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos. After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of

928: 11649: 11686: 3946: 11717: 2945: 4680: 3889: 2237: 864: 11727: 4313: 971: 4861: 11707: 3024: 4580:. Archaeological and historical evidence support interactions between Egyptian and Nubian populations more than 5000 years ago, with socio-political dynamics between Egyptians and Nubians ranging from peaceful coexistence to variably successful attempts of conquest. A study on sixty-six ancient Nubian individuals revealed significant contact with ancient Egyptians, characterized by the presence of 2562:, or by the more labor-intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were used in the Late Period. High-quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the Eastern Desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as 1993: 1861: 4641:, caution that a wider sampling area is needed and argue that the current data is inconclusive on the origin of ancient Egyptians. They also point out issues with the previously used methodology such as the sampling size, comparative approach and a "biased interpretation" of the genetic data. They argue in favor for a link between Ancient Egypt and the northern 4000:, and a colorant, typically copper. The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as 1908:, under the control of a prefect appointed by the emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome. 986:, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the king after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of Egypt, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. As the power of the kings diminished, regional governors called 3358:, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs. Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mudbricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building, 2138:

the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices, legal rights, and opportunities for achievement. Women such as

3752:. The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his 728:, which continued into the early dynastic period and beyond. Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. Establishing a power center at 3805:. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the 4011:

The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently. It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they

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and his sons, did do so. However, it has also been argued that "kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, fighting alongside their troops". Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush,

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lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The

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The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. These artistic standards—simple

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with the addition of some Demotic signs. Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly

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system. Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class" in reference

1257:, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. He established a new dynasty and, in the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the kings, who sought to expand Egypt's borders and attempted to gain mastery of the 3322:

retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular

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has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world, which spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, and working and living conditions of a community have been studied in such detail.

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served as household wares for the storage, preparation, transport, and consumption of food, drink, and raw materials. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables

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growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that

1218:. The king was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. The Hyksos ('foreign rulers') retained Egyptian models of government and identified as kings, thereby integrating Egyptian elements into their culture. They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the 1179:

later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties. During this decline, the Canaanite settlers began to assume greater control of the Delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as

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Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god

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played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes" or "no" question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgement by choosing one or the other, moving forward

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in the workplace. Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated

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introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples. Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed. As a consequence, Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population continued to speak

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collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars.

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The currently most advanced full genome analyses was made on three ancient specimens recovered from the Nile River Valley, Abusir el-Meleq, Egypt. Two of the individuals were dated to the Pre-Ptolemaic Period (New Kingdom to Late Period), and one individual to the Ptolemaic Period, spanning around

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Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white).

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BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual

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Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent

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Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and

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was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively.

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parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the

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With the kings having secured the country militarily and politically and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom displayed an increase in

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D’Atanasio, Eugenia; Risi, Flavia; Ravasini, Francesco; Montinaro, Francesco; Hajiesmaeil, Mogge; Bonucci, Biancamaria; Pistacchia, Letizia; Amoako-Sakyi, Daniel; Bonito, Maria; Onidi, Sara; Colombo, Giulia; Semino, Ornella; Destro Bisol, Giovanni; Anagnostou, Paolo; Metspalu, Mait (18 December

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is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs. The use of the pyramid form continued in private tomb chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royal

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and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments,

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tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified king after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the kings served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient

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was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this

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The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mudbricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom

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The genetic history of Ancient Egypt remains a developing field, and is relevant for the understanding of population demographic events connecting Africa and Eurasia. To date, the amount of genome-wide aDNA analyses on ancient specimens from Egypt and Sudan remain scarce, although studies on

4332:. The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain. Texts such as the 1815:

did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and

4272:. In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a "Byblos Ship", which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination. 3836:

statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife. Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.

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from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes. Local councils of elders, known as

3873:. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of 10600:

Skoglund, Pontus; Thompson, Jessica C.; Prendergast, Mary E.; Mittnik, Alissa; Sirak, Kendra; Hajdinjak, Mateja; Salie, Tasneem; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Peltzer, Alexander; Heinze, Anja; Olalde, Iñigo; Ferry, Matthew; Harney, Eadaoin; Michel, Megan (September 2017).

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to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. It is unclear whether

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BC, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in

4088:, remained famous long after their deaths. Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists. Training of physicians took place at the 1845:

took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.

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and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin. Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and

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Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or

1438:, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history. A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the 2985:, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, 3515:, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs. Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity. 1832:

forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of

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By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called

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did not often take part in official roles in the administration, aside from the royal high priestesses, apparently served only secondary roles in the temples (not much data for many dynasties), and were not so probably to be as educated as men.

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With the rising importance of central administration in Egypt, a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the king in payment for their services. Kings also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local

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lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used

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The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality

1581:'s. Twenty-fifth Dynasty pharaohs built, or restored, temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal. During this period, the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of 3916:

that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the

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resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits.

3202:. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family's 875:

The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the king

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who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this

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Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period,

780:, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of 1522:, who recognized Smendes in name only. During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under 4587:% Neolithic/Bronze Age Levantine ancestry in these individuals. Such geneflow of Levantine-like ancestry corresponds with archaeological and botanic evidence, pointing to a Neolithic movement around 7,000 years ago. 2619:, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. An Egyptian 2456:

observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses. During the Late Period, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess

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in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes. More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the

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Estimates of the size of the population range from 1–1.5 million in the 3rd millennium BC to possibly 2–3 million by the 1st millennium BC, before growing significantly towards the end of that millennium.

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institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories. Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the

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and his court for redress. Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated by

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that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.

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to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.

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The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as

2425:, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the 1175:

into the Delta region to provide a sufficient labor force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with severe

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administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of

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to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He began his official history with the king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek), who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of

2298:(harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the 1112:

The kings of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's stability and prosperity, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects. Mentuhotep II and his

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plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of

3801:, performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife. Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by 2077: sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140 1612:, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians, against whom Egypt enjoyed several victories. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and 13282: 9318: 4704:

with both adopting Egyptian religious and architectural norms (hundreds of pyramids (6–30 meters high) were built in Egypt/Sudan), as well as using Egyptian writing as the basis of the

3821:. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted 3369:

The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the

4131:. Moldy bread, honey, and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve 3797:

The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by

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was adopted from Asiatic soldiers. The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such as

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mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.

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The Nile Delta in Transition: 4th.–3rd. Millennium B.C.: Proceedings of the Seminar Held in Cairo, 21–24 October 1990, at the Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies

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in nominal and adverbial sentences. The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun. Verbs and nouns are negated by the

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unfolded as a series of stable kingdoms interspersed by periods of relative instability known as "Intermediate Periods". The various kingdoms fall into one of three categories: the

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for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone

1044:, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 597: 3626: 4344:, and division—use fractions, calculate the areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles and compute the volumes of boxes, columns and pyramids. They understood basic concepts of 2406:, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. 12983: 3177:

designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread.

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hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman period. The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the

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in present-day Gaza was established as an Egyptian settlement in the late 4th millennium BC, and is theorised to have been the main Egyptian colonial site in the region.

3422: 386:. After this period, it entered an era of slow decline. During the course of its history, ancient Egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers, including the 2997:

lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt, but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by

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Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the

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took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from the pagan

3809:, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in 2410:, such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of 1318:, a queen who established herself as pharaoh, launched many building projects, including the restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos, and sent trading expeditions to 4127:

were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddess

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at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from

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In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. Since the 2010s, the

4708:. Meroitic is the oldest written language in Africa, other than Egyptian, and was used from the 2nd century BC until the early 5th century AD. The cult of the goddess 3646: 1368:

BC, the stability of the New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to

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Modern Egyptians, like modern Nubians, underwent subsequent admixture events, contributing both "Sub-Saharan" African-like and West Asian-like ancestries, since the

599: 592: 10013: 4751:. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of 4054:. Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence. Adult 3877:

on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the

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and stories into a coherent system. These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.

601: 540:

of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians has led to the

9168: 4139:, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred. 11215: 2000:

The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme

12206: 10450: 5830:

Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is incomplete due to paucity of available material and lack of exhaustive study of the texts that have been uncovered (

2354:

A tomb relief depicts workers plowing the fields, harvesting the crops, and threshing the grain under the direction of an overseer, painting in the tomb of

588:

period, the arid climate of Northern Africa had become increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region.

4541:

uniparental haplogroups in ancient individuals have been carried out several times, pointing broadly to affinities with other African and Eurasian groups.

2872:. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Late Egyptian to about nine. The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a 2004:

and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the

8817: 3404: 3126:

BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the

1361:. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built. 1237:, to the south. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555 13692: 13608: 1519: 3466: 2600: 10544: 10253:

Porat, Naomi (1992). "An Egyptian colony in southern Palestine during the Late Predynastic/Early Dynastic period". In Edwin C. M. van den Brink (ed.).

5702: 4264:

Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especially

2989:, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone. 11011:

Mallory-Greenough, Leanne M. (December 2002). "The Geographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distribution of Predynastic and First Dynasty Basalt Vessels".

3768:". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form. If they were not deemed worthy, their heart was eaten by 2049:, a weight of roughly 91 grams (3 oz) of copper or silver, forming a common denominator. Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn 13486: 3828:

Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased.

2798:. Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes. 10427: 4821: 1927:

religions and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of

1480:, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and 596: 566:

has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled

11285:

In-depth-information about Ancient Egypt's priests, religious services and temples. Much picture material and bibliography. In English and German.

3558:, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife. 2268:

A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich

1291:

established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the

1152:

expressions of personal piety. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style. The

1052:

finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the

4030:

The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from

3122:. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700 3693:

changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting

2125:

The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest

13835: 13697: 13010: 12958: 11343: 10527: 3680:

Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the

2433:. Camels, although known from the New Kingdom, were not used as beasts of burden until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest that 14863: 8576: 3249:" also known as 58 holes is another example of board games played in ancient Egypt. The first complete set of this game was discovered from a 5656: 3270: 1944:

slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to

1588:

Egypt's far-reaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen under the

10376: 4661:

sources of evidence which broadly indicate that the earliest Egyptians and Nubians were the descendants of populations in northeast Africa.

3953:

In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional

1751: 1488:

in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.

10396: 4608:, point to the widespread presence of an (Western) Eurasian ancestry component distributed throughout Northern Africa, the Sahara, and the 3173:

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of

2390:

was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole. Animals, both

4533:

According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on recent genetic samples such as the

4115:

Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection, while

3869:

The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt's domination in the

2574:

dotted the Eastern Desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of

2109:

was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or

598: 594: 13702: 11763: 11369: 5687: 4785: 3554:

depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the

3241:, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was 11240: 8906: 14245: 14225: 10830: 4696:

The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. Egyptian civilization significantly influenced the

4317: 1793:. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a centre of learning and culture, that included the famous 1229:

After retreating south, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos'

947:

and resulting population, made possible by a well-developed central administration. Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the

12161: 11272:

Scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics.

10745: 8890: 3606: 14313: 13358: 11441: 11190: 10090: 8990: 3764:, or "effective one". For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a " 1395:. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned and the traditional religious order restored. The subsequent pharaohs, 998:

BC, is believed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.

8672: 2113:

that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a

13491: 9213:

Eltis, David; Bradley, Keith R.; Engerman, Stanley L.; Perry, Craig; Cartledge, Paul; Richardson, David; Drescher, Seymour (2021).

5649: 4752: 3006: 2960: 537: 10592: 4058:

was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy.

2008:, who acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the 13901: 13395: 11670: 11498: 9555: 4370: 4194:

stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to

2712: 14235: 2707: 2696: 1156:

and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical sophistication.

666:

and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the

658:, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and 3193:

The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from

2876:

or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the

2704: 2701: 16029: 15816: 15198: 13762: 13481: 11171: 11147: 11075: 11051: 11001: 10977: 10953: 10931: 10907: 10880: 10812: 10785: 10727: 10703: 10684: 10663: 10567: 10517: 10496: 10415: 10350: 10331: 10307: 10286: 10262: 10213: 10192: 10164: 10130: 10109: 10072: 9989: 9965: 9944: 9925: 9903: 9867: 9846: 9827: 9803: 9782: 9758: 9737: 9676: 9652: 9626: 9598: 9577: 9470: 9328: 9297: 9264: 9243: 9224: 9203: 9158: 9137: 9116: 9095: 9074: 8957: 8936: 8872: 8848: 8784: 8765: 8741: 8722: 8701: 8662: 8641: 8610: 8586: 8565: 7197: 3199: 2710: 2698: 2020:, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they 10753:

Vittman, Günther (1991). "Zum koptischen Sprachgut im Ägyptisch-Arabisch" [the Coptic language in Egyptian Arabic].

8616: 14183: 11616: 11066: 9704:

Ancient Egyptian 'Origins and "Identity"'. In Ancient Egyptian society : challenging assumptions, exploring approaches

4206:

BC was 75 feet (23 m) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh, perhaps one as early as

2519:

and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive

95: 15722: 4537:

royal mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.

4418:

Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to write

16024: 14230: 14134: 13373: 11730: 11488: 11483: 11364: 5682: 5183: 4160: 3781: 1193: 1682:. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from Iran, leaving Egypt under the control of a 15868: 14868: 11336: 9711: 5325: 5043: 4550: 2992:

Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified

2646:

provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons. Egypt relied on trade with

1497: 1144:

that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "

1098: 1007: 8755: 16009: 15999: 14512: 14240: 13630: 11453: 9878: 9176: 4505: 3495: 2612: 1447: 1140:

and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in

521: 461:

sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent

11182: 10223:

Pećanac, Marija; Janjić, Zlata; Komarcević, Aleksandar; et al. (May 2013). "Burns treatment in ancient times".

8841:

The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume II, Part 2. History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1380–1000 B.C

8832: 8651:

Aston, Barbara G.; Harrell, James A.; Shaw, Ian (2000). "Stone: Obsidian". In Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (eds.).

14265: 14172: 13132: 11606: 11374: 11300: 11278: 10203: 3550:

statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife. During the Middle Kingdom,

2207:

the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family. Beginning in the New Kingdom,

332: 17: 10244:

Porat, Naomi (1986). "Local Industry of Egyptian Pottery in Southern Palestine During the Early Bronze I Period".

3134:

period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as

16014: 16004: 15494: 13992: 13343: 12968: 12110: 11756: 11638: 11584: 11436: 11013: 10184:

Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs

9405: 9403:(October 1964). "Most Ancient Egypt: Chapter III. The Neolithic and Chalcolithic Communities of Northern Egypt". 5435: 4763:. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities. 4760: 4341: 3829: 2478: 908:. The increasing power and wealth of the kings during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate 485: 14656: 12031: 9167: 7203: 4202:

BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000

2163: 2035:

Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use

1778:

and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the

1024:

Free from their loyalties to the king, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and

536:

were widely copied, and its antiquities were carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have

13982: 13389: 13368: 11710: 11611: 5717: 5637: 5451: 5373: 5347: 4890: 4084:

Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such as

2445:, dogs, and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as 2350: 2334:, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. 1383:, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and moved the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day 787: 643:. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs, and the Nile region supported large populations of 14283: 9463:

The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume II part I: History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1800–1380

8636:. Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens. Vol. 5. Heidelberger Orientverlag. pp. 23–26. 2085:

BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of

570:

and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.

15932: 14326: 14308: 13956: 12988: 11397: 11392: 11329: 11314: 5537: 5491: 5464: 5421: 5390: 5386: 5360: 5334: 4917: 4670: 4545:

1300 years of Egyptian history. These results point to a genetic continuity of Ancient Egyptians with modern

4257: 3453: 3332: 1635: 1547: 819: 628: 533: 469:

intended to assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite

465:, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and 134: 35: 10968: 9388: 8968: 4777: 4688: 4438:, however, were written with a special glyph—the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right. 4340:

show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction,

3542:

to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of

2398:, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. 1646:

was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first

1108:

Coffin of Khnumnakht in 12th dynasty style, with palace facade, columns of inscriptions, and two Wedjat eyes

441:

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the

15927: 15811: 14250: 13847: 13466: 13405: 13235: 13045: 11544: 11419: 11387: 10119:

Nicholson, Paul T.; Peltenburg, Edgar (2000). "Egyptian faience". In Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (eds.).

10025: 5737: 5707: 5412: 5248: 4307: 3490: 2483:

Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These

2225: 2040: 1625: 1090: 567: 442: 201: 11087:"Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods" 4008:) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment. 3323:

basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.

3002: 1713:

BC, when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties. The last of these dynasties, the

15937: 14974: 14303: 13680: 13583: 13122: 12881: 11628: 11591: 11539: 11458: 10921: 9052: 8858: 5291: 5278: 5192: 5162: 4499: 4337: 3940: 3018: 2825: 2818: 2081:

deben. Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list. During the fifth century

1979:

in 639–641, marking the end of both Byzantine rule and of the period typically considered Ancient Egypt.

1094: 725: 647:. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first 557: 517: 458: 399: 9837:

Loprieno, Antonio (1995b). "Ancient Egyptian and other Afroasiatic Languages". In Jack M. Sasson (ed.).

4286:

In 2011, archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt, excavating a dried-up lagoon known as

3988:, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of 2778:

BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are

2323:

from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.

477:, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of 14159: 13422: 13265: 13137: 13027: 11785: 11749: 11478: 10021: 9372: 9323:. Published on behalf of the Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, by Oxford University Press. 8676: 5712: 5477: 5304: 5223: 5205: 4894: 4605: 4333: 3913: 3433: 2430: 2280:

Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons:

1964: 1885: 1714: 1601: 9588: 8800: 4445:

as an empirical formula. They were aware, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the

4229:", a 43.6-metre (143 ft) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the 3668: 2089:

rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.

1634:

The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the

697:). These brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic 15895: 15043: 14607: 14392: 14321: 13896: 13752: 13685: 12911: 12854: 11601: 11569: 11554: 11549: 11448: 11402: 11234: 10838: 9721: 8898: 5697: 5136: 5105: 4025: 3897: 3846: 3663: 3185: 3152: 2277:

was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.

1920: 1809:

made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.

1113: 944: 892:

BC, the first of the Dynastic kings solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at

574: 509: 478: 466: 13813: 10535: 9129:

The Tomb in Ancient Egypt: Royal and Private Sepulchres from the Early Dynastic Period to the Romans

3518: 3055:, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 2097: 16019: 15853: 15828: 15678: 15337: 15332: 14433: 14153: 13938: 13645: 13172: 13167: 12973: 12704: 12254: 11907: 11772: 11720: 11596: 11517: 11468: 5692: 5149: 5052: 4528: 3690: 3290: 3178: 3107: 2998: 2856:

Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include

2474: 2282: 2231: 1972: 1812: 1802: 1629: 1121: 1086:; the divine kilt, suggests that the statuette was not merely a representation of the living ruler. 663: 553: 348: 31: 14040: 15920: 15801: 15342: 15295: 15238: 14937: 14881: 14629: 14382: 14255: 13911: 13859: 13562: 13353: 13260: 13147: 12782: 12133: 11293: 5126: 5065: 4996: 4953: 4658: 4280: 4234: 4198:, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 3881:. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer 3457: 2642:

yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with

2399: 2288: 1481: 1210:, who had already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and established their capital at 1065: 1053: 765: 360: 169: 14298: 12722: 10870: 10388: 4178:

were constructed of wooden planks "sewn" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of

3337:

The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the

3110:

is considered a masterpiece of Near Eastern literature. Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the

2012:. At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called 615: 15994: 15942: 15843: 15838: 15526: 15474: 15394: 15327: 15231: 15216: 15109: 14876: 14830: 14671: 14558: 14420: 14288: 13933: 13742: 13737: 13667: 13557: 13400: 13272: 13005: 12435: 12386: 12329: 12274: 12128: 11700: 11633: 11473: 10856: 10366: 9338:

Grajetzki, W. (2007). "Box Coffins in the Late Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period".

5091: 5078: 5022: 5009: 4983: 4937: 3156: 2841: 2757: 2595: 2434: 2175: 2151: 2130: 2005: 1706: 956: 881: 671: 431: 427: 10796: 9488:. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 83–95. 9446: 9214: 8689: 3732:

The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or

2414:. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax. 2402:

were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular

1253:

to the south of Egypt, but failed to defeat the Hyksos. That task fell to Kamose's successor,

15873: 15833: 15646: 15521: 14585: 14575: 14534: 14505: 14411: 14293: 13967: 13943: 13798: 13277: 13162: 13060: 13035: 12627: 12506: 12460: 12391: 12356: 11665: 10559: 10156: 10000: 9481: 9148: 9064: 9060: 4414: 4230: 3852: 3681: 3077:('instructions') was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the 2442: 2294: 2147: 2122:

as understood today existed in ancient Egypt; there is difference of opinions among authors.

2101:

Painted limestone relief of a noble member of Ancient Egyptian society during the New Kingdom

1865: 1834: 1794: 1756: 1651: 1647: 1569:

invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta, which established the

1335: 1280: 753: 512:, irrigation systems, and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats, 336: 15761: 12592: 12100: 10822: 10775: 10448:

Shea, William H. (April 1977). "A Date for the Recently Discovered Eastern Canal of Egypt".

10321: 10276: 10182: 10120: 10099: 9979: 9955: 9857: 9793: 9772: 9748: 9640: 9616: 9567: 9275: 9193: 9127: 9106: 9085: 8922: 8652: 4743:, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as 3984:

Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as

3570:. The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the 1476:

these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern

15966: 15796: 15766: 15641: 15572: 15543: 15462: 14796: 14634: 14624: 14387: 14260: 14200: 14053: 13987: 13830: 13818: 13662: 13471: 13230: 13225: 13127: 13087: 12891: 12787: 12777: 12770: 12324: 11690: 11648: 11505: 11414: 11407: 11157: 11098: 10737: 10507: 9008: 8882: 5269: 4974: 4880: 4866: 4845: 4394: 4353: 4039:

body. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to

3486: 3473: 3370: 3338: 3250: 3160: 2967: 2933: 2922: 2857: 2829: 2732: 2024:, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the kingdom's wealth in a system of 1941: 1924: 1578: 1270: 1176: 952: 932: 922: 781: 632: 529: 505: 462: 453:

of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and

446: 368: 352: 184: 154: 15746: 13417: 10851: 10653: 10361: 10082: 8982: 3857: 3786: 3237:

The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music.

8: 15658: 15538: 15504: 15406: 15226: 15221: 15033: 14752: 14688: 14563: 14548: 14449: 14377: 14205: 14195: 14166: 14034: 13867: 13808: 13378: 13287: 13187: 13177: 13117: 13112: 13107: 13097: 13092: 13077: 13072: 12993: 12849: 12727: 12672: 12597: 12021: 11985: 11510: 11431: 10323:

The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C.

9368: 8973: 8680: 5764:

With his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses II sired more than 100 children. (

4627: 4442: 4268:(on the coast of modern-day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the 4179: 4066: 3958: 3563: 2869: 2865: 2558:

ore mined in the Sinai. Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in

1786: 1779: 1771: 1734: 1717:, proved to be the last native royal house of ancient Egypt, ending with the kingship of 1662:

became the home of Greeks in the Nile Delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of

1485: 1275: 1033: 706: 407: 15374: 15364: 11102: 9012: 8999:

2023). "The genomic echoes of the last Green Sahara on the Fulani and Sahelian people".

8555: 2367: 2063: sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn 15771: 15751: 15734: 15685: 15550: 15359: 15310: 15243: 15161: 15102: 15097: 15092: 15048: 15018: 14910: 14808: 14676: 14651: 14146: 13803: 13603: 13588: 13383: 13338: 13333: 13182: 12732: 12344: 11564: 11527: 11426: 11161: 11119: 11086: 11030: 10762: 10717: 10674: 10635: 10602: 10584: 10475: 10467: 10436: 10297: 9893: 9817: 9529: 9494: 9430: 9347: 9040: 8918: 7204:

Egyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine (2000)

5515: 4716:, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome. The Romans also imported 4109: 3694: 3582:, was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the traditional forms. 3246: 3223: 3127: 3119: 2986: 2936:

falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).

2877: 2861: 2802: 2791: 2563: 2458: 2446: 1976: 1821: 1817: 1679: 1145: 1013: 991: 435: 378:

Ancient Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom, ruling much of

9493:

Hodgson, Jason A.; Mulligan, Connie J.; Al-Meeri, Ali; Raaum, Ryan L. (12 June 2014).

4549:. The results further point to a close genetic affinity between ancient Egyptians and 888:

in a symbolic act of unification. In the Early Dynastic Period, which began about 3000

15880: 15776: 15712: 15707: 15636: 15533: 15248: 15176: 15171: 15013: 14942: 14925: 14920: 14915: 14715: 14666: 14066: 13727: 13675: 13657: 13598: 13220: 13157: 13152: 13082: 12978: 12938: 12933: 12916: 12886: 12552: 12496: 12490: 12339: 12316: 12138: 12068: 12026: 11522: 11463: 11308: 11207: 11183:"Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state" 11167: 11143: 11137: 11124: 11071: 11061: 11047: 10997: 10991: 10973: 10949: 10927: 10903: 10876: 10808: 10781: 10723: 10699: 10680: 10659: 10640: 10622: 10563: 10513: 10492: 10479: 10411: 10405: 10346: 10327: 10303: 10282: 10272: 10258: 10232: 10209: 10188: 10160: 10126: 10105: 10068: 9985: 9961: 9940: 9921: 9899: 9863: 9842: 9823: 9799: 9778: 9754: 9733: 9707: 9672: 9666: 9648: 9622: 9594: 9573: 9534: 9516: 9466: 9434: 9422: 9324: 9293: 9260: 9239: 9220: 9199: 9154: 9133: 9112: 9091: 9070: 9044: 9032: 9024: 8953: 8947: 8932: 8868: 8844: 8780: 8761: 8737: 8718: 8697: 8658: 8637: 8606: 8582: 8561: 5741: 5631: 5602: 4926: 4841: 4826: 4801: 4756: 4744: 4717: 4683: 4638: 4564: 4419: 4349: 4329: 4246: 4241:

BC, is a full-size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a

4124: 3870: 3685: 3551: 3535:

as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.

3523: 3390: 3385:, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground 2810: 2806: 2765: 2753: 2675: 2616: 2167: 1945: 1937: 1806: 1782: 1746: 1722: 1702: 1457:

Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the

1258: 1164: 655: 610: 493: 411: 364: 321: 269: 216: 42: 9856:

Loprieno, Antonio (2004). "Ancient Egyptian and Coptic". In Roger D. Woodard (ed.).

4324:

The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic

3295: 3165: 2981:

works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called

2465:, and these animals were kept in large numbers for the purpose of ritual sacrifice. 1931:

starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out. In 391, the Christian emperor

1104: 15729: 15516: 15511: 15467: 15454: 15384: 15352: 15347: 15211: 15206: 15188: 15149: 15082: 15065: 15006: 14996: 14991: 14932: 14888: 14858: 14818: 14801: 14784: 14747: 14498: 14372: 14107: 13823: 13567: 13476: 13197: 13192: 13000: 12943: 12926: 12896: 12827: 12602: 12381: 12259: 12186: 12006: 11882: 11579: 11493: 11248: 11199: 11114: 11106: 11022: 10630: 10614: 10555: 10459: 10152: 9913: 9813: 9768: 9686: 9636: 9524: 9506: 9458: 9450: 9442: 9414: 9400: 9283: 9056: 9016: 8969:"Egypt's Ancient Fleet: Lost for Thousands of Years, Discovered in a Desolate Cave" 8836: 4728:

studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.

4725: 4720:

from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus,

4674: 4558: 4345: 3985: 3922: 3673: 3429: 3343: 3319: 3115: 3082: 3060: 2761: 2484: 2212:

or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an

2043:, they did use a type of money-barter system, with standard sacks of grain and the 2021: 1952: 1901: 1473: 1439: 1242: 1137: 900:

and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical

777: 769: 686: 667: 659: 513: 356: 309: 14059: 13928: 11254: 9690: 9169:"Egyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine" 8862: 8435: 4290:, unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages, such as 4252: 2487:

allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and

1353:

The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god

1311:

extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen.

15947: 15915: 15788: 15756: 15739: 15695: 15690: 15668: 15663: 15621: 15614: 15589: 15449: 15444: 15285: 15166: 15060: 15055: 15023: 14848: 14838: 14732: 14725: 14720: 14705: 14661: 14543: 14529: 13788: 13142: 13102: 13040: 12143: 12078: 11932: 11282: 10917: 10713: 10140:

Prendergast, Mary E.; Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; Sirak, Kendra A. (19 October 2022).

9726: 9511: 8795: 8751: 8600: 8596: 8375: 5592: 4772: 4739:, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later 4705: 4697: 4631: 4612:, having arrived via back migration(s) from the Middle East starting as early as 4435: 4187: 4055: 4035: 3989: 3882: 3806: 3395: 3363: 3099: 3098:, might be the classic of Egyptian literature. Also written at this time was the 3095: 3090: 2845: 2837: 2795: 2783: 2488: 2274: 2261: 1582: 1551: 1234: 1025: 983: 948: 829: 577: 497: 372: 106: 15369: 13840: 11085:

Schuenemann, Verena J.; Peltzer, Alexander; Welte, Beatrix; et al. (2017).

8092: 4808:

from the 14th century BC, which has made it the oldest continuously used temple.

4510: 4245:. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with 3793:, the god associated with mummification and burial rituals, attending to a mummy 1666:

witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525

1414: 41:"Ancient Egyptian" and "Ancient Egyptians" redirect here. For the language, see 15890: 15885: 15848: 15823: 15806: 15717: 15702: 15673: 15631: 15479: 15439: 15434: 15389: 15315: 15275: 15265: 15255: 15070: 14949: 14843: 14710: 14592: 14094: 14028: 13783: 13542: 13410: 13215: 13210: 12921: 12874: 12792: 12737: 12465: 12371: 12334: 12181: 12043: 11877: 11559: 10963: 10941: 10618: 9662: 9150:

The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C.

8931:

originally published by Oxford University Press ed.). Dover Publications.

5524: 5236: 4646: 4642: 4609: 4598: 4449:

when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio. They were able to estimate the area of a

4105: 3700: 3512: 3277: 3078: 3068: 3059:

BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in

2993: 2909: 2659: 2516: 2508: 2496: 2422: 2379: 2299: 2086: 1960: 1956: 1805:

lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the

1613: 1542: 1327: 1070: 893: 868: 690: 682: 9288: 9020: 7633: 4771:

when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt's

1951:

In the fourth century, as the Roman Empire divided, Egypt found itself in the

959:, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve 15988: 15971: 15858: 15653: 15626: 15599: 15577: 15555: 15322: 15305: 15290: 15134: 15087: 15075: 15001: 14893: 14767: 14762: 14737: 14442: 14127: 14087: 14073: 13732: 13547: 13322: 12869: 12864: 12837: 12662: 12196: 12118: 11867: 11847: 11810: 10800: 10626: 10543:

Sirak, Kendra A.; Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; Prendergast, Mary E. (18 May 2022).

9520: 9426: 9314: 9195:

Egyptology: The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings

9028: 8914: 8833:"Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty" 5568: 4907: 4287: 4218: 4175: 4097: 4051: 4044: 4001: 3993: 3962: 3832:

were often included in the grave, and, beginning in the New Kingdom, so were

3571: 3111: 3048: 2949: 2787: 2628: 2528: 2391: 2257: 2252: 2245: 2143: 2106: 1897: 1889: 1829: 1461: 1458: 1408: 1230: 1219: 1215: 1160: 1049: 1037: 773: 749: 733: 648: 454: 77:

Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (

15399: 15379: 14080: 12403: 11233: 9645:

The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook

9486:

Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)

9254: 8387: 8322: 8320: 8318: 8316: 3972:), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and 3229: 2907:

Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call

2896:, 'he hears'. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb: 2768:. It has the longest known history of any language having been written from 544:

of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.

15863: 15604: 15594: 15560: 15489: 15484: 15411: 15201: 15183: 15144: 15139: 15119: 15114: 14986: 14979: 14969: 14964: 14959: 14853: 14791: 14772: 14757: 14693: 14188: 13878: 13872: 13778: 13773: 13712: 13593: 12948: 12822: 12797: 12749: 12742: 12667: 12582: 12218: 12153: 12011: 11949: 11872: 11830: 11621: 11211: 11128: 10644: 10236: 9975: 9563: 9538: 9036: 8578:

Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs

8351: 6874: 6045: 4805: 4713: 4623: 4269: 4242: 4171: 4164: 4152: 4136: 4013: 3997: 3905: 3637: 3543: 3386: 3258: 3254: 3242: 3052: 2873: 2779: 2651: 2643: 2605: 2583: 2403: 2269: 2045: 2013: 1932: 1916: 1905: 1873: 1842: 1838: 1718: 1570: 1555: 1515: 1514:

assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of

1446:) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded 1400: 1319: 1308: 1203: 1187: 1133: 1083: 1079: 1075: 990:

began to challenge the supremacy of the office of king. This, coupled with

964: 710: 644: 423: 14113: 4568:

The preserved Temple of Horus at Edfu is a model of Egyptian architecture.

3265:

were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at

3189:

Egyptians celebrated feasts and festivals, accompanied by music and dance.

2437:

were briefly used in the Late Period but largely abandoned due to lack of

1279:

Pharaohs' tombs were provided with vast quantities of wealth, such as the

15582: 15567: 15416: 15129: 15038: 15028: 14954: 14602: 14597: 14427: 14010: 13949: 13768: 13722: 13707: 13635: 13363: 12842: 12647: 12542: 12349: 12085: 12016: 11922: 11840: 11825: 11275: 10987: 9547: 8712: 8341: 8339: 8337: 8335: 8313: 6785: 5753: 5558: 4736: 4732: 4422:

as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fraction

4276: 4195: 4148: 4101: 4061: 3810: 3802: 3135: 3131: 3130:

script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the

2655: 2520: 1881: 1855: 1675: 1671: 1663: 1532: 1503: 1465: 1435: 1419: 1396: 1373: 1136:. From Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sighted 1117: 940: 939:

Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the

935:

are among the most recognizable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization.

901: 897: 857: 853: 833: 585: 581: 328: 282: 14465: 12522: 11251: – provides a reliable general overview and further links 11110: 10766: 10440: 9447:"Egypt: Internal affairs from Tuthmosis I to the death of Amenophis III" 9351: 6097: 2540:

purpose. Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as

2527:, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The 492:, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental 15609: 15426: 15300: 15260: 15193: 13962: 13793: 13652: 13640: 13552: 13461: 13050: 12802: 12470: 12445: 12424: 12366: 12228: 12201: 11917: 11797: 11660: 11321: 11203: 11044:

The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs

11034: 10471: 10317: 9883: 9454: 9363:. By International Geological Congress. Pretoria: Wallach. p. 123. 8818:"4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt" 5818: 5677: 4768: 4748: 4654: 4446: 4291: 4226: 3954: 3822: 3633: 3579: 3532: 3266: 3194: 2821: 2386:

The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and

2204: 2186: 2139: 2029: 1928: 1790: 1523: 1469: 1423: 1392: 1315: 1304: 963:, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a 960: 741: 737: 675: 541: 450: 313: 13717: 11301:"Full-length account of Ancient Egypt as part of history of the world" 11269: 8779:. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. 8399: 8332: 8270: 6085: 4283:

by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.

1996:

The pharaoh was usually depicted wearing symbols of royalty and power.

1686:. A few successful revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century 1407:, worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the 955:, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the 824:

The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early

15499: 15270: 15154: 15124: 14905: 14779: 14570: 13972: 13885: 12901: 12859: 12832: 12642: 12587: 12571: 12429: 12269: 12223: 12148: 12123: 12090: 11944: 11887: 11862: 11260:

Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt

10805:

The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume VII, Part 1, The Hellenic World

10047: 9981:

Object Worlds in Ancient Egypt: Material Biographies Past and Present

7101: 4546: 4005: 3945: 3765: 3575: 3555: 3378: 3374: 3300: 3262: 2663: 2571: 2567: 2555: 2532: 2492: 2453: 2371: 2316: 2308: 2134: 2001: 1968: 1698: 1659: 1643: 1609: 1369: 1342:, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as 1172: 927: 757: 698: 694: 640: 620: 489: 419: 11741: 11026: 10463: 10377:"4,000-Year-Old Board Game Called 58 Holes Discovered in Azerbaijan" 9935:

Manuelian, Peter Der (1998). Regine Schulz; Matthias Seidel (eds.).

7657: 4679: 4453:

by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result:

4275:

In 1977, an ancient north–south canal was discovered extending from

4092:

or "House of Life" institution, most notably those headquartered in

2944: 2836:, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic 2635:

had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.

2114: 1690:

BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.

1596:

BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667

772:, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed a 430:. Egypt remained under Roman control until the 640s AD, when it was 14900: 14683: 14641: 14580: 14120: 12622: 12617: 12485: 12440: 12361: 12249: 12244: 12213: 11970: 11927: 11892: 11857: 11805: 11532: 11255:

Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989

10018:

The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land

9554:. Washington DC: National Council for Science and the Environment. 9418: 9320:

Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs

8822: 8757:

Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Egypt 2675–332 B.C.E.

7864: 7545: 6280: 4764: 4650: 4601: 4222: 4214: 4093: 4070: 3318:

Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the

3174: 2982: 2833: 2809:

later on. Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite

2647: 2579: 2559: 2395: 2213: 2182: 2110: 2036: 2009: 1904:. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the 1893: 1798: 1404: 1254: 1018: 702: 525: 12567: 10875:. Translated by Raymond Faulkner. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. 10696:

The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization

10599: 8381: 7473: 4701: 4012:

did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding

3912:

over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using

3888: 2888:

is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation is

2236: 1705:. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the 1674:, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh 14813: 14742: 14698: 14553: 14405: 13852: 13348: 13240: 12637: 12607: 12562: 12547: 12532: 12527: 12480: 12450: 12173: 11980: 11975: 11912: 11852: 11815: 11574: 10736: 9590:

The Mummy in Ancient Egypt : equipping the dead for eternity

9359:

Greaves, R. H.; Little, O. H. (1930). "Gold Resources of Egypt".

8186: 7639: 7609: 7041: 6987: 6069: 6009: 5888: 4573: 4207: 4191: 4085: 4040: 4031: 3973: 3918: 3909: 3893: 3862: 3833: 3613: 3547: 3382: 3351: 3219: 3064: 2575: 2438: 2407: 2343: 2171: 2126: 2119: 2025: 2017: 1825: 1760: 1605: 1589: 1574: 1511: 1388: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1250: 1223: 1129: 1041: 1036:

controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in

987: 909: 863: 845: 636: 571: 501: 474: 470: 403: 395: 391: 14614: 9216:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420

8864:

The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great

7557: 7173: 6463: 6169: 4514:

The halls of Karnak Temple are built with rows of large columns.

4312: 970: 14646: 14521: 14456: 14101: 13922: 12906: 12812: 12657: 12612: 12557: 12517: 12501: 12475: 12419: 12264: 12191: 12095: 12063: 12053: 12001: 11902: 11835: 11084: 10583: 8997: 8897: 8690:"Egyptian Connections with the Larger World: Ancient Near East" 8393: 8234: 8222: 8210: 7269: 6880: 6051: 5209: 4721: 4554: 4534: 4450: 4325: 4265: 4132: 3878: 3818: 3790: 3726: 3709: 3705: 3567: 3539: 3449: 3359: 3355: 3203: 3073: 3028: 2814: 2639: 2632: 2624: 2620: 2551: 2541: 2504: 2426: 2387: 2331: 2304: 2208: 1775: 1694: 1683: 1477: 1384: 1358: 1343: 1300: 1246: 1211: 1207: 1181: 1168: 1153: 974: 905: 877: 792: 729: 714: 473:, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a 387: 383: 344: 4590:

Genetic data on other Northern African specimens, such as the

4213:

Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with

4186:

were found to have been used to lash the planks together, and

3346:

with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.

3023: 2898: 2890: 2882: 1721:. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the 591: 414:, formed in the aftermath of Alexander's death, ruled until 30 15280: 12817: 12807: 12652: 12632: 12577: 12537: 12511: 12455: 11954: 10872:

The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day

10837: 10532:

An introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt

9750:

The Philistines and Other Sea Peoples in Text and Archaeology

8843:(third ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 606–. 8303: 8301: 8170: 7996: 7984: 7972: 7960: 7912: 7840: 7705: 7597: 7533: 7329: 7125: 7065: 6791: 4740: 4577: 4183: 4120: 4116: 4050:

The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted

3874: 3798: 3769: 3713: 3238: 3103: 2638:

By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with

2536: 2524: 2500: 2462: 2339: 2327: 2320: 2312: 1655: 1536: 1443: 1339: 1331: 1141: 1074:

A figure wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, most probably

849: 825: 745: 740:

leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the

379: 340: 317: 11288: 10222: 9492: 8981: 8357: 8098: 8068: 7137: 7089: 7029: 6975: 6963: 6951: 6103: 4645:. This latter view has been attributed to the corresponding 3729:

to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.

3114:

was more often employed to write popular pieces such as the

12414: 12073: 12058: 12038: 11939: 11820: 10803:; Astin, A. E.; Fredericksen, M. W.; Ogilvie, R.M. (eds.). 9957:

Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs

9859:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages

9276:"Paleogenomics of the Neolithic Transition in North Africa" 7828: 7377: 7281: 7053: 7019: 7017: 6816: 6814: 6812: 6763: 6761: 6759: 6757: 4709: 4295: 4167: 4147:

Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a

4128: 3717: 3304: 3215: 3211: 3106:

by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests. The

2548: 2512: 2449: 2418: 2411: 2375: 2355: 2335: 2241: 1967:(618–628). It was then recaptured by the Byzantine emperor 1860: 1566: 1376: 1354: 1347: 1001: 837: 563: 484:

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the

316:, situated within the contemporary territory of modern-day 14490: 10425:

Shaw, Garry J. (2009). "The Death of King Seqenenre Tao".

10042: 9238:. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. 8363: 8298: 7852: 7341: 7233: 7004: 7002: 6915: 6571: 6547: 6475: 6415: 6292: 4604:, but also specimens from the "last Green Sahara" and the 3269:. The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed 2662:

and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of

1992: 1693:

Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with

1491: 806: 12048: 10807:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 125. 10603:"Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure" 10001:"16 of the Most Interesting Ancient Board and Dice Games" 9465:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 380. 9392: 9212: 8405: 8148: 8146: 7573: 7521: 7509: 7497: 7485: 7461: 7221: 7185: 7161: 6559: 6535: 6439: 5949: 5864: 4256:

Seagoing ship of an expedition to Punt, from a relief of

4135:

symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set

4004:, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or 2913:

because of its similarity with Arabic. The word order is

1380: 1202:

BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom kings weakened, a

10777:

Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant

9774:

Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms

9668:

The British Museum Concise Introduction to Ancient Egypt

9495:"Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa" 8507: 8258: 8246: 8131: 8121: 8119: 8080: 8056: 7722: 7720: 7449: 7437: 7401: 7353: 7317: 7305: 7293: 7257: 7245: 7014: 6939: 6838: 6809: 6773: 6754: 6381: 6379: 6145: 5736:

Depending on the definition, 332 BC with the end of the

4788:

has overseen excavations and the recovery of artifacts.

3499:

Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Menna,

2615:

to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the

1841:

relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the

1188:

Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos

10542: 10139: 9621:. Princeton University Press. pp. 82–90, 97, 167. 9367: 8531: 8495: 8483: 8471: 8447: 8345: 8326: 8198: 8020: 7792: 7413: 6999: 6927: 6730: 6718: 6340: 6286: 6205: 6033: 4482: 3929: 3676:

was a guide to the deceased's journey in the afterlife.

3578:'s revolutionary religious ideas. This style, known as 3226:

that was especially important in religious ceremonies.

1959:. In the waning years of the Empire, Egypt fell to the 1484:. After regaining their power, the high priests at the 580:

began living in the Nile valley through the end of the

10081: 8459: 8143: 7924: 7768: 7756: 7551: 6893: 6891: 6889: 6862: 6696: 6694: 6258: 6256: 6021: 3908:, spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching 3760:

and become one of the "blessed dead", living on as an

2240:

Measuring and recording the harvest, from the tomb of

1785:, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new 1214:, forcing the former central government to retreat to 12305: 10451:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

8116: 7888: 7804: 7780: 7732: 7717: 7693: 7681: 7669: 7645: 7621: 7585: 7113: 7077: 6826: 6797: 6511: 6451: 6376: 6316: 6268: 6229: 5925: 5876: 5852: 4069:

describes anatomy and medical treatments, written in

3892:

Wooden figures of soldiers, from the tomb of nomarch

3772:

the Devourer and they were erased from the Universe.

3574:, where figures were radically altered to conform to 2658:. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also included 1868:

epitomize the meeting of Egyptian and Roman cultures.

1120:, upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of the 312:. It was concentrated along the lower reaches of the 10821: 8671: 8519: 8192: 8104: 8044: 8032: 8008: 7948: 7900: 7876: 7816: 7744: 7365: 7209: 6850: 6499: 6352: 6175: 6133: 6121: 5985: 4856: 2146:

even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as

1468:, a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the 633:

Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today

10118: 10011: 9051: 8634:

Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels: Materials and Forms

8286: 7479: 7425: 7389: 7179: 7149: 6903: 6886: 6742: 6706: 6691: 6679: 6667: 6655: 6643: 6631: 6619: 6607: 6595: 6583: 6523: 6487: 6427: 6403: 6391: 6364: 6328: 6304: 6253: 6241: 6193: 6181: 6091: 5800:life expectancy and do not reflect life expectancy 5703:

List of Ancient Egyptian inventions and discoveries

4755:across Europe, as evident in symbolism such as the 4434:. Standard tables of values facilitated this. Some 1733:BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to 10545:"Ancient Human DNA and African Population History" 9725: 9361:Compte Rendu of the XV Session, South Africa, 1929 8423: 8411: 8158: 6217: 6157: 6109: 6057: 5997: 5973: 5961: 5937: 5915: 5913: 5911: 5909: 5907: 2864:consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless 2611:The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their 11010: 10755:Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 10652:Stiebing, William H. Jr; Helft, Susan N. (2023). 10201: 9747:Killebrew, Ann E.; Lehmann, Gunnar, eds. (2013). 9175:. University College London. 2000. Archived from 8717:. Vol. III. University of California Press. 7936: 6469: 1128:BC, shifted the kingdom's capital to the city of 15986: 11163:The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt 10923:Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt 10428:Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 10278:The Oxford Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology 10248:. Vol. 8. Scholars Press. pp. 109–129. 10125:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 177–194. 9862:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–192. 9753:. Vol. 15. Society of Biblical Literature. 9746: 8650: 6015: 5778: 4822:Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners 4553:populations, especially ancient groups from the 4112:of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments. 3652:Falcon box with wrapped contents; 332–30 BC 3299:Hunting game birds and plowing a field, tomb of 2932:is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. 1849: 1774:conquered Egypt with little resistance from the 1059: 623:jar decorated with gazelles (Predynastic Period) 10149:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History 9918:Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400) 9795:Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings 9706:. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 111–122. 9479: 8913: 8240: 8228: 8216: 7615: 7047: 5904: 4692:, published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829 4572:Ancient Egyptians also displayed affinities to 2260:planted round with date palms and fruit trees, 1740: 635:. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed 528:. Ancient Egypt has left a lasting legacy. Its 10962: 10302:(revised ed.). Harvard University Press. 10067:. California: University of California Press. 10043:"Egypt recovers 16 historic artifacts from US" 9879:"Most Ancient Port, Hieroglyphic Papyri Found" 8924:Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture 8657:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. 3472:Illustration of various types of capitals, by 1987: 1518:. The south was effectively controlled by the 1322:and the Sinai. When Tuthmosis III died in 1425 709:, used to shape blades and other objects from 674:; it was known for its high-quality ceramics, 14506: 11757: 11337: 11041: 10651: 10208:. University of Michigan Press. p. 273. 10097: 10012:de Miroschedji, Pierre; Sadeq, Moain (2008). 9841:. Vol. 4. Scribner. pp. 2137–2150. 9569:Choice Cuts: Meat Production in Ancient Egypt 9358: 8307: 8002: 7990: 7978: 7966: 7711: 7143: 7131: 7095: 7071: 7035: 6993: 6981: 6969: 6957: 5657: 3736:. In addition to the body, each person had a 2840:. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the 1264: 1116:successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier 1082:. It functioned as a divine guardian for the 916: 15963:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 11303:. Archived from the original on 24 May 2021. 10552:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology 10098:Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian, eds. (2000). 9153:Princeton University Press. pp. 48–61. 9108:The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt 9104: 8929:Ancient Egyptian Masonry: The Building Craft 8444:, pp. 62–67, 299–314, 500–510, 516–527. 5870: 2627:dates to slightly before the First Dynasty. 2105:Egyptian society was highly stratified, and 1159:The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, 10897: 10180: 9819:Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction 9618:Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE 9586: 9219:. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. 9125: 8696:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 423–446. 7870: 7858: 7663: 7059: 6921: 2880:. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton 1619: 784:for writing the ancient Egyptian language. 14513: 14499: 14299:Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle 14246:International Congress of Maritime Museums 14226:Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology 13518: 11764: 11750: 11344: 11330: 11180: 10658:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 209–212. 10360:Schuster, Angela M.H. (11 December 2000). 9550:. In A. Jorgensen; C.J. Cleveland (eds.). 9069:. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. 8881: 5858: 5664: 5650: 4479:a reasonable approximation of the formula 3276:The excavation of the workers' village of 3085:and social upheaval, is a famous example. 457:and culture. With resources to spare, the 14359: 14314:National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology 11191:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 11156: 11135: 11118: 10868: 10773: 10712: 10634: 10505: 10122:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology 10101:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology 9934: 9912: 9895:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries 9836: 9812: 9791: 9767: 9528: 9510: 9337: 9287: 9233: 8654:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology 8137: 7918: 7846: 7603: 7579: 7539: 7527: 7515: 7503: 7491: 7467: 7455: 7383: 7347: 7311: 7299: 7275: 7239: 7227: 7023: 6945: 6844: 6820: 6779: 6767: 6736: 6577: 6565: 6481: 6298: 5898: 4441:Ancient Egyptian mathematicians knew the 4279:to the Ballah Lakes. It was dated to the 3926:and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt. 3684:. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by 3366:supports in the papyrus and lotus motif. 2680: 2654:, which had to be imported from far-away 1982: 1577:created an empire nearly as large as the 1281:golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun 871:depicts the unification of the Two Lands. 724:); this period was also the beginning of 320:. Ancient Egyptian civilization followed 11351: 11067:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt 10679:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 10672: 10655:Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture 10486: 10359: 10205:Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign 10202:O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric H. (2001). 9998: 9953: 9855: 9728:Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization 9635: 9313: 8867:. Oxford University Press. p. 373. 8857: 8750: 8734:Ancient Egypt, Discovering Its Splendors 8595: 8537: 8513: 8501: 8477: 8465: 8280: 8276: 8264: 8252: 8204: 8125: 8086: 8074: 8062: 7640:Types of temples in ancient Egypt (2003) 7563: 7443: 7407: 7359: 7323: 7263: 7251: 7008: 6933: 6724: 6445: 5831: 4678: 4563: 4509: 4311: 4251: 4060: 3944: 3887: 3856: 3785: 3699: 3667: 3517: 3494: 3294: 3228: 3184: 3164: 3022: 2943: 2917:in verbal and adjectival sentences, and 2813:, which replaced the older inflectional 2599: 2366: 2349: 2307:to harvest their crops, which were then 2251: 2235: 2162: 2096: 1991: 1859: 1750: 1541: 1413: 1274: 1103: 1089: 1069: 1002:First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC) 969: 926: 862: 786: 732:(in Greek, Hierakonpolis), and later at 614: 15787: 14284:Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology 11060: 10752: 10526: 10387: 10374: 10271: 10062: 10040: 9974: 9898:(4th ed.). London: Edward Arnold. 9876: 9691:"Women's Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt" 9685: 9480:Heptner, V.G.; Sludskii, A.A. (1992) . 9191: 8945: 8731: 8525: 8489: 8346:Prendergast, Sawchuk & Sirak (2022) 8327:Sirak, Sawchuk & Prendergast (2022) 8180: 7930: 7882: 7798: 7567: 7419: 7287: 6909: 6897: 6868: 6803: 6553: 6421: 6322: 6274: 6235: 6151: 6127: 5931: 5882: 5765: 5688:Index of ancient Egypt–related articles 3949:Glassmaking was a highly developed art. 3448:The well preserved Temple of Isis from 3410:Model of a household porch and garden, 2844:, and traces of it are found in modern 2604:Hatshepsut's trading expedition to the 2417:The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and 1492:Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC) 1326:BC, Egypt had an empire extending from 14: 15987: 14236:European Association of Archaeologists 10986: 10940: 10794: 10595:from the original on 13 December 2007. 10560:10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.484 10340: 10316: 10295: 10157:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.143 9839:Civilizations of the ancient Near East 9572:. University of Cambridge. p. 5. 9386: 9273: 9083: 8793: 8774: 8710: 8553: 8369: 8292: 7774: 7762: 7738: 7699: 7687: 7675: 7651: 7627: 7119: 6881:Social classes in ancient Egypt (2003) 6832: 6541: 6517: 6457: 6385: 6358: 6223: 6139: 6052:Chronology of the Naqada Period (2001) 5632:List of pharaohs by period and dynasty 4142: 3245:, which had a circular gaming board. " 2315:to separate the straw from the grain. 1472:. Initially, the military was able to 14494: 14358: 13517: 13492:Pompey's campaign against the pirates 13450: 13320: 13319: 12702: 12304: 11783: 11771: 11745: 11325: 11139:The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt 10898:Baines, John; Málek, Jaromír (2000). 10722:. Penguin Books Ltd. pp. 76–77. 10693: 10512:. New York: Oxford University Press. 10252: 10246:Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar 10243: 10020:. Vol. 5: Supplementary Volume. 9920:. Yale University Press. p. 63. 9891: 9701: 9661: 9614: 9587:Ikram, Salima; Dodson, Aidan (1998). 9562: 9558:from the original on 28 October 2012. 9545: 9441: 9399: 9280:Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity 9252: 9146: 9126:Dodson, Aidan; Ikram, Salima (2008). 8966: 8830: 8815: 8631: 8574: 8453: 8441: 8429: 8417: 8176: 8164: 8110: 8050: 8038: 8026: 8014: 7894: 7834: 7810: 7786: 7726: 7591: 7431: 7395: 7371: 7335: 7191: 7167: 7107: 7083: 6856: 6673: 6661: 6505: 6493: 6433: 6187: 6115: 6027: 5991: 5979: 5943: 5894: 5805: 5784: 4712:, for example, became popular in the 4576:to the south of Egypt, in modern-day 2851: 2547:The Egyptians worked deposits of the 2032:, who redistributed grain and goods. 1148:", to defend against foreign attack. 752:to the west, and the cultures of the 604: 11706: 11244:. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). 1911. 11221:from the original on 9 October 2022. 10966:; Otto, Eberhard, eds. (1972–1992). 10916: 10849: 10447: 10424: 10403: 10181:Oakes, Lorna; Gahlin, Lucia (2003). 10041:Mohamed, Gobran (8 September 2022). 9720: 9105:Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). 8687: 8152: 7954: 7942: 7906: 7822: 7750: 7215: 7155: 6792:Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies (2002) 6748: 6712: 6700: 6685: 6649: 6637: 6625: 6613: 6601: 6589: 6529: 6409: 6397: 6370: 6346: 6334: 6310: 6262: 6247: 6211: 6199: 6163: 6079: 6075: 6063: 6039: 6003: 5967: 5955: 5919: 4318:Astronomical chart in Senemut's tomb 4174:. A group of 14 discovered ships in 3979: 3930:Technology, medicine and mathematics 3904:Typical military equipment included 3861:Tutankhamun charging enemies on his 3657: 3081:, a poem of lamentations describing 2961:deciphering ancient Egyptian scripts 2817:. There was a change from the older 2511:were found in distant, inhospitable 2507:needed to make plaster. Ore-bearing 2468: 2256:Rectangular fishpond with ducks and 1048:BC the northern Theban forces under 848:grouped the long line of kings from 584:some 120,000 years ago. By the late 335:) with the political unification of 96:List of historical capitals of Egypt 14231:Archaeological Institute of America 11726: 11294:Ancient Egypt and the Role of Women 10829:. University College London. 2001. 10748:from the original on 19 March 2008. 10744:. University College London. 2003. 10738:"Types of temples in ancient Egypt" 10591:. University College London. 2003. 10410:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10407:The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt 10399:from the original on 24 March 2008. 10395:. University College London. 2001. 10093:from the original on 28 March 2008. 10089:. University College London. 2003. 9877:Lorenzi, Rossella (12 April 2013). 8993:from the original on 30 March 2008. 8989:. University College London. 2000. 8909:from the original on 28 March 2008. 8905:. University College London. 2001. 8893:from the original on 16 March 2008. 8889:. University College London. 2000. 8794:Bowman, Alan K. (22 October 2020). 8694:A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art 8619:from the original on 7 October 2019 7480:Day, Gordon & Williamson (1995) 6104:Faience in different Periods (2000) 5683:Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts 4786:Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities 4328:period, and show a fully developed 4161:Archaeological Institute of America 4151:and had mastered advanced forms of 3782:Ancient Egyptian funerary practices 1573:. During the 25th Dynasty, Pharaoh 1546:Statues of two pharaohs of Egypt's 1372:, he touted the previously obscure 1249:were ultimately able to defeat the 1194:Second Intermediate Period of Egypt 670:, which probably originated in the 516:and glass technology, new forms of 24: 10891: 10845:. University College London. 2002. 10833:from the original on 4 March 2008. 10780:. Texas A&M University Press. 10719:Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh 10375:Seaburn, Paul (21 November 2018). 9999:Metcalfe, Tom (10 December 2018). 9798:. University of California Press. 9777:. University of California Press. 9387:Hassan, Fekri (17 February 2011). 8967:Curry, Andrew (5 September 2011). 8714:A History of Egyptian Architecture 4522: 3594:Stelophorous statue of Amenemhat; 1670:BC, the powerful Persians, led by 1498:Third Intermediate Period of Egypt 1357:, whose growing cult was based in 1008:First Intermediate Period of Egypt 896:, from which he could control the 717:was established during Naqada II ( 639:and traversed by herds of grazing 25: 16041: 14241:Institute of Nautical Archaeology 13631:Coastal defence and fortification 13006:Roman circumnavigation of Britain 12306:Navigation, and ports and harbors 11454:Ancient Egyptian race controversy 11226: 10585:"Social classes in ancient Egypt" 9274:Fregel, Rosa (17 November 2021). 9236:Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa 8899:"Chronology of the Naqada Period" 7180:de Miroschedji & Sadeq (2008) 6092:Nicholson & Peltenburg (2000) 4506:Ancient Egyptian race controversy 3775: 3161:Music of Egypt § Old Kingdom 2531:was a notable source of granite, 2326:The ancient Egyptians cultivated 1422:flank the entrance of his temple 1303:. Military campaigns waged under 802:, Naqada, possibly Gerzeh culture 443:Nile River valley for agriculture 27:Northeastern African civilization 14475: 14341: 14266:Society for American Archaeology 13500: 13433: 13302: 12685: 12287: 11725: 11715: 11705: 11696: 11695: 11684: 11647: 9937:Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs 9671:. University of Michigan Press. 8692:. In Hartwig, Melinda K. (ed.). 6016:Aston, Harrell & Shaw (2000) 5824: 5811: 5790: 4873: 4859: 4833: 4813: 4793: 3645: 3625: 3605: 3587: 3465: 3441: 3421: 3403: 2760:language closely related to the 2092: 1824:into composite deities, such as 333:conventional Egyptian chronology 287: 262: 71: 13698:Phoenician discovery of America 11716: 11289:UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 11270:Digital Egypt for Universities. 11042:Midant-Reynes, Beatrix (2000). 11014:Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 10996:. London: Thames & Hudson. 10900:Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt 10839:"Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies" 10491:. Edison, NJ: Book Sales, Inc. 10343:Egyptian Metalworking and Tools 10142:"Genetics and the African Past" 9593:. London: Thames & Hudson. 9406:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 8736:. National Geographic Society. 5771: 5758: 4761:Great Seal of the United States 4217:to fasten them together, using 3326: 2959:BC) enabled linguists to begin 2479:Stone quarries of ancient Egypt 2158: 2028:and treasuries administered by 1915:From the mid-first century AD, 1872:Egypt became a province of the 1592:sphere of influence, and by 700 1583:pyramids (many in modern Sudan) 1021:and originality of the period. 748:to the south, the oases of the 681:The Badari was followed by the 13390:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 10869:Wasserman, James, ed. (1994). 10852:"World's Oldest Planked Boats" 10843:Digital Egypt for Universities 10827:Digital Egypt for Universities 10742:Digital Egypt for Universities 10589:Digital Egypt for Universities 10489:The Discovery of Ancient Egypt 10393:Digital Egypt for Universities 10104:. Cambridge University Press. 10087:Digital Egypt for Universities 9822:. Cambridge University Press. 9647:. Princeton University Press. 9173:Digital Egypt for Universities 8987:Digital Egypt for Universities 8983:"Faience in different Periods" 8903:Digital Egypt for Universities 8887:Digital Egypt for Universities 8581:. Cambridge University Press. 8546: 6287:Guardian Figure 14.3.17 (2022) 5779:Killebrew & Lehmann (2013) 5746: 5730: 5718:British school of diffusionism 5638:Periodization of ancient Egypt 4767:arranged the first studies in 4301: 4096:during the New Kingdom and at 3566:-style frescoes were found in 2219: 1520:High Priests of Amun at Thebes 967:to maintain peace and order. 308:was a civilization of ancient 13: 1: 14309:Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa 12984:Phoenician maritime expansion 11235:"Egypt/2 Ancient Egypt" 11166:. London: Thames and Hudson. 11142:. London: Thames and Hudson. 9389:"The Fall of the Old Kingdom" 9259:. University of Texas Press. 8952:. London: Thames and Hudson. 8816:Boyle, Alan (15 April 2013). 8241:Clarke & Engelbach (1990) 8229:Clarke & Engelbach (1990) 8217:Clarke & Engelbach (1990) 7616:Clarke & Engelbach (1990) 7552:Music in Ancient Egypt (2003) 7048:Heptner & Sludskii (1992) 5841: 4945: 4775:, which was published in the 4671:Egyptian Revival architecture 4613: 4591: 4581: 4493: 4074: 3966: 3934: 3617: 3595: 3500: 3411: 3362:'s mortuary complex, include 3342:architects could build large 3333:Ancient Egyptian architecture 3308: 3146: 3032: 3012: 2971: 2953: 2769: 2452:, were reserved for royalty. 2129:was entitled to petition the 1850:Roman period (30 BC – AD 641) 1729:BC, but shortly after, in 332 1387:). He was devoted to his new 1060:Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC) 820:Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) 808: 796: 718: 382:and a sizable portion of the 140: 122: 78: 60: 36:Ancient Egyptians (TV series) 16030:History of the Mediterranean 14251:Nautical Archaeology Society 10026:Biblical Archaeology Society 9512:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393 5846: 5740:, 30 BC with the end of the 5708:Archaeology of Ancient Egypt 4308:Ancient Egyptian mathematics 4258:Hatshepsut's Mortuary temple 4067:Edwin Smith surgical papyrus 3720:) in the Valley of the Kings 3491:Portraiture in ancient Egypt 2899: 2891: 2883: 2226:Ancient Egyptian agriculture 1948:or abandoned to the desert. 1880:BC, following the defeat of 1741:Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC) 1701:in the sixth satrapy of the 1626:Late Period of ancient Egypt 1614:sacked the temples of Thebes 662:, and identifiable by their 508:, a practical and effective 7: 14520: 14304:Museum of Ancient Seafaring 13681:Temple of Poseidon, Sounion 13487:Kidnapping of Julius Caesar 13344:Indus–Mesopotamia relations 12703: 11784: 11639:Egypt–Mesopotamia relations 11459:Population history of Egypt 11070:. Oxford University Press. 10774:Wachsmann, Shelley (2009). 10257:. Brink. pp. 433–440. 9960:. Oxford University Press. 9643:. In Victor J. Katz (ed.). 9615:Ehret, Christopher (2023). 8760:Vol. 1. Thomson/Gale. 8308:Stiebing & Helft (2023) 8193:Astronomical Ceiling (2020) 8003:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7991:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7979:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7967:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7712:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7144:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7132:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7096:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7072:Greaves & Little (1930) 7036:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6994:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6982:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6970:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6958:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6470:O'Connor & Cline (2001) 6176:Early Dynastic Egypt (2001) 4852: 4626:, with significance on the 4500:Population history of Egypt 4338:Moscow Mathematical Papyrus 4019: 3941:Ancient Egyptian technology 3840: 3531:Paints could be mixed with 3102:, a set of stories told to 3019:Ancient Egyptian literature 2669: 1988:Administration and commerce 1600:BC the Assyrians began the 1539:threatened from the south. 1095:Pyramidion of Amenemhat III 558:Population history of Egypt 522:earliest known peace treaty 10: 16046: 16025:History of Egypt by period 14160:Phoenician Ship Expedition 13451: 13001:Pytheas' voyage to Britain 12994:Circumnavigation of Africa 11181:Zakrzewski, Sonia (2007). 10946:A History of Ancient Egypt 10619:10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049 10487:Siliotti, Alberto (1998). 10022:Israel Exploration Society 9792:Lichtheim, Miriam (1980). 9373:Metropolitan Museum of Art 8946:Clayton, Peter A. (1994). 8732:Billard, Jules B. (1978). 8711:Badawy, Alexander (1968). 8677:Metropolitan Museum of Art 8632:Aston, Barbara G. (1994). 5871:Dodson & Hilton (2004) 5713:Archeological Map of Egypt 4668: 4659:biological anthropological 4606:Savanna Pastoral Neolithic 4526: 4503: 4497: 4362: 4334:Rhind Mathematical Papyrus 4305: 4023: 3938: 3850: 3844: 3779: 3661: 3484: 3434:Metropolitan Museum of Art 3350:palaces, such as those in 3330: 3288: 3284: 3150: 3141: 3016: 2939: 2688: 2673: 2593: 2503:, which also provided the 2472: 2431:Second Intermediate Period 2362: 2229: 2223: 2150:. Despite these freedoms, 1965:Sasanian conquest of Egypt 1853: 1744: 1623: 1602:Assyrian conquest of Egypt 1585:since the Middle Kingdom. 1495: 1268: 1265:New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC) 1191: 1063: 1005: 943:, fueled by the increased 920: 917:Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) 880:, who is depicted wearing 817: 608: 551: 547: 40: 29: 15956: 15908: 15425: 14829: 14528: 14473: 14365: 14354: 14339: 14274: 14216: 14019: 14003: 13751: 13686:Samothrace temple complex 13621: 13576: 13535: 13528: 13524: 13513: 13498: 13457: 13446: 13431: 13329: 13315: 13300: 13253: 13206: 13059: 13026: 13019: 12957: 12758: 12715: 12711: 12698: 12683: 12402: 12315: 12311: 12300: 12285: 12237: 12172: 12109: 11994: 11963: 11796: 11792: 11779: 11679: 11656: 11645: 11383: 11360: 11313:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 10850:Ward, Cheryl (May 2001). 10506:Silverman, David (1997). 10326:Museum Tusculanum Press. 10065:General History of Africa 9546:Hogan, C.Michael (2011). 9461:; Sollberger, E. (eds.). 9289:10.1163/9789004500228_009 9234:Emberling, Geoff (2011). 9021:10.1016/j.cub.2023.10.075 8949:Chronicle of the Pharaohs 8688:Ataç, Mehmet-Ali (2014). 7871:Ikram & Dodson (1998) 7859:Ikram & Dodson (1998) 7664:Dodson & Ikram (2008) 7060:Oakes & Gahlin (2003) 6922:Oakes & Gahlin (2003) 5698:List of ancient Egyptians 4842:pyramid complex of Khafre 4664: 4026:Ancient Egyptian medicine 3885:and parts of the Levant. 3847:Military of ancient Egypt 3744:(personality or soul), a 3716:in the tomb of Horemheb ( 3664:Ancient Egyptian religion 3632:Portrait head of pharaoh 3182:comprised the furniture. 3153:Clothing in ancient Egypt 3003:Jean-François Champollion 2868:and voiced and voiceless 1703:Achaemenid Persian Empire 1418:Four colossal statues of 945:agricultural productivity 791:Early tomb painting from 678:, and its use of copper. 538:inspired the imaginations 324:and coalesced around 3100 241: 237: 227: 212: 197: 180: 165: 150: 131: 116: 112: 102: 89: 70: 59: 52: 16010:Former empires in Africa 16000:Bronze Age civilizations 12974:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul 11691:Ancient Egypt portal 11276:Priests of Ancient Egypt 11136:Wilkinson, R.H. (2000). 10673:Strouhal, Eugen (1989). 10299:The Art of Ancient Egypt 10083:"Music in Ancient Egypt" 10036:– via BAS Library. 9954:McDowell, A. G. (1999). 9702:Keita, Shomarka (2022). 9697:. University of Chicago. 9192:El-Daly, Okasha (2005). 9066:Wisdom in Ancient Israel 8775:Bonnet, Charles (2006). 8605:. Melbourne: Macmillan. 8575:Allen, James P. (2000). 8557:Akhenaten, King of Egypt 8394:D’Atanasio et al. (2023) 7666:, pp. 218, 275–276. 5723: 5693:Outline of ancient Egypt 4529:Genetic history of Egypt 4163:reports that the oldest 3291:Ancient Egyptian cuisine 3253:of the Egyptian pharaoh 3108:Instruction of Amenemope 3027:Hieroglyphs on stela in 3007:substantially deciphered 2842:Egyptian Orthodox Church 2589: 2544:as cosmetic substances. 2475:Mining industry of Egypt 2232:Gardens of ancient Egypt 1803:Lighthouse of Alexandria 1654:expanded greatly as the 1630:History of Persian Egypt 1620:Late Period (653–332 BC) 1050:Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II 744:. They also traded with 713:. Mutual trade with the 554:History of ancient Egypt 542:scientific investigation 349:history of ancient Egypt 32:Ancient Egypt (magazine) 30:Not to be confused with 14256:RPM Nautical Foundation 13993:Surviving ancient ships 13912:Marsala Punic shipwreck 11241:Encyclopædia Britannica 10969:Lexikon der Ägyptologie 10404:Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). 9340:Egitto e Vicino Oriente 9132:. Thames & Hudson. 9111:. Thames & Hudson. 9087:Egyptian Rock-cut Tombs 8927:(Unabridged reprint of 8801:Encyclopædia Britannica 7873:, pp. 40, 51, 138. 7338:, pp. 67, 70, 109. 5783: • From 4804:is integrated into the 4778:Description de l'Égypte 4689:Description de l'Égypte 4637:Some scholars, such as 4281:Middle Kingdom of Egypt 3458:architectural sculpture 3320:cuisine of modern Egypt 3273:, and boating as well. 3233:Ruins of Deir el-Medina 3169:Lower-class occupations 2801:Ancient Egyptian was a 1502:Following the death of 1066:Middle Kingdom of Egypt 913:Egyptian civilization. 807:Early Dynastic Period ( 343:(often identified with 16015:Former empires in Asia 16005:Cradle of civilization 14289:Giza Solar boat museum 13743:Underwater exploration 13738:Underwater archaeology 13703:Pre-Columbian theories 13558:John Sinclair Morrison 13519:Research and education 12969:Austronesian Expansion 11249:BBC History: Egyptians 10823:"Early Dynastic Egypt" 10795:Turner, E.G. (1984) . 10694:Török, László (1998). 10345:. Shire Publications. 10341:Scheel, Bernd (1989). 10187:. Barnes & Noble. 9892:Lucas, Alfred (1962). 9641:"Egyptian Mathematics" 9147:Drews, Robert (1993). 9084:Dodson, Aidan (1991). 8673:"Astronomical Ceiling" 8554:Aldred, Cyril (1988). 8382:Skoglund et al. (2017) 5796:Figures are given for 5436:Twenty-seventh Dynasty 4693: 4569: 4515: 4321: 4261: 4081: 3957:, as evidenced by the 3950: 3901: 3866: 3794: 3721: 3677: 3527: 3507: 3480: 3432:, completed by 10 BC, 3391:step pyramid of Djoser 3339:Great Pyramids of Giza 3315: 3234: 3190: 3170: 3157:Dance in ancient Egypt 3039: 2964: 2786:(Classical Egyptian), 2681:Historical development 2623:stationed in southern 2608: 2596:Ancient Egyptian trade 2383: 2359: 2342:and to make clothing. 2265: 2264:, Thebes, 18th Dynasty 2249: 2178: 2152:ancient Egyptian women 2102: 1997: 1983:Government and economy 1940:, the ability to read 1869: 1763: 1707:Twenty-Seventh Dynasty 1558: 1427: 1314:Between their reigns, 1284: 1109: 1101: 1087: 978: 936: 872: 803: 766:decorative stone vases 726:trade with Mesopotamia 624: 229:• Disestablished 15933:Medieval great powers 14360:Legend and literature 14318:Viking ship museums: 14294:Grand Egyptian Museum 14054:Austronesian replicas 14029:Heyerdahl expeditions 13939:Caligula's Giant Ship 13799:Dover Bronze Age Boat 12461:Berenice Troglodytica 11365:Glossary of artifacts 11281:22 March 2022 at the 11091:Nature Communications 10993:The Complete Pyramids 10676:Life in Ancient Egypt 9939:. Cologne: Könemann. 9732:. London: Routledge. 9552:Encyclopedia of Earth 9253:Filer, Joyce (1995). 8560:. Thames and Hudson. 8358:Hodgson et al. (2014) 8099:Pećanac et al. (2013) 7837:, pp. 79, 94–95. 7278:, pp. 2137–2138. 5958:, pp. 17, 67–69. 5569:Thirty-fourth Dynasty 5525:Thirty-second Dynasty 5452:Twenty-eighth Dynasty 5374:Twenty-fourth Dynasty 5348:Twenty-second Dynasty 4682: 4567: 4513: 4498:Further information: 4415:Mathematical notation 4315: 4255: 4231:Great Pyramid of Giza 4064: 3948: 3891: 3860: 3853:Ancient Egyptian navy 3851:Further information: 3789: 3703: 3682:divine right of kings 3671: 3612:Fresco which depicts 3552:wooden or clay models 3521: 3498: 3454:Egyptian architecture 3298: 3232: 3188: 3168: 3151:Further information: 3071:. The genre known as 3026: 2947: 2904:, 'the woman hears'. 2805:, but it became more 2603: 2473:Further information: 2378:with a pair of oxen, 2370: 2353: 2347:were made into wine. 2255: 2239: 2166: 2100: 1995: 1866:Fayum mummy portraits 1863: 1795:Library of Alexandria 1761:double crown of Egypt 1757:Ptolemy VI Philometor 1754: 1604:. The reigns of both 1545: 1464:to the west, and the 1417: 1278: 1107: 1093: 1073: 994:between 2200 and 2150 973: 930: 866: 790: 754:eastern Mediterranean 618: 337:Upper and Lower Egypt 135:Early Dynastic Period 15943:European colonialism 15928:Ancient great powers 14261:Sea Research Society 13663:Maritime archaeology 13472:Ameinias the Phocian 13467:Mediterranean piracy 11296:by Dr Joann Fletcher 10296:Robins, Gay (2008). 10063:Mokhtar, G. (1990). 9007:(24): 5495–5504.e4. 6996:, pp. 577, 630. 5603:Thirty-fifth Dynasty 5538:Thirty-third Dynasty 5494:(2nd Persian Period) 5492:Thirty-first Dynasty 5465:Twenty-ninth Dynasty 5438:(1st Persian Period) 5422:Twenty-sixth Dynasty 5387:Twenty-fifth Dynasty 5361:Twenty-third Dynasty 5335:Twenty-first Dynasty 4881:Civilizations portal 4867:Ancient Egypt portal 4846:Great Sphinx of Giza 4354:systems of equations 4104:in the Late period. 3748:(life-force), and a 3487:Art of ancient Egypt 3474:Karl Richard Lepsius 2968:Hieroglyphic writing 2729:'Egyptian language' 2495:used salts from the 2374:plows his fields in 2248:(Eighteenth Dynasty) 2148:Divine Wives of Amun 1977:Muslim Rashidun army 1955:with its capital at 1942:hieroglyphic writing 1723:Thirty-First Dynasty 1636:Twenty-Sixth Dynasty 1565:BC the Kushite king 1548:Twenty-Fifth Dynasty 1271:New Kingdom of Egypt 1222:and the horse-drawn 923:Old Kingdom of Egypt 568:agricultural economy 192:1549 BC – 1078/77 BC 15938:Modern great powers 13354:Maritime Jade Route 12507:Kaveri Poompattinam 11511:Cursive hieroglyphs 11111:10.1038/ncomms15694 11103:2017NatCo...815694S 10972:. O. Harrassowitz. 10902:. Checkmark Books. 10381:Mysterious Universe 9013:2023CBio...33E5495D 8919:Engelbach, Reginald 8777:The Nubian Pharaohs 8602:Tiepolo's Cleopatra 8406:Eltis et al. (2021) 8101:, pp. 263–267. 8077:, pp. 244–246. 7921:, pp. 366–367. 7849:, pp. 150–153. 7606:, pp. 399–400. 7542:, pp. 406–407. 7290:, pp. 197–227. 7194:, pp. 109–129. 7170:, pp. 433–440. 6556:, pp. 161–163. 6544:, pp. 142–154. 6424:, pp. 104–107. 6349:, pp. 179–182. 6214:, pp. 116–117. 6094:, pp. 178–179. 6082:, pp. 424–425. 6042:, pp. 424–425. 5249:Seventeenth Dynasty 5184:Second Intermediate 4927:Pre-dynastic period 4628:African Slave Trade 4443:Pythagorean theorem 4196:Pharaoh Khasekhemwy 4180:New York University 4143:Maritime technology 4110:empirical knowledge 4052:periodontal disease 3992:, small amounts of 3415: 1981–1975 BC 3377:, and the enclosed 3112:vernacular language 3005:, were hieroglyphs 2826:subject–verb–object 2819:verb–subject–object 2578:in Wadi Sikait and 2447:Sub-Saharan African 2016:each governed by a 1971:(629–639), and was 1813:Hellenistic culture 1772:Alexander the Great 1735:Alexander the Great 1642:BC, the Saite king 1608:and his successor, 844:BC Egyptian priest 840:. The third-century 722: 3600–3350 BC 693:), and Naqada III ( 627:In Predynastic and 408:Alexander the Great 400:Achaemenid Persians 118:• Established 13902:Bajo de la Campana 13604:Peter Throckmorton 13589:Jean-Yves Empereur 13563:William L. Rodgers 13384:Maritime Silk Road 11484:Funerary practices 11204:10.1002/ajpa.20569 11062:Redford, Donald B. 10538:on 30 August 2012. 10273:Redford, Donald B. 10225:Medicinski Pregled 9315:Gardiner, Sir Alan 9282:. Brill: 213–235. 9061:Williamson, H.G.M. 8831:Cerny, J. (1975). 8372:, p. 214-216. 5752:With the death of 5326:Third Intermediate 5292:Nineteenth Dynasty 5279:Eighteenth Dynasty 5193:Fourteenth Dynasty 5163:Thirteenth Dynasty 5044:First Intermediate 4718:building materials 4694: 4570: 4516: 4352:, and could solve 4322: 4262: 4082: 3951: 3902: 3867: 3795: 3722: 3678: 3528: 3508: 3316: 3257:that dates to the 3247:Hounds and Jackals 3235: 3224:musical instrument 3222:was a rattle-like 3191: 3171: 3120:Instruction of Any 3040: 2965: 2852:Sounds and grammar 2803:synthetic language 2617:Predynastic Period 2609: 2384: 2360: 2266: 2250: 2179: 2103: 2002:military commander 1998: 1870: 1837:. In addition, as 1764: 1680:Battle of Pelusium 1559: 1550:and several other 1428: 1285: 1206:people called the 1171:settlers from the 1146:Walls of the Ruler 1110: 1102: 1097:, capstone of the 1088: 1014:central government 979: 937: 884:on the ceremonial 873: 804: 689:), the Naqada II ( 625: 605:Predynastic period 582:Middle Pleistocene 510:system of medicine 455:social development 445:. The predictable 436:Rashidun Caliphate 15982: 15981: 15904: 15903: 15869:Polish–Lithuanian 15044:Gurjara-Pratihara 14488: 14487: 14484: 14483: 14350: 14349: 14337: 14336: 13957:Madrague de Giens 13676:Temple of Isthmia 13672:Maritime temples 13658:Marine navigation 13617: 13616: 13609:Shelley Wachsmann 13599:J. Richard Steffy 13509: 13508: 13442: 13441: 13311: 13310: 13298: 13297: 13249: 13248: 12979:Ocean exploration 12694: 12693: 12681: 12680: 12340:Rutter (nautical) 12296: 12295: 12283: 12282: 12139:Mortise and tenon 11773:Ancient seafaring 11739: 11738: 11494:Great Royal Wives 11464:Prehistoric Egypt 11173:978-0-500-05120-7 11149:978-0-500-05100-9 11077:978-0-19-510234-5 11053:978-0-631-21787-9 11003:978-0-500-05084-2 10979:978-3-447-01441-0 10955:978-0-631-19396-8 10933:978-1-134-66525-9 10909:978-0-8160-4036-0 10882:978-0-8118-0767-8 10814:978-0-521-23445-0 10797:"Ptolemaic Egypt" 10787:978-1-60344-080-6 10729:978-0-14-194978-9 10705:978-90-04-10448-8 10698:. Leiden: Brill. 10686:978-0-8061-2475-9 10665:978-1-000-88066-3 10569:978-0-19-085458-4 10519:978-0-19-521270-9 10498:978-0-7858-1360-6 10417:978-0-19-280458-7 10352:978-0-7478-0001-9 10333:978-87-7289-421-8 10309:978-0-674-03065-7 10288:978-0-425-19096-8 10264:978-965-221-015-9 10215:978-0-472-08833-1 10194:978-0-7607-4943-2 10166:978-0-19-027773-4 10132:978-0-521-45257-1 10111:978-0-521-45257-1 10074:978-0-520-06697-7 10014:"Sakan, Tell es-" 9991:978-1-85973-867-2 9967:978-0-19-924753-0 9946:978-3-89508-913-8 9927:978-0-300-03642-8 9914:MacMullen, Ramsay 9905:978-1-85417-046-0 9869:978-0-521-56256-0 9848:978-0-684-19723-4 9829:978-0-521-44849-9 9814:Loprieno, Antonio 9805:978-0-520-04020-5 9784:978-0-520-02899-9 9769:Lichtheim, Miriam 9760:978-1-58983-721-8 9739:978-0-415-06346-3 9687:Johnson, Janet H. 9678:978-0-472-03137-5 9654:978-0-691-11485-9 9637:Imhausen, Annette 9628:978-0-691-24409-9 9600:978-0-500-05088-0 9579:978-90-6831-745-9 9472:978-0-521-08230-3 9443:Hayes, William C. 9401:Hayes, William C. 9369:"Guardian Figure" 9330:978-0-900416-35-4 9299:978-90-04-50022-8 9266:978-0-292-72498-3 9245:978-0-615-48102-9 9226:978-0-521-84067-5 9205:978-1-315-42976-2 9160:978-0-691-02591-9 9139:978-0-500-05139-9 9118:978-0-500-05128-3 9097:978-0-7478-0128-3 9076:978-0-521-62489-3 9057:Gordon, Robert P. 8959:978-0-500-05074-3 8938:978-0-486-26485-1 8874:978-0-19-152995-5 8850:978-0-521-08691-2 8786:978-977-416-010-3 8767:978-0-7876-5698-0 8743:978-0-87044-220-9 8724:978-0-520-00057-5 8703:978-1-4443-3350-3 8664:978-0-521-45257-1 8643:978-3-927552-12-8 8612:978-1-876832-44-5 8588:978-0-521-77483-3 8567:978-0-500-05048-4 8456:, pp. 62–65. 8155:, pp. 31–38. 8029:, pp. 78–80. 7618:, pp. 94–97. 7386:, pp. 10–26. 7050:, pp. 83–95. 6580:, pp. 36–37. 6484:, pp. 76–77. 6301:, pp. 41–54. 6154:, pp. 12–13. 6030:, pp. 23–26. 6018:, pp. 46–47. 5859:Chronology (2000) 5742:Ptolemaic Kingdom 5674: 5673: 5621: 5620: 5583: 5582: 5549: 5548: 5516:Hellenistic Egypt 5506: 5505: 5478:Thirtieth Dynasty 5403: 5402: 5316: 5315: 5305:Twentieth Dynasty 5260: 5259: 5224:Sixteenth Dynasty 5206:Fifteenth Dynasty 5174: 5173: 5117: 5116: 5034: 5033: 4965: 4964: 4827:Alexandre Cabanel 4802:Abu Haggag Mosque 4757:Eye of Providence 4745:Dhul-Nun al-Misri 4639:Christopher Ehret 4412: 4411: 4378: 4377: 4374: 4373: 4316:Facsimile of the 4247:mortise and tenon 4034:and debilitating 3980:Faience and glass 3871:ancient Near East 3658:Religious beliefs 3526:as funerary goods 3452:is an example of 3396:pyramids of Nubia 3083:natural disasters 2919:subject–predicate 2915:predicate–subject 2766:Semitic languages 2754:Egyptian language 2750: 2749: 2720: 2719: 2716: 2715: 2676:Egyptian language 2613:foreign neighbors 2560:alluvial deposits 2485:natural resources 2469:Natural resources 2461:and the ibis god 2168:The Seated Scribe 2022:places of worship 1900:Augustus) in the 1783:Ptolemaic Kingdom 1747:Ptolemaic Kingdom 1737:without a fight. 1307:and his grandson 770:cosmetic palettes 611:Predynastic Egypt 479:religious beliefs 422:, it fell to the 412:Ptolemaic Kingdom 365:Middle Bronze Age 322:prehistoric Egypt 303: 302: 299: 298: 295: 294: 275: 274: 270:Predynastic Egypt 217:Ptolemaic Kingdom 176:2134 BC – 1690 BC 161:2686 BC – 2181 BC 43:Egyptian language 16:(Redirected from 16037: 15785: 15784: 15450:Austro-Hungarian 15150:Chagatai Khanate 14515: 14508: 14501: 14492: 14491: 14479: 14478: 14373:Ark of bulrushes 14356: 14355: 14345: 14344: 13983:Oldest surviving 13693:Nusantao network 13568:Chester G. Starr 13533: 13532: 13526: 13525: 13515: 13514: 13504: 13503: 13477:Cilician pirates 13448: 13447: 13437: 13436: 13374:Sa Huynh-Kalanay 13369:Iron Age Britain 13317: 13316: 13306: 13305: 13024: 13023: 12713: 12712: 12700: 12699: 12689: 12688: 12603:Ptolemais Theron 12313: 12312: 12302: 12301: 12291: 12290: 11883:Single-outrigger 11794: 11793: 11781: 11780: 11766: 11759: 11752: 11743: 11742: 11729: 11728: 11719: 11718: 11709: 11708: 11699: 11698: 11689: 11688: 11687: 11651: 11346: 11339: 11332: 11323: 11322: 11318: 11312: 11304: 11245: 11237: 11222: 11220: 11187: 11177: 11153: 11132: 11122: 11081: 11057: 11038: 11007: 10983: 10959: 10937: 10918:Bard, Kathryn A. 10913: 10886: 10865: 10846: 10834: 10818: 10791: 10770: 10749: 10733: 10714:Tyldesley, Joyce 10709: 10690: 10669: 10648: 10638: 10613:(1): 59–71.e21. 10596: 10580: 10578: 10576: 10549: 10539: 10534:. Archived from 10523: 10502: 10483: 10444: 10421: 10400: 10384: 10371: 10356: 10337: 10313: 10292: 10268: 10249: 10240: 10231:(5–6): 263–267. 10219: 10198: 10177: 10175: 10173: 10146: 10136: 10115: 10094: 10078: 10059: 10057: 10055: 10037: 10035: 10033: 10008: 9995: 9971: 9950: 9931: 9909: 9888: 9873: 9852: 9833: 9809: 9788: 9764: 9743: 9731: 9717: 9698: 9682: 9658: 9632: 9611: 9609: 9607: 9583: 9559: 9542: 9532: 9514: 9489: 9476: 9438: 9396: 9383: 9381: 9379: 9364: 9355: 9334: 9310: 9308: 9306: 9291: 9270: 9249: 9230: 9209: 9188: 9186: 9184: 9164: 9143: 9122: 9101: 9080: 9048: 8994: 8978: 8963: 8942: 8910: 8894: 8878: 8854: 8827: 8812: 8810: 8808: 8790: 8771: 8752:Bleiberg, Edward 8747: 8728: 8707: 8684: 8679:. Archived from 8668: 8647: 8628: 8626: 8624: 8597:Anderson, Jaynie 8592: 8571: 8541: 8535: 8529: 8523: 8517: 8511: 8505: 8499: 8493: 8487: 8481: 8475: 8469: 8463: 8457: 8451: 8445: 8439: 8433: 8427: 8421: 8415: 8409: 8403: 8397: 8391: 8385: 8379: 8373: 8367: 8361: 8355: 8349: 8343: 8330: 8329:, p. 20-22. 8324: 8311: 8305: 8296: 8290: 8284: 8274: 8268: 8262: 8256: 8250: 8244: 8238: 8232: 8226: 8220: 8214: 8208: 8202: 8196: 8190: 8184: 8174: 8168: 8162: 8156: 8150: 8141: 8138:Wachsmann (2009) 8135: 8129: 8123: 8114: 8108: 8102: 8096: 8090: 8084: 8078: 8072: 8066: 8060: 8054: 8048: 8042: 8036: 8030: 8024: 8018: 8012: 8006: 8000: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7976: 7970: 7964: 7958: 7952: 7946: 7940: 7934: 7928: 7922: 7919:Manuelian (1998) 7916: 7910: 7904: 7898: 7892: 7886: 7880: 7874: 7868: 7862: 7856: 7850: 7847:Wasserman (1994) 7844: 7838: 7832: 7826: 7820: 7814: 7808: 7802: 7796: 7790: 7784: 7778: 7772: 7766: 7760: 7754: 7748: 7742: 7736: 7730: 7724: 7715: 7709: 7703: 7697: 7691: 7685: 7679: 7673: 7667: 7661: 7655: 7649: 7643: 7637: 7631: 7625: 7619: 7613: 7607: 7604:Manuelian (1998) 7601: 7595: 7589: 7583: 7580:Manuelian (1998) 7577: 7571: 7561: 7555: 7549: 7543: 7540:Manuelian (1998) 7537: 7531: 7528:Manuelian (1998) 7525: 7519: 7516:Manuelian (1998) 7513: 7507: 7504:Manuelian (1998) 7501: 7495: 7492:Lichtheim (1980) 7489: 7483: 7477: 7471: 7468:Lichtheim (1975) 7465: 7459: 7456:Lichtheim (1975) 7453: 7447: 7441: 7435: 7429: 7423: 7417: 7411: 7405: 7399: 7393: 7387: 7384:Loprieno (1995a) 7381: 7375: 7369: 7363: 7357: 7351: 7348:Loprieno (1995b) 7345: 7339: 7333: 7327: 7321: 7315: 7312:Loprieno (1995a) 7309: 7303: 7300:Loprieno (1995a) 7297: 7291: 7285: 7279: 7276:Loprieno (1995b) 7273: 7267: 7261: 7255: 7249: 7243: 7240:Loprieno (1995b) 7237: 7231: 7228:Manuelian (1998) 7225: 7219: 7213: 7207: 7201: 7195: 7189: 7183: 7177: 7171: 7165: 7159: 7153: 7147: 7141: 7135: 7129: 7123: 7117: 7111: 7105: 7099: 7093: 7087: 7081: 7075: 7069: 7063: 7057: 7051: 7045: 7039: 7033: 7027: 7024:Manuelian (1998) 7021: 7012: 7006: 6997: 6991: 6985: 6979: 6973: 6967: 6961: 6955: 6949: 6946:Manuelian (1998) 6943: 6937: 6931: 6925: 6919: 6913: 6907: 6901: 6895: 6884: 6878: 6872: 6866: 6860: 6854: 6848: 6845:Manuelian (1998) 6842: 6836: 6830: 6824: 6821:Manuelian (1998) 6818: 6807: 6801: 6795: 6789: 6783: 6780:Manuelian (1998) 6777: 6771: 6768:Manuelian (1998) 6765: 6752: 6746: 6740: 6737:MacMullen (1984) 6734: 6728: 6722: 6716: 6710: 6704: 6698: 6689: 6683: 6677: 6671: 6665: 6659: 6653: 6647: 6641: 6635: 6629: 6623: 6617: 6611: 6605: 6599: 6593: 6587: 6581: 6578:Silverman (1997) 6575: 6569: 6568:, pp. 9–11. 6566:Emberling (2011) 6563: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6539: 6533: 6527: 6521: 6515: 6509: 6503: 6497: 6491: 6485: 6482:Tyldesley (2001) 6479: 6473: 6467: 6461: 6455: 6449: 6448:, p. 49-50. 6443: 6437: 6431: 6425: 6419: 6413: 6407: 6401: 6395: 6389: 6383: 6374: 6368: 6362: 6356: 6350: 6344: 6338: 6332: 6326: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6302: 6296: 6290: 6284: 6278: 6272: 6266: 6260: 6251: 6245: 6239: 6233: 6227: 6221: 6215: 6209: 6203: 6197: 6191: 6185: 6179: 6173: 6167: 6161: 6155: 6149: 6143: 6137: 6131: 6125: 6119: 6113: 6107: 6101: 6095: 6089: 6083: 6073: 6067: 6061: 6055: 6049: 6043: 6037: 6031: 6025: 6019: 6013: 6007: 6001: 5995: 5989: 5983: 5977: 5971: 5965: 5959: 5953: 5947: 5941: 5935: 5929: 5923: 5917: 5902: 5899:Manuelian (1998) 5892: 5886: 5880: 5874: 5868: 5862: 5856: 5835: 5828: 5822: 5815: 5809: 5794: 5788: 5775: 5769: 5762: 5756: 5750: 5744: 5734: 5666: 5659: 5652: 5598: 5597: 5571:(Roman Pharaohs) 5564: 5563: 5521: 5520: 5418: 5417: 5331: 5330: 5275: 5274: 5189: 5188: 5137:Eleventh Dynasty 5132: 5131: 5106:Eleventh Dynasty 5049: 5048: 4980: 4979: 4947: 4923: 4922: 4887: 4886: 4883: 4878: 4877: 4876: 4869: 4864: 4863: 4862: 4840:Tourists at the 4837: 4817: 4797: 4726:Diodorus Siculus 4675:Tourism in Egypt 4618: 4615: 4596: 4593: 4586: 4583: 4559:Natufian culture 4489: 4466: 4465: 4461: 4436:common fractions 4426:into the sum of 4391: 4390: 4386: 4367: 4366: 4363: 4359: 4358: 4260:, Deir el-Bahari 4240: 4225:the seams. The " 4205: 4201: 4158: 4155:as early as 3000 4079: 4076: 3971: 3968: 3923:Seqenenre Tao II 3766:feather of truth 3674:Book of the Dead 3649: 3629: 3619: 3609: 3600: 3597: 3591: 3505: 3502: 3469: 3445: 3430:Temple of Dendur 3425: 3416: 3413: 3407: 3344:stone structures 3313: 3310: 3271:hunting, fishing 3125: 3116:Story of Wenamun 3058: 3037: 3034: 2979: 2976: 2973: 2958: 2955: 2920: 2916: 2902: 2894: 2886: 2777: 2774: 2771: 2693: 2692: 2689: 2685: 2684: 2423:beasts of burden 2292:(planting), and 2084: 2080: 2076: 2075: 2071: 2068: 2062: 2061: 2057: 2054: 1973:finally captured 1961:Sasanian Persian 1902:Battle of Actium 1879: 1769: 1732: 1728: 1712: 1689: 1669: 1641: 1599: 1595: 1564: 1529: 1509: 1453: 1440:Battle of Kadesh 1433: 1367: 1325: 1287:The New Kingdom 1243:Seqenenre Tao II 1240: 1201: 1138:land reclamation 1127: 1114:Eleventh Dynasty 1047: 1031: 997: 933:pyramids of Giza 891: 843: 832:civilization of 813: 812: 3150–2686 810: 801: 798: 723: 720: 685:: the Naqada I ( 668:Badarian culture 660:animal husbandry 578:hunter-gatherers 524:, made with the 514:Egyptian faience 428:a Roman province 418:BC, when, under 417: 357:Early Bronze Age 327: 310:Northeast Africa 291: 290: 279: 278: 266: 265: 259: 258: 243: 242: 219: 204: 193: 187: 172: 157: 145: 142: 127: 124: 83: 80: 75: 65: 62: 50: 49: 21: 18:Ancient Egyptian 16045: 16044: 16040: 16039: 16038: 16036: 16035: 16034: 16020:Ancient peoples 15985: 15984: 15983: 15978: 15967:American Empire 15952: 15948:African empires 15900: 15783: 15475:Central African 15421: 15239:Romano-Germanic 14825: 14559:Middle Assyrian 14532: 14524: 14519: 14489: 14480: 14476: 14471: 14361: 14346: 14342: 14333: 14276: 14270: 14218: 14217:Institutes and 14212: 14167:Viking replicas 14108:Balangay Voyage 14021: 14015: 13999: 13754: 13747: 13623: 13613: 13572: 13520: 13505: 13501: 13496: 13453: 13438: 13434: 13429: 13325: 13307: 13303: 13294: 13245: 13202: 13055: 13015: 12960: 12953: 12754: 12707: 12690: 12686: 12677: 12553:Mueang Phra Rot 12407: 12398: 12307: 12292: 12288: 12279: 12233: 12207:Triangular sail 12168: 12105: 12079:Sail components 11990: 11959: 11933:Tessarakonteres 11788: 11775: 11770: 11740: 11735: 11685: 11683: 11675: 11652: 11643: 11379: 11356: 11350: 11306: 11305: 11299: 11283:Wayback Machine 11232: 11229: 11218: 11185: 11174: 11158:Wilkinson, R.H. 11150: 11078: 11054: 11027:10.2307/3822337 11004: 10980: 10964:Helck, Wolfgang 10956: 10942:Grimal, Nicolas 10934: 10910: 10894: 10892:Further reading 10889: 10883: 10815: 10788: 10730: 10706: 10687: 10666: 10574: 10572: 10570: 10547: 10520: 10499: 10464:10.2307/1356573 10418: 10362:"This Old Boat" 10353: 10334: 10310: 10289: 10265: 10216: 10195: 10171: 10169: 10167: 10144: 10133: 10112: 10075: 10053: 10051: 10031: 10029: 9992: 9968: 9947: 9928: 9906: 9870: 9849: 9830: 9806: 9785: 9761: 9740: 9714: 9679: 9655: 9629: 9605: 9603: 9601: 9580: 9505:(6): e1004393. 9473: 9459:Hammond, N.G.L. 9451:Edwards, I.E.S. 9377: 9375: 9331: 9304: 9302: 9300: 9267: 9246: 9227: 9206: 9182: 9180: 9161: 9140: 9119: 9098: 9077: 9063:, eds. (1995). 9001:Current Biology 8960: 8939: 8875: 8859:Chadwick, Henry 8851: 8806: 8804: 8796:"Ancient Egypt" 8787: 8768: 8744: 8725: 8704: 8683:on 17 May 2020. 8665: 8644: 8622: 8620: 8613: 8589: 8568: 8549: 8544: 8538:Anderson (2003) 8536: 8532: 8524: 8520: 8514:Siliotti (1998) 8512: 8508: 8502:Siliotti (1998) 8500: 8496: 8488: 8484: 8478:Siliotti (1998) 8476: 8472: 8466:Siliotti (1998) 8464: 8460: 8452: 8448: 8440: 8436: 8428: 8424: 8416: 8412: 8404: 8400: 8392: 8388: 8380: 8376: 8368: 8364: 8356: 8352: 8344: 8333: 8325: 8314: 8306: 8299: 8291: 8287: 8281:Imhausen (2007) 8279:, p. 241; 8277:Strouhal (1989) 8275: 8271: 8265:Strouhal (1989) 8263: 8259: 8253:Gardiner (1957) 8251: 8247: 8239: 8235: 8227: 8223: 8215: 8211: 8205:Imhausen (2007) 8203: 8199: 8191: 8187: 8175: 8171: 8163: 8159: 8151: 8144: 8136: 8132: 8126:Schuster (2000) 8124: 8117: 8109: 8105: 8097: 8093: 8087:Strouhal (1989) 8085: 8081: 8075:Strouhal (1989) 8073: 8069: 8063:Strouhal (1989) 8061: 8057: 8049: 8045: 8037: 8033: 8025: 8021: 8013: 8009: 8001: 7997: 7989: 7985: 7977: 7973: 7965: 7961: 7953: 7949: 7941: 7937: 7929: 7925: 7917: 7913: 7905: 7901: 7893: 7889: 7881: 7877: 7869: 7865: 7857: 7853: 7845: 7841: 7833: 7829: 7821: 7817: 7809: 7805: 7797: 7793: 7785: 7781: 7773: 7769: 7761: 7757: 7749: 7745: 7737: 7733: 7725: 7718: 7710: 7706: 7698: 7694: 7686: 7682: 7674: 7670: 7662: 7658: 7650: 7646: 7638: 7634: 7626: 7622: 7614: 7610: 7602: 7598: 7590: 7586: 7578: 7574: 7564:Metcalfe (2018) 7562: 7558: 7550: 7546: 7538: 7534: 7526: 7522: 7514: 7510: 7502: 7498: 7490: 7486: 7478: 7474: 7466: 7462: 7454: 7450: 7444:Strouhal (1989) 7442: 7438: 7430: 7426: 7418: 7414: 7408:Loprieno (2004) 7406: 7402: 7394: 7390: 7382: 7378: 7370: 7366: 7360:Loprieno (2004) 7358: 7354: 7350:, p. 2147. 7346: 7342: 7334: 7330: 7324:Loprieno (2004) 7322: 7318: 7310: 7306: 7298: 7294: 7286: 7282: 7274: 7270: 7264:Loprieno (2004) 7262: 7258: 7252:Loprieno (2004) 7250: 7246: 7242:, p. 2137. 7238: 7234: 7226: 7222: 7214: 7210: 7202: 7198: 7190: 7186: 7178: 7174: 7166: 7162: 7154: 7150: 7142: 7138: 7130: 7126: 7118: 7114: 7106: 7102: 7094: 7090: 7082: 7078: 7070: 7066: 7058: 7054: 7046: 7042: 7034: 7030: 7022: 7015: 7009:Strouhal (1989) 7007: 7000: 6992: 6988: 6980: 6976: 6968: 6964: 6956: 6952: 6944: 6940: 6934:McDowell (1999) 6932: 6928: 6920: 6916: 6908: 6904: 6896: 6887: 6879: 6875: 6867: 6863: 6855: 6851: 6843: 6839: 6831: 6827: 6819: 6810: 6802: 6798: 6790: 6786: 6778: 6774: 6766: 6755: 6747: 6743: 6735: 6731: 6725:Chadwick (2001) 6723: 6719: 6711: 6707: 6699: 6692: 6684: 6680: 6672: 6668: 6660: 6656: 6648: 6644: 6636: 6632: 6624: 6620: 6612: 6608: 6600: 6596: 6588: 6584: 6576: 6572: 6564: 6560: 6552: 6548: 6540: 6536: 6528: 6524: 6516: 6512: 6504: 6500: 6492: 6488: 6480: 6476: 6468: 6464: 6456: 6452: 6446:Bleiberg (2005) 6444: 6440: 6432: 6428: 6420: 6416: 6408: 6404: 6396: 6392: 6384: 6377: 6369: 6365: 6357: 6353: 6345: 6341: 6333: 6329: 6321: 6317: 6309: 6305: 6297: 6293: 6285: 6281: 6273: 6269: 6261: 6254: 6246: 6242: 6234: 6230: 6222: 6218: 6210: 6206: 6198: 6194: 6186: 6182: 6174: 6170: 6162: 6158: 6150: 6146: 6138: 6134: 6126: 6122: 6114: 6110: 6102: 6098: 6090: 6086: 6074: 6070: 6062: 6058: 6050: 6046: 6038: 6034: 6026: 6022: 6014: 6010: 6002: 5998: 5990: 5986: 5978: 5974: 5966: 5962: 5954: 5950: 5942: 5938: 5930: 5926: 5918: 5905: 5901:, pp. 6–7. 5893: 5889: 5881: 5877: 5869: 5865: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5838: 5832:Imhausen (2007) 5829: 5825: 5816: 5812: 5795: 5791: 5782: 5776: 5772: 5763: 5759: 5751: 5747: 5735: 5731: 5726: 5670: 5641: 5635: 5623: 5622: 5617:379 AD – 641 AD 5611: 5605: 5595: 5593:Byzantine Egypt 5585: 5584: 5573: 5570: 5561: 5551: 5550: 5518: 5508: 5507: 5496: 5493: 5440: 5437: 5415: 5405: 5404: 5328: 5318: 5317: 5272: 5262: 5261: 5186: 5176: 5175: 5150:Twelfth Dynasty 5129: 5119: 5118: 5053:Seventh Dynasty 5046: 5036: 5035: 4977: 4967: 4966: 4920: 4910: 4879: 4874: 4872: 4865: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4848: 4838: 4829: 4818: 4809: 4798: 4773:natural history 4706:Meroitic script 4698:Kingdom of Kush 4677: 4667: 4632:Spread of Islam 4616: 4594: 4584: 4531: 4525: 4523:Archaeogenetics 4508: 4502: 4496: 4480: 4463: 4459: 4458: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4383: 4310: 4304: 4238: 4203: 4199: 4156: 4145: 4077: 4056:life expectancy 4036:schistosomiasis 4028: 4022: 3982: 3969: 3943: 3937: 3932: 3906:bows and arrows 3855: 3849: 3843: 3807:internal organs 3784: 3778: 3666: 3660: 3653: 3650: 3641: 3630: 3621: 3616:hunting birds; 3610: 3601: 3598: 3592: 3503: 3493: 3485:Main articles: 3483: 3476: 3470: 3461: 3446: 3437: 3436:(New York City) 3426: 3417: 3414: 3408: 3364:post and lintel 3335: 3329: 3311: 3293: 3287: 3261:. Juggling and 3218:from Asia. The 3163: 3149: 3144: 3123: 3100:Westcar Papyrus 3096:Middle Egyptian 3091:Story of Sinuhe 3056: 3035: 3021: 3015: 2977: 2974: 2956: 2942: 2918: 2914: 2854: 2846:Egyptian Arabic 2838:Coptic alphabet 2828:. The Egyptian 2784:Middle Egyptian 2775: 2772: 2730: 2728: 2711: 2697: 2683: 2678: 2672: 2598: 2592: 2509:rock formations 2489:fashion jewelry 2481: 2471: 2365: 2275:Land management 2262:Tomb of Nebamun 2234: 2228: 2222: 2161: 2095: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2059: 2055: 2052: 2050: 1990: 1985: 1877: 1858: 1852: 1830:classical Greek 1797:as part of the 1767: 1749: 1743: 1730: 1726: 1710: 1687: 1667: 1652:Greek influence 1639: 1632: 1624:Main articles: 1622: 1597: 1593: 1562: 1527: 1507: 1500: 1494: 1451: 1431: 1365: 1338:of the Nile in 1336:Fourth Cataract 1323: 1273: 1267: 1238: 1199: 1196: 1190: 1125: 1122:Twelfth Dynasty 1068: 1062: 1045: 1029: 1026:political power 1010: 1004: 995: 992:severe droughts 925: 919: 889: 886:Narmer Palette, 841: 836:and of ancient 822: 816: 811: 799: 721: 613: 607: 602: 600: 560: 552:Main articles: 550: 449:and controlled 415: 373:Late Bronze Age 325: 288: 263: 230: 220: 215: 208:664 BC – 332 BC 205: 200: 191: 188: 183: 173: 168: 158: 153: 143: 137: 125: 119: 107:Ancient history 85: 81: 63: 55: 46: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 16043: 16033: 16032: 16027: 16022: 16017: 16012: 16007: 16002: 15997: 15980: 15979: 15977: 15976: 15975: 15974: 15969: 15960: 15958: 15954: 15953: 15951: 15950: 15945: 15940: 15935: 15930: 15925: 15924: 15923: 15912: 15910: 15906: 15905: 15902: 15901: 15899: 15898: 15893: 15888: 15883: 15878: 15877: 15876: 15866: 15861: 15856: 15851: 15846: 15841: 15836: 15831: 15826: 15821: 15820: 15819: 15814: 15804: 15799: 15793: 15791: 15782: 15781: 15780: 15779: 15774: 15769: 15764: 15759: 15749: 15744: 15743: 15742: 15732: 15727: 15726: 15725: 15720: 15715: 15705: 15700: 15699: 15698: 15693: 15683: 15682: 15681: 15676: 15671: 15666: 15661: 15651: 15650: 15649: 15644: 15634: 15629: 15624: 15619: 15618: 15617: 15612: 15607: 15602: 15597: 15587: 15586: 15585: 15580: 15570: 15565: 15564: 15563: 15558: 15548: 15547: 15546: 15541: 15531: 15530: 15529: 15524: 15514: 15509: 15508: 15507: 15502: 15497: 15492: 15487: 15477: 15472: 15471: 15470: 15465: 15457: 15452: 15447: 15442: 15437: 15431: 15429: 15423: 15422: 15420: 15419: 15414: 15409: 15404: 15403: 15402: 15397: 15392: 15387: 15382: 15377: 15372: 15362: 15357: 15356: 15355: 15350: 15345: 15340: 15335: 15330: 15320: 15319: 15318: 15313: 15308: 15303: 15293: 15288: 15283: 15278: 15273: 15268: 15263: 15258: 15253: 15252: 15251: 15246: 15236: 15235: 15234: 15229: 15224: 15219: 15214: 15209: 15196: 15191: 15186: 15181: 15180: 15179: 15174: 15169: 15159: 15158: 15157: 15152: 15147: 15142: 15132: 15127: 15122: 15117: 15112: 15107: 15106: 15105: 15100: 15095: 15090: 15080: 15079: 15078: 15073: 15068: 15063: 15053: 15052: 15051: 15046: 15041: 15031: 15026: 15021: 15016: 15011: 15010: 15009: 15004: 14999: 14989: 14984: 14983: 14982: 14977: 14972: 14967: 14962: 14957: 14947: 14946: 14945: 14940: 14930: 14929: 14928: 14923: 14918: 14913: 14903: 14898: 14897: 14896: 14886: 14885: 14884: 14879: 14871: 14866: 14861: 14856: 14851: 14846: 14841: 14835: 14833: 14831:Post-classical 14827: 14826: 14824: 14823: 14822: 14821: 14811: 14806: 14805: 14804: 14799: 14789: 14788: 14787: 14777: 14776: 14775: 14770: 14765: 14760: 14755: 14750: 14740: 14735: 14730: 14729: 14728: 14723: 14718: 14713: 14703: 14702: 14701: 14696: 14686: 14681: 14680: 14679: 14674: 14669: 14664: 14659: 14649: 14644: 14639: 14638: 14637: 14632: 14630:Middle Kingdom 14627: 14617: 14612: 14611: 14610: 14605: 14600: 14590: 14589: 14588: 14586:Neo-Babylonian 14583: 14578: 14576:Old Babylonian 14568: 14567: 14566: 14561: 14551: 14546: 14540: 14538: 14526: 14525: 14518: 14517: 14510: 14503: 14495: 14486: 14485: 14482: 14481: 14474: 14472: 14470: 14469: 14462: 14461: 14460: 14453: 14446: 14439: 14431: 14424: 14417: 14409: 14399: 14398: 14397: 14396: 14395: 14390: 14385: 14375: 14366: 14363: 14362: 14352: 14351: 14348: 14347: 14340: 14338: 14335: 14334: 14332: 14331: 14330: 14329: 14324: 14316: 14311: 14306: 14301: 14296: 14291: 14286: 14280: 14278: 14272: 14271: 14269: 14268: 14263: 14258: 14253: 14248: 14243: 14238: 14233: 14228: 14222: 14220: 14214: 14213: 14211: 14210: 14209: 14208: 14203: 14198: 14193: 14186: 14178: 14177: 14176: 14164: 14163: 14162: 14157: 14150: 14142:Mediterranean 14140: 14139: 14138: 14131: 14124: 14117: 14110: 14105: 14098: 14095:Alingano Maisu 14091: 14084: 14077: 14070: 14063: 14051: 14050: 14049: 14038: 14025: 14023: 14017: 14016: 14014: 14013: 14007: 14005: 14001: 14000: 13998: 13997: 13996: 13995: 13990: 13985: 13977: 13976: 13975: 13970: 13965: 13960: 13953: 13946: 13944:De Meern ships 13941: 13936: 13931: 13926: 13916: 13915: 13914: 13906: 13905: 13904: 13899: 13891: 13890: 13889: 13882: 13875: 13870: 13862: 13857: 13856: 13855: 13845: 13844: 13843: 13838: 13828: 13827: 13826: 13821: 13816: 13814:Cape Gelidonya 13811: 13806: 13801: 13796: 13791: 13786: 13781: 13776: 13771: 13759: 13757: 13749: 13748: 13746: 13745: 13740: 13735: 13730: 13725: 13720: 13715: 13710: 13705: 13700: 13695: 13690: 13689: 13688: 13683: 13678: 13670: 13665: 13660: 13655: 13650: 13649: 13648: 13638: 13633: 13627: 13625: 13619: 13618: 13615: 13614: 13612: 13611: 13606: 13601: 13596: 13591: 13586: 13580: 13578: 13577:Archaeologists 13574: 13573: 13571: 13570: 13565: 13560: 13555: 13550: 13545: 13543:David Blackman 13539: 13537: 13530: 13522: 13521: 13511: 13510: 13507: 13506: 13499: 13497: 13495: 13494: 13489: 13484: 13482:Jewish pirates 13479: 13474: 13469: 13464: 13458: 13455: 13454: 13444: 13443: 13440: 13439: 13432: 13430: 13428: 13427: 13426: 13425: 13415: 13414: 13413: 13403: 13398: 13393: 13386: 13381: 13376: 13371: 13366: 13361: 13356: 13351: 13346: 13341: 13336: 13330: 13327: 13326: 13313: 13312: 13309: 13308: 13301: 13299: 13296: 13295: 13293: 13292: 13291: 13290: 13280: 13275: 13270: 13269: 13268: 13257: 13255: 13251: 13250: 13247: 13246: 13244: 13243: 13238: 13233: 13228: 13223: 13218: 13213: 13207: 13204: 13203: 13201: 13200: 13195: 13190: 13185: 13180: 13175: 13170: 13168:Lake Trasimene 13165: 13160: 13155: 13150: 13145: 13140: 13135: 13130: 13125: 13120: 13115: 13110: 13105: 13100: 13095: 13090: 13085: 13080: 13075: 13069:Mediterranean: 13065: 13063: 13057: 13056: 13054: 13053: 13048: 13043: 13038: 13032: 13030: 13021: 13017: 13016: 13014: 13013: 13008: 13003: 12998: 12997: 12996: 12991: 12981: 12976: 12971: 12965: 12963: 12955: 12954: 12952: 12951: 12946: 12941: 12936: 12931: 12930: 12929: 12924: 12914: 12909: 12904: 12899: 12894: 12889: 12884: 12879: 12878: 12877: 12872: 12867: 12857: 12852: 12847: 12846: 12845: 12840: 12835: 12830: 12825: 12820: 12815: 12810: 12805: 12800: 12795: 12790: 12785: 12775: 12774: 12773: 12762: 12760: 12756: 12755: 12753: 12752: 12747: 12746: 12745: 12740: 12730: 12725: 12719: 12717: 12709: 12708: 12696: 12695: 12692: 12691: 12684: 12682: 12679: 12678: 12676: 12675: 12670: 12665: 12660: 12655: 12650: 12645: 12640: 12635: 12630: 12625: 12620: 12615: 12610: 12605: 12600: 12595: 12590: 12585: 12580: 12575: 12565: 12560: 12555: 12550: 12545: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12525: 12520: 12515: 12509: 12504: 12499: 12494: 12488: 12483: 12478: 12473: 12468: 12463: 12458: 12453: 12448: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12411: 12409: 12400: 12399: 12397: 12396: 12395: 12394: 12389: 12384: 12376: 12375: 12374: 12372:Maritime pilot 12369: 12359: 12354: 12353: 12352: 12342: 12337: 12335:Portolan chart 12332: 12327: 12321: 12319: 12309: 12308: 12298: 12297: 12294: 12293: 12286: 12284: 12281: 12280: 12278: 12277: 12272: 12267: 12262: 12257: 12252: 12247: 12241: 12239: 12235: 12234: 12232: 12231: 12226: 12221: 12216: 12211: 12210: 12209: 12204: 12199: 12194: 12184: 12178: 12176: 12170: 12169: 12167: 12166: 12165: 12164: 12156: 12151: 12146: 12141: 12136: 12131: 12126: 12121: 12115: 12113: 12107: 12106: 12104: 12103: 12098: 12093: 12088: 12083: 12082: 12081: 12071: 12066: 12061: 12056: 12051: 12046: 12041: 12036: 12035: 12034: 12024: 12019: 12014: 12009: 12004: 11998: 11996: 11992: 11991: 11989: 11988: 11983: 11978: 11973: 11967: 11965: 11961: 11960: 11958: 11957: 11952: 11947: 11942: 11937: 11936: 11935: 11930: 11925: 11920: 11915: 11910: 11908:Oared warships 11905: 11897: 11896: 11895: 11890: 11885: 11875: 11870: 11865: 11860: 11855: 11850: 11845: 11844: 11843: 11833: 11828: 11823: 11818: 11813: 11808: 11802: 11800: 11790: 11789: 11777: 11776: 11769: 11768: 11761: 11754: 11746: 11737: 11736: 11734: 11733: 11723: 11713: 11703: 11693: 11680: 11677: 11676: 11674: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11657: 11654: 11653: 11646: 11644: 11642: 11641: 11636: 11631: 11626: 11625: 11624: 11619: 11609: 11604: 11599: 11594: 11589: 11588: 11587: 11582: 11572: 11567: 11562: 11557: 11552: 11547: 11542: 11537: 11536: 11535: 11530: 11520: 11515: 11514: 11513: 11503: 11502: 11501: 11491: 11486: 11481: 11476: 11471: 11466: 11461: 11456: 11451: 11446: 11445: 11444: 11434: 11429: 11424: 11423: 11422: 11412: 11411: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11390: 11384: 11381: 11380: 11378: 11377: 11372: 11367: 11361: 11358: 11357: 11349: 11348: 11341: 11334: 11326: 11320: 11319: 11297: 11291: 11286: 11273: 11267: 11257: 11252: 11246: 11228: 11227:External links 11225: 11224: 11223: 11198:(4): 501–509. 11178: 11172: 11154: 11148: 11133: 11082: 11076: 11064:, ed. (2001). 11058: 11052: 11039: 11008: 11002: 10984: 10978: 10960: 10954: 10938: 10932: 10920:, ed. (1999). 10914: 10908: 10893: 10890: 10888: 10887: 10881: 10866: 10847: 10835: 10819: 10813: 10801:Walbank, F. W. 10792: 10786: 10771: 10750: 10734: 10728: 10710: 10704: 10691: 10685: 10670: 10664: 10649: 10597: 10581: 10568: 10540: 10524: 10518: 10503: 10497: 10484: 10445: 10422: 10416: 10401: 10385: 10372: 10357: 10351: 10338: 10332: 10318:Ryholt, K.S.B. 10314: 10308: 10293: 10287: 10269: 10263: 10250: 10241: 10220: 10214: 10199: 10193: 10178: 10165: 10137: 10131: 10116: 10110: 10095: 10079: 10073: 10060: 10038: 10009: 9996: 9990: 9972: 9966: 9951: 9945: 9932: 9926: 9910: 9904: 9889: 9874: 9868: 9853: 9847: 9834: 9828: 9810: 9804: 9789: 9783: 9765: 9759: 9744: 9738: 9722:Kemp, Barry J. 9718: 9713:978-0367434632 9712: 9699: 9695:Fathom Archive 9683: 9677: 9659: 9653: 9633: 9627: 9612: 9599: 9584: 9578: 9560: 9543: 9490: 9477: 9471: 9439: 9419:10.1086/371778 9413:(4): 217–272. 9397: 9384: 9365: 9356: 9335: 9329: 9311: 9298: 9271: 9265: 9250: 9244: 9231: 9225: 9210: 9204: 9189: 9179:on 31 May 2013 9165: 9159: 9144: 9138: 9123: 9117: 9102: 9096: 9081: 9075: 9049: 8995: 8979: 8964: 8958: 8943: 8937: 8915:Clarke, Somers 8911: 8895: 8879: 8873: 8855: 8849: 8837:I.E.S. Edwards 8828: 8813: 8791: 8785: 8772: 8766: 8748: 8742: 8729: 8723: 8708: 8702: 8685: 8669: 8663: 8648: 8642: 8629: 8611: 8593: 8587: 8572: 8566: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8542: 8530: 8526:Mohamed (2022) 8518: 8516:, p. 100. 8506: 8494: 8492:, p. 112. 8490:El-Daly (2005) 8482: 8470: 8458: 8446: 8434: 8422: 8410: 8398: 8386: 8374: 8362: 8350: 8331: 8312: 8297: 8285: 8269: 8267:, p. 241. 8257: 8255:, p. 197. 8245: 8243:, p. 218. 8233: 8231:, p. 217. 8221: 8219:, p. 222. 8209: 8197: 8185: 8181:Lorenzi (2013) 8169: 8157: 8142: 8130: 8115: 8103: 8091: 8089:, p. 250. 8079: 8067: 8065:, p. 243. 8055: 8043: 8031: 8019: 8007: 8005:, p. 215. 7995: 7993:, p. 195. 7983: 7981:, p. 109. 7971: 7969:, p. 177. 7959: 7957:, p. 400. 7947: 7935: 7931:Clayton (1994) 7923: 7911: 7909:, p. 245. 7899: 7897:, p. 124. 7887: 7883:Shabtis (2001) 7875: 7863: 7851: 7839: 7827: 7825:, p. 313. 7815: 7813:, p. 117. 7803: 7801:, p. 106. 7799:Redford (2003) 7791: 7789:, p. 102. 7779: 7777:, p. 158. 7767: 7765:, p. 149. 7755: 7753:, p. 216. 7743: 7731: 7729:, p. 122. 7716: 7714:, p. 105. 7704: 7692: 7680: 7668: 7656: 7644: 7632: 7620: 7608: 7596: 7594:, p. 380. 7584: 7582:, p. 126. 7572: 7568:Seaburn (2018) 7556: 7544: 7532: 7530:, p. 405. 7520: 7518:, p. 403. 7508: 7506:, p. 401. 7496: 7494:, p. 159. 7484: 7472: 7470:, p. 215. 7460: 7448: 7446:, p. 235. 7436: 7424: 7422:, p. 164. 7420:El-Daly (2005) 7412: 7410:, p. 166. 7400: 7388: 7376: 7364: 7362:, p. 173. 7352: 7340: 7328: 7326:, p. 175. 7316: 7304: 7292: 7288:Vittman (1991) 7280: 7268: 7266:, p. 162. 7256: 7254:, p. 161. 7244: 7232: 7230:, p. 145. 7220: 7218:, p. 322. 7208: 7196: 7184: 7172: 7160: 7148: 7136: 7134:, p. 166. 7124: 7112: 7100: 7088: 7086:, p. 413. 7076: 7074:, p. 123. 7064: 7062:, p. 229. 7052: 7040: 7038:, p. 409. 7028: 7026:, p. 381. 7013: 7011:, p. 117. 6998: 6986: 6984:, p. 510. 6974: 6972:, p. 506. 6962: 6960:, p. 514. 6950: 6948:, p. 361. 6938: 6936:, p. 168. 6926: 6924:, p. 472. 6914: 6910:Slavery (2012) 6902: 6898:Johnson (2002) 6885: 6873: 6871:, p. 109. 6869:Billard (1978) 6861: 6859:, p. 136. 6849: 6847:, p. 383. 6837: 6835:, p. 125. 6825: 6823:, p. 372. 6808: 6804:Meskell (2004) 6796: 6784: 6782:, p. 363. 6772: 6770:, p. 358. 6753: 6751:, p. 445. 6741: 6729: 6727:, p. 373. 6717: 6715:, p. 431. 6705: 6703:, p. 422. 6690: 6688:, p. 426. 6678: 6666: 6654: 6652:, p. 418. 6642: 6640:, p. 411. 6630: 6628:, p. 405. 6618: 6616:, p. 385. 6606: 6604:, p. 383. 6594: 6592:, p. 358. 6582: 6570: 6558: 6554:Mokhtar (1990) 6546: 6534: 6532:, p. 345. 6522: 6520:, p. 128. 6510: 6508:, p. 645. 6498: 6486: 6474: 6472:, p. 273. 6462: 6460:, p. 259. 6450: 6438: 6426: 6422:Clayton (1994) 6414: 6412:, p. 224. 6402: 6400:, p. 189. 6390: 6388:, p. 310. 6375: 6373:, p. 188. 6363: 6351: 6339: 6337:, p. 158. 6327: 6323:Clayton (1994) 6315: 6313:, p. 148. 6303: 6299:Grajetzki 2007 6291: 6279: 6275:Clayton (1994) 6267: 6265:, p. 146. 6252: 6250:, p. 120. 6240: 6236:Clayton (1994) 6228: 6216: 6204: 6202:, p. 102. 6192: 6180: 6168: 6156: 6152:Clayton (1994) 6144: 6132: 6128:Clayton (1994) 6120: 6108: 6096: 6084: 6078:, p. 61; 6068: 6056: 6044: 6032: 6020: 6008: 5996: 5994:, p. 220. 5984: 5972: 5960: 5948: 5936: 5934:, p. 153. 5932:Clayton (1994) 5924: 5903: 5887: 5885:, p. 217. 5883:Clayton (1994) 5875: 5863: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5837: 5836: 5834:, p. 13). 5823: 5810: 5789: 5770: 5768:, p. 146) 5766:Clayton (1994) 5757: 5745: 5728: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5721: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5672: 5671: 5669: 5668: 5661: 5654: 5646: 5643: 5642: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5618: 5615: 5612: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5581: 5580: 5579:30 BC – 313 AD 5577: 5574: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5556: 5553: 5552: 5547: 5546: 5543: 5540: 5534: 5533: 5530: 5527: 5519: 5514: 5513: 5510: 5509: 5504: 5503: 5500: 5497: 5490: 5487: 5486: 5483: 5480: 5474: 5473: 5470: 5467: 5461: 5460: 5457: 5454: 5448: 5447: 5444: 5441: 5434: 5431: 5430: 5427: 5424: 5416: 5411: 5410: 5407: 5406: 5401: 5400: 5397: 5394: 5383: 5382: 5379: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5366: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5353: 5350: 5344: 5343: 5340: 5337: 5329: 5324: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5314: 5313: 5310: 5307: 5301: 5300: 5297: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5284: 5281: 5273: 5268: 5267: 5264: 5263: 5258: 5257: 5254: 5251: 5245: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5237:Abydos Dynasty 5233: 5232: 5229: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5216: 5213: 5202: 5201: 5198: 5195: 5187: 5182: 5181: 5178: 5177: 5172: 5171: 5168: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5155: 5152: 5146: 5145: 5142: 5139: 5130: 5127:Middle Kingdom 5125: 5124: 5121: 5120: 5115: 5114: 5111: 5108: 5101: 5100: 5097: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5084: 5081: 5075: 5074: 5071: 5068: 5066:Eighth Dynasty 5062: 5061: 5058: 5055: 5047: 5042: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5032: 5031: 5028: 5025: 5019: 5018: 5015: 5012: 5006: 5005: 5002: 4999: 4997:Fourth Dynasty 4993: 4992: 4989: 4986: 4978: 4973: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4963: 4962: 4959: 4956: 4954:Second Dynasty 4950: 4949: 4943: 4940: 4934: 4933: 4931: 4929: 4921: 4916: 4915: 4912: 4911: 4906:All years are 4905: 4902: 4901: 4885: 4884: 4870: 4854: 4851: 4850: 4849: 4839: 4832: 4830: 4819: 4812: 4810: 4799: 4792: 4666: 4663: 4647:archaeological 4643:Horn of Africa 4610:Horn of Africa 4599:Iberomaurusian 4551:Middle Eastern 4527:Main article: 4524: 4521: 4495: 4492: 4477: 4476: 4410: 4409: 4406: 4405: 4402: 4401: 4398: 4397: 4380: 4379: 4376: 4375: 4372: 4371: 4342:multiplication 4330:numeral system 4320:, 18th dynasty 4306:Main article: 4303: 4300: 4235:Fourth Dynasty 4170:known are the 4144: 4141: 4106:Medical papyri 4078: 1550 BC 4024:Main article: 4021: 4018: 4014:trace elements 3981: 3978: 3974:decimal system 3970: 1600 BC 3939:Main article: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3865:, 18th dynasty 3845:Main article: 3842: 3839: 3830:Funerary texts 3780:Main article: 3777: 3776:Burial customs 3774: 3662:Main article: 3659: 3656: 3655: 3654: 3651: 3644: 3642: 3640:; 1480–1425 BC 3631: 3624: 3622: 3611: 3604: 3602: 3599: 1500 BC 3593: 3586: 3538:Pharaohs used 3513:Narmer Palette 3482: 3479: 3478: 3477: 3471: 3464: 3462: 3447: 3440: 3438: 3427: 3420: 3418: 3409: 3402: 3387:burial chamber 3331:Main article: 3328: 3325: 3312: 2700 BC 3289:Main article: 3286: 3283: 3278:Deir el-Medina 3148: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3079:Ipuwer papyrus 3017:Main article: 3014: 3011: 2994:Greek alphabet 2941: 2938: 2853: 2850: 2756:is a northern 2748: 2747: 2744: 2743: 2740: 2739: 2736: 2735: 2722: 2721: 2718: 2717: 2714: 2713: 2708: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2682: 2679: 2674:Main article: 2671: 2668: 2594:Main article: 2591: 2588: 2517:Eastern Desert 2470: 2467: 2380:Deir el-Medina 2364: 2361: 2300:growing season 2224:Main article: 2221: 2218: 2185:. Although no 2160: 2157: 2094: 2091: 2087:precious metal 1989: 1986: 1984: 1981: 1957:Constantinople 1953:Eastern Empire 1938:their language 1854:Main article: 1851: 1848: 1745:Main article: 1742: 1739: 1725:, began in 343 1709:, ended in 402 1621: 1618: 1496:Main article: 1493: 1490: 1486:temple of Amun 1393:artistic style 1330:in north west 1269:Main article: 1266: 1263: 1241:BC. The kings 1192:Main article: 1189: 1186: 1064:Main article: 1061: 1058: 1054:Middle Kingdom 1032:BC, rulers in 1012:After Egypt's 1006:Main article: 1003: 1000: 965:justice system 921:Main article: 918: 915: 869:Narmer Palette 818:Main article: 815: 805: 800: 3500 BC 750:western desert 683:Naqada culture 672:Western Desert 629:Early Dynastic 609:Main article: 606: 603: 590: 549: 546: 504:; a system of 463:writing system 459:administration 361:Middle Kingdom 331:(according to 301: 300: 297: 296: 293: 292: 285: 276: 273: 272: 267: 255: 254: 249: 239: 238: 235: 234: 231: 228: 225: 224: 223:332 BC – 30 BC 221: 213: 210: 209: 206: 198: 195: 194: 189: 181: 178: 177: 174: 170:Middle Kingdom 166: 163: 162: 159: 151: 148: 147: 144: 3150 BC 138: 132: 129: 128: 126: 3150 BC 120: 117: 114: 113: 110: 109: 104: 103:Historical era 100: 99: 91: 87: 86: 76: 68: 67: 64: 3150 BC 57: 56: 53: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16042: 16031: 16028: 16026: 16023: 16021: 16018: 16016: 16013: 16011: 16008: 16006: 16003: 16001: 15998: 15996: 15995:Ancient Egypt 15993: 15992: 15990: 15973: 15972:Soviet empire 15970: 15968: 15965: 15964: 15962: 15961: 15959: 15957:Miscellaneous 15955: 15949: 15946: 15944: 15941: 15939: 15936: 15934: 15931: 15929: 15926: 15922: 15919: 15918: 15917: 15914: 15913: 15911: 15907: 15897: 15894: 15892: 15889: 15887: 15884: 15882: 15879: 15875: 15872: 15871: 15870: 15867: 15865: 15862: 15860: 15857: 15855: 15852: 15850: 15847: 15845: 15842: 15840: 15837: 15835: 15832: 15830: 15827: 15825: 15822: 15818: 15815: 15813: 15810: 15809: 15808: 15805: 15803: 15800: 15798: 15795: 15794: 15792: 15790: 15786: 15778: 15775: 15773: 15770: 15768: 15765: 15763: 15760: 15758: 15755: 15754: 15753: 15750: 15748: 15745: 15741: 15738: 15737: 15736: 15733: 15731: 15728: 15724: 15721: 15719: 15716: 15714: 15711: 15710: 15709: 15706: 15704: 15701: 15697: 15694: 15692: 15689: 15688: 15687: 15684: 15680: 15677: 15675: 15672: 15670: 15667: 15665: 15662: 15660: 15657: 15656: 15655: 15652: 15648: 15645: 15643: 15640: 15639: 15638: 15635: 15633: 15630: 15628: 15625: 15623: 15620: 15616: 15613: 15611: 15608: 15606: 15603: 15601: 15598: 15596: 15593: 15592: 15591: 15588: 15584: 15581: 15579: 15576: 15575: 15574: 15571: 15569: 15566: 15562: 15559: 15557: 15556:German Empire 15554: 15553: 15552: 15549: 15545: 15542: 15540: 15537: 15536: 15535: 15532: 15528: 15525: 15523: 15520: 15519: 15518: 15515: 15513: 15510: 15506: 15503: 15501: 15498: 15496: 15493: 15491: 15488: 15486: 15483: 15482: 15481: 15478: 15476: 15473: 15469: 15466: 15464: 15461: 15460: 15458: 15456: 15453: 15451: 15448: 15446: 15443: 15441: 15438: 15436: 15433: 15432: 15430: 15428: 15424: 15418: 15415: 15413: 15410: 15408: 15405: 15401: 15398: 15396: 15393: 15391: 15388: 15386: 15383: 15381: 15378: 15376: 15373: 15371: 15368: 15367: 15366: 15363: 15361: 15358: 15354: 15351: 15349: 15346: 15344: 15341: 15339: 15336: 15334: 15331: 15329: 15326: 15325: 15324: 15321: 15317: 15314: 15312: 15309: 15307: 15304: 15302: 15299: 15298: 15297: 15296:Turco-Persian 15294: 15292: 15289: 15287: 15284: 15282: 15279: 15277: 15274: 15272: 15269: 15267: 15264: 15262: 15259: 15257: 15254: 15250: 15247: 15245: 15242: 15241: 15240: 15237: 15233: 15230: 15228: 15225: 15223: 15220: 15218: 15215: 15213: 15210: 15208: 15205: 15204: 15203: 15200: 15197: 15195: 15192: 15190: 15187: 15185: 15182: 15178: 15175: 15173: 15170: 15168: 15165: 15164: 15163: 15160: 15156: 15153: 15151: 15148: 15146: 15143: 15141: 15138: 15137: 15136: 15133: 15131: 15128: 15126: 15123: 15121: 15118: 15116: 15113: 15111: 15108: 15104: 15101: 15099: 15096: 15094: 15091: 15089: 15086: 15085: 15084: 15081: 15077: 15074: 15072: 15069: 15067: 15064: 15062: 15059: 15058: 15057: 15054: 15050: 15047: 15045: 15042: 15040: 15037: 15036: 15035: 15032: 15030: 15027: 15025: 15022: 15020: 15017: 15015: 15012: 15008: 15005: 15003: 15000: 14998: 14995: 14994: 14993: 14990: 14988: 14985: 14981: 14978: 14976: 14973: 14971: 14968: 14966: 14963: 14961: 14958: 14956: 14953: 14952: 14951: 14948: 14944: 14941: 14939: 14936: 14935: 14934: 14931: 14927: 14924: 14922: 14919: 14917: 14914: 14912: 14909: 14908: 14907: 14904: 14902: 14899: 14895: 14892: 14891: 14890: 14887: 14883: 14880: 14878: 14875: 14874: 14872: 14870: 14867: 14865: 14862: 14860: 14857: 14855: 14852: 14850: 14847: 14845: 14842: 14840: 14837: 14836: 14834: 14832: 14828: 14820: 14817: 14816: 14815: 14812: 14810: 14807: 14803: 14800: 14798: 14795: 14794: 14793: 14790: 14786: 14783: 14782: 14781: 14778: 14774: 14771: 14769: 14766: 14764: 14761: 14759: 14756: 14754: 14751: 14749: 14746: 14745: 14744: 14741: 14739: 14736: 14734: 14731: 14727: 14724: 14722: 14719: 14717: 14714: 14712: 14709: 14708: 14707: 14704: 14700: 14697: 14695: 14692: 14691: 14690: 14687: 14685: 14682: 14678: 14675: 14673: 14670: 14668: 14665: 14663: 14660: 14658: 14655: 14654: 14653: 14650: 14648: 14645: 14643: 14640: 14636: 14633: 14631: 14628: 14626: 14623: 14622: 14621: 14618: 14616: 14613: 14609: 14606: 14604: 14601: 14599: 14596: 14595: 14594: 14591: 14587: 14584: 14582: 14579: 14577: 14574: 14573: 14572: 14569: 14565: 14562: 14560: 14557: 14556: 14555: 14552: 14550: 14547: 14545: 14542: 14541: 14539: 14536: 14531: 14527: 14523: 14516: 14511: 14509: 14504: 14502: 14497: 14496: 14493: 14468: 14467: 14463: 14459: 14458: 14454: 14452: 14451: 14447: 14445: 14444: 14443:Metamorphoses 14440: 14438: 14436: 14435:The Histories 14432: 14430: 14429: 14425: 14423: 14422: 14418: 14416: 14414: 14413:The Histories 14410: 14408: 14407: 14403: 14402: 14400: 14394: 14391: 14389: 14386: 14384: 14381: 14380: 14379: 14376: 14374: 14371: 14370: 14368: 14367: 14364: 14357: 14353: 14328: 14325: 14323: 14320: 14319: 14317: 14315: 14312: 14310: 14307: 14305: 14302: 14300: 14297: 14295: 14292: 14290: 14287: 14285: 14282: 14281: 14279: 14273: 14267: 14264: 14262: 14259: 14257: 14254: 14252: 14249: 14247: 14244: 14242: 14239: 14237: 14234: 14232: 14229: 14227: 14224: 14223: 14221: 14215: 14207: 14204: 14202: 14199: 14197: 14194: 14192: 14191: 14187: 14185: 14182: 14181: 14179: 14175: 14174: 14170: 14169: 14168: 14165: 14161: 14158: 14156: 14155: 14151: 14149: 14148: 14144: 14143: 14141: 14137: 14136: 14132: 14130: 14129: 14128:Marumaru Atua 14125: 14123: 14122: 14118: 14116: 14115: 14111: 14109: 14106: 14104: 14103: 14099: 14097: 14096: 14092: 14090: 14089: 14088:Samudra Raksa 14085: 14083: 14082: 14078: 14076: 14075: 14074:Te Au o Tonga 14071: 14069: 14068: 14064: 14062: 14061: 14057: 14056: 14055: 14052: 14048: 14047: 14043: 14039: 14037: 14036: 14032: 14031: 14030: 14027: 14026: 14024: 14018: 14012: 14009: 14008: 14006: 14002: 13994: 13991: 13989: 13986: 13984: 13981: 13980: 13978: 13974: 13971: 13969: 13966: 13964: 13961: 13959: 13958: 13954: 13952: 13951: 13947: 13945: 13942: 13940: 13937: 13935: 13934:Blackfriars I 13932: 13930: 13929:Arles Rhône 3 13927: 13925: 13924: 13920: 13919: 13917: 13913: 13910: 13909: 13907: 13903: 13900: 13898: 13895: 13894: 13892: 13888: 13887: 13883: 13881: 13880: 13876: 13874: 13871: 13869: 13866: 13865: 13863: 13861: 13858: 13854: 13851: 13850: 13849: 13846: 13842: 13839: 13837: 13834: 13833: 13832: 13829: 13825: 13822: 13820: 13817: 13815: 13812: 13810: 13807: 13805: 13802: 13800: 13797: 13795: 13792: 13790: 13787: 13785: 13782: 13780: 13777: 13775: 13772: 13770: 13767: 13766: 13764: 13761: 13760: 13758: 13756: 13750: 13744: 13741: 13739: 13736: 13734: 13733:Thalassocracy 13731: 13729: 13726: 13724: 13721: 13719: 13718:Shell middens 13716: 13714: 13711: 13709: 13706: 13704: 13701: 13699: 13696: 13694: 13691: 13687: 13684: 13682: 13679: 13677: 13674: 13673: 13671: 13669: 13668:Naval warfare 13666: 13664: 13661: 13659: 13656: 13654: 13651: 13647: 13644: 13643: 13642: 13639: 13637: 13634: 13632: 13629: 13628: 13626: 13620: 13610: 13607: 13605: 13602: 13600: 13597: 13595: 13592: 13590: 13587: 13585: 13582: 13581: 13579: 13575: 13569: 13566: 13564: 13561: 13559: 13556: 13554: 13551: 13549: 13548:Lionel Casson 13546: 13544: 13541: 13540: 13538: 13534: 13531: 13527: 13523: 13516: 13512: 13493: 13490: 13488: 13485: 13483: 13480: 13478: 13475: 13473: 13470: 13468: 13465: 13463: 13460: 13459: 13456: 13449: 13445: 13424: 13421: 13420: 13419: 13416: 13412: 13409: 13408: 13407: 13404: 13402: 13399: 13397: 13394: 13392: 13391: 13387: 13385: 13382: 13380: 13379:Incense trade 13377: 13375: 13372: 13370: 13367: 13365: 13362: 13360: 13357: 13355: 13352: 13350: 13347: 13345: 13342: 13340: 13337: 13335: 13332: 13331: 13328: 13324: 13318: 13314: 13289: 13286: 13285: 13284: 13283:South America 13281: 13279: 13276: 13274: 13271: 13267: 13264: 13263: 13262: 13259: 13258: 13256: 13252: 13242: 13239: 13237: 13234: 13232: 13231:Sailing ships 13229: 13227: 13226:Oared vessels 13224: 13222: 13219: 13217: 13214: 13212: 13209: 13208: 13205: 13199: 13196: 13194: 13191: 13189: 13186: 13184: 13181: 13179: 13176: 13174: 13171: 13169: 13166: 13164: 13161: 13159: 13156: 13154: 13151: 13149: 13148:Cape Hermaeum 13146: 13144: 13141: 13139: 13136: 13134: 13131: 13129: 13126: 13124: 13121: 13119: 13116: 13114: 13111: 13109: 13106: 13104: 13101: 13099: 13096: 13094: 13091: 13089: 13086: 13084: 13081: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13070: 13067: 13066: 13064: 13062: 13058: 13052: 13049: 13047: 13044: 13042: 13039: 13037: 13034: 13033: 13031: 13029: 13025: 13022: 13018: 13012: 13009: 13007: 13004: 13002: 12999: 12995: 12992: 12990: 12987: 12986: 12985: 12982: 12980: 12977: 12975: 12972: 12970: 12967: 12966: 12964: 12962: 12959:Migration and 12956: 12950: 12947: 12945: 12942: 12940: 12937: 12935: 12932: 12928: 12925: 12923: 12920: 12919: 12918: 12915: 12913: 12910: 12908: 12905: 12903: 12900: 12898: 12895: 12893: 12890: 12888: 12885: 12883: 12880: 12876: 12873: 12871: 12868: 12866: 12863: 12862: 12861: 12858: 12856: 12853: 12851: 12848: 12844: 12841: 12839: 12836: 12834: 12831: 12829: 12826: 12824: 12821: 12819: 12816: 12814: 12811: 12809: 12806: 12804: 12801: 12799: 12796: 12794: 12791: 12789: 12786: 12784: 12781: 12780: 12779: 12776: 12772: 12769: 12768: 12767: 12766:Ancient Egypt 12764: 12763: 12761: 12759:Civilizations 12757: 12751: 12748: 12744: 12741: 12739: 12736: 12735: 12734: 12731: 12729: 12726: 12724: 12721: 12720: 12718: 12714: 12710: 12706: 12701: 12697: 12674: 12671: 12669: 12666: 12664: 12661: 12659: 12656: 12654: 12651: 12649: 12646: 12644: 12641: 12639: 12636: 12634: 12631: 12629: 12626: 12624: 12621: 12619: 12616: 12614: 12611: 12609: 12606: 12604: 12601: 12599: 12596: 12594: 12591: 12589: 12586: 12584: 12581: 12579: 12576: 12573: 12569: 12566: 12564: 12561: 12559: 12556: 12554: 12551: 12549: 12546: 12544: 12541: 12539: 12536: 12534: 12531: 12529: 12526: 12524: 12521: 12519: 12516: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12503: 12500: 12498: 12495: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12472: 12469: 12467: 12464: 12462: 12459: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12449: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12412: 12410: 12405: 12401: 12393: 12390: 12388: 12385: 12383: 12380: 12379: 12377: 12373: 12370: 12368: 12365: 12364: 12363: 12360: 12358: 12355: 12351: 12348: 12347: 12346: 12343: 12341: 12338: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12322: 12320: 12318: 12314: 12310: 12303: 12299: 12276: 12273: 12271: 12268: 12266: 12263: 12261: 12258: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12248: 12246: 12243: 12242: 12240: 12236: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12220: 12217: 12215: 12212: 12208: 12205: 12203: 12200: 12198: 12195: 12193: 12190: 12189: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12180: 12179: 12177: 12175: 12171: 12163: 12160: 12159: 12157: 12155: 12152: 12150: 12147: 12145: 12142: 12140: 12137: 12135: 12134:Clinker built 12132: 12130: 12127: 12125: 12122: 12120: 12119:Boat building 12117: 12116: 12114: 12112: 12108: 12102: 12099: 12097: 12094: 12092: 12089: 12087: 12084: 12080: 12077: 12076: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12060: 12057: 12055: 12052: 12050: 12047: 12045: 12042: 12040: 12037: 12033: 12030: 12029: 12028: 12025: 12023: 12020: 12018: 12015: 12013: 12010: 12008: 12005: 12003: 12000: 11999: 11997: 11993: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11979: 11977: 11974: 11972: 11969: 11968: 11966: 11962: 11956: 11953: 11951: 11948: 11946: 11943: 11941: 11938: 11934: 11931: 11929: 11926: 11924: 11921: 11919: 11916: 11914: 11911: 11909: 11906: 11904: 11901: 11900: 11898: 11894: 11891: 11889: 11886: 11884: 11881: 11880: 11879: 11876: 11874: 11871: 11869: 11868:Navis lusoria 11866: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11842: 11839: 11838: 11837: 11834: 11832: 11829: 11827: 11824: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11803: 11801: 11799: 11795: 11791: 11787: 11782: 11778: 11774: 11767: 11762: 11760: 11755: 11753: 11748: 11747: 11744: 11732: 11724: 11722: 11714: 11712: 11704: 11702: 11694: 11692: 11682: 11681: 11678: 11672: 11669: 11667: 11666:Egyptologists 11664: 11662: 11659: 11658: 11655: 11650: 11640: 11637: 11635: 11632: 11630: 11627: 11623: 11620: 11618: 11615: 11614: 11613: 11610: 11608: 11605: 11603: 11600: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11590: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11577: 11576: 11573: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11556: 11553: 11551: 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11534: 11531: 11529: 11526: 11525: 11524: 11521: 11519: 11516: 11512: 11509: 11508: 11507: 11504: 11500: 11497: 11496: 11495: 11492: 11490: 11487: 11485: 11482: 11480: 11477: 11475: 11472: 11470: 11467: 11465: 11462: 11460: 11457: 11455: 11452: 11450: 11447: 11443: 11440: 11439: 11438: 11435: 11433: 11430: 11428: 11425: 11421: 11418: 11417: 11416: 11413: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11395: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11385: 11382: 11376: 11373: 11371: 11368: 11366: 11363: 11362: 11359: 11354: 11353:Ancient Egypt 11347: 11342: 11340: 11335: 11333: 11328: 11327: 11324: 11316: 11310: 11302: 11298: 11295: 11292: 11290: 11287: 11284: 11280: 11277: 11274: 11271: 11268: 11265: 11261: 11258: 11256: 11253: 11250: 11247: 11243: 11242: 11236: 11231: 11230: 11217: 11213: 11209: 11205: 11201: 11197: 11193: 11192: 11184: 11179: 11175: 11169: 11165: 11164: 11159: 11155: 11151: 11145: 11141: 11140: 11134: 11130: 11126: 11121: 11116: 11112: 11108: 11104: 11100: 11096: 11092: 11088: 11083: 11079: 11073: 11069: 11068: 11063: 11059: 11055: 11049: 11045: 11040: 11036: 11032: 11028: 11024: 11020: 11016: 11015: 11009: 11005: 10999: 10995: 10994: 10989: 10985: 10981: 10975: 10971: 10970: 10965: 10961: 10957: 10951: 10947: 10943: 10939: 10935: 10929: 10926:. Routledge. 10925: 10924: 10919: 10915: 10911: 10905: 10901: 10896: 10895: 10884: 10878: 10874: 10873: 10867: 10863: 10859: 10858: 10853: 10848: 10844: 10840: 10836: 10832: 10828: 10824: 10820: 10816: 10810: 10806: 10802: 10798: 10793: 10789: 10783: 10779: 10778: 10772: 10768: 10764: 10760: 10757:(in German). 10756: 10751: 10747: 10743: 10739: 10735: 10731: 10725: 10721: 10720: 10715: 10711: 10707: 10701: 10697: 10692: 10688: 10682: 10678: 10677: 10671: 10667: 10661: 10657: 10656: 10650: 10646: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10628: 10624: 10620: 10616: 10612: 10608: 10604: 10598: 10594: 10590: 10586: 10582: 10571: 10565: 10561: 10557: 10553: 10546: 10541: 10537: 10533: 10529: 10525: 10521: 10515: 10511: 10510: 10509:Ancient Egypt 10504: 10500: 10494: 10490: 10485: 10481: 10477: 10473: 10469: 10465: 10461: 10457: 10453: 10452: 10446: 10442: 10438: 10434: 10430: 10429: 10423: 10419: 10413: 10409: 10408: 10402: 10398: 10394: 10390: 10386: 10382: 10378: 10373: 10369: 10368: 10363: 10358: 10354: 10348: 10344: 10339: 10335: 10329: 10325: 10324: 10319: 10315: 10311: 10305: 10301: 10300: 10294: 10290: 10284: 10280: 10279: 10274: 10270: 10266: 10260: 10256: 10251: 10247: 10242: 10238: 10234: 10230: 10226: 10221: 10217: 10211: 10207: 10206: 10200: 10196: 10190: 10186: 10185: 10179: 10168: 10162: 10158: 10154: 10150: 10143: 10138: 10134: 10128: 10124: 10123: 10117: 10113: 10107: 10103: 10102: 10096: 10092: 10088: 10084: 10080: 10076: 10070: 10066: 10061: 10050: 10049: 10044: 10039: 10027: 10023: 10019: 10015: 10010: 10006: 10002: 9997: 9993: 9987: 9983: 9982: 9977: 9976:Meskell, Lynn 9973: 9969: 9963: 9959: 9958: 9952: 9948: 9942: 9938: 9933: 9929: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9911: 9907: 9901: 9897: 9896: 9890: 9886: 9885: 9880: 9875: 9871: 9865: 9861: 9860: 9854: 9850: 9844: 9840: 9835: 9831: 9825: 9821: 9820: 9815: 9811: 9807: 9801: 9797: 9796: 9790: 9786: 9780: 9776: 9775: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9756: 9752: 9751: 9745: 9741: 9735: 9730: 9729: 9723: 9719: 9715: 9709: 9705: 9700: 9696: 9692: 9688: 9684: 9680: 9674: 9670: 9669: 9664: 9663:James, T.G.H. 9660: 9656: 9650: 9646: 9642: 9638: 9634: 9630: 9624: 9620: 9619: 9613: 9602: 9596: 9592: 9591: 9585: 9581: 9575: 9571: 9570: 9565: 9564:Ikram, Salima 9561: 9557: 9553: 9549: 9544: 9540: 9536: 9531: 9526: 9522: 9518: 9513: 9508: 9504: 9500: 9499:PLOS Genetics 9496: 9491: 9487: 9483: 9478: 9474: 9468: 9464: 9460: 9456: 9452: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9436: 9432: 9428: 9424: 9420: 9416: 9412: 9408: 9407: 9402: 9398: 9394: 9390: 9385: 9374: 9370: 9366: 9362: 9357: 9353: 9349: 9345: 9341: 9336: 9332: 9326: 9322: 9321: 9316: 9312: 9301: 9295: 9290: 9285: 9281: 9277: 9272: 9268: 9262: 9258: 9257: 9251: 9247: 9241: 9237: 9232: 9228: 9222: 9218: 9217: 9211: 9207: 9201: 9198:. Routledge. 9197: 9196: 9190: 9178: 9174: 9170: 9166: 9162: 9156: 9152: 9151: 9145: 9141: 9135: 9131: 9130: 9124: 9120: 9114: 9110: 9109: 9103: 9099: 9093: 9089: 9088: 9082: 9078: 9072: 9068: 9067: 9062: 9058: 9054: 9050: 9046: 9042: 9038: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9010: 9006: 9002: 8996: 8992: 8988: 8984: 8980: 8976: 8975: 8970: 8965: 8961: 8955: 8951: 8950: 8944: 8940: 8934: 8930: 8926: 8925: 8920: 8916: 8912: 8908: 8904: 8900: 8896: 8892: 8888: 8884: 8880: 8876: 8870: 8866: 8865: 8860: 8856: 8852: 8846: 8842: 8838: 8834: 8829: 8825: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8803: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8788: 8782: 8778: 8773: 8769: 8763: 8759: 8758: 8753: 8749: 8745: 8739: 8735: 8730: 8726: 8720: 8716: 8715: 8709: 8705: 8699: 8695: 8691: 8686: 8682: 8678: 8674: 8670: 8666: 8660: 8656: 8655: 8649: 8645: 8639: 8635: 8630: 8618: 8614: 8608: 8604: 8603: 8598: 8594: 8590: 8584: 8580: 8579: 8573: 8569: 8563: 8559: 8558: 8552: 8551: 8540:, p. 36. 8539: 8534: 8527: 8522: 8515: 8510: 8504:, p. 13. 8503: 8498: 8491: 8486: 8480:, p. 10. 8479: 8474: 8467: 8462: 8455: 8450: 8443: 8438: 8431: 8426: 8419: 8414: 8407: 8402: 8395: 8390: 8384:, p. 65. 8383: 8378: 8371: 8370:Fregel (2021) 8366: 8360:, p. 13. 8359: 8354: 8348:, p. 13. 8347: 8342: 8340: 8338: 8336: 8328: 8323: 8321: 8319: 8317: 8309: 8304: 8302: 8294: 8293:Bowman (2020) 8289: 8283:, p. 31. 8282: 8278: 8273: 8266: 8261: 8254: 8249: 8242: 8237: 8230: 8225: 8218: 8213: 8207:, p. 11. 8206: 8201: 8194: 8189: 8182: 8178: 8173: 8166: 8161: 8154: 8149: 8147: 8140:, p. 19. 8139: 8134: 8127: 8122: 8120: 8113:, p. 38. 8112: 8107: 8100: 8095: 8088: 8083: 8076: 8071: 8064: 8059: 8053:, p. 39. 8052: 8047: 8041:, p. 21. 8040: 8035: 8028: 8023: 8017:, p. 94. 8016: 8011: 8004: 7999: 7992: 7987: 7980: 7975: 7968: 7963: 7956: 7951: 7944: 7939: 7933:, p. 96. 7932: 7927: 7920: 7915: 7908: 7903: 7896: 7891: 7884: 7879: 7872: 7867: 7861:, p. 29. 7860: 7855: 7848: 7843: 7836: 7831: 7824: 7819: 7812: 7807: 7800: 7795: 7788: 7783: 7776: 7775:Robins (2008) 7771: 7764: 7763:Robins (2008) 7759: 7752: 7747: 7741:, p. 74. 7740: 7739:Robins (2008) 7735: 7728: 7723: 7721: 7713: 7708: 7702:, p. 12. 7701: 7700:Robins (2008) 7696: 7690:, p. 21. 7689: 7688:Robins (2008) 7684: 7678:, p. 29. 7677: 7676:Robins (2008) 7672: 7665: 7660: 7654:, p. 23. 7653: 7652:Dodson (1991) 7648: 7641: 7636: 7630:, p. 50. 7629: 7628:Badawy (1968) 7624: 7617: 7612: 7605: 7600: 7593: 7588: 7581: 7576: 7569: 7565: 7560: 7553: 7548: 7541: 7536: 7529: 7524: 7517: 7512: 7505: 7500: 7493: 7488: 7482:, p. 23. 7481: 7476: 7469: 7464: 7458:, p. 11. 7457: 7452: 7445: 7440: 7433: 7428: 7421: 7416: 7409: 7404: 7397: 7392: 7385: 7380: 7374:, p. 13. 7373: 7368: 7361: 7356: 7349: 7344: 7337: 7332: 7325: 7320: 7314:, p. 74. 7313: 7308: 7302:, p. 46. 7301: 7296: 7289: 7284: 7277: 7272: 7265: 7260: 7253: 7248: 7241: 7236: 7229: 7224: 7217: 7212: 7205: 7200: 7193: 7188: 7181: 7176: 7169: 7164: 7158:, p. 72. 7157: 7152: 7146:, p. 51. 7145: 7140: 7133: 7128: 7122:, p. 14. 7121: 7120:Scheel (1989) 7116: 7109: 7104: 7098:, p. 28. 7097: 7092: 7085: 7080: 7073: 7068: 7061: 7056: 7049: 7044: 7037: 7032: 7025: 7020: 7018: 7010: 7005: 7003: 6995: 6990: 6983: 6978: 6971: 6966: 6959: 6954: 6947: 6942: 6935: 6930: 6923: 6918: 6911: 6906: 6899: 6894: 6892: 6890: 6882: 6877: 6870: 6865: 6858: 6853: 6846: 6841: 6834: 6833:Turner (1984) 6829: 6822: 6817: 6815: 6813: 6806:, p. 23. 6805: 6800: 6793: 6788: 6781: 6776: 6769: 6764: 6762: 6760: 6758: 6750: 6745: 6739:, p. 63. 6738: 6733: 6726: 6721: 6714: 6709: 6702: 6697: 6695: 6687: 6682: 6676:, p. 63. 6675: 6670: 6664:, p. 62. 6663: 6658: 6651: 6646: 6639: 6634: 6627: 6622: 6615: 6610: 6603: 6598: 6591: 6586: 6579: 6574: 6567: 6562: 6555: 6550: 6543: 6542:Bonnet (2006) 6538: 6531: 6526: 6519: 6518:Bonnet (2006) 6514: 6507: 6502: 6496:, p. 54. 6495: 6490: 6483: 6478: 6471: 6466: 6459: 6458:Aldred (1988) 6454: 6447: 6442: 6436:, p. 48. 6435: 6430: 6423: 6418: 6411: 6406: 6399: 6394: 6387: 6386:Ryholt (1997) 6382: 6380: 6372: 6367: 6361:, p. 90. 6360: 6359:Robins (2008) 6355: 6348: 6343: 6336: 6331: 6325:, p. 79. 6324: 6319: 6312: 6307: 6300: 6295: 6288: 6283: 6277:, p. 29. 6276: 6271: 6264: 6259: 6257: 6249: 6244: 6238:, p. 69. 6237: 6232: 6225: 6224:Hassan (2011) 6220: 6213: 6208: 6201: 6196: 6190:, p. 40. 6189: 6184: 6177: 6172: 6166:, p. 70. 6165: 6160: 6153: 6148: 6142:, p. 32. 6141: 6140:Robins (2008) 6136: 6129: 6124: 6117: 6112: 6105: 6100: 6093: 6088: 6081: 6077: 6072: 6066:, p. 61. 6065: 6060: 6053: 6048: 6041: 6036: 6029: 6024: 6017: 6012: 6006:, p. 14. 6005: 6000: 5993: 5988: 5981: 5976: 5970:, p. 17. 5969: 5964: 5957: 5952: 5946:, p. 84. 5945: 5940: 5933: 5928: 5921: 5916: 5914: 5912: 5910: 5908: 5900: 5897:, p. 8; 5896: 5891: 5884: 5879: 5873:, p. 46. 5872: 5867: 5860: 5855: 5851: 5833: 5827: 5820: 5814: 5808:, p. 25) 5807: 5803: 5799: 5793: 5786: 5780: 5774: 5767: 5761: 5755: 5749: 5743: 5739: 5733: 5729: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5675: 5667: 5662: 5660: 5655: 5653: 5648: 5647: 5645: 5644: 5640: 5639: 5634: 5633: 5627: 5626: 5616: 5613: 5609: 5604: 5600: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5588: 5578: 5575: 5572: 5566: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5554: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5535: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5511: 5501: 5498: 5495: 5489: 5488: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5475: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5462: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5442: 5439: 5433: 5432: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5408: 5398: 5395: 5392: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5371: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5345: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5321: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5265: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5242: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5234: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5221: 5217: 5214: 5211: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5179: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5160: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5134: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5122: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5103: 5102: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5092:Tenth Dynasty 5090: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5079:Ninth Dynasty 5077: 5076: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5039: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5023:Sixth Dynasty 5021: 5020: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5010:Fifth Dynasty 5008: 5007: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4984:Third Dynasty 4982: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4970: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4938:First Dynasty 4936: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4913: 4909: 4904: 4903: 4900: 4899:ancient Egypt 4896: 4892: 4889: 4888: 4882: 4871: 4868: 4857: 4847: 4843: 4836: 4831: 4828: 4824: 4823: 4816: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4796: 4791: 4790: 4789: 4787: 4782: 4780: 4779: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4691: 4690: 4685: 4681: 4676: 4672: 4662: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4617: 23,000 4611: 4607: 4603: 4600: 4595: 15,000 4588: 4579: 4575: 4566: 4562: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4542: 4538: 4536: 4530: 4520: 4512: 4507: 4501: 4491: 4488: 4485: 4484: 4474: 4470: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4437: 4433: 4432:one-fifteenth 4429: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4408: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4400: 4399: 4396: 4382: 4381: 4369: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4361: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4299: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4288:Mersa Gawasis 4284: 4282: 4278: 4273: 4271: 4267: 4259: 4254: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4211: 4209: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4162: 4154: 4150: 4140: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4113: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4059: 4057: 4053: 4048: 4046: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4027: 4017: 4015: 4009: 4007: 4003: 4002:Egyptian blue 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3977: 3975: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3947: 3942: 3927: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3848: 3838: 3835: 3831: 3826: 3824: 3820: 3814: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3799:mummification 3792: 3788: 3783: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3730: 3728: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3702: 3698: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3683: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3648: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3628: 3623: 3615: 3608: 3603: 3590: 3585: 3584: 3583: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3572:Amarna Period 3569: 3565: 3559: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3536: 3534: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3514: 3497: 3492: 3488: 3475: 3468: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3424: 3419: 3406: 3401: 3400: 3399: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3347: 3345: 3340: 3334: 3324: 3321: 3306: 3303:and his wife 3302: 3297: 3292: 3282: 3279: 3274: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3231: 3227: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3207: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3187: 3183: 3180: 3176: 3167: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3139: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3094:, written in 3093: 3092: 3086: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3054: 3050: 3045: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3010: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2988: 2984: 2969: 2962: 2951: 2950:Rosetta Stone 2946: 2937: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2924: 2912: 2911: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2895: 2893: 2887: 2885: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2849: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2788:Late Egyptian 2785: 2781: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2746: 2745: 2742: 2741: 2738: 2737: 2734: 2727: 2724: 2723: 2709: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2695: 2694: 2691: 2690: 2687: 2686: 2677: 2667: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2636: 2634: 2630: 2629:Tell es-Sakan 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2587: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2566:, greywacke, 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2550: 2545: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2529:Wadi Hammamat 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2501:mummification 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2480: 2476: 2466: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2451: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2357: 2352: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2324: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2301: 2297: 2296: 2291: 2290: 2285: 2284: 2278: 2276: 2271: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2247: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2227: 2217: 2215: 2210: 2206: 2200: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2184: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2156: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2144:Cleopatra VII 2141: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2121: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2107:social status 2099: 2093:Social status 2090: 2088: 2048: 2047: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1994: 1980: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1890:Cleopatra VII 1887: 1883: 1875: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1847: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1818:Egyptian gods 1814: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1762: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1738: 1736: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1691: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1637: 1631: 1627: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1591: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1540: 1538: 1534: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1505: 1499: 1489: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1460: 1455: 1450:, around 1258 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1425: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1410: 1409:Amarna Period 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1381:supreme deity 1378: 1375: 1371: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1310: 1309:Tuthmosis III 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1282: 1277: 1272: 1262: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1236: 1232: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1220:composite bow 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1204:Western Asian 1195: 1185: 1183: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1161:Amenemhat III 1157: 1155: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1132:, located in 1131: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1106: 1100: 1099:Black Pyramid 1096: 1092: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1072: 1067: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1034:Herakleopolis 1027: 1022: 1020: 1015: 1009: 999: 993: 989: 985: 976: 972: 968: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 949:Giza pyramids 946: 942: 934: 929: 924: 914: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 887: 883: 882:royal regalia 879: 870: 865: 861: 859: 855: 851: 847: 839: 835: 831: 827: 821: 794: 789: 785: 783: 779: 775: 774:ceramic glaze 771: 767: 761: 760:to the east. 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 679: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 652: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 622: 617: 612: 589: 587: 583: 579: 576: 573: 569: 565: 559: 555: 545: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 482: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 439: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 376: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 306:Ancient Egypt 286: 284: 281: 280: 277: 271: 268: 261: 260: 257: 256: 253: 250: 248: 245: 244: 240: 236: 232: 226: 222: 218: 211: 207: 203: 196: 190: 186: 179: 175: 171: 164: 160: 156: 149: 139: 136: 130: 121: 115: 111: 108: 105: 101: 98: 97: 92: 88: 74: 69: 58: 54:Ancient Egypt 51: 48: 44: 37: 33: 19: 15723:Contemporary 15573:Indo-Persian 15561:Nazi Germany 15505:Contemporary 15407:Vijayanagara 15306:Great Seljuk 15217:Thessalonica 15145:Golden Horde 14785:Carthaginian 14619: 14564:Neo-Assyrian 14549:Neo-Sumerian 14464: 14455: 14448: 14441: 14434: 14426: 14421:On the Ocean 14419: 14412: 14404: 14401:Literature: 14189: 14171: 14152: 14145: 14135:Aotearoa One 14133: 14126: 14119: 14112: 14100: 14093: 14086: 14079: 14072: 14065: 14058: 14045: 14041: 14033: 14020:Experimental 13988:Museum ships 13955: 13948: 13921: 13893:Phoenician: 13884: 13879:Leontophoros 13877: 13841:Butuan boats 13836:Pontian boat 13774:Dufuna canoe 13713:Shipbuilding 13624:and theories 13594:Boris Rankov 13388: 13321:Economy and 13221:Incendiaries 13068: 12855:Indus Valley 12823:Tarumanagara 12765: 12750:Ubaid period 12668:Wadi al-Jarf 12583:Ostia Antica 12187:Fore-and-aft 12154:Shipbuilding 12129:Carvel built 12111:Construction 12069:Steering oar 11950:Sailing ship 11873:Obelisk ship 11831:Dugout canoe 11393:Architecture 11352: 11259: 11239: 11195: 11189: 11162: 11138: 11094: 11090: 11065: 11043: 11021:(1): 67–93. 11018: 11012: 10992: 10988:Lehner, Mark 10967: 10945: 10922: 10899: 10871: 10861: 10855: 10842: 10826: 10804: 10776: 10758: 10754: 10741: 10718: 10695: 10675: 10654: 10610: 10606: 10588: 10573:. 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Retrieved 8601: 8577: 8556: 8533: 8521: 8509: 8497: 8485: 8473: 8468:, p. 8. 8461: 8454:Török (1998) 8449: 8442:Török (1998) 8437: 8430:Ehret (2023) 8425: 8418:Keita (2022) 8413: 8401: 8389: 8377: 8365: 8353: 8288: 8272: 8260: 8248: 8236: 8224: 8212: 8200: 8188: 8177:Boyle (2013) 8172: 8165:Curry (2011) 8160: 8133: 8111:Filer (1995) 8106: 8094: 8082: 8070: 8058: 8051:Filer (1995) 8046: 8039:Filer (1995) 8034: 8027:Filer (1995) 8022: 8015:Filer (1995) 8010: 7998: 7986: 7974: 7962: 7950: 7938: 7926: 7914: 7902: 7895:James (2005) 7890: 7878: 7866: 7854: 7842: 7835:Allen (2000) 7830: 7818: 7811:James (2005) 7806: 7794: 7787:James (2005) 7782: 7770: 7758: 7746: 7734: 7727:James (2005) 7707: 7695: 7683: 7671: 7659: 7647: 7635: 7623: 7611: 7599: 7592:Hayes (1973) 7587: 7575: 7559: 7547: 7535: 7523: 7511: 7499: 7487: 7475: 7463: 7451: 7439: 7434:, p. 8. 7432:Allen (2000) 7427: 7415: 7403: 7398:, p. 7. 7396:Allen (2000) 7391: 7379: 7372:Allen (2000) 7367: 7355: 7343: 7336:Allen (2000) 7331: 7319: 7307: 7295: 7283: 7271: 7259: 7247: 7235: 7223: 7211: 7199: 7192:Porat (1986) 7187: 7175: 7168:Porat (1992) 7163: 7151: 7139: 7127: 7115: 7110:, "Sulphur". 7108:Hogan (2011) 7103: 7091: 7084:Lucas (1962) 7079: 7067: 7055: 7043: 7031: 6989: 6977: 6965: 6953: 6941: 6929: 6917: 6905: 6876: 6864: 6857:James (2005) 6852: 6840: 6828: 6799: 6787: 6775: 6744: 6732: 6720: 6708: 6681: 6674:James (2005) 6669: 6662:James (2005) 6657: 6645: 6633: 6621: 6609: 6597: 6585: 6573: 6561: 6549: 6537: 6525: 6513: 6506:Cerny (1975) 6501: 6494:James (2005) 6489: 6477: 6465: 6453: 6441: 6434:James (2005) 6429: 6417: 6405: 6393: 6366: 6354: 6342: 6330: 6318: 6306: 6294: 6282: 6270: 6243: 6231: 6219: 6207: 6195: 6188:James (2005) 6183: 6171: 6159: 6147: 6135: 6130:, p. 6. 6123: 6118:, p. 1. 6116:Allen (2000) 6111: 6099: 6087: 6071: 6059: 6047: 6035: 6028:Aston (1994) 6023: 6011: 5999: 5992:Hayes (1964) 5987: 5982:, p. 5. 5980:Ikram (1992) 5975: 5963: 5951: 5944:James (2005) 5939: 5927: 5895:James (2005) 5890: 5878: 5866: 5854: 5826: 5813: 5806:Filer (1995) 5801: 5797: 5792: 5785:Drews (1993) 5773: 5760: 5748: 5732: 5636: 5630: 5607: 4898: 4820: 4806:Luxor temple 4783: 4776: 4730: 4714:Roman Empire 4695: 4687: 4684:Frontispiece 4636: 4624:Roman period 4621: 4602:Taforalt man 4589: 4571: 4543: 4539: 4532: 4517: 4486: 4481: 4478: 4472: 4468: 4440: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4413: 4323: 4285: 4274: 4270:Land of Punt 4263: 4243:solar barque 4212: 4172:Abydos boats 4153:shipbuilding 4146: 4137:broken bones 4114: 4089: 4083: 4049: 4047:were rare). 4029: 4010: 3983: 3963:Ebers papyri 3952: 3903: 3898:11th dynasty 3868: 3827: 3815: 3811:canopic jars 3796: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3740:(shadow), a 3737: 3733: 3731: 3723: 3679: 3638:Thutmose III 3620:1350 BC 3560: 3544:funerary art 3537: 3529: 3509: 3368: 3348: 3336: 3327:Architecture 3317: 3275: 3259:13th Dynasty 3255:Amenemhat IV 3236: 3208: 3192: 3172: 3089: 3087: 3072: 3053:Coffin Texts 3043: 3041: 2999:Thomas Young 2991: 2966: 2929: 2925: 2908: 2906: 2897: 2889: 2881: 2855: 2830:hieroglyphic 2800: 2780:Old Egyptian 2758:Afro-Asiatic 2751: 2725: 2652:lapis lazuli 2637: 2610: 2606:Land of Punt 2584:Wadi el-Hudi 2546: 2535:, and gold. 2482: 2416: 2392:domesticated 2385: 2325: 2319:removed the 2293: 2287: 2286:(flooding), 2281: 2279: 2270:fertile soil 2267: 2201: 2197:Great Kenbet 2196: 2191: 2180: 2159:Legal system 2124: 2111:noble family 2104: 2044: 2034: 1999: 1963:army in the 1950: 1917:Christianity 1914: 1910: 1874:Roman Empire 1871: 1811: 1787:capital city 1765: 1759:wearing the 1755:Portrait of 1719:Nectanebo II 1692: 1633: 1587: 1571:25th Dynasty 1560: 1556:Kerma Museum 1501: 1482:civil unrest 1456: 1448:peace treaty 1429: 1363: 1352: 1313: 1286: 1233:allies, the 1228: 1197: 1158: 1150: 1111: 1080:Senwosret II 1076:Amenemhat II 1042:Intef family 1023: 1011: 980: 953:Great Sphinx 938: 902:trade routes 885: 874: 823: 762: 680: 656:5500 BC 653: 649:domesticated 626: 575:modern human 561: 534:architecture 483: 440: 424:Roman Empire 410:. The Greek 377: 305: 304: 252:Succeeded by 251: 246: 93: 84:BC to 30 BC) 47: 15311:Khwarezmian 15244:Carolingian 15049:Rashtrakuta 14753:Shaishunaga 14652:Hellenistic 14635:New Kingdom 14625:Old Kingdom 14428:Argonautica 14415:(Herodotus) 14378:Flood myths 14275:Museums and 14219:conferences 14184:Vital Alsar 14022:archaeology 13831:Austronesia 13824:Hjortspring 13819:Rochelongue 13769:Pesse canoe 13723:Ship burial 13708:Sea Peoples 13641:Lighthouses 13636:Grave goods 13584:George Bass 13364:Spice trade 12961:exploration 12783:Philippines 12778:Austronesia 12771:Old Kingdom 12648:Trincomalee 12598:Prosphorion 12543:Myos Hormos 12387:Micronesian 12378:By region: 12350:Lighthouses 12158:By region: 11923:Quinquereme 11848:Kunlun ship 11841:Penteconter 11826:Dragon boat 11731:WikiProject 11545:Mathematics 11506:Hieroglyphs 11420:Portraiture 11388:Agriculture 11375:Main topics 11264:Art History 10857:Archaeology 10761:: 197–227. 10435:: 159–176. 10367:Archaeology 10281:. Berkley. 9606:28 November 9183:11 February 8623:15 November 8547:Works cited 8153:Shea (1977) 7955:Shaw (2003) 7943:Shaw (2009) 7907:Shaw (2003) 7823:Shaw (2003) 7751:Shaw (2003) 7216:Shaw (2003) 7156:Shaw (2003) 6749:Shaw (2003) 6713:Shaw (2003) 6701:Shaw (2003) 6686:Shaw (2003) 6650:Shaw (2003) 6638:Shaw (2003) 6626:Shaw (2003) 6614:Shaw (2003) 6602:Shaw (2003) 6590:Shaw (2003) 6530:Shaw (2003) 6410:Shaw (2003) 6398:Shaw (2003) 6371:Shaw (2003) 6347:Shaw (2003) 6335:Shaw (2003) 6311:Shaw (2003) 6263:Shaw (2003) 6248:Shaw (2003) 6212:Shaw (2003) 6200:Shaw (2003) 6164:Shaw (2003) 6080:Ataç (2014) 6076:Shaw (2003) 6064:Shaw (2003) 6040:Ataç (2014) 6004:Kemp (1989) 5968:Shaw (2003) 5956:Shaw (2003) 5920:Ward (2001) 5754:Ramesses XI 5738:Late Period 5559:Roman Egypt 5413:Late Period 5270:New Kingdom 4975:Old Kingdom 4825:(1887), by 4753:Egyptomania 4737:Renaissance 4733:Middle Ages 4731:During the 4619:years ago. 4457:Area ≈ = ( 4395:hieroglyphs 4302:Mathematics 4277:Lake Timsah 4237:around 2500 3959:Edwin Smith 3910:animal skin 3803:desiccation 3524:tomb models 3504: 1400 3373:, the open 3251:Theban tomb 3136:Ramesses II 3132:Greco-Roman 3036: 1321 2975: 3000 2970:dates from 2773: 3200 2733:hieroglyphs 2656:Afghanistan 2497:Wadi Natrun 2220:Agriculture 2187:legal codes 2176:5th dynasty 2041:Late period 1925:Greco-Roman 1882:Mark Antony 1856:Roman Egypt 1822:syncretized 1676:Psamtik III 1672:Cambyses II 1579:New Kingdom 1533:Leontopolis 1504:Ramesses XI 1466:Sea Peoples 1442:(in modern 1436:Ramesses II 1430:Around 1279 1420:Ramesses II 1397:Tutankhamun 1364:Around 1350 1305:Tuthmosis I 1198:Around 1785 1177:Nile floods 1124:around 1985 1118:Amenemhat I 941:Old Kingdom 898:labor force 858:Lower Egypt 834:Mesopotamia 782:hieroglyphs 676:stone tools 631:times, the 586:Paleolithic 506:mathematics 426:and became 404:Macedonians 369:New Kingdom 353:Old Kingdom 283:Roman Egypt 247:Preceded by 202:Late Period 185:New Kingdom 155:Old Kingdom 82: 3150 15989:Categories 15881:Portuguese 15762:Revival Le 15752:Vietnamese 15395:Later Tran 15365:Vietnamese 15261:Singhasari 15249:Holy Roman 14873:Bulgarian 14809:Satavahana 14780:Phoenician 14716:Achaemenid 14677:Indo-Greek 14657:Macedonian 14571:Babylonian 14437:(Polybius) 14081:Hawaiʻiloa 13963:Nemi ships 13848:Black Sea‎ 13794:Khufu ship 13755:and relics 13653:Marine art 13646:Alexandria 13553:Fik Meijer 13536:Historians 13423:Indo-Roman 13236:Greek navy 13138:Salamis II 13128:Hellespont 13088:Artemisium 13078:Nile Delta 13041:Achaemenid 12934:Achaemenid 12803:Langkasuka 12798:Micronesia 12716:Prehistory 12643:Sounagoura 12471:Chittagong 12446:Barbarikon 12425:Alexandria 12367:Pilot boat 12317:Navigation 12149:Sewn-plank 12144:Lashed-lug 12022:Figurehead 11995:Components 11964:Propulsion 11918:Quadrireme 11899:Polyremes 11878:Outriggers 11661:Egyptology 11629:Technology 11592:Philosophy 11540:Literature 11432:Chronology 10054:14 January 9884:Seeker.com 9455:Gadd, C.J. 9378:9 February 5842:References 5819:Suez Canal 5678:Egyptology 5629:See also: 5608:speculated 4769:Egyptology 4749:al-Maqrizi 4669:See also: 4655:linguistic 4504:See also: 4494:Population 4447:hypotenuse 4424:two-fifths 4292:Hatshepsut 4227:Khufu ship 4094:Per-Bastet 3955:empiricism 3935:Technology 3823:cartonnage 3634:Hatshepsut 3580:Amarna art 3546:, such as 3533:gum arabic 3267:Beni Hasan 3263:ball games 3195:animal fat 3147:Daily life 3013:Literature 2957: 196 2874:triliteral 2870:affricates 2866:fricatives 2858:pharyngeal 2822:word order 2521:gold mines 2230:See also: 2140:Hatshepsut 2039:until the 1933:Theodosius 1929:Diocletian 1906:Roman army 1835:Ptolemy IV 1791:Alexandria 1780:Macedonian 1656:city-state 1561:Around 727 1524:Shoshenq I 1470:Aegean Sea 1424:Abu Simbel 1316:Hatshepsut 1167:-speaking 1163:, allowed 961:crop yield 738:Naqada III 619:A typical 520:, and the 518:literature 467:a military 451:irrigation 402:, and the 314:Nile River 66:–332/30 BC 15874:Couronian 15512:Ethiopian 15500:Manchukuo 15455:Brazilian 15301:Ghaznavid 15271:Srivijaya 15222:Trebizond 15207:Byzantine 15189:North Sea 15184:Norwegian 15172:Almoravid 15155:Ilkhanate 15125:Majapahit 15098:Muromachi 15007:Solomonic 14992:Ethiopian 14906:Caliphate 14839:Aragonese 14667:Ptolemaic 14450:Geography 14388:Gilgamesh 14277:memorials 14201:Viracocha 14114:Faʻafaite 14067:Sarimanok 13973:Yassi Ada 13886:Syracusia 13809:Canaanite 13784:Moor Sand 13254:By region 13216:Grappling 13188:Naulochus 13178:Myonessus 13133:Echinades 13118:Arginusae 13113:Cynossema 13098:Naupactus 13093:Eurymedon 12927:Classical 12902:Phoenicia 12897:Mycenaean 12860:Tamilakam 12843:Polynesia 12833:Srivijaya 12628:Satingpra 12588:Palembang 12572:Cattigara 12514:(Kadaram) 12497:Jambukola 12491:Guangzhou 12432:(Podouke) 12430:Arikamedu 12392:Polynesia 12325:Celestial 12238:Armaments 12224:Spritsail 12182:Crab claw 12124:Careening 12091:Sternpost 11945:Reed boat 11888:Catamaran 11863:Multihull 11565:Mythology 11489:Geography 11479:Dynasties 11427:Astronomy 11097:: 15694. 11046:. Wiley. 10948:. Wiley. 10944:(1994) . 10627:0092-8674 10575:9 January 10528:"Slavery" 10480:163869704 10458:: 31–38. 10389:"Shabtis" 10172:9 January 10048:Arab News 9816:(1995a). 9521:1553-7404 9435:161307683 9427:0022-2968 9346:: 41–54. 9305:9 January 9090:. Shire. 9053:Day, John 9045:265356320 9029:0960-9822 8921:(1990) . 8807:3 January 5847:Citations 5802:at birth. 5312:1189–1077 5299:1292–1189 5286:1549–1292 5256:1580–1549 5243:1650–1600 5231:1660–1600 5218:1674–1535 5200:1705–1690 5170:1803–1649 5157:1991–1803 5144:2061–1991 5113:2134–2061 5099:2130–2040 5086:2160–2130 5073:2181–2160 5030:2345–2181 5017:2498–2345 5004:2613–2498 4991:2686–2613 4961:2890–2686 4948:3150–2890 4895:dynasties 4844:near the 4597:year old 4585: 57 4547:Egyptians 4428:one-third 4420:fractions 4215:treenails 4149:ship hull 4125:belladona 4041:abscesses 4006:sintering 3704:The gods 3576:Akhenaten 3556:afterlife 3522:Egyptian 3379:hypostyle 3375:courtyard 3301:Nefermaat 3210:imported 3200:cosmetics 3061:Ramesside 2910:nisbation 2664:olive oil 2572:carnelian 2568:alabaster 2556:malachite 2533:greywacke 2493:Embalmers 2454:Herodotus 2435:elephants 2372:Sennedjem 2317:Winnowing 2030:overseers 2026:granaries 1969:Heraclius 1886:Ptolemaic 1807:Ptolemies 1715:Thirtieth 1699:Phoenicia 1660:Naucratis 1644:Psamtik I 1610:Tanutamun 1374:sun deity 1370:Akhenaten 1259:Near East 1173:Near East 1169:Canaanite 1028:. By 2160 977:enthroned 776:known as 758:Near East 701:imported 699:Egyptians 695:Semainean 654:By about 645:waterfowl 641:ungulates 621:Naqada II 490:surveying 486:quarrying 432:conquered 420:Cleopatra 396:Assyrians 367:, or the 233:332/30 BC 146:– 2686 BC 15854:Japanese 15817:Scottish 15797:American 15789:Colonial 15718:Imperial 15686:Moroccan 15622:Japanese 15600:Afsharid 15459:Burmese 15445:Austrian 15400:Later Le 15375:Early Le 15360:Venetian 15286:Tiwanaku 15199:Hellenic 15162:Moroccan 15093:Kamakura 15083:Japanese 15066:Saffarid 15019:Georgian 14933:Chalukya 14911:Rashidun 14901:Calakmul 14869:Bruneian 14748:Haryanka 14726:Sasanian 14721:Parthian 14672:Bactrian 14662:Seleucid 14642:Goguryeo 14620:Egyptian 14554:Assyrian 14544:Akkadian 14535:Colonies 14466:Tākitimu 14369:Legend: 14327:Roskilde 14206:Tangaroa 14147:Olympias 14121:Gaualofa 14060:Hōkūleʻa 14035:Kon-Tiki 13868:Ashkelon 13804:Uluburun 13763:Earliest 13529:Scholars 13411:shipping 13211:Boarding 13123:Mytilene 13108:Syracuse 13073:Alashiya 13036:Egyptian 13020:Military 13011:Timeline 12989:Sardinia 12912:Carthage 12828:Kalingga 12788:Sa Huỳnh 12723:Timeline 12673:Zanzibar 12623:Sarapion 12618:Rhacotis 12548:Martaban 12493:(Canton) 12486:Godavaya 12481:Giao Chỉ 12451:Barygaza 12441:Avalites 12362:Piloting 12250:Catapult 12245:Ballista 12219:Mast-aft 12032:Planking 11971:Paddling 11928:Hexareme 11893:Trimaran 11858:Longship 11806:Balangay 11701:Category 11622:District 11617:Capitals 11602:Religion 11585:Titulary 11575:Pharaohs 11555:Military 11550:Medicine 11533:Hieratic 11523:Language 11449:Clothing 11403:Obelisks 11309:cite web 11279:Archived 11216:Archived 11212:17295300 11160:(2003). 11129:28556824 10990:(1997). 10831:Archived 10767:23865622 10746:Archived 10716:(2001). 10645:28938123 10593:Archived 10441:25735452 10397:Archived 10320:(1997). 10275:(2003). 10237:23888738 10091:Archived 9984:. Berg. 9978:(2004). 9916:(1984). 9771:(1975). 9724:(1989). 9689:(2002). 9665:(2005). 9639:(2007). 9566:(1992). 9556:Archived 9548:"Sulfur" 9539:24921250 9445:(1973). 9352:24233566 9317:(1957). 9037:37995693 8991:Archived 8974:Discover 8907:Archived 8891:Archived 8861:(2001). 8823:NBC News 8754:(2005). 8617:Archived 8599:(2003). 5342:1069–945 5060:spurious 4853:See also 4765:Napoleon 4759:and the 4735:and the 4630:and the 4350:geometry 4336:and the 4249:joints. 4223:caulking 4182:, woven 4159:BC. The 4090:Per Ankh 4071:hieratic 4043:(though 4020:Medicine 3914:chariots 3841:Military 3691:pantheon 3179:Ceramics 3175:mudbrick 3118:and the 3044:Per Ankh 2983:hieratic 2923:particle 2862:emphatic 2834:hieratic 2815:suffixes 2811:articles 2807:analytic 2670:Language 2648:Anatolia 2580:amethyst 2576:emeralds 2564:porphyry 2549:lead ore 2404:censuses 2309:threshed 2214:ostracon 2205:impaling 2010:archives 1946:churches 1921:Egyptian 1894:Octavian 1799:Mouseion 1776:Persians 1638:. By 653 1590:Assyrian 1537:Kushites 1405:Horemheb 1389:religion 1295:Empire, 1289:pharaohs 1255:Ahmose I 1235:Kushites 1019:optimism 988:nomarchs 830:Akkadian 826:Sumerian 707:Ethiopia 703:obsidian 687:Amratian 526:Hittites 502:obelisks 494:pyramids 447:flooding 15921:largest 15916:Empires 15896:Swedish 15891:Spanish 15886:Russian 15849:Italian 15824:Chinese 15812:English 15807:British 15802:Belgian 15777:Vietnam 15767:Tay son 15713:Tsarist 15708:Russian 15703:Ottoman 15669:Dzungar 15664:Khoshut 15637:Mexican 15632:Maratha 15615:Pahlavi 15595:Safavid 15590:Iranian 15517:Haitian 15480:Chinese 15440:Ashanti 15412:Wagadou 15338:Eastern 15333:Western 15316:Timurid 15276:Tibetan 15266:Songhai 15256:Serbian 15177:Almohad 15167:Idrisid 15071:Samanid 15061:Tahirid 15056:Iranian 15034:Kannauj 15014:Genoese 14950:Chinese 14943:Eastern 14938:Western 14926:Fatimid 14921:Abbasid 14916:Umayyad 14889:Burmese 14849:Ayyubid 14844:Angevin 14814:Xianbei 14802:Eastern 14797:Western 14743:Magadha 14706:Iranian 14699:Xiongnu 14684:Hittite 14593:Chinese 14581:Kassite 14530:Ancient 14522:Empires 14406:Odyssey 14383:Genesis 14180:Others 13979:Lists: 13968:Marausa 13918:Roman: 13908:Punic: 13873:Kyrenia 13864:Greek: 13860:Marsala 13853:Sinop D 13728:Tacking 13462:History 13349:Meluhha 13339:Fishing 13334:Whaling 13241:Ramming 13163:Aegates 13158:Drepana 13153:Ecnomus 13083:Salamis 13071: 13061:Battles 12939:Nabatea 12922:Archaic 12892:Nuragic 12882:Somalia 12733:Oceania 12728:Britain 12705:History 12638:Socotra 12608:Qandala 12593:Piraeus 12563:Muziris 12533:Madurai 12528:Manthai 12466:Canopus 12436:Arsinoe 12408:harbors 12357:History 12345:Coastal 12275:Sambuca 12260:Dolphin 12174:Rigging 11986:Poling 11976:Sailing 11913:Trireme 11853:Liburna 11816:Coracle 11786:Vessels 11721:Outline 11711:Commons 11671:Museums 11607:Scribes 11597:Pottery 11528:Demotic 11518:History 11469:Cuisine 11398:Revival 11120:5459999 11099:Bibcode 11035:3822337 10636:5679310 10472:i258744 10032:23 June 9530:4055572 9256:Disease 9009:Bibcode 8839:(ed.). 5532:332–305 5502:343–332 5485:380–343 5472:398–380 5459:404–398 5446:525–404 5429:672–525 5399:732–653 5381:732–720 5368:837–728 5355:945–720 4891:Periods 4651:genetic 4574:Nubians 4462:⁄ 4387:⁄ 4346:algebra 4233:in the 4208:Hor-Aha 4165:planked 4086:Imhotep 4032:malaria 3986:faience 3919:khopesh 3894:Mesehti 3863:chariot 3734:aspects 3727:oracles 3614:Nebamun 3540:reliefs 3383:mastaba 3352:Malkata 3285:Cuisine 3220:sistrum 3142:Culture 3128:demotic 3065:Harkhuf 3049:Pyramid 2987:Demotic 2940:Writing 2900:sḏm ḥmt 2792:Demotic 2726:r n kmt 2515:in the 2439:grazing 2429:in the 2408:Poultry 2388:animals 2363:Animals 2344:Papyrus 2311:with a 2305:sickles 2209:oracles 2172:Saqqara 2135:doctors 2127:peasant 2120:slavery 2072:⁄ 2058:⁄ 2037:coinage 2018:nomarch 1898:Emperor 1896:(later 1826:Serapis 1678:at the 1606:Taharqa 1575:Taharqa 1554:kings, 1552:Kushite 1512:Smendes 1506:in 1078 1462:Berbers 1379:as the 1334:to the 1297:Assyria 1293:Mitanni 1251:Nubians 1224:chariot 1165:Semitic 1130:Itjtawy 984:temples 910:mastaba 904:to the 894:Memphis 846:Manetho 778:faience 664:pottery 637:savanna 572:Nomadic 548:History 498:temples 475:pharaoh 471:scribes 434:by the 392:Nubians 371:of the 363:of the 355:of the 347:). 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