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20 mm had already started to provide protection for the
British and this was adopted in exchange for the M2 machine guns. From December 1941 to January 1942, production had risen to not only cover all British requirements but also allowed 812 units to be actually delivered to the US Navy. By the end of 1942 the 20 mm had accounted for 42% of all aircraft destroyed by the US Navy's shipboard AA. However, the King Board had noted that the balance was shifting towards the larger guns used by the fleet. The US Navy had intended to use the British pom-pom, however, the weapon required the use of cordite which BuOrd had found objectionable for US service. Further investigation revealed that US powders would not work in the pom-pom. Bureau of Ordnance was well aware of the Bofors 40 mm gun. The firm York Safe and Lock was negotiating with Bofors to attain the rights to the air-cooled version of the weapon. At the same time Henry Howard, an engineer, and businessman became aware of it and contacted RADM W. R. Furlong, chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. He ordered the Bofors weapon system to be investigated. York Safe and Lock would be used as the contracting agent. The system had to be redesigned for both the English measurement system and mass production, as the original documents recommended hand fitting parts and drilling to shape. As early as 1928 the US Navy saw the need to replace the .50 caliber machine gun with something heavier. The 1.1"/75 (28 mm) Mark 1 was designed. Placed in quadruple mounts with a 500 rpm rate of fire it would have fit the requirements. However, the gun was suffering teething issues being prone to jamming. While this could have been solved the weight of the system was equal to that of the quad-mount Bofors 40 mm while lacking the range and power that the Bofors provided. The gun was relegated to smaller less vital ships by the end of the war. The
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1934:
696:
940:- the Predictor AA No 1. Given the target height, its operators tracked the target and the predictor produced bearing, quadrant elevation and fuse setting. These were passed electrically to the guns, where they were displayed on repeater dials to the layers who "matched pointers" (target data and the gun's actual data) to lay the guns. This system of repeater electrical dials built on the arrangements introduced by British coast artillery in the 1880s, and coast artillery was the background of many AA officers. Similar systems were adopted in other countries and for example the later Sperry M3A3 in the US, was also used by Britain as the Predictor AA No 2. Height finders were also increasing in size; in Britain, the seven-foot optical base World War I
606:
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1440:
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1324:
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878:
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688:
1910:
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2032:
1686:
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866:
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1347:. Operators kept it pointed at the target, and the Predictor then calculated the proper aim point automatically and displayed it as a pointer mounted on the gun. The gun operators simply followed the pointer and loaded the shells. The Kerrison was fairly simple, but it pointed the way to future generations that incorporated radar, first for ranging and later for tracking. Similar predictor systems were introduced by Germany during the war, also adding radar ranging as the war progressed.
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48:
1061:. It proved prone to jamming, and was eventually replaced in AA units by the Bofors 40 mm. The Bofors had attracted attention from the US Navy, but none were acquired before 1939. Also, in 1931 the US Army worked on a mobile anti-aircraft machine mount on the back of a heavy truck having four .30 calibre water-cooled machine guns and an optical director. It proved unsuccessful and was abandoned.
1628:
796:, being hydrogen-filled balloons, were targets for incendiary shells and the British introduced these with airburst fuses, both shrapnel type-forward projection of incendiary "pot" and base ejection of an incendiary stream. The British also fitted tracers to their shells for use at night. Smoke shells were also available for some AA guns, these bursts were used as targets during training.
2396:
2892:. Firing an RPG at steep angles poses a danger to the user, because the backblast from firing reflects off the ground. In Somalia, militia members sometimes welded a steel plate onto the exhaust end of an RPG's tube to deflect pressure away from the shooter when shooting up at US helicopters. RPGs are used in this role only when more effective weapons are not available.
2619:. Often, the high-altitude long-range missile systems force aircraft to fly at low level, where anti-aircraft guns can bring them down. As well as the small and large systems, for effective air defence there must be intermediate systems. These may be deployed at regiment-level and consist of platoons of self-propelled anti-aircraft platforms, whether they are
1320:
long range, the aircraft remains in firing range for a long time, so the necessary calculations can, in theory, be done by slide rules—though, because small errors in distance cause large errors in shell fall height and detonation time, exact ranging is crucial. For the ranges and speeds that the Bofors worked at, neither answer was good enough.
2358:, it was split off from the artillery to form a separate arm of its own in 1990. This is in contrast to some (largely communist or ex-communist) countries where not only are there provisions for air defence in the army, navy and air force but there are specific branches that deal only with the air defence of territory, for example, the Soviet
322:, although field-deployed air defence relied on less sophisticated arrangements. NATO later called these arrangements an "air defence ground environment", defined as "the network of ground radar sites and command and control centres within a specific theatre of operations which are used for the tactical control of air defence operations".
842:, the 77 mm had become the standard German weapon, and came mounted on a large traverse that could be easily transported on a wagon. Krupp 75 mm guns were supplied with an optical sighting system that improved their capabilities. The German Army also adapted a revolving cannon that came to be known to Allied fliers as the "
862:. When the war ended, it was clear that the increasing capabilities of aircraft would require better means of acquiring targets and aiming at them. Nevertheless, a pattern had been set: anti-aircraft warfare would employ heavy weapons to attack high-altitude targets and lighter weapons for use when aircraft came to lower altitudes.
2222:. Long range missiles depend on long-range detection to provide significant lead. Stealth designs cut detection ranges so much that the aircraft is often never even seen, and when it is, it is often too late for an intercept. Systems for detection and tracking of stealthy aircraft are a major problem for anti-aircraft development.
360:
destroy; nonetheless, damaged aircraft may be forced to abort their mission and, even if they manage to return and land in friendly territory, may be out of action for days or permanently. Ignoring small arms and smaller machine-guns, ground-based air defence guns have varied in calibre from 20 mm to at least 152 mm.
115:, and modern NATO and the United States, ground-based air defence and air defence aircraft have been under integrated command and control. However, while overall air defence may be for homeland defence (including military facilities), forces in the field, wherever they are, provide their own defences against airborne threats.
811:(76 mm), a new field mounting was introduced in 1916. Since most attacks were at night, searchlights were soon used, and acoustic methods of detection and locating were developed. By December 1916 there were 183 AA sections defending Britain (most with the 3-inch), 74 with the BEF in France and 10 in the Middle East.
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targets up to 24,000 ft (7.3 km). Mechanical time fuses were required because the speed of powder burning varied with height, so fuse length was not a simple function of time of flight. Automated fire ensured a constant rate of fire that made it easier to predict where each shell should be individually aimed.
1057:. It was standardised in 1927 as the T9 AA cannon, but trials quickly revealed that it was worthless in the ground role. However, while the shell was a bit light (well under 2 lbs) it had a good effective ceiling and fired 125 rounds per minute; an AA carriage was developed and it entered service in 1939 as the
294:
usefully used. One term is "ceiling", the maximum ceiling being the height a projectile would reach if fired vertically, not practically useful in itself as few AA guns are able to fire vertically, and the maximum fuse duration may be too short, but potentially useful as a standard to compare different weapons.
2698:). Area defence systems have medium to long range and can be made up of various other systems and networked into an area defence system (in which case it may be made up of several short range systems combined to effectively cover an area). An example of area defence is the defence of Saudi Arabia and Israel by
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mission in Wardak province. One feature that makes RPGs useful in air defence is that they are fused to automatically detonate at 920 m. If aimed into the air this causes the warhead to airburst which can release a limited but potentially damaging amount of shrapnel hitting a helicopter landing or taking off.
4505:"Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM) strikes on helicopters during the Syrian Civil War - I made a short compilation detailing the 8 recorded ATGM strikes on helicopters in Syria. 3 strikes on parked helis, 2 on landing helis, 2 on helis after emergency landings & 1 on heli in-flight https://t.co/Za6azGABVV"
104:). ‘Layered air defence’ usually refers to multiple ‘tiers’ of air defence systems which, when combined, an airborne threat must penetrate in order to reach its target; This defence is usually accomplished via the combined use of systems optimized for either short-, medium-, or long-range air defence.
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system, an almost fully automated system including the radar, computers, power, and auto-loading gun on a single powered platform. The
Skysweeper replaced all smaller guns then in use in the Army, notably the 40 mm Bofors. By 1955, the US military deemed the 40 mm Bofors obsolete due to its
791:
were used, mostly the former. Airburst fuses were either igniferious (based on a burning fuse) or mechanical (clockwork). Igniferious fuses were not well suited for anti-aircraft use. The fuse length was determined by time of flight, but the burning rate of the gunpowder was affected by altitude. The
306:
The essence of air defence is to detect hostile aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space; an attack must not only match these three coordinates, but must do so at the time the target is at that position. This means that projectiles either have
293:
The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure. However, many different definitions are used and unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the ascending part of the trajectory can be
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used RPGs in a direct fire role against landing helicopters. Four rangers were killed when their helicopter was shot down by an RPG, and SEAL team member Neil C. Roberts fell out of his helicopter when it was hit by two RPGs. In other instances helicopters have been shot down in
Afghanistan during a
1799:
The introduction of the guided missile resulted in a significant shift in anti-aircraft strategy. Although
Germany had been desperate to introduce anti-aircraft missile systems, none became operational during World War II. Following several years of post-war development, however, these systems began
1428:
had also put some thought into the problem, When the US Navy began to rearm in 1939 in many ships the primary short ranged gun was the M2 .50 caliber machine gun. While effective in fighters at 300 to 400 yards this is point blank range in naval anti-aircraft ranges. Production of the Swiss
Oerlikon
1011:
Until this time the
British, at RAF insistence, continued their use of World War I machine guns, and introduced twin MG mountings for AAAD. The army was forbidden from considering anything larger than .50-inch. However, in 1935 their trials showed that the minimum effective round was an impact-fused
932:
Two assumptions underpinned the
British approach to HAA fire; first, aimed fire was the primary method and this was enabled by predicting gun data from visually tracking the target and having its height. Second, that the target would maintain a steady course, speed and height. This HAA was to engage
742:
reported that the
British government had decided to "dot the coasts of the British Isles with a series of towers, each armed with two quick-firing guns of special design," while "a complete circle of towers" was to be built around "naval installations" and "at other especially vulnerable points". By
420:
Passive air defence is defined by NATO as "Passive measures taken for the physical defence and protection of personnel, essential installations and equipment in order to minimise the effectiveness of air and/or missile attack". It remains a vital activity by ground forces and includes camouflage and
297:
The
British adopted "effective ceiling", meaning the altitude at which a gun could deliver a series of shells against a moving target; this could be constrained by maximum fuse running time as well as the gun's capability. By the late 1930s the British definition was "that height at which a directly
2797:
Most modern air defence systems are fairly mobile. Even the larger systems tend to be mounted on trailers and are designed to be fairly quickly broken down or set up. In the past, this was not always the case. Early missile systems were cumbersome and required much infrastructure; many could not be
2019:
Larger SAMs may be deployed in fixed launchers, but can be towed/re-deployed at will. The SAMs launched by individuals are known in the United States as the Man-Portable Air
Defence Systems (MANPADS). MANPADS of the former Soviet Union have been exported around the World, and can be found in use by
1319:
Service trials demonstrated another problem however: that ranging and tracking the new high-speed targets was almost impossible. At short range, the apparent target area is relatively large, the trajectory is flat and the time of flight is short, allowing to correct lead by watching the tracers. At
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The British had already arranged licence building of the Bofors 40 mm, and introduced these into service. These had the power to knock down aircraft of any size, yet were light enough to be mobile and easily swung. The gun became so important to the British war effort that they even produced a
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prevented Germany having AA weapons, and for example, the Krupps designers joined Bofors in Sweden. Some World War I guns were retained and some covert AA training started in the late 1920s. Germany introduced the 8.8 cm FlaK 18 in 1933, the 36 and 37 models followed with various improvements,
948:
was replaced by the nine-foot optical base UB 7 and the eighteen-foot optical base UB 10 (only used on static AA sites). Goertz in Germany and Levallois in France produced five m (16 ft) instruments. However, in most countries the main effort in HAA guns until the mid-1930s was improving
895:
bombers had particularly influenced the British and was one of if not the main driver for forming an independent air force. As the capabilities of aircraft and their engines improved it was clear that their role in future war would be even more critical as their range and weapon load grew. However,
644:
had published any information by 1910. Krupp's designs included adaptations of their 65 mm 9-pounder, a 75 mm 12-pounder, and even a 105 mm gun. Erhardt also had a 12-pounder, while Vickers Maxim offered a 3-pounder and Schneider a 47 mm. The French balloon gun appeared in 1910,
635:
By the early 20th century balloon, or airship, guns, for land and naval use were attracting attention. Various types of ammunition were proposed, high explosive, incendiary, bullet-chains, rod bullets and shrapnel. The need for some form of tracer or smoke trail was articulated. Fuzing options were
508:
Batteries are usually grouped into battalions or equivalent. In the field army, a light gun or SHORAD battalion is often assigned to a manoeuvre division. Heavier guns and long-range missiles may be in air-defence brigades and come under corps or higher command. Homeland air defence may have a full
504:
The basic air defence unit is typically a battery with 2 to 12 guns or missile launchers and fire control elements. These batteries, particularly with guns, usually deploy in a small area, although batteries may be split; this is usual for some missile systems. SHORAD missile batteries often deploy
2319:
tested a railgun; it fired a shell at 5,600 miles (9,000 km) per hour using 10 megajoules of energy. Its expected performance is over 13,000 miles (21,000 km) per hour muzzle velocity, accurate enough to hit a 5-metre target from 200 nautical miles (370 km) away while shooting at 10
1948:
Although the firearms used by the infantry, particularly machine guns, can be used to engage low altitude air targets, on occasion with notable success, their effectiveness is generally limited and the muzzle flashes reveal infantry positions. Speed and altitude of modern jet aircraft limit target
1121:
In 1939 radio controlled drones became available to actually test existing systems in British and American service. The results were disappointing by any measure. High-level manoeuvring drones were virtually immune to shipboard AA systems. The US drones could simulate dive bombing which showed the
1004:
The US ended World War I with two 3-inch AA guns and improvements were developed throughout the inter-war period. However, in 1924 work started on a new 105 mm static mounting AA gun, but only a few were produced by the mid-1930s because by this time work had started on the 90 mm AA gun,
834:
However, the problem of deflection settings — "aim-off" — required knowing the rate of change in the target's position. Both France and the UK introduced tachymetric devices to track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles. The French Brocq system was electrical; the operator
814:
AA gunnery was a difficult business. The problem was of successfully aiming a shell to burst close to its target's future position, with various factors affecting the shells' predicted trajectory. This was called deflection gun-laying, where "off-set" angles for range and elevation were set on the
359:
Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions were the standard weapon; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges. However, the type of shell or warhead and its fuzing and, with missiles, the guidance arrangement were and are varied. Targets are not always easy to
310:
Throughout the 20th century, air defence was one of the fastest-evolving areas of military technology, responding to the evolution of aircraft and exploiting technology such as radar, guided missiles and computing (initially electromechanical analogue computing from the 1930s on, as with equipment
1735:. With the liberation of Antwerp, the port city immediately became the highest priority target, and received the largest number of V-1 and V-2 missiles of any city. The smallest tactical unit of the operation was a gun battery consisting of four 90 mm guns firing shells equipped with a radio
1000:
in a twin turret, which the army adopted in simplified single-gun mountings for static positions, mostly around ports where naval ammunition was available. The performance of the new guns was limited by their standard fuse No 199, with a 30-second running time, although a new mechanical time fuse
849:
As aircraft started to be used against ground targets on the battlefield, the AA guns could not be traversed quickly enough at close targets and, being relatively few, were not always in the right place (and were often unpopular with other troops), so changed positions frequently. Soon the forces
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2806:, command posts etc.) benefit from being mounted on a fleet of vehicles. In general, a fixed system can be identified, attacked and destroyed whereas a mobile system can show up in places where it is not expected. Soviet systems especially concentrate on mobility, after the lessons learnt in the
1100:
WWI had been a war in which air warfare blossomed, but had not matured to the point of being a real threat to naval forces. The prevailing assumption was that a few relatively small caliber naval guns could manage to keep enemy aircraft beyond a range where harm might be expected. In 1939 radio
899:
Four years of war had seen the creation of a new and technically demanding branch of military activity. Air defence had made huge advances, albeit from a very low starting point. However, it was new and often lacked influential 'friends' in the competition for a share of limited defence budgets.
830:
mounted on a tripod. It measured the distance to the target and the elevation angle, which together gave the height of the aircraft. These were complex instruments and various other methods were also used. The HRF was soon joined by the height/fuse indicator (HFI), this was marked with elevation
783:
and these proved much more satisfactory. However, in general, these ad hoc solutions proved largely useless. With little experience in the role, no means of measuring target, range, height or speed the difficulty of observing their shell bursts relative to the target gunners proved unable to get
1834:
As this process continued, the missile found itself being used for more and more of the roles formerly filled by guns. First to go were the large weapons, replaced by equally large missile systems of much higher performance. Smaller missiles soon followed, eventually becoming small enough to be
1270:
in 1943 an entirely new system was developed that was required to knock down any low-flying aircraft with a single hit. The first attempt to produce such a system used a 50 mm gun, but this proved inaccurate and a new 55 mm gun replaced it. The system used a centralised control system
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and later in the decade it was redesigned by Mauser-Werke and became the 2 cm FlaK 38. Nevertheless, while 20 mm was better than a machine gun and mounted on a very small trailer made it easy to move, its effectiveness was limited. Germany therefore added a 3.7 cm. The first, the
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dire need for autocannons. Japan introduced powered gliders in 1940 as drones but apparently was unable to dive bomb. There is no evidence of other powers using drones in this application at all. It may have caused a major underestimation of the threat and an inflated view of their AA systems.
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and funds for the military had been sparse to the degree that 50% of shells used were still powder fused. The US Navy found that a significant portion of its shells were duds or low order detonations (incomplete detonation of the explosive contained by the shell). Virtually every major country
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The developments during World War II continued for a short time into the post-war period as well. In particular the US Army set up a huge air defence network around its larger cities based on radar-guided 90 mm and 120 mm guns. US efforts continued into the 1950s with the 75 mm
1708:
fleets. The balloon, a simple blimp tethered to the ground, worked in two ways. Firstly, it and the steel cable were a danger to any aircraft that tried to fly among them. Secondly, to avoid the balloons, bombers had to fly at a higher altitude, which was more favourable for the guns. Barrage
1395:. Although of less power than Germany's 20 mm systems, the typical four or five combat batteries of an Army AAA battalion were often spread many kilometres apart from each other, rapidly attaching and detaching to larger ground combat units to provide welcome defence from enemy aircraft.
1049:
developed by Rheinmetall in the early 1930s, was basically an enlarged 2 cm FlaK 30. It was introduced in 1935 and production stopped the following year. A redesigned gun 3.7 cm FlaK 36 entered service in 1938, it too had a two-wheel carriage. However, by the mid-1930s the Luftwaffe
1301:, that encouraged workers on the assembly line to work harder. The Imperial measurement production drawings the British had developed were supplied to the Americans who produced their own (unlicensed) copy of the 40 mm at the start of the war, moving to licensed production in mid-1941.
1208:
entered service in increasing numbers. In addition, the RAF regiment was formed in 1941 with responsibility for airfield air defence, eventually with Bofors 40 mm as their main armament. Fixed AA defences, using HAA and LAA, were established by the Army in key overseas places, notably
890:
World War I demonstrated that aircraft could be an important part of the battlefield, but in some nations it was the prospect of strategic air attack that was the main issue, presenting both a threat and an opportunity. The experience of four years of air attacks on London by Zeppelins and
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moved at all. With the diversification of air defence there has been much more emphasis on mobility. Most modern systems are usually either self-propelled (i.e. guns or missiles are mounted on a truck or tracked chassis) or towed. Even systems that consist of many components (
1999:
designed by Krupp. Artillery weapons of this sort have for the most part been superseded by the effective surface-to-air missile systems that were introduced in the 1950s, although they were still retained by many nations. The development of surface-to-air missiles began in
526:
The use of balloons by the U.S. Army during the American Civil War compelled the Confederates to develop methods of combating them. These included the use of artillery, small arms, and saboteurs. They were unsuccessful, and internal politics led the United States Army's
2674:. However, most air forces choose to augment airbase defence with surface-to-air missile systems as they are such valuable targets and subject to attack by enemy aircraft. In addition, some countries choose to put all air defence responsibilities under the air force.
815:
gunsight and updated as their target moved. In this method, when the sights were on the target, the barrel was pointed at the target's future position. Range and height of the target determined fuse length. The difficulties increased as aircraft performance improved.
835:
entered the target range and had displays at guns; it was used with their 75 mm. The British Wilson-Dalby gun director used a pair of trackers and mechanical tachymetry; the operator entered the fuse length, and deflection angles were read from the instruments.
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as counter measures, but none of them were ready at the end of the war. The Germans missile research was the most advanced of the war as the Germans put considerable effort in the research and development of rocket systems for all purposes. Among them were several
726:
fired his cannon at the enemy aircraft and successfully shot one down. It crashed in the city and both pilots died from their injuries. The cannon Ljutovac used was not designed as an anti-aircraft gun; it was a slightly modified Turkish cannon captured during the
1839:
systems in the 1960s, and by the 1990s had replaced almost all such systems in modern armies. Man-portable missiles, MANPADS, as they are known today, were introduced in the 1960s and have supplanted or replaced even the smallest guns in most advanced armies.
1770:
Post-war analysis demonstrated that even with newest anti-aircraft systems employed by both sides, the vast majority of bombers reached their targets successfully, on the order of 90%. While these figures were undesirable during the war, the advent of the
719:. Soldiers fired at them with shotguns and machine-guns but failed to prevent them from dropping 45 bombs over the city, hitting military installations, the railway station and many other, mostly civilian, targets in the city. During the bombing raid,
2492:
Layered air defence in naval tactics, especially within a carrier group, is often built around a system of concentric layers with the aircraft carrier at the centre. The outer layer will usually be provided by the carrier's aircraft, specifically its
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their fuse setting correct and most rounds burst well below their targets. The exception to this rule was the guns protecting spotting balloons, in which case the altitude could be accurately measured from the length of the cable holding the balloon.
807:, was appointed to make improvements, particularly an integrated AA defence for London. The air defences were expanded with more RNVR AA guns, 75 mm and 3-inch, the pom-poms being ineffective. The naval 3-inch was also adopted by the army, the
1720:, 'retaliation weapon'). The 419th and 601st anti-aircraft gun battalions of the US Army were first allocated to the Folkestone-Dover coast to defend London, and then moved to Belgium to become part of the "Antwerp X" project coordinated from the
421:
concealment to avoid detection by reconnaissance and attacking aircraft. Measures such as camouflaging important buildings were common in the Second World War. During the Cold War the runways and taxiways of some airfields were painted green.
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with mobile carriages and static mountings able to engage air, sea and ground targets. The M1 version was approved in 1940. During the 1920s there was some work on a 4.7-inch which lapsed, but revived in 1937, leading to a new gun in 1944.
505:
across an area with individual launchers several kilometres apart. When MANPADS is operated by specialists, batteries may have several dozen teams deploying separately in small sections; self-propelled air defence guns may deploy in pairs.
1473:
A 3"/50 MK 22 semiautomatic dual gun was produced but not employed before the end of the war and therefore beyond the scope of this article. However early marks of the 3"/50 were employed in destroyer escorts and on merchant ships. 3″/50
1083:
During the 1930s solid-fuel rockets were under development in the Soviet Union and Britain. In Britain the interest was for anti-aircraft fire, it quickly became clear that guidance would be required for precision. However, rockets, or
5075:
1747:, an electronic analogue computer to calculate the lead and elevation corrections for the guns. With the help of these three technologies, close to 90% of the V-1 missiles, on track to the defence zone around the port, were destroyed.
1020:(40 mm) on a modified naval mount. The air-cooled Bofors was vastly superior for land use, being much lighter than the water-cooled "pom-pom", and UK production of the Bofors 40 mm was licensed. The Predictor AA No 3, as the
186:
it was sometimes prefixed by "light" or "heavy" (LAA or HAA) to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include "AA", "AAA" or "triple-A" (abbreviations of "anti-aircraft artillery"), "flak" (from the German
1421:, which was the most powerful AA gun with an impressive 60,000 ft (18 km) altitude capability, however no 120 M1 was ever fired at an enemy aircraft. The 90 mm and 120 mm guns continued to be used into the 1950s.
387:
belts that ran north–south across Germany, across a military formation's manoeuvre area, or above a city or port. In ground operations air defence areas may be used offensively by rapid redeployment across current aircraft transit
1114:
involved in combat in World War II invested in aircraft development. The cost of aircraft research and development was small and the results could be large. So rapid was the performance leaps of evolving aircraft that the British
5236:
1118:(HACS) was obsolete and designing a successor very difficult for the British establishment. Electronics would prove to be an enabler for effective anti-aircraft systems and both the US and UK had a growing electronics industry.
5130:
1039:
Rheinmetall in Germany developed an automatic 20 mm in the 1920s and Oerlikon in Switzerland had acquired the patent to an automatic 20 mm gun designed in Germany during World War I. Germany introduced the rapid-fire
770:
All armies soon deployed AA guns often based on their smaller field pieces, notably the French 75 mm and Russian 76.2 mm, typically simply propped up on some sort of embankment to get the muzzle pointed skyward. The
2268:, would all be able to narrow down the location of a stealth aircraft under certain parameters. The newest SAMs have a claimed ability to be able to detect and engage stealth targets, with the most notable being the Russian
5050:
118:
Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 7.62 mm (.30 in) to 152.4 mm (6 in) were the standard weapons; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges (as with
5040:
1031:
had ordered the development of a 40 mm naval anti-aircraft gun from the Bofors company. It was light, rapid-firing and reliable, and a mobile version on a four-wheel carriage was soon developed. Known simply as the
5120:
2861:
platforms seek to suppress or negate the effectiveness of an opposing air-defence system. It is an arms race; as better jamming, countermeasures and anti-radiation weapons are developed, so are better SAM systems with
4961:
4828:
4966:
645:
it was an 11-pounder but mounted on a vehicle, with a total uncrewed weight of two tons. However, since balloons were slow moving, sights were simple. But the challenges of faster moving aeroplanes were recognised.
964:
formed in 1925 provided a network of observation posts to report hostile aircraft flying over Britain. Initially radar was used for airspace surveillance to detect approaching hostile aircraft. However, the German
2426:-equipped destroyers and cruisers are as much a threat to aircraft as any land-based air defence system. In general, naval vessels should be treated with respect by aircraft, however the reverse is equally true.
214:
NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) as "measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites". In some armies the term
4876:
2320:
shots per minute. It is expected to be ready in 2020 to 2025. These systems, while currently designed for static targets, would only need the ability to be retargeted to become the next generation of AA system.
903:
However, there were lessons to be learned. In particular the British, who had had AA guns in most theatres in action in daylight and used them against night attacks at home. Furthermore, they had also formed an
538:. Although lacking anti-aircraft weapons, they were the first to shoot down an airplane by rifle fire. The first aircraft to crash in a war was the one of Lieutenant Piero Manzini, shot down on August 25, 1912.
5309:
1105:
became available to the US Navy in quantity allowing a more realistic testing of existing anti-aircraft suites against actual flying and manoeuvring targets. The results were sobering to an unexpected degree.
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4906:
432:
The most extreme case was the Soviet Union and this model may still be followed in some countries: it was a separate service, on a par with the army, navy, or air force. In the Soviet Union, this was called
5314:
2279:. Although air planners have imagined lasers in combat since the late 1960s, only the most modern laser systems are currently reaching what could be considered "experimental usefulness". In particular the
2140:. A variety of designs have been developed, using lasers, net-guns and air-to-air netting, signal jamming, and hi-jacking by means of in-flight hacking. Anti-UAV defence systems have been deployed against
333:. While these rules originate at the highest authority, different rules can apply to different types of air defence covering the same area at the same time. AAAD usually operates under the tightest rules.
5299:
4931:
307:
to be guided to hit the target, or aimed at the predicted position of the target at the time the projectile reaches it, taking into account the speed and direction of both the target and the projectile.
4926:
4838:
4813:
896:
in the years immediately after World War I, the prospect of another major war seemed remote, particularly in Europe, where the most militarily capable nations were, and little financing was available.
5294:
5271:
4871:
1961:
systems were commonly used for most anti-aircraft gunnery, starting with standard pieces on new mountings, and evolving to specially designed guns with much higher performance prior to World War II.
1228:, manned by artillery, was used in the vicinity of naval ports and made use of the naval ammunition supply. The 4.5-inch at Singapore had the first success in shooting down Japanese bombers. Mid war
376:
Area air defence, typically "belts" of air defence to provide a barrier, but sometimes an umbrella covering an area. Areas can vary widely in size. They may extend along a nation's border, e.g. the
5226:
5008:
4936:
4886:
3968:
1991:
Unlike the heavier guns, these smaller weapons are in widespread use due to their low cost and ability to quickly follow the target. Classic examples of autocannons and large calibre guns are the
1414:
would prove, as did the eighty-eight, to make an excellent anti-tank gun as well, and was widely used late in the war in this role. Also available to the Americans at the start of the war was the
4881:
2016:. Land-based SAMs can be deployed from fixed installations or mobile launchers, either wheeled or tracked. The tracked vehicles are usually armoured vehicles specifically designed to carry SAMs.
648:
By 1913 only France and Germany had developed field guns suitable for engaging balloons and aircraft and addressed issues of military organisation. Britain's Royal Navy would soon introduce the
311:
described below). Improvements were made to sensors, technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were either very primitive or non-existent.
5211:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4896:
4891:
1639:
Some nations started rocket research before World War II, including for anti-aircraft use. Further research started during the war. The first step was unguided missile systems like the British
5261:
5012:
4921:
4916:
4911:
5304:
636:
also examined, both impact and time types. Mountings were generally pedestal type but could be on field platforms. Trials were underway in most countries in Europe but only Krupp, Erhardt,
318:
in the 1980s. Command and control remained primitive until the late 1930s, when Britain created an integrated system for ADGB that linked the ground-based air defence of the British Army's
985:
appeared, soon followed by the 39; this was designed primarily for static sites but had a mobile mounting, and the unit had 220 V 24 kW generators. In 1938 design started on the
5256:
4818:
1800:
to mature into viable weapons. The US started an upgrade of their defences using the Nike Ajax missile, and soon the larger anti-aircraft guns disappeared. The same thing occurred in the
1506:, and other auxiliary vessels, and were used as a secondary dual-purpose battery on some other types of ships, including some older battleships. They also replaced the original low-angle
465:
In Britain and some other armies, the single artillery branch has been responsible for both home and overseas ground-based air defence, although there was divided responsibility with the
1372:
smaller-calibre air-defence weapons of the American forces were also quite capable. Their needs could cogently be met with smaller-calibre ordnance beyond using the usual singly-mounted
1008:
While HAA and its associated target acquisition and fire control was the primary focus of AA efforts, low-level close-range targets remained and by the mid-1930s were becoming an issue.
1682:('waterfall') rocket. Owing to the severe war situation for Germany all of those systems were only produced in small numbers and most of them were only used by training or trial units.
992:
Britain had successfully tested a new 3.6-inch gun, in 1918. In 1928 a 3.7-inch (94 mm) gun became the preferred solution, but it took six years to gain funding. Production of the
497:
was disbanded in March 1955, but during the 1960s and 1970s the RAF's Fighter Command operated long-range air-defence missiles to protect key areas in the UK. During World War II, the
1279:
to point themselves at high speeds. Operators simply fed the guns and selected the targets. This system, modern even by today's standards, was in late development when the war ended.
996:
began in 1937; this gun was used on mobile carriages with the field army and transportable guns on fixed mountings for static positions. At the same time the Royal Navy adopted a new
925:
Centralised control of fire on each gun position, directed by tachymetric instruments incorporating the facility to apply corrections of the moment for meteorological and wear factors
314:
Initially sensors were optical and acoustic devices developed during World War I and continued into the 1930s, but were quickly superseded by radar, which in turn was supplemented by
501:
also provided air defence units; formally part of the mobile naval base defence organisation, they were handled as an integral part of the army-commanded ground based air defences.
462:. Many other nations also deploy an air-defence branch in the army. Some, such as Japan or Israel, choose to integrate their ground based air defence systems into their air force.
429:
While navies are usually responsible for their own air defence—at least for ships at sea—organisational arrangements for land-based air defence vary between nations and over time.
3350:
2203:, which is smaller, faster, and allows for mid-flight course correction (guidance) to ensure a hit. To bridge the gap between guns and missiles, Russia in particular produces the
4645:
History of the Ministry of Munitions. 1922. Volume X The Supply of Munitions, Part VI Anti-Aircraft Supplies. Reprinted by Naval & Military Press Ltd and Imperial War Museum.
1092:- was introduced first to deal with low-level or dive bombing attacks on smaller targets such as airfields. The three-inch was in development at the end of the inter-war period.
96:
Most modern anti-aircraft (AA) weapons systems are optimized for short-, medium-, or long-range air defence, although some systems may incorporate multiple weapons (such as both
5060:
1612:
and other tidal areas upon which they based guns. After the war most were left to rot. Some were outside territorial waters, and had a second life in the 1960s as platforms for
4021:
2638:
On a national level the United States Army was atypical in that it was primarily responsible for the missile air defences of the Continental United States with systems such as
1988:
and 40 mm calibre have been widely used in this role. Smaller weapons, typically .50 calibre or even 8 mm rifle calibre guns have been used in the smallest mounts.
5206:
1486:, and were subsequently mounted on many types of ships as the need for anti-aircraft protection was recognized. During World War II, they were the primary gun armament on
2098:
to provide tactical and operational warning and direction, primarily during defensive operations. In their functional roles they provide target search, threat detection,
3937:
1188:
Poland's AA defences were no match for the German attack, and the situation was similar in other European countries. Significant AAW (Anti-Air Warfare) started with the
4393:
2083:. Invariably the type is differentiated from other fighter aircraft designs by higher speeds and shorter operating ranges, as well as much reduced ordnance payloads.
3994:
4116:
605:
751:(RGA) was given responsibility for AA defence in the field, using motorised two-gun sections. The first were formally formed in November 1914. Initially they used
3402:
2304:; if true, this would represent the first known time a vehicle mounted combat laser was used to destroy another combat vehicle during genuine wartime conditions.
5150:
5035:
4998:
1297:
1050:
realised that there was still a coverage gap between 3.7 cm and 8.8 cm guns. They started development of a 5 cm gun on a four-wheel carriage.
779:
was issued in 1915. It remained in service throughout the war but 18-pdr guns were lined down to take the 13-pdr shell with a larger cartridge producing the
219:(AAAD) is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops. Other terms from the late 20th century include "ground based air defence" (GBAD) with related terms "
2464:
aircraft are significant threats. The subsurface launched anti-air missile was first purposed by US Navy Rear Admiral Charles B. Momsen, in a 1953 article.
2199:
for last ditch anti-missile and anti-aircraft defence. Even this formerly front-line weapon is currently being replaced by new missile systems, such as the
5135:
5105:
5055:
5002:
1263:, the gun proved to be one of the best anti-aircraft guns in the world, as well as particularly deadly against light, medium, and even early heavy tanks.
5170:
5155:
5145:
5115:
5070:
3960:
2075:
were built in the period starting after the end of World War II and ending in the late 1960s, when they became less important due to the shifting of the
1792:. In Europe NATO's Allied Command Europe developed an integrated air defence system, NATO Air Defence Ground Environment (NADGE), that later became the
5160:
5085:
5065:
5045:
3372:
4431:
1036:, it was adopted by some 17 different nations just before World War II and is still in use today in some applications such as on coastguard frigates.
831:
angles and height lines overlaid with fuse length curves, using the height reported by the HRF operator, the necessary fuse length could be read off.
667:
in 1911 to meet the perceived threat of airships, that eventually was used as the basis for the US Navy's first operational anti-aircraft cannon: the
5165:
5140:
5095:
5080:
2430:
are especially well defended, as not only do they typically consist of many vessels with heavy air defence armament but they are also able to launch
1721:
1255:, but the specifications were later amended to require much higher performance. In response Krupp's engineers presented a new 88 mm design, the
5125:
4203:
1901:
province, after it had attacked an Iranian target in Syria. In 2006, Israel also lost a helicopter over Lebanon, shot down by a Hezbollah rocket.
1275:, which calculated the aim point for the guns after considering windage and ballistics, and then sent electrical commands to the guns, which used
1076:, which appears to have been copied from the Bofors 40 mm. A Bofors 25 mm, essentially a scaled down 40 mm, was also copied as the
4833:
4642:
Handbook for the Ordnance, Q.F. 3.7-inch Mark II on Mounting, 3.7-inch A.A. Mark II – Land Service. 1940. London: War Office 26|Manuals|2494
4080:
1358:
A plethora of anti-aircraft gun systems of smaller calibre was available to the German Wehrmacht combined forces, and among them the 1940-origin
4180:
818:
The British dealt with range measurement first, when it was realised that range was the key to producing a better fuse setting. This led to the
443:
the Strategic Air defence Service responsible for Air Defence of the Homeland, created in 1941 and becoming an independent service in 1954, and
5319:
5216:
5110:
2028:
before being engaged. The developments in the latest and relatively cheap short-range missiles have begun to replace autocannons in this role.
409:
to illuminate aircraft at night for both gun-layers and optical instrument operators. During World War II searchlights became radar controlled.
1980:) to explode close to the airborne target, releasing a shower of fast metal fragments. For shorter-range work, a lighter weapon with a higher
1665:
400:
to deter and threaten aircraft flying below the height of the balloons, where they are susceptible to damaging collisions with steel tethers.
65:
and includes "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action". It encompasses surface-based, subsurface (
787:
The first issue was ammunition. Before the war it was recognised that ammunition needed to explode in the air. Both high explosive (HE) and
4552:
Checkland, Peter and Holwell, Sue. 1998. "Information, Systems and Information Systems – making sense of the field". Chichester: Wiley
3757:
1077:
1073:
908:
during the war and accumulated large amounts of data that was subjected to extensive analysis. As a result, they published the two-volume
325:
Rules of engagement are critical to prevent air defences engaging friendly or neutral aircraft. Their use is assisted but not governed by
5640:
4254:
4150:
3342:
2866:
capabilities and the ability to shoot down anti-radiation missiles and other munitions aimed at them or the targets they are defending.
69:), and air-based weapon systems, in addition to associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements, and passive measures (e.g.
4941:
4681:
1914 1918 war in Alsace – The Battle of Linge 1915 – The 63rd Anti Aircraft Regiment in 14 18 – The 96th poste semi-fixed in the Vosges
3016:
2911:
is to attempt to destroy them on the ground, either by penetrating an airbase perimeter and destroying aircraft individually, e.g. the
1436:
Mated with the Mark 37 director and the proximity fuse it could routinely knock drones out of the sky at ranges as far as 13,000 yards.
1709:
balloons were limited in application, and had minimal success at bringing down aircraft, being largely immobile and passive defences.
274:: Противовозду́шная оборо́на), a literal translation of 'anti-air defence', abbreviated as PVO. In Russian, the AA systems are called
5251:
5221:
4823:
4017:
2411:
Smaller boats and ships typically have machine-guns or fast cannons, which can often be deadly to low-flying aircraft if linked to a
1379:
machine gun atop a tank's turret, as four of the ground-used "heavy barrel" (M2HB) guns were mounted together on the American Maxson
1041:
4686:
4229:
4848:
1933:
3270:
Essential Militaria: Facts, Legends, and Curiosities About Warfare Through the Ages, Nicholas Hobbs, Atlantic Monthly Press 2004,
2155:
at close range, and for smaller drones, training eagles to snatch them from the air. This only works on relatively small UAVs and
1235:
1232:
started being emplaced in some permanent sites around London. This gun was also deployed in dual-role coast defence/AA positions.
4971:
4324:
4047:
3820:
2513:, with a range of up to 30 nmi. Finally, virtually every modern warship will be fitted with small-calibre guns, including a
1592:, on which they placed anti-aircraft artillery. Those in cities attacked by the Allied land forces became fortresses. Several in
3846:
1359:
5090:
2915:, or finding a position where aircraft can be engaged with indirect fire, such as mortars. A recent trend emerging during the
2746:
2556:
2446:
1153:
52:
3933:
93:
is an extension of air defence, as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight.
5175:
4901:
4287:
2127:
3055:
2008:, though no working system was deployed before the war's end, and represented new attempts to increase effectiveness of the
1433:
rounded out the US Navy's AA suite. A dual purpose mount, it was used in both the surface and AA roles with great success.
1368:-based anti-aircraft weapon system was one of the most often-seen weapons, seeing service on both land and sea. The similar
1088:" as they were called, could be used for anti-aircraft barrages. A two-inch rocket using HE or wire obstacle warheads - the
695:
4808:
2141:
2024:, then tracked before/while a SAM is "locked-on" and then fired. Potential targets, if they are military aircraft, will be
1218:
738:
The British recognised the need for anti-aircraft capability a few weeks before World War I broke out; on 8 July 1914, the
458:
that provides ground-based air defence for both homeland and the army in the field; however, it is operationally under the
3990:
3041:
2334:
Most Western and Commonwealth militaries integrate air defence purely with the traditional services of the military (i.e.
1647:, and were also fitted to warships. The firing of one of these devices during an air raid is suspected to have caused the
5276:
5266:
4106:
3887:
2952:
2242:
1613:
459:
4489:
1001:
giving 43 seconds was nearing readiness. In 1939 a machine fuse setter was introduced to eliminate manual fuse setting.
624:
439:, and had both fighter aircraft, separate from the air force, and ground-based systems. This was divided into two arms,
5231:
3398:
2957:
2494:
2370:
2036:
1793:
1225:
997:
905:
17:
846:" from the shells in flight. This gun had five barrels that quickly launched a series of 37 mm artillery shells.
4726:
4633:
4614:
4592:
4582:
4565:
4358:
3275:
3162:
2863:
2846:
2772:
2582:
1175:
298:
approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation".
2754:
2564:
799:
German air attacks on the British Isles increased in 1915 and the AA efforts were deemed somewhat ineffective, so a
5246:
5241:
4752:
2912:
2620:
2200:
1922:
1704:
to act as physical obstacle initially to bomber aircraft over cities and later for ground attack aircraft over the
447:
Air Defence of the Ground Forces. Subsequently, these became part of the air force and ground forces respectively.
1053:
After World War I the US Army started developing a dual-role (AA/ground) automatic 37 mm cannon, designed by
489:'s operating bases in the UK. All ground-based air defence was removed from Royal Air Force (RAF) jurisdiction in
5633:
4866:
4803:
2596:
2145:
1823:
1523:
to provide better anti-aircraft protection. The gun was also used on specialist destroyer conversions; the "AVD"
1392:
1205:
1033:
224:
195:
used by the British for voice transmission of "AA"); and "archie" (a World War I British term probably coined by
416:
created by large smoke canisters on the ground to screen targets and prevent accurate weapon aiming by aircraft.
5756:
5471:
3258:
2750:
2560:
1835:
mounted on armoured cars and tank chassis. These started replacing, or at least supplanting, similar gun-based
1820:
1224:
While the 3.7-inch was the main HAA gun in fixed defences and the only mobile HAA gun with the field army, the
1157:
481:
was formed to protect airfields everywhere, and this included light air defences. In the later decades of the
4858:
2947:
1859:
missile system was the primary GBAD system, used by both British artillery and RAF regiment, a few brand-new
744:
4438:
3376:
2445:
in the defence of its Home islands, and the United States also uses its Aegis-equipped ships as part of its
5476:
5027:
2799:
2060:
2025:
1816:
550:
455:
326:
171:
4656:
I templi incompiuti di Hitler", catalogo della mostra omonima, Milano, Spazio Guicciardini, 17.2-13.3.2009
4775:
2655:
2329:
1648:
1632:
1312:
575:
513:
was part of ADGB. At its peak in 1941–42 it comprised three AA corps with 12 AA divisions between them.
5761:
5626:
5589:
5481:
5201:
5196:
4989:
4674:
2889:
2858:
2280:
2166:
2040:
776:
39:
4070:
2472:
1712:
The Allies' most advanced technologies were showcased by the anti-aircraft defence against the German
969:
put into use in 1940 was capable of providing data suitable for controlling AA guns, and the British
4463:
4172:
2888:(RPGs) can be—and often are—used against hovering helicopters (e.g., by Somali militiamen during the
2885:
2359:
2312:
2295:
2208:
2091:
731:
in 1912. This was the first occasion in military history that a military aircraft was shot down with
435:
2272:, which is claimed to be able to detect a target with a 0.05-square metre RCS from 90 km away.
1561:
928:
More accurate sound-location for the direction of searchlights and to provide plots for barrage fire
392:
Air defence has included other elements, although after the Second World War most fell into disuse:
5766:
5516:
5339:
4770:
4765:
4694:
2854:
2735:
2545:
945:
748:
747:(RNVR) was manning AA guns and searchlights assembled from various sources at some nine ports. The
653:
590:
541:
The earliest known use of weapons specifically made for the anti-aircraft role occurred during the
528:
403:
Cables strung across valleys, sometimes forming a "curtain" with vertical cables hanging from them.
35:
2932:
2785:
2441:
Nations such as Japan use their SAM-equipped vessels to create an outer air defence perimeter and
178:
command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called "anti-aircraft", abbreviated as
4790:
4760:
2739:
2691:
2549:
2485:
2301:
2163:
can be (and frequently are) shot down like manned aircraft of similar sizes and flight profiles.
2137:
2072:
1996:
1621:
1517:
1439:
1373:
1240:
1196:
provided the backbone of the ground-based AA defences, although initially significant numbers of
1146:
827:
486:
220:
101:
3749:
2099:
1847:, the Argentine armed forces deployed the newest west European weapons including the 35 mm
900:
Demobilisation meant that most AA guns were taken out of service, leaving only the most modern.
5429:
4574:
Gander, T 2014. "The Bofors gun", 3rd edn. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military.
2850:
2514:
2502:
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2287:
1950:
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reduced capability to shoot down jet powered aircraft, and turned to SAM development, with the
1511:
1455:
1403:
1369:
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1017:
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to be generally halted, although equipment was retained. Furthermore, in Britain the volunteer
855:
240:
228:
120:
4261:
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1578:
370:
Accompanying defence, specialist air defence elements accompanying armoured or infantry units.
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5359:
4780:
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4138:
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1992:
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319:
236:
31:
3013:
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conversions received three guns, and those retaining destroyer classification received six.
1507:
668:
4798:
4508:
2501:. If an attacker is able to penetrate this layer, then the next layers would come from the
2427:
2367:
2311:. Currently tests are underway on developing systems that could create as much damage as a
2238:
1676:. Guided systems were several sophisticated radio, wire, or radar guided missiles like the
1528:
1085:
1046:
977:
961:
752:
664:
657:
3399:"Radoje Raka Ljutovac – first person in the world to shoot down an airplane with a cannon"
1247:
Germany's high-altitude needs were originally going to be filled by a 75 mm gun from
956:; these developments were sufficiently advanced by the late 1930s for development work on
373:
Point defence around a key target, such as a bridge, critical government building or ship.
8:
5409:
2521:
of between 20 mm and 30 mm calibre capable of firing several thousand rounds per minute.
2423:
2416:
2246:
2234:
2095:
1973:
1475:
1201:
1200:
were also used. The Army's Anti-aircraft command, which was under operational command of
859:
780:
542:
2877:
supplied by the United States were used against the aircraft of the Soviet Union by the
2207:, which uses both guns and missiles for final defence with two six-barrelled 30 mm
5414:
5374:
5344:
4743:
4549:
Bethel, Colonel HA. 1911. "Modern Artillery in the Field". London: Macmillan and Co Ltd
2896:
2671:
2453:
2229:
grows, so does anti-stealth technology. Multiple transmitter radars such as those from
2226:
2156:
2064:
2044:
1965:
1941:
1880:
1864:
1726:
1499:
1425:
1344:
1267:
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1021:
993:
936:
In 1925 the British adopted a new instrument developed by Vickers. It was a mechanical
870:
854:
based weapons mounted on poles. These short-range weapons proved more deadly, and the "
554:
451:
200:
128:
4577:
Hogg, Ian V. 1998. "Allied Artillery of World War Two". Malborough: The Crowood Press
4043:
3816:
2650:
2020:
many armed forces. Targets for non-ManPAD SAMs will usually be acquired by air-search
1984:
is required, to increase a hit probability on a fast airborne target. Weapons between
5649:
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5466:
5461:
5394:
5369:
4994:
4629:
4610:
4588:
4587:
Hogg, Ian V. 1998. "Allied Artillery of World War One" Malborough: The Crowood Press
4578:
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957:
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military structure. For example, the UK's Anti-Aircraft Command, commanded by a full
192:
1883:
short range systems. Machine guns in AA mountings were used both ashore and afloat.
1775:
considerably altered the acceptability of even a single bomber reaching its target.
966:
569:— on top of a horse-drawn carriage for the purpose of shooting down these balloons.
5607:
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330:
86:
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Smith, Saphora; Kube, Courtney; Gubash, Charlene; Gains, Mosheh (21 August 2019).
3023:
OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (accessed 14 September 2013).
762:
687:
5725:
5705:
5700:
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4626:
History of the Royal regiment of Artillery – Anti-Aircraft Artillery 1914–55
4606:
3059:
3020:
2835:
2699:
2682:
Area air defence, the air defence of a specific area or location, (as opposed to
2616:
2506:
2477:
2347:
2265:
2188:
2111:
2056:
1949:
opportunities, and critical systems may be armoured in aircraft designed for the
1937:
1909:
1785:
1744:
1713:
1701:
1524:
986:
982:
937:
723:
699:
A French anti-aircraft motor battery (motorized AAA battery) that brought down a
546:
315:
232:
175:
90:
70:
2237:
are said to have the capabilities to detect stealth aircraft. Advanced forms of
775:
adopted the 13-pounder quickly producing new mountings suitable for AA use, the
5735:
5551:
5506:
5496:
5456:
3033:
2874:
2811:
2659:
2604:
2509:, with a range of up to 100 nmi, and the point-defence missiles, like the
2400:
2381:
2245:
would be able to optically see a stealth aircraft regardless of the aircraft's
2230:
2103:
2031:
1977:
1860:
1805:
1780:
1736:
1685:
1609:
1601:
1491:
1328:
970:
788:
720:
534:
Turks carried out the first ever anti-airplane operation in history during the
85:
in any location. However, for most countries, the main effort has tended to be
62:
4668:
3877:
2822:
865:
766:
A Maxim anti-aircraft machine gun in the anti-aircraft museum in Finland, 2006
531:
to be disbanded mid-war. The Confederates experimented with balloons as well.
66:
5750:
5584:
5574:
5521:
5444:
5424:
5286:
4075:
2937:
2695:
2683:
2624:
2612:
2355:
2298:
2284:
2192:
2160:
2115:
2009:
1985:
1898:
1844:
1740:
1656:
1566:
1542:
1415:
1380:
1354:
US coast guardsmen in the South Pacific man a 20 mm anti-aircraft cannon
1054:
916:
Shells of improved ballistic shape with HE fillings and mechanical time fuses
843:
732:
498:
384:
355:: weapons may only be fired in self-defence or in response to a formal order.
124:
3230:
Spring 2007 issue of the American Association of Aviation Historians Journal
3172:
2187:
Guns are being increasingly pushed into specialist roles, such as the Dutch
2055:
designed specifically to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft, particularly
1478:
guns (Marks 10, 17, 18, and 20) first entered service in 1915 as a refit to
1410:
AAA battalions were also used to help suppress ground targets. Their larger
5720:
5680:
5579:
5526:
5486:
5439:
2639:
2510:
2442:
2351:
2204:
2094:
waves to identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of aircraft and
2001:
1981:
1926:
1848:
1801:
1772:
1669:
1660:
1551:
1411:
1102:
1058:
1028:
772:
712:
553:
and French troops outside the city started an attempt at communication via
478:
474:
413:
343:: weapons may be fired at any target not positively recognised as friendly.
208:
196:
112:
108:
2460:, are equipped with surface-to-air missile systems, since helicopters and
1027:
The 40 mm Bofors had become available in 1931. In the late 1920s the
5730:
5690:
5685:
5419:
5404:
4598:
3152:
2826:
2807:
2667:
2611:
at smaller force levels up to army-level missile defence systems such as
2518:
2505:
carried by the carrier's escorts; the area-defence missiles, such as the
2457:
2431:
2404:
2290:(DEW) system is a Turkish dual electromagnetic/laser weapon developed by
2269:
2218:
Upsetting this development to all-missile systems is the current move to
2196:
1760:
1655:
attacks the British and US developed surface-to-air rockets like British
1617:
851:
839:
804:
470:
406:
380:
183:
97:
1755:
1398:
679:
51:
Artist's rendition of short and long range AA systems used by the Dutch
2942:
2790:
2171:
2005:
1954:
1732:
1678:
1589:
1573:
1547:
1388:
1365:
1340:
1214:
1160: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
800:
716:
466:
231:, ("SAMs") and surface-to-air guided weapons (SAGWs). Examples are the
204:
4688:
Archie to SAM: A Short Operational History of Ground-Based Air Defense
4018:"Pilot of downed F-16 jet regains consciousness, taken off respirator"
1819:
fireteam practices using a rocket target with a training variant of a
973:, was designed to be used on AA gun positions and was in use by 1939.
912:
in 1924–1925. It included five key recommendations for HAA equipment:
127:
or, in very modern systems, surface-to-air adaptations of short-range
5665:
5379:
2608:
2354:
for instance, air defence is part of the artillery arm, while in the
2343:
2253:
1958:
1918:
1897:
In February 2018, an Israeli F-16 fighter was downed in the occupied
1640:
1605:
1532:
1503:
1276:
1256:
1089:
892:
756:
82:
5618:
2724:
2534:
1135:
949:
existing ones, although various new designs were on drawing boards.
663:
The first US anti-aircraft cannon was a 1-pounder concept design by
5185:
4394:"What it takes to successfully attack an American Aircraft carrier"
3739:
Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 1642
3730:
Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 1617
2793:
can engage targets while moving, thus achieving high survivability.
2703:
2632:
2291:
2257:
2151:
Alternative approaches for dealing with UAVs have included using a
1868:
1811:
1652:
1462:
1304:
793:
700:
482:
377:
271:
4699:
3721:
Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 271
3709:
Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 266
3700:
Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 242
1968:
fired by these weapons are usually fitted with different types of
1635:
bomber emerges from a cloud of flak with its No. 2 engine smoking.
1596:
were some of the last buildings to fall to the Soviets during the
1350:
1204:
within Air Defence GB, grew to 12 AA divisions in three AA corps.
5710:
5695:
5569:
5541:
5536:
5451:
4520:
3882:
2481:
2407:, which can be fired from submerged anti-aircraft weapon systems
2316:
2308:
2250:
2152:
1890:
air power faced off against powerful SAM systems, like the 1980s
1764:
1673:
1376:
1012:
2 lb HE shell. The following year they decided to adopt the
637:
2841:
Israel and the US Air Force, in conjunction with the members of
2215:
surface-to-air missiles provide for its defensive capabilities.
367:
Self-defence by ground forces using their organic weapons, AAAD.
336:
NATO calls these rules "weapon control orders" (WCO), they are:
182:, a term that remained in general use into the 1950s. After the
47:
4735:
2600:
2386:
2013:
1940:
CS/AA3 35 mm twin anti-aircraft gun system along with its FW-2
1891:
1789:
1593:
1555:
1332:
1252:
981:
but ballistic performance was unchanged. In the late 1930s the
279:
3991:"Israeli jet crashes after attacking Iranian targets in Syria"
2051:
The interceptor aircraft (or simply interceptor) is a type of
1944:
system behind. CS/AA3 is a Chinese variant of the Oerlikon GDF
1863:
were used by British special forces. Both sides also used the
1739:. Incoming targets were acquired and automatically tracked by
2884:
during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in the Cold War.
2817:
2803:
2412:
2276:
2275:
Another potential weapon system for anti-aircraft use is the
2261:
2212:
2087:
2021:
1836:
1309:
1287:
1272:
1248:
1210:
1109:
The United States was still emerging from the effects of the
558:
349:: weapons may be fired only at targets recognised as hostile.
74:
4543:
The Red God of War – Soviet Artillery and Rocket Forces
4348:
3212:
2283:
can be used in the anti-aircraft and anti-missile role. The
1627:
5715:
5670:
3961:"Israeli jet shot down after bombing Iranian site in Syria"
2920:
2899:
in March 2002 in Afghanistan. Taliban insurgents defending
2842:
2395:
2363:
2339:
2335:
2307:
The future of projectile based weapons may be found in the
2080:
1251:, designed in collaboration with their Swedish counterpart
1115:
490:
78:
4704:
4044:"Syria shoots down Israeli warplane as conflict escalates"
3534:
3512:
3510:
3474:
3462:
2595:
Armies typically have air defence in depth, from integral
2128:
Unmanned aerial vehicle § Counter unmanned air system
329:(IFF) electronic devices originally introduced during the
107:
In some countries, such as Britain and Germany during the
4230:"U.S. military drone shot down over Yemen, officials say"
3934:"Israeli F-16 jet shot down by Syria fire, says military"
3909:
Cruise Missile Defence: Defending Antwerp against the V-1
3450:
3306:
3304:
2159:(also called "suicide drones"). Larger UCAVs such as the
1957:, originally intended for air-to-ground use, and heavier
1921:. The Gepard is an autonomous all-weather-capable German
1672:(literally "aircraft fist") rocket launcher as the first
858:" is believed to have been shot down by an anti-aircraft
4325:"Did A Turkish Combat Laser Shoot Down A Chinese Drone?"
3132:
2366:
also had a separate strategic rocket force in charge of
2047:(formerly Petrograd, now called St. Petersburg) in 1941.
4695:
Japanese Anti-aircraft land/vessel doctrines in 1943–44
4679:
3679:
3621:
3609:
3597:
3558:
3522:
3507:
3495:
2690:
in the British Army, for instance) and Air Forces (the
2063:
capabilities. A number of jet interceptors such as the
2004:
during the late World War II with missiles such as the
1700:
Another aspect of anti-aircraft defence was the use of
1576:, some more than six stories high, which were known as
227:(MANPADS). Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called
4107:"What's Really the Best the Way to Take Down a Drone?"
3429:
3417:
3301:
3289:
3191:
2315:, but at a fraction of the cost. In February 2008 the
2249:(RCS). In addition, side-looking radars, high-powered
363:
Ground-based air defence is deployed in several ways:
4139:"AUDS Counter UAV System by Blighter spoted [
3959:
Lubell, Maayan; Barrington, Lisa (10 February 2018).
3179:
3074:
2895:
Another example of using RPGs against helicopters is
246:
Non-English terms for air defence include the German
131:, often combined in one system with rotary cannons).
4227:
3788:
Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No.245, pp. 54–60.
2706:, where the objective was to cover populated areas.
2627:
or all-in-one surface-to-air missile platforms like
869:
The No. 1 Mark III Predictor that was used with the
792:
British pom-poms had only contact-fused ammunition.
561:
mounted a modified 1-pounder (37 mm) gun – the
4691:
by Kenneth P. Werrell (book available for download)
3154:
Heavy water and the wartime race for nuclear energy
3058:. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Archived from
2686:), have historically been operated by both armies (
2666:Air defence by air forces is typically provided by
2039:anti-aircraft guns deployed in the neighborhood of
1743:,. Output from the gun-laying radar was fed to the
691:
A Canadian anti-aircraft unit of 1918 "taking post"
3817:"USA 1.1"/75 (28 mm) Mark 1 and Mark 2 - NavWeaps"
3546:
1643:and 3-inch, which was fired in large numbers from
1600:in 1945. The British built structures such as the
1572:The Germans developed massive reinforced-concrete
30:Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see
4204:"Air Force: Lost Predator was shot down in Syria"
2449:in the defence of the Continental United States.
2438:overhead to intercept incoming airborne threats.
5748:
4373:
3958:
3878:"Le Grand Veneur Keerbergen operation Antwerp X"
3648:
3322:
3110:
3038:Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation
2136:(AUDS) is a system for defence against military
4700:2nd/3rd Australian Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment
4351:The Modern Weaponry of the World's Armed Forces
3651:"Uncle Sam's Latest Weapons For War in the Air"
3343:"How was the first military airplane shot down"
3113:"Huge Ear Locates Planes and Tells Their Speed"
922:Height finding by long-base optical instruments
3936:. aljazeera.com. Aljazeera. 10 February 2018.
3923:, R.J. Backus, LTC, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1971
3921:The Defense of Antwerp Against the V-1 Missile
2623:(SPAAGs), integrated air-defence systems like
1024:was officially known, was introduced with it.
881:Shooting with anti-aircraft gun in Sweden 1934
711:On the 30th of September, 1915, troops of the
683:1909 vintage Krupp 9-pounder anti-aircraft gun
5634:
4720:
3717:
3715:
3696:
3694:
1616:stations, while another became the base of a
1387:), which were often mounted on the back of a
630:20 mm Becker-Oerlikon Model 1917 AA-gun
282:') systems. In French, air defence is called
3993:. france24.com. France24. 10 February 2018.
3867:Silverstone 1968 pp. 112, 212, 215, 276, 303
2907:For insurgents the most effective method of
1343:, in the form of a mechanical computer, the
4650:I bunker di Vienna", Abitare 2/2006, Milano
4464:"Investigation Confirms RPG Downed Chinook"
2753:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2563:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
919:Higher rates of fire assisted by automation
258:, 'aircraft defence cannon', also cited as
5641:
5627:
4727:
4713:
4285:
4100:
4098:
4020:. timesofisrael.com. The times of Israel.
3712:
3691:
2818:Air defence versus air defence suppression
715:observed three enemy aircraft approaching
4623:
4201:
4104:
4015:
3685:
3540:
3528:
3516:
3501:
3480:
3468:
3456:
3435:
3423:
3310:
3295:
3218:
3138:
2845:, have developed significant tactics for
2773:Learn how and when to remove this message
2583:Learn how and when to remove this message
1527:conversions received two guns; the "APD"
1243:flak gun in action against Allied bombers
1176:Learn how and when to remove this message
660:that could be used in various mountings.
658:Vickers 1-pounder quick firing "pom-poms"
4555:
4376:"Will the New Submarines Rule the Seas?"
4173:"Blighter® AUDS Anti-UAV Defence System"
4068:
3843:"USA 5"/38 (12.7 cm) Mark 12 - NavWeaps"
2821:
2784:
2649:
2471:
2394:
2380:
2165:
2030:
1932:
1908:
1810:
1754:
1684:
1626:
1560:
1541:
1438:
1397:
1349:
1322:
1303:
1281:
1234:
876:
864:
761:
694:
686:
678:
469:for air defence of the British Isles in
46:
4540:
4095:
4046:. bbc.com. BBC News. 10 February 2018.
3760:from the original on 17 September 2018.
3197:
3185:
3080:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2992:
1867:. British naval missiles used included
1651:in 1943. Facing the threat of Japanese
170:was probably first used by the UK when
14:
5749:
4558:Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns & Gunnery
4502:
3849:from the original on 28 September 2017
3823:from the original on 30 September 2018
2517:, which is usually a radar-controlled
2467:
2447:Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System
2182:
1917:in motion at the 2015 Military Day in
1830:, Alaska, as part of Red Flag – Alaska
301:
211:'s line "Archibald, certainly not!").
53:Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command
27:Measures to combat enemy aerial forces
5648:
5622:
4708:
4349:Col. Y Udaya Chandar (Retd.) (2017).
4083:from the original on 14 December 2016
4071:"Lasers Technology Targets Mini-UAVs"
4024:from the original on 13 February 2018
3997:from the original on 18 December 2018
3890:from the original on 15 November 2016
2980:
2422:for point defence. Some vessels like
1904:
1315:hit by flak over Italy, 10 April 1945
1064:The USSR introduced a new 76 mm
952:From the early 1930s eight countries
4597:
4490:"ODIN - OE Data Integration Network"
4322:
3627:
3615:
3603:
3564:
3552:
3261:, Greenwood Publishing Group, page 9
3150:
2989:
2869:
2810:between the US and Vietnam with the
2751:adding citations to reliable sources
2718:
2561:adding citations to reliable sources
2528:
2480:surface to air missile intercepts a
2452:Some modern submarines, such as the
2121:
2059:, usually relying on high speed and
1763:anti-aircraft missile, fired from a
1271:including both search and targeting
1158:adding citations to reliable sources
1129:
4537:AAP-6 NATO Glossary of Terms. 2009.
4382:. Hearst Magazines. pp. 74–78.
4279:
3405:from the original on 12 August 2015
3353:from the original on 31 August 2015
3253:James D. Crabtree: On air defense,
2953:Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon
2702:missile batteries during the first
2677:
2371:intercontinental ballistic missiles
2323:
1125:
460:Joint Force Air Component Commander
24:
4323:Peck, Michael (1 September 2019).
4183:from the original on 12 March 2017
4153:from the original on 15 March 2017
4119:from the original on 13 March 2017
4036:
4009:
3983:
3952:
3926:
3649:Hearst Magazines (December 1931).
3447:The Ministry of Munitions pg 40–41
3323:Hearst Magazines (December 1911).
3157:. Bristol : Institute of Physics.
3111:Hearst Magazines (December 1930).
3044:from the original on 3 March 2009.
2958:The bomber will always get through
1794:NATO Integrated Air Defence System
1383:weapon (as a direct answer to the
906:Anti-Aircraft Experimental Section
674:
25:
5778:
4662:
4624:Routledge, Brigadier NW. (1994).
4603:German Artillery of World War Two
4202:Everstine, Brian (29 June 2015).
4050:from the original on 6 April 2019
3971:from the original on 3 March 2019
3806:Friedman, 2014 Location 8956-8620
2621:self-propelled anti-aircraft guns
2294:allegedly used to destroy one of
1993:40 mm autocannon from Bofors
1565:A British North Sea World War II
1406:in an anti-aircraft mount in 1941
1259:. First used in Spain during the
910:Textbook of Anti-Aircraft Gunnery
885:
822:(HRF), the first model being the
284:Défense contre les aéronefs (DCA)
199:, and believed to derive via the
5603:
5602:
4654:Flavia Foradini, Edoardo Conte:
4374:Hearst Magazines (August 1953).
4105:Schechter, Erik (5 April 2016).
3940:from the original on 21 May 2019
3657:. Hearst Magazines. p. 944.
3375:. Amanet Society. Archived from
3331:. Hearst Magazines. p. 776.
3119:. Hearst Magazines. p. 895.
2913:September 2012 Camp Bastion raid
2723:
2597:man-portable air-defense systems
2533:
2350:or as part of artillery. In the
2201:RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile
1923:self-propelled anti-aircraft gun
1804:after the introduction of their
1668:. Unguided systems involved the
1134:
1095:
623:
604:
589:
574:
4496:
4482:
4456:
4424:
4399:
4386:
4367:
4342:
4316:
4247:
4221:
4195:
4165:
4131:
4069:Sweetman, Bill (2 April 2015).
4062:
3914:
3902:
3870:
3861:
3835:
3809:
3800:
3791:
3782:
3773:
3764:
3742:
3733:
3724:
3703:
3670:
3661:
3642:
3633:
3588:
3579:
3570:
3492:The Ministry of Munitions pg 11
3486:
3441:
3391:
3365:
3335:
3316:
3280:
3264:
3247:
3233:
3224:
3203:
3144:
3123:
3092:le petit Larousse 2013 p20–p306
2241:such as those that incorporate
2012:faced with growing threat from
1393:M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage
1145:needs additional citations for
958:sound-locating acoustic devices
521:
424:
225:man-portable air-defense system
4016:Toi Staff (11 February 2018).
3104:
3095:
3086:
3048:
3026:
3007:
2974:
2178:are advanced air defence ships
2118:support to combat operations.
1953:. Adaptations of the standard
1716:cruise missiles (V stands for
828:optical coincident rangefinder
134:
13:
1:
4503:Kaaman, Hugo (18 May 2018).
4432:"Operation Anaconda Overview"
3325:"New American Aerial Weapons"
3129:Checkland and Holwell pg. 127
3034:"Air Vice-Marshal A E Borton"
2963:
2948:List of anti-aircraft weapons
2923:against landing helicopters.
2800:transporter/erector/launchers
2390:CIWS (close-in weapon system)
745:Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
703:near Paris. From the journal
73:). It may be used to protect
4396:. Lexington Institute. p. 15
4286:Carlo Kopp (November 2003).
3797:Friedman, 2014 Location 8620
3779:Friedman, 2014 Location 8713
3770:Friedman, 2014 Location 8687
3401:. Pečat. 30 September 2014.
2968:
2849:. Dedicated weapons such as
2645:
1849:Oerlikon GDF-002 twin cannon
803:gunnery expert, Admiral Sir
755:(37 mm versions of the
565:(Balloon defence cannon) or
456:Air Defense Artillery Branch
327:identification friend or foe
172:Air Defence of Great Britain
7:
5017:National Revolutionary Army
4734:
3911:, Lt. Col. John A. Hamilton
2926:
2714:
2497:aircraft combined with the
2330:Category:Air defence forces
2146:Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)
2026:identified as friend or foe
1997:8.8 cm FlaK 18, 36 gun
1750:
1666:guided and unguided systems
1313:Consolidated B-24 Liberator
777:13-pdr QF 6 cwt Mk III
237:Raytheon Standard Missile 6
10:
5783:
4829:War of the Triple Alliance
4530:
4407:"Stacked Up Over Anaconda"
3667:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 127–130
3639:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 115–117
3594:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 108–110
3585:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 114–119
2859:electronic countermeasures
2709:
2327:
2281:Tactical High Energy Laser
2125:
1286:German soldier manning an
998:4.5-inch (113 mm) gun
873:was a mechanical computer.
516:
450:At the other extreme, the
268:Protivovozdushnaya oborona
40:Anti-Aircraft (video game)
29:
5656:
5598:
5562:
5332:
5285:
5184:
5026:
4980:
4857:
4849:Pre-20th century firearms
4789:
4751:
4742:
4556:Friedman, Norman (2014).
4255:"Anti-Stealth Technology"
3576:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 97–107
3019:24 September 2015 at the
2886:Rocket-propelled grenades
2829:under the fuselage ofn a
2256:, and sky-scanning, high-
1690:Flak in the Balkans, 1942
1510:(Mark 9) on "flush-deck"
1290:anti-aircraft gun in WWII
1116:High Angle Control System
1018:twin barrel Vickers 2-pdr
971:Radar, Gun Laying, Mark I
614:on the Prussian corvette
5237:Cambodian–Vietnamese War
5227:South African Border War
5009:Second Sino-Japanese War
2983:A Dictionary of Aviation
2981:Wragg, David W. (1973).
2890:1993 Battle of Mogadishu
2855:electronics intelligence
2195:30 mm seven-barrel
2138:unmanned aerial vehicles
1402:Indian troops manning a
946:stereoscopic rangefinder
749:Royal Garrison Artillery
174:(ADGB) was created as a
36:Ack Ack (disambiguation)
5217:Portuguese Colonial War
4541:Bellamy, Chris (1986).
3750:"The Battle of Britain"
3014:"ack-ack, adj. and n.".
2851:anti-radiation missiles
2847:air defence suppression
2692:United States Air Force
2524:
2503:surface-to-air missiles
2420:radar-controlled cannon
2399:Model of the multirole
2376:
2211:rotary canon and eight
2134:anti-UAV defence system
1925:system armed with twin
1622:Principality of Sealand
1230:QF 5.25-inch naval guns
1192:in the summer of 1940.
1074:37 mm M1939 (61-K)
1068:in 1937, an 85 mm
753:QF 1-pounder "pom-pom"s
487:United States Air Force
266:, and the Russian term
229:surface-to-air missiles
221:short range air defense
191:), "ack-ack" (from the
121:close-in weapon systems
102:surface-to-air missiles
5585:Civilian gun ownership
3676:Hogg Allied WW2 pg 131
2838:
2794:
2663:
2599:(MANPADS) such as the
2489:
2462:anti-submarine warfare
2408:
2392:
2288:directed-energy weapon
2179:
2048:
1945:
1930:
1888:2008 South Ossetia war
1875:longer range systems,
1831:
1828:Eielson Air Force Base
1826:during an exercise at
1767:
1697:
1649:Bethnal Green disaster
1636:
1569:
1558:
1470:
1407:
1404:Bren light machine gun
1355:
1336:
1316:
1291:
1244:
882:
874:
767:
708:
692:
684:
473:. However, during the
139:It may also be called
123:, which typically use
55:
5757:Anti-aircraft warfare
5262:Nicaraguan Revolution
5212:Araguaia Guerilla War
4781:Early thermal weapons
4628:. London: Brassey's.
4329:The National Interest
3151:Dahl, Per F. (1999).
2985:. Osprey. p. 37.
2825:
2788:
2688:Anti-Aircraft Command
2653:
2475:
2428:Carrier battle groups
2398:
2384:
2239:thermographic cameras
2169:
2034:
2010:anti-aircraft systems
1936:
1912:
1814:
1758:
1688:
1630:
1564:
1545:
1529:high-speed transports
1442:
1401:
1364:quadruple-20 mm-
1353:
1326:
1307:
1285:
1238:
1086:unrotated projectiles
880:
868:
765:
698:
690:
682:
669:3-inch/23 caliber gun
656:AA guns and also had
495:Anti-Aircraft Command
493:. The British Army's
320:Anti-Aircraft Command
59:Anti-aircraft warfare
50:
32:Flak (disambiguation)
5267:Salvadoran Civil War
4834:Spanish–American War
4809:American Indian Wars
4545:. London: Brassey's.
4392:Naval Strike Forum.
4297:: 30. Archived from
4143:] in Mosul Iraq"
3754:raf100schools.org.uk
2747:improve this section
2557:improve this section
2235:low-frequency radars
2041:St Isaac's Cathedral
1154:improve this article
983:10.5 cm FlaK 38
978:Treaty of Versailles
850:were adding various
511:British Army general
290:meaning 'aircraft'.
278:(i.e., 'pointing to
217:all-arms air defence
189:Flugzeugabwehrkanone
5320:Russo-Ukrainian War
5257:Dominican Civil War
5232:Cambodian Civil War
5193:First Indochina War
4295:Australian Aviation
3886:. 25 January 2014.
3347:National Geographic
3241:"Turco-Italian War"
2909:countering aircraft
2672:air-to-air missiles
2468:Layered air defence
2454:Type 212 submarines
2417:fire-control system
2260:, high sensitivity
2247:radar cross-section
2183:Future developments
2157:loitering munitions
1582:'high bunkers' or "
1454:fire directed from
1202:RAF Fighter Command
1194:QF 3.7-inch AA guns
1047:3.7 cm FlaK 18
860:Vickers machine gun
820:height/range finder
781:13-pr QF 9 cwt
545:of 1870. After the
543:Franco-Prussian War
302:General description
256:Fliegerabwehrkanone
157:layered air defence
129:air-to-air missiles
5310:Russo-Georgian War
5252:Lebanese Civil War
5222:Rhodesian Bush War
4839:Mexican Revolution
4824:American Civil War
4814:War of the Pacific
4804:Napoleonic Warfare
4468:Air Force Magazine
4444:on 10 October 2015
4411:Air Force Magazine
4267:on 4 November 2011
3630:, p. 155–156.
3618:, p. 150–152.
3606:, p. 144–147.
3567:, p. 162–177.
3373:"Ljutovac, Radoje"
3221:, p. 396–397.
3209:Beckett 2008, 178.
3101:Hogg WW2 pg 99–100
2933:Air defence forces
2897:Operation Anaconda
2839:
2795:
2664:
2662:air to air missile
2490:
2409:
2393:
2227:stealth technology
2180:
2176:Type 45 destroyers
2144:drones during the
2096:weather formations
2065:F-102 Delta Dagger
2049:
2045:Siege of Leningrad
1951:ground attack role
1946:
1942:fire control radar
1931:
1905:AA warfare systems
1832:
1768:
1698:
1637:
1570:
1559:
1508:4"/50 caliber guns
1471:
1426:United States Navy
1408:
1356:
1345:Kerrison Predictor
1337:
1317:
1292:
1245:
1072:and developed the
1022:Kerrison Predictor
883:
875:
871:QF 3.7-inch AA gun
768:
743:December 1914 the
709:
693:
685:
612:Ballonabwehrkanone
597:Ballonabwehrkanone
582:Ballonabwehrkanone
563:Ballonabwehrkanone
551:Paris was besieged
485:this included the
452:United States Army
262:), whence English
201:Royal Flying Corps
161:air defence forces
125:rotary autocannons
67:submarine-launched
61:is the counter to
56:
38:, and
18:Anti-aircraft fire
5762:Military aviation
5744:
5743:
5650:Military branches
5616:
5615:
5328:
5327:
5272:Soviet–Afghan War
5247:Laotian Civil War
4995:Spanish Civil War
4648:Flavia Foradini:
4470:. 14 October 2011
4380:Popular Mechanics
4288:"Asia's new SAMs"
4112:Popular Mechanics
3655:Popular Mechanics
3379:on 6 October 2014
3329:Popular Mechanics
3117:Popular Mechanics
2901:Shah-i-Kot Valley
2870:Insurgent tactics
2783:
2782:
2775:
2593:
2592:
2585:
2436:combat air patrol
2191:, which uses the
2122:Anti-UAV defences
2116:weather reporting
2077:strategic bombing
1976:, time-delay, or
1706:Normandy invasion
1537:"DMS" minesweeper
1521:-class destroyers
1496:submarine chasers
1488:destroyer escorts
1467:Battle of Okinawa
1339:The solution was
1261:Spanish Civil War
1206:Bofors 40 mm guns
1190:Battle of Britain
1186:
1185:
1178:
1042:2 cm FlaK 30
1014:Bofors 40 mm
987:12.8 cm FlaK
942:Barr & Stroud
938:analogue computer
826:UB2, a two-metre
824:Barr & Stroud
547:disaster at Sedan
536:Italo-Turkish war
193:spelling alphabet
16:(Redirected from
5774:
5643:
5636:
5629:
5620:
5619:
5606:
5605:
5482:Mass destruction
5390:Blunt instrument
5315:Syrian Civil War
4749:
4748:
4729:
4722:
4715:
4706:
4705:
4671:
4639:
4620:
4571:
4546:
4525:
4524:
4518:
4516:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4486:
4480:
4479:
4477:
4475:
4460:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4443:
4437:. Archived from
4436:
4428:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4417:
4403:
4397:
4390:
4384:
4383:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4353:. Notion Press.
4346:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4335:
4320:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4303:
4292:
4283:
4277:
4276:
4274:
4272:
4266:
4260:. Archived from
4259:
4251:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4225:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4214:
4199:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4188:
4177:www.blighter.com
4169:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4158:
4135:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4102:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4088:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4055:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4029:
4013:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4002:
3987:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3976:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3945:
3930:
3924:
3918:
3912:
3906:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3895:
3874:
3868:
3865:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3854:
3839:
3833:
3832:
3830:
3828:
3813:
3807:
3804:
3798:
3795:
3789:
3786:
3780:
3777:
3771:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3746:
3740:
3737:
3731:
3728:
3722:
3719:
3710:
3707:
3701:
3698:
3689:
3683:
3677:
3674:
3668:
3665:
3659:
3658:
3646:
3640:
3637:
3631:
3625:
3619:
3613:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3592:
3586:
3583:
3577:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3544:
3543:, p. 95-97.
3538:
3532:
3526:
3520:
3514:
3505:
3499:
3493:
3490:
3484:
3483:, p. 14–20.
3478:
3472:
3471:, p. 14–15.
3466:
3460:
3454:
3448:
3445:
3439:
3433:
3427:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3395:
3389:
3388:
3386:
3384:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3360:
3358:
3339:
3333:
3332:
3320:
3314:
3308:
3299:
3293:
3287:
3284:
3278:
3268:
3262:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3237:
3231:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3201:
3195:
3189:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3148:
3142:
3136:
3130:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3108:
3102:
3099:
3093:
3090:
3084:
3078:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3030:
3024:
3011:
3005:
3002:
2987:
2986:
2978:
2917:Syrian Civil War
2875:Stinger missiles
2778:
2771:
2767:
2764:
2758:
2727:
2719:
2678:Area air defence
2588:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2568:
2537:
2529:
2324:Force structures
2266:radio telescopes
2220:stealth aircraft
2069:F-106 Delta Dart
2053:fighter aircraft
1865:Blowpipe missile
1730:
1718:Vergeltungswaffe
1702:barrage balloons
1694:Helmuth Ellgaard
1659:or the American
1598:Battle of Berlin
1588:
1419:stratosphere gun
1198:QF 3-inch 20 cwt
1181:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1161:
1138:
1130:
1126:Second World War
1111:Great Depression
1078:25 mm M1939
1055:John M. Browning
838:By the start of
809:QF 3-inch 20 cwt
735:artillery fire.
729:First Balkan War
627:
608:
593:
578:
475:Second World War
398:barrage balloons
331:Second World War
260:Flugabwehrkanone
109:Second World War
87:homeland defence
71:barrage balloons
21:
5782:
5781:
5777:
5776:
5775:
5773:
5772:
5771:
5767:Warfare by type
5747:
5746:
5745:
5740:
5726:Security forces
5706:Military police
5701:Missile defence
5661:Airborne forces
5652:
5647:
5617:
5612:
5594:
5590:Science fiction
5558:
5430:Directed-energy
5324:
5300:Afghanistan War
5281:
5180:
5022:
4982:Interwar period
4976:
4877:Austria-Hungary
4853:
4785:
4738:
4733:
4669:
4665:
4660:
4636:
4617:
4607:Greenhill Books
4568:
4533:
4528:
4514:
4512:
4501:
4497:
4488:
4487:
4483:
4473:
4471:
4462:
4461:
4457:
4447:
4445:
4441:
4434:
4430:
4429:
4425:
4415:
4413:
4405:
4404:
4400:
4391:
4387:
4372:
4368:
4361:
4347:
4343:
4333:
4331:
4321:
4317:
4307:
4305:
4304:on 23 July 2006
4301:
4290:
4284:
4280:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4257:
4253:
4252:
4248:
4238:
4236:
4226:
4222:
4212:
4210:
4208:Air Force Times
4200:
4196:
4186:
4184:
4171:
4170:
4166:
4156:
4154:
4137:
4136:
4132:
4122:
4120:
4103:
4096:
4086:
4084:
4067:
4063:
4053:
4051:
4042:
4041:
4037:
4027:
4025:
4014:
4010:
4000:
3998:
3989:
3988:
3984:
3974:
3972:
3967:. reuters.com.
3957:
3953:
3943:
3941:
3932:
3931:
3927:
3919:
3915:
3907:
3903:
3893:
3891:
3876:
3875:
3871:
3866:
3862:
3852:
3850:
3841:
3840:
3836:
3826:
3824:
3815:
3814:
3810:
3805:
3801:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3783:
3778:
3774:
3769:
3765:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3738:
3734:
3729:
3725:
3720:
3713:
3708:
3704:
3699:
3692:
3684:
3680:
3675:
3671:
3666:
3662:
3647:
3643:
3638:
3634:
3626:
3622:
3614:
3610:
3602:
3598:
3593:
3589:
3584:
3580:
3575:
3571:
3563:
3559:
3551:
3547:
3539:
3535:
3527:
3523:
3515:
3508:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3487:
3479:
3475:
3467:
3463:
3459:, p. 8–17.
3455:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3434:
3430:
3422:
3418:
3408:
3406:
3397:
3396:
3392:
3382:
3380:
3371:
3370:
3366:
3356:
3354:
3341:
3340:
3336:
3321:
3317:
3309:
3302:
3294:
3290:
3286:Bethel pg 56–80
3285:
3281:
3269:
3265:
3252:
3248:
3239:
3238:
3234:
3229:
3225:
3217:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3196:
3192:
3184:
3180:
3165:
3149:
3145:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3109:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3091:
3087:
3079:
3075:
3065:
3063:
3054:
3053:
3049:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3021:Wayback Machine
3012:
3008:
3003:
2990:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2929:
2872:
2836:Panavia Tornado
2820:
2779:
2768:
2762:
2759:
2744:
2728:
2717:
2712:
2700:MIM-104 Patriot
2680:
2648:
2589:
2578:
2572:
2569:
2554:
2538:
2527:
2507:RIM-67 Standard
2470:
2385:Soviet/Russian
2379:
2332:
2326:
2231:bistatic radars
2189:Goalkeeper CIWS
2185:
2130:
2124:
2112:instrumentation
2092:electromagnetic
1938:Bangladesh Army
1907:
1815:A three-person
1753:
1745:M9 gun director
1724:
1722:Le Grand Veneur
1586:
1525:seaplane tender
1492:patrol frigates
1431:5"/38 naval gun
1268:Dambusters raid
1226:QF 4.5-inch gun
1182:
1171:
1165:
1162:
1151:
1139:
1128:
1098:
994:QF 3.7-inch gun
954:developed radar
888:
724:Radoje Ljutovac
677:
675:First World War
665:Admiral Twining
631:
628:
619:
609:
600:
594:
585:
579:
524:
519:
427:
316:optoelectronics
304:
233:RIM-66 Standard
223:" (SHORAD) and
184:First World War
176:Royal Air Force
137:
91:Missile defence
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5780:
5770:
5769:
5764:
5759:
5742:
5741:
5739:
5738:
5736:Special forces
5733:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5688:
5683:
5678:
5673:
5668:
5663:
5657:
5654:
5653:
5646:
5645:
5638:
5631:
5623:
5614:
5613:
5611:
5610:
5599:
5596:
5595:
5593:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5566:
5564:
5560:
5559:
5557:
5556:
5555:
5554:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5449:
5448:
5447:
5442:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5365:Anti-personnel
5362:
5360:Anti-ballistic
5357:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5336:
5334:
5330:
5329:
5326:
5325:
5323:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5291:
5289:
5283:
5282:
5280:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5190:
5188:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5178:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5161:United Kingdom
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5076:Czechoslovakia
5073:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5032:
5030:
5024:
5023:
5021:
5020:
5006:
4992:
4986:
4984:
4978:
4977:
4975:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4962:United Kingdom
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4863:
4861:
4855:
4854:
4852:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4795:
4793:
4787:
4786:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4757:
4755:
4746:
4740:
4739:
4732:
4731:
4724:
4717:
4709:
4703:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4684:
4677:
4664:
4663:External links
4661:
4659:
4658:
4652:
4646:
4643:
4640:
4634:
4621:
4615:
4595:
4585:
4575:
4572:
4566:
4553:
4550:
4547:
4538:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4495:
4481:
4455:
4423:
4398:
4385:
4366:
4359:
4341:
4315:
4278:
4246:
4220:
4194:
4164:
4130:
4094:
4061:
4035:
4008:
3982:
3951:
3925:
3913:
3901:
3869:
3860:
3834:
3808:
3799:
3790:
3781:
3772:
3763:
3741:
3732:
3723:
3711:
3702:
3690:
3686:Routledge 1994
3678:
3669:
3660:
3641:
3632:
3620:
3608:
3596:
3587:
3578:
3569:
3557:
3545:
3541:Routledge 1994
3533:
3529:Routledge 1994
3521:
3517:Routledge 1994
3506:
3502:Routledge 1994
3494:
3485:
3481:Routledge 1994
3473:
3469:Routledge 1994
3461:
3457:Routledge 1994
3449:
3440:
3436:Routledge 1994
3428:
3424:Routledge 1994
3416:
3390:
3364:
3334:
3315:
3311:Routledge 1994
3300:
3296:Routledge 1994
3288:
3279:
3263:
3246:
3232:
3223:
3219:Routledge 1994
3211:
3202:
3200:, p. 213.
3190:
3178:
3163:
3143:
3141:, p. 456.
3139:Routledge 1994
3131:
3122:
3103:
3094:
3085:
3083:, p. 219.
3073:
3062:on 14 May 2008
3047:
3040:. Rafweb.org.
3025:
3006:
2988:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2928:
2925:
2919:is the use of
2871:
2868:
2819:
2816:
2812:SA-2 Guideline
2781:
2780:
2731:
2729:
2722:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2679:
2676:
2647:
2644:
2591:
2590:
2541:
2539:
2532:
2526:
2523:
2469:
2466:
2378:
2375:
2325:
2322:
2184:
2181:
2123:
2120:
2104:reconnaissance
1906:
1903:
1871:and the older
1861:FIM-92 Stinger
1853:Roland missile
1806:SA-2 Guideline
1752:
1749:
1737:proximity fuse
1610:Thames Estuary
1602:Maunsell Forts
1184:
1183:
1142:
1140:
1133:
1127:
1124:
1097:
1094:
967:Würzburg radar
962:Observer Corps
930:
929:
926:
923:
920:
917:
887:
886:Interwar years
884:
740:New York Times
676:
673:
633:
632:
629:
622:
620:
610:
603:
601:
595:
588:
586:
580:
573:
523:
520:
518:
515:
426:
423:
418:
417:
410:
404:
401:
390:
389:
374:
371:
368:
357:
356:
350:
344:
303:
300:
136:
133:
63:aerial warfare
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5779:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5754:
5752:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5694:
5692:
5689:
5687:
5684:
5682:
5679:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5658:
5655:
5651:
5644:
5639:
5637:
5632:
5630:
5625:
5624:
5621:
5609:
5601:
5600:
5597:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5567:
5565:
5561:
5553:
5550:
5549:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5355:Anti-aircraft
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5337:
5335:
5331:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5295:Yugoslav Wars
5293:
5292:
5290:
5288:
5287:Post-Cold War
5284:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5242:Iran–Iraq War
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5192:
5191:
5189:
5187:
5183:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5166:United States
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5127:
5124:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5033:
5031:
5029:
5025:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5007:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4987:
4985:
4983:
4979:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4967:United States
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4862:
4860:
4856:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4799:Early Warfare
4797:
4796:
4794:
4792:
4788:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4758:
4756:
4754:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4730:
4725:
4723:
4718:
4716:
4711:
4710:
4707:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4690:
4689:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4678:
4676:
4672:
4670:"Flak (1943)"
4667:
4666:
4657:
4653:
4651:
4647:
4644:
4641:
4637:
4635:1-85753-099-3
4631:
4627:
4622:
4618:
4616:1-85367-261-0
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4594:
4593:1-86126-104-7
4590:
4586:
4584:
4583:1-86126-165-9
4580:
4576:
4573:
4569:
4567:9781473852846
4563:
4559:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4544:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4522:
4510:
4506:
4499:
4491:
4485:
4469:
4465:
4459:
4440:
4433:
4427:
4412:
4408:
4402:
4395:
4389:
4381:
4377:
4370:
4362:
4360:9781946983794
4356:
4352:
4345:
4330:
4326:
4319:
4300:
4296:
4289:
4282:
4263:
4256:
4250:
4235:
4231:
4224:
4209:
4205:
4198:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4168:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4142:
4134:
4118:
4114:
4113:
4108:
4101:
4099:
4082:
4078:
4077:
4076:Aviation Week
4072:
4065:
4049:
4045:
4039:
4023:
4019:
4012:
3996:
3992:
3986:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3955:
3939:
3935:
3929:
3922:
3917:
3910:
3905:
3889:
3885:
3884:
3879:
3873:
3864:
3848:
3844:
3838:
3822:
3818:
3812:
3803:
3794:
3785:
3776:
3767:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3745:
3736:
3727:
3718:
3716:
3706:
3697:
3695:
3688:, p. 56.
3687:
3682:
3673:
3664:
3656:
3652:
3645:
3636:
3629:
3624:
3617:
3612:
3605:
3600:
3591:
3582:
3573:
3566:
3561:
3555:, p. 14.
3554:
3549:
3542:
3537:
3531:, p. 50.
3530:
3525:
3519:, p. 49.
3518:
3513:
3511:
3504:, p. 48.
3503:
3498:
3489:
3482:
3477:
3470:
3465:
3458:
3453:
3444:
3437:
3432:
3425:
3420:
3404:
3400:
3394:
3378:
3374:
3368:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3338:
3330:
3326:
3319:
3312:
3307:
3305:
3297:
3292:
3283:
3277:
3276:0-8021-1772-4
3273:
3267:
3260:
3256:
3250:
3242:
3236:
3227:
3220:
3215:
3206:
3199:
3194:
3188:, p. 82.
3187:
3182:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3164:0-585-25449-4
3160:
3156:
3155:
3147:
3140:
3135:
3126:
3118:
3114:
3107:
3098:
3089:
3082:
3077:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3029:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3010:
3001:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2984:
2977:
2973:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2938:Air supremacy
2936:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2902:
2898:
2893:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2882:
2876:
2867:
2865:
2860:
2856:
2853:and advanced
2852:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2824:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2792:
2787:
2777:
2774:
2766:
2763:February 2024
2756:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2737:
2732:This section
2730:
2726:
2721:
2720:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2696:CIM-10 Bomarc
2693:
2689:
2685:
2684:point defence
2675:
2673:
2669:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2643:
2641:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2625:2K22 Tunguska
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2587:
2584:
2576:
2573:February 2024
2566:
2562:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2542:This section
2540:
2536:
2531:
2530:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2465:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2418:
2414:
2406:
2402:
2397:
2391:
2388:
2383:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2356:Pakistan Army
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2331:
2321:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2299:Wing Loong II
2297:
2293:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2193:GAU-8 Avenger
2190:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2162:
2161:MQ-1 Predator
2158:
2154:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2119:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1902:
1900:
1899:Golan Heights
1895:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1845:Falklands War
1841:
1838:
1829:
1825:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1776:
1774:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1741:SCR-584 radar
1738:
1734:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1657:Fairey Stooge
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1585:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1568:
1567:Maunsell Fort
1563:
1557:
1553:
1550:built during
1549:
1546:One of eight
1544:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1520:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1505:
1502:, some fleet
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1484: (BB-35)
1483:
1477:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1459:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1416:120 mm M1 gun
1413:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1381:M45 Quadmount
1378:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1362:
1352:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1314:
1311:
1306:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1180:
1177:
1169:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1143:This section
1141:
1137:
1132:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1104:
1103:target drones
1096:Naval aspects
1093:
1091:
1087:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1048:
1043:
1037:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1009:
1006:
1002:
999:
995:
990:
988:
984:
979:
974:
972:
968:
963:
959:
955:
950:
947:
943:
939:
934:
927:
924:
921:
918:
915:
914:
913:
911:
907:
901:
897:
894:
879:
872:
867:
863:
861:
857:
853:
847:
845:
844:flaming onion
841:
836:
832:
829:
825:
821:
816:
812:
810:
806:
802:
797:
795:
790:
785:
782:
778:
774:
764:
760:
758:
754:
750:
746:
741:
736:
734:
733:ground-to-air
730:
725:
722:
718:
714:
706:
705:Horseless Age
702:
697:
689:
681:
672:
670:
666:
661:
659:
655:
651:
646:
643:
639:
626:
621:
617:
613:
607:
602:
598:
592:
587:
583:
577:
572:
571:
570:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
539:
537:
532:
530:
529:Balloon Corps
514:
512:
506:
502:
500:
499:Royal Marines
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
463:
461:
457:
453:
448:
446:
442:
438:
437:
430:
422:
415:
414:smoke screens
411:
408:
405:
402:
399:
395:
394:
393:
386:
382:
379:
375:
372:
369:
366:
365:
364:
361:
354:
351:
348:
347:Weapons tight
345:
342:
339:
338:
337:
334:
332:
328:
323:
321:
317:
312:
308:
299:
295:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
244:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
212:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
132:
130:
126:
122:
116:
114:
110:
105:
103:
99:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
54:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
5721:Public Force
5681:Border guard
5675:
5477:Martial arts
5440:Depth charge
5410:Conventional
5354:
5151:Soviet Union
5028:World War II
4687:
4680:
4655:
4649:
4625:
4602:
4599:Hogg, Ian V.
4560:. Seaforth.
4557:
4542:
4519:– via
4513:. Retrieved
4498:
4484:
4472:. Retrieved
4467:
4458:
4446:. Retrieved
4439:the original
4426:
4414:. Retrieved
4410:
4401:
4388:
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4369:
4350:
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4328:
4318:
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4299:the original
4294:
4281:
4269:. Retrieved
4262:the original
4249:
4237:. Retrieved
4233:
4223:
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4207:
4197:
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4176:
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4140:
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4110:
4085:. Retrieved
4074:
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4052:. Retrieved
4038:
4026:. Retrieved
4011:
3999:. Retrieved
3985:
3973:. Retrieved
3964:
3954:
3942:. Retrieved
3928:
3920:
3916:
3908:
3904:
3892:. Retrieved
3881:
3872:
3863:
3851:. Retrieved
3837:
3825:. Retrieved
3811:
3802:
3793:
3784:
3775:
3766:
3753:
3744:
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3672:
3663:
3654:
3644:
3635:
3623:
3611:
3599:
3590:
3581:
3572:
3560:
3548:
3536:
3524:
3497:
3488:
3476:
3464:
3452:
3443:
3438:, p. 6.
3431:
3426:, p. 5.
3419:
3407:. Retrieved
3393:
3381:. Retrieved
3377:the original
3367:
3355:. Retrieved
3346:
3337:
3328:
3318:
3313:, p. 4.
3298:, p. 3.
3291:
3282:
3266:
3249:
3235:
3226:
3214:
3205:
3198:Bellamy 1986
3193:
3186:Bellamy 1986
3181:
3153:
3146:
3134:
3125:
3116:
3106:
3097:
3088:
3081:Bellamy 1986
3076:
3064:. Retrieved
3060:the original
3050:
3037:
3028:
3009:
2982:
2976:
2906:
2894:
2880:
2873:
2840:
2831:
2796:
2789:The Russian
2769:
2760:
2745:Please help
2733:
2681:
2668:fighter jets
2665:
2656:F-22A Raptor
2640:Project Nike
2637:
2594:
2579:
2570:
2555:Please help
2543:
2511:RIM-162 ESSM
2491:
2451:
2443:radar picket
2440:
2432:fighter jets
2410:
2401:IDAS missile
2352:British Army
2348:separate arm
2333:
2306:
2274:
2225:However, as
2224:
2217:
2205:Kashtan CIWS
2186:
2150:
2133:
2131:
2090:systems use
2085:
2050:
2018:
2002:Nazi Germany
1990:
1982:rate of fire
1963:
1947:
1927:Oerlikon GDF
1896:
1885:
1879:and the new
1843:In the 1982
1842:
1833:
1798:
1777:
1773:nuclear bomb
1769:
1759:A 1970s-era
1717:
1711:
1699:
1692:(drawing by
1689:
1677:
1670:Fliegerfaust
1644:
1638:
1614:pirate radio
1583:
1577:
1571:
1552:World War II
1518:
1512:
1500:minesweepers
1481:
1472:
1457:
1435:
1423:
1418:
1412:90 mm M3 gun
1409:
1391:to form the
1385:Flakvierling
1384:
1361:Flakvierling
1360:
1357:
1338:
1318:
1296:
1293:
1265:
1246:
1223:
1187:
1172:
1163:
1152:Please help
1147:verification
1144:
1120:
1108:
1099:
1082:
1069:
1065:
1063:
1059:37 mm gun M1
1052:
1038:
1029:Swedish Navy
1026:
1010:
1007:
1003:
991:
975:
951:
935:
931:
909:
902:
898:
889:
848:
837:
833:
817:
813:
798:
786:
773:British Army
769:
739:
737:
713:Serbian Army
710:
704:
662:
647:
634:
611:
596:
581:
566:
562:
540:
533:
525:
522:Earliest use
507:
503:
479:RAF Regiment
464:
449:
444:
440:
434:
431:
428:
425:Organization
419:
407:Searchlights
391:
362:
358:
353:Weapons hold
352:
346:
341:Weapons free
340:
335:
324:
313:
309:
305:
296:
292:
287:
283:
275:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
245:
216:
213:
209:George Robey
197:Amyas Borton
188:
179:
167:
165:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
138:
117:
113:Soviet Union
106:
95:
58:
57:
44:
5731:Space force
5691:Gendarmerie
5686:Coast guard
5676:Air defence
5415:Crew-served
5375:Area denial
5207:Six-Day War
5202:Vietnam War
5131:New Zealand
5126:Netherlands
4999:Nationalist
4932:New Zealand
4859:World War I
4819:Crimean War
4515:31 December
4239:18 November
4213:18 November
2827:AGM-88 HARM
2808:Vietnam war
2519:Gatling gun
2486:White Sands
2458:German Navy
2405:German Navy
2197:Gatling gun
2043:during the
1886:During the
1821:Type 91 Kai
1725: [
1645:Z batteries
1618:micronation
1590:flak towers
1574:blockhouses
1548:flak towers
1377:.50 caliber
1329:QF 3.7-inch
1101:controlled
852:machine-gun
840:World War I
805:Percy Scott
640:Maxim, and
471:World War I
441:PVO Strany,
381:MIM-23 Hawk
203:, from the
168:air defence
141:counter-air
135:Terminology
98:autocannons
5751:Categories
5492:Non-lethal
5472:Insurgency
5467:Incendiary
5462:Improvised
5395:Ceremonial
5385:Biological
5345:Amphibious
5197:Korean War
5171:Yugoslavia
5003:Republican
4927:Montenegro
4605:. London:
4448:27 January
3259:0275947920
2964:References
2943:Gun laying
2881:mujahideen
2791:Pantsir-S1
2658:firing an
2633:SA-8 Gecko
2415:-directed
2360:PVO Strany
2328:See also:
2254:satellites
2172:Royal Navy
2126:See also:
2108:navigation
2071:, and the
2006:Wasserfall
1986:20 mm
1974:barometric
1955:autocannon
1781:Skysweeper
1733:Keerbergen
1679:Wasserfall
1579:Hochbunker
1533:minelayers
1504:submarines
1458:New Mexico
1452:20 mm
1448:40 mm
1389:half-track
1366:autocannon
1341:automation
1277:hydraulics
1266:After the
1215:Suez Canal
801:Royal Navy
717:Kragujevac
467:Royal Navy
436:Voyska PVO
241:MBDA Aster
205:music-hall
83:air forces
5666:Air force
5512:Pneumatic
5502:Offensive
5435:Explosive
5380:Artillery
5370:Anti-tank
5350:Ancillary
5036:Australia
4990:Chaco War
4872:Australia
4753:Premodern
4474:2 October
4416:2 October
4271:15 August
3628:Hogg 1997
3616:Hogg 1997
3604:Hogg 1997
3565:Hogg 1997
3553:Hogg 1997
2969:Citations
2832:Luftwaffe
2734:does not
2670:carrying
2646:Air force
2544:does not
2495:AEW&C
2484:drone at
2344:air force
1978:proximity
1959:artillery
1919:Uffenheim
1808:systems.
1786:Nike Ajax
1641:2-inch RP
1606:North Sea
1584:Flaktürme
1480:USS
1219:Singapore
1166:July 2013
1090:Z battery
893:Gotha G.V
856:Red Baron
794:Zeppelins
757:Maxim Gun
654:QF 4-inch
650:QF 3-inch
642:Schneider
557:. Gustav
396:Tethered
243:missile.
239:, or the
207:comedian
166:The term
5608:Category
5575:Industry
5532:Tectonic
5517:Practice
5507:Personal
5400:Chemical
5340:Aircraft
5305:Iraq War
5277:Gulf War
5186:Cold War
5176:Infantry
5156:Thailand
5056:Bulgaria
5013:Japanese
4972:Infantry
4937:Portugal
4887:Bulgaria
4867:Chemical
4776:Japanese
4771:Medieval
4601:(1997).
4334:17 March
4234:NBC News
4187:11 March
4181:Archived
4179:. 2016.
4157:11 March
4151:Archived
4123:11 March
4117:Archived
4087:11 March
4081:Archived
4054:15 March
4048:Archived
4028:14 March
4022:Archived
4001:14 March
3995:Archived
3975:14 March
3969:Archived
3944:14 March
3938:Archived
3894:16 March
3888:Archived
3847:Archived
3821:Archived
3758:Archived
3409:5 August
3403:Archived
3383:5 August
3357:5 August
3351:Archived
3173:45728821
3042:Archived
3017:Archived
2927:See also
2715:Mobility
2704:Gulf War
2346:), as a
2313:Tomahawk
2292:Roketsan
2264:such as
2258:aperture
2209:Gsh-6-30
2100:guidance
2079:role to
2061:altitude
1995:and the
1881:Sea Wolf
1873:Sea Slug
1869:Sea Dart
1788:and the
1751:Post-war
1653:Kamikaze
1631:A USAAF
1463:Kamikaze
1327:British
789:shrapnel
701:Zeppelin
599:by Krupp
584:by Krupp
483:Cold War
378:Cold War
276:zenitnye
272:Cyrillic
145:anti-air
5711:Militia
5696:Marines
5570:Arsenal
5547:Vehicle
5537:Torpedo
5497:Nuclear
5457:Hunting
5452:Firearm
5146:Romania
5106:Hungary
5096:Germany
5086:Finland
5081:Denmark
5071:Croatia
5046:Belgium
5041:Austria
4942:Romania
4902:Germany
4882:Belgium
4844:Antique
4766:Chinese
4761:African
4744:History
4736:Weapons
4675:YouTube
4531:Sources
4521:Twitter
4147:Twitter
3965:Reuters
3883:YouTube
3853:2 March
3827:2 March
3066:30 June
2879:Afghan
2755:removed
2740:sources
2710:Tactics
2660:AIM-120
2654:A USAF
2617:Patriot
2605:Stinger
2565:removed
2550:sources
2488:, 1980.
2482:Firebee
2456:of the
2403:of the
2368:nuclear
2317:US Navy
2309:railgun
2251:optical
2153:shotgun
2057:bombers
2035:Soviet
2014:bombers
1824:MANPADS
1765:cruiser
1674:MANPADS
1604:in the
1531:, "DM"
1519:Clemson
1476:caliber
1335:in 1939
1331:gun in
1298:The Gun
1295:movie,
1257:FlaK 36
1239:German
721:private
707:, 1916.
638:Vickers
555:balloon
517:History
454:has an
445:PVO SV,
388:routes.
288:aéronef
5552:Combat
5522:Ranged
5425:Deadly
5141:Poland
5136:Norway
5121:Mexico
5101:Greece
5091:France
5061:Canada
5051:Brazil
4957:Turkey
4952:Serbia
4947:Russia
4907:Greece
4897:France
4892:Canada
4791:Modern
4632:
4613:
4591:
4581:
4564:
4357:
4308:9 July
3274:
3257:
3171:
3161:
3056:"flak"
2804:radars
2629:Roland
2613:Angara
2601:RBS 70
2478:RIM-67
2387:AK-630
2362:. The
2262:radars
2114:, and
2073:MiG-25
2067:, the
1966:shells
1915:Gepard
1892:Buk-M1
1877:SeaCat
1857:Rapier
1855:. The
1790:RSD-58
1620:, the
1608:, the
1594:Berlin
1556:Vienna
1535:, and
1513:Wickes
1469:, 1945
1444:5-inch
1370:Allied
1333:London
1253:Bofors
1016:and a
616:Nymphe
477:, the
412:Large
280:zenith
111:, the
81:, and
79:ground
34:,
5580:Mount
5563:Other
5527:Space
5487:Melee
5420:Cyber
5333:Types
5116:Japan
5111:Italy
5066:China
4922:Japan
4917:Italy
4912:India
4509:Tweet
4442:(PDF)
4435:(PDF)
4302:(PDF)
4291:(PDF)
4265:(PDF)
4258:(PDF)
3004:AAP-6
2424:Aegis
2413:radar
2296:GNC's
2277:laser
2270:S-400
2243:QWIPs
2213:9M311
2088:radar
2081:ICBMs
2022:radar
1970:fuses
1837:SPAAG
1817:JASDF
1761:Talos
1729:]
1482:Texas
1461:at a
1310:USAAF
1273:radar
1249:Krupp
1241:88 mm
1211:Malta
1070:M1938
1066:M1931
1034:40 mm
944:UB 2
559:Krupp
75:naval
5716:Navy
5671:Army
5445:List
5405:Cold
4630:ISBN
4611:ISBN
4589:ISBN
4579:ISBN
4562:ISBN
4517:2020
4476:2020
4450:2020
4418:2020
4355:ISBN
4336:2022
4310:2006
4273:2010
4241:2021
4215:2021
4189:2017
4159:2017
4125:2017
4089:2017
4056:2019
4030:2019
4003:2019
3977:2019
3946:2019
3896:2016
3855:2019
3829:2019
3411:2015
3385:2015
3359:2015
3272:ISBN
3255:ISBN
3169:OCLC
3159:ISBN
3068:2008
2921:ATGM
2864:ECCM
2857:and
2843:NATO
2738:any
2736:cite
2615:and
2609:Igla
2607:and
2548:any
2546:cite
2525:Army
2515:CIWS
2434:for
2377:Navy
2364:USSR
2342:and
2340:navy
2336:army
2302:UAVs
2285:ALKA
2233:and
2170:The
2142:ISIL
2086:The
2037:85mm
1964:The
1851:and
1802:USSR
1661:Lark
1633:B-24
1516:and
1456:USS
1450:and
1424:The
1288:MG34
1217:and
976:The
652:and
618:1872
491:2004
385:Nike
383:and
264:flak
252:FlaK
248:Flak
153:flak
100:and
5542:Toy
4673:on
4141:sic
2749:by
2694:'s
2631:or
2559:by
2499:CAP
2174:'s
2132:An
1731:in
1714:V-1
1554:in
1156:by
759:).
567:BaK
250:or
159:or
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