981:
599:. The idea behind Batesian mimicry is that predators that have tried to eat the unpalatable species learn to associate its colors and markings with an unpleasant taste. This results in the predator learning to avoid species displaying similar colours and markings, including Batesian mimics, which are in effect parasitic on the chemical or other defences of the unprofitable models. Some species of octopus can mimic a selection of other animals by changing their skin color, skin pattern and body motion. When a damselfish attacks an octopus, the octopus mimics a banded sea-snake. The model chosen varies with the octopus's predator and habitat. Most of these octopuses use Batesian mimicry, selecting an organism repulsive to predators as a model.
1274:
682:
136:
468:", causes the fawn's heart rate to drop from 155 to 38 beats per minute within one beat of the heart. This drop in heart rate can last up to two minutes, causing the fawn to experience a depressed breathing rate and decrease in movement, called tonic immobility. Tonic immobility is a reflex response that causes the fawn to enter a low body position that simulates the position of a corpse. Upon discovery of the fawn, the predator loses interest in the "dead" prey. Other symptoms of alarm bradycardia, such as salivation, urination, and defecation, can also cause the predator to lose interest.
900:
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exceed those of lions for great distances, lions try to attack an ostrich when its head is down. By grouping, the ostriches present the lions with greater difficulty in determining how long the ostriches' heads stay down. Thus, although individual vigilance decreases, the overall vigilance of the group increases.
924:. Goshawks are less successful when attacking larger flocks of wood pigeons than they are when attacking smaller flocks. This is because the larger the flock size, the more likely it is that one bird will notice the hawk sooner and fly away. Once one pigeon flies off in alarm, the rest of the pigeons follow. Wild
41:. First, the predators approach their potential prey. Predators bite or try to swallow the hagfishes, but the hagfishes have already projected jets of slime (arrows) into the predators' mouths. Choking, the predators release the hagfishes and gag in an attempt to remove slime from their mouths and gill chambers.
670:. These fish have a sharp scalpel-like spine on the front of each of their tail fins, able to inflict deep wounds. The area around the spines is often brightly colored to advertise the defensive capability; predators often avoid the Sohal surgeonfish. Defensive spines may be detachable, barbed or poisonous.
1136:
secrete enormous amounts of mucus when it is provoked or stressed. The gelatinous slime has dramatic effects on the flow and viscosity of water, rapidly clogging the gills of any fish that attempt to capture hagfish; predators typically release the hagfish within seconds. Common predators of hagfish
958:
and his colleagues as an example of this. When stationary, a single zebra stands out because of its large size. To reduce the risk of attack, zebras often travel in herds. The striped patterns of all the zebras in the herd may confuse the predator, making it harder for the predator to focus in on an
890:
or other snake, a "chutter". The monkeys hearing these calls respond defensively, but differently in each case: to the eagle call, they look up and run into cover; to the leopard call, they run up into the trees; to the snake call, they stand on two legs and look around for snakes, and on seeing the
1008:
also seeds of plants, make use of poisonous chemicals for self-defence. These may be concentrated in surface structures such as spines or glands, giving an attacker a taste of the chemicals before it actually bites or swallows the prey animal: many toxins are bitter-tasting. A last-ditch defence is
928:
in Tsavo
National Park in Kenya feed either alone or in groups of up to four birds. They are subject to predation by lions. As the ostrich group size increases, the frequency at which each individual raises its head to look for predators decreases. Because ostriches are able to run at speeds that
777:
to explain why animals seek central positions in a group. The theory's central idea is to reduce the individual's domain of danger. A domain of danger is the area within the group in which the individual is more likely to be attacked by a predator. The center of the group has the lowest domain of
236:
of North
America have evolved to eliminate their shadow and blend in with the ground. The bodies of these lizards are flattened, and their sides thin towards the edge. This body form, along with the white scales fringed along their sides, allows the lizards to effectively hide their shadows. In
820:
A radical strategy for avoiding predators which may otherwise kill a large majority of the emerging stage of a population is to emerge very rarely, at irregular intervals. Predators with a life-cycle of one or a few years are unable to reproduce rapidly enough in response to such an emergence.
1129:), as a last defence. Canids often drop horned lizards after being squirted, and attempt to wipe or shake the blood out of their mouths, suggesting that the fluid has a foul taste; they choose other lizards if given the choice, suggesting a learned aversion towards horned lizards as prey.
580:
occurs when an organism (the mimic) simulates signal properties of another organism (the model) to confuse a third organism. This results in the mimic gaining protection, food, and mating advantages. There are two classical types of defensive mimicry: Batesian and Müllerian. Both involve
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when threatened. The stomach oil is made from their aquatic diets. It causes the predator's feathers to mat, leading to the loss of flying ability and the loss of water repellency. This is especially dangerous for aquatic birds because their water repellent feathers protect them from
1124:
are able to shoot squirts of blood from their eyes, by rapidly increasing the blood pressure within the eye sockets, if threatened. Because an individual may lose up to 53% of blood in a single squirt, this is only used against persistent predators like foxes, wolves and coyotes
219:
uses any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment to make the organism hard to detect by sight. It is common in both terrestrial and marine animals. Camouflage can be achieved in many different ways, such as through resemblance to surroundings,
166:
used by animals to either avoid predation or to enhance prey hunting. Predation risk has long been recognized as critical in shaping behavioral decisions. For example, this predation risk is of prime importance in determining the time of evening emergence in echolocating
1152:
410:, jumping high with stiff legs and an arched back. This is thought to signal to predators that they have a high level of fitness and can outrun the predator. As a result, predators may choose to pursue a different prey that is less likely to outrun them.
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Defensive structures such as spines may be used both to ward off attack as already mentioned, and if need be to fight back against a predator. Methods of fighting back include chemical defences, mobbing, defensive regurgitation, and suicidal altruism.
750:
are insects that live on the surface of fresh water, and are attacked from beneath by predatory fish. Experiments varying the group size of the water striders showed that the attack rate per individual water strider decreases as group size increases.
1318:
with zigzagging or jinking flight. In the tropical rain forests of
Southeast Asia in particular, many vertebrates escape predators by falling and gliding. Among the insects, many moths turn sharply, fall, or perform a powered dive in response to the
915:
In the improved vigilance effect, groups are able to detect predators sooner than solitary individuals. For many predators, success depends on surprise. If the prey is alerted early in an attack, they have an improved chance of escape. For example,
183:. They forage in relatively open habitats, and reduce their activity outside their nest burrows in response to moonlight. During a full moon, they shift their activity towards areas of relatively dense cover to compensate for the extra brightness.
370:, so as to scare off or momentarily distract a predator, thus giving the prey animal an opportunity to escape. In the absence of toxins or other defences, this is essentially bluffing, in contrast to aposematism which involves honest signals.
3375:
Eisner, Thomas; Jones, Tappey H.; Aneshansley, Daniel J.; Tschinkel, Walter R.; Silberglied, Robert E.; Meinwald, Jerrold (1977). "Chemistry of defensive secretions of bombardier beetles (Brachinini, Metriini, Ozaenini, Paussini)".
1040:
has specialized glands on the tip of its abdomen that allows it to direct a toxic spray towards predators. The spray is generated explosively through oxidation of hydroquinones and is sprayed at a temperature of 100 °C.
949:
Individuals living in large groups may be safer from attack because the predator may be confused by the large group size. As the group moves, the predator has greater difficulty targeting an individual prey animal. The
3405:
1175:, a common predator. The male red colobus monkeys group together and place themselves between predators and the group's females and juveniles. The males jump together and actively bite the chimpanzees.
1622:
Daly, M.; Behrends, P.R.; Wilson, M.; Jacobs, L. (1992). "Behavioural modulation of predation risk: moonlight avoidance and crepuscular compensation in a nocturnal desert rodent, Dipodomys merriami".
1163:
In communal defence, prey groups actively defend themselves by grouping together, and sometimes by attacking or mobbing a predator, rather than allowing themselves to be passive victims of predation.
734:
proposed that group living evolved because it provides benefits to the individual rather than to the group as a whole, which becomes more conspicuous as it becomes larger. One common example is the
786:. Using decoy seals, the researchers varied the distance between the decoys to produce different domains of danger. The seals with a greater domain of danger had an increased risk of shark attack.
700:, have numerous protuberances and stinging spines along their dorsal surfaces. Species that possess these stinging spines suffer less predation than larvae that lack them, and a predator, the
422:, benefiting both predator and prey: the predator is informed that it has been detected and might as well save time and energy by giving up the chase, while the prey is protected from attack.
1259:
to protect the entire colony, so the self-destructive acts benefit all individuals in the colony. When a worker ant's leg is grasped, it suicidally expels the contents of its hypertrophied
414:
and other prey mammals flag with conspicuous (often black and white) tail markings when alarmed, informing the predator that it has been detected. Warning calls given by birds such as the
1222:
chicks vomit a bright orange, foul smelling liquid when they sense danger. This repels prospective predators and may alert their parents to danger: they respond by delaying their return.
746:
often attacks these horses, sucking blood and carrying diseases. When the flies are most numerous, the horses gather in large groups, and individuals are indeed attacked less frequently.
595:, a palatable, harmless prey species mimics the appearance of another species that is noxious to predators, thus reducing the mimic's risk of attack. This form of mimicry is seen in many
1263:, expelling corrosive irritant compounds and adhesives onto the predator. These prevent predation and serve as a signal to other enemy ants to stop predation of the rest of the colony.
540:
attract the attention of predators away from an object, typically the nest or young, that is being protected, as when some birds feign a broken wing while hopping about on the ground.
1302:, according to the animal's capabilities. Escape paths are often erratic, making it difficult for the predator to predict which way the prey will go next: for example, birds such as
60:. Throughout the animal kingdom, adaptations have evolved for every stage of this struggle, namely by avoiding detection, warding off attack, fighting back, or escaping when caught.
2519:"Crypsis, conspicuousness, mimicry and polyphenism as antipredator defences of foraging octopuses on Indo-Pacific coral reefs, with a method of quantifying crypsis form video tapes"
758:
In a group, prey seek central positions in order to reduce their domain of danger. Individuals along the outer edges of the group are more at risk of being targeted by the predator.
2168:
1179:
are birds which may nest either solitarily or in colonies. Within colonies, fieldfares mob and defecate on approaching predators, shown experimentally to reduce predation levels.
3858:
Peterson, Steven C., Nelson D. Johnson, and John L. LeGuyader (1987). "Defensive
Regurgitation of Allelochemicals Derived From Host Cyanogenesis By Eastern Tent Caterpillars".
4091:
1081:
accurately squirt venom from their fangs at the eyes of potential predators, striking their target eight times out of ten, and causing severe pain. Termite soldiers in the
110:, despite the increased conspicuousness of a group, through improved vigilance, predator confusion, and the likelihood that the predator will attack some other individual.
1392:
shed their tails when attacked: the tail goes on writhing for a while, distracting the predator, and giving the lizard time to escape; a smaller tail slowly regrows.
162:. Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by activity during the night and sleeping during the day. This is a behavioral form of detection avoidance called
4156:
Geffroy, Benjamin; Sadoul, Bastien; Putman, Breanna J.; Berger-Tal, Oded; Garamszegi, László Zsolt; Møller, Anders Pape; Blumstein, Daniel T. (22 September 2020).
778:
danger, so animals are predicted to strive constantly to gain this position. Testing
Hamilton's selfish herd effect, Alta De Vos and Justin O'Rainn (2010) studied
3402:
1294:
The normal reaction of a prey animal to an attacking predator is to flee by any available means, whether flying, gliding, falling, swimming, running, jumping,
891:
snake, they sometimes mob it. Similar calls are found in other species of monkey, while birds also give different calls that elicit different responses.
2116:
Derby, Charles D. (December 2007). "Escape by Inking and
Secreting: Marine Molluscs Avoid Predators Through a Rich Array of Chemicals and Mechanisms".
678:'s short spines, which are modified hairs, readily bend, and are barbed into the body, so they are not easily lost; they may be jabbed at an attacker.
3504:
179:. This results in an optimum evening emergence time that is a compromise between the conflicting demands. Another nocturnal adaptation can be seen in
4287:
1721:
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3901:
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death to avoid being attacked by predators seeking live prey. Thanatosis can also be used by the predator in order to lure prey into approaching.
2094:
726:
A dilution effect is seen when animals living in a group "dilute" their risk of attack, each individual being just one of many in the group.
2039:
Alboni, Paolo; Alboni, Marco; Bertorelle, Giorgio (2008). "The origin of vasovagal syncope: to protect the heart or to escape predation?".
1233:
regurgitate when disturbed by ants. The vomit of noctuid moths has repellent and irritant properties that help to deter predator attacks.
3560:
Sherbrooke, W.C. (2001). "Do vertebral-line patterns in two horned lizards (Phrynosoma spp.) mimic plant-stem shadows and stem litter?".
2215:
4337:
1299:
2842:
Foster, W.A.; Treherne, J.E. (1981). "Evidence for the dilution effect in the selfish herd from fish predation on a marine insect".
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in a last-ditch attempt to elude a predator's grasp or to distract the predator and thereby allow escape. The lost body part may be
4347:
3205:
Stanford, Craig B (1995). "The influence of chimpanzee predation on group size and anti-predator behavior in red colobus monkeys".
1167:
is the harassing of a predator by many prey animals. Mobbing is usually done to protect the young in social colonies. For example,
4083:
2981:
1433:
had markedly reduced the antipredator responses of animals such as rats and pigeons; similar changes are observed in captive and
522:
give themselves a last chance to escape by distracting their attackers. To do this, they eject a mixture of chemicals, which may
738:
of fish. Experiments provide direct evidence for the decrease in individual attack rate seen with group living, for example in
283:
Another way to remain unattacked in plain sight is to look different from other members of the same species. Predators such as
3966:
Jones, T.H.; Clark, D.A.; Edwards, A.; Davidson, D.W.; Spande, T.F.; Snelling, R.R. (2004). "The chemistry of exploding ants,
269:, a South American bird, habitually perches on a tree, convincingly resembling a broken stump of a branch, while a butterfly,
4066:
3324:
3028:
2736:
2257:
1924:
Bergstrom, C. T.; Lachmann, M. (2001). "Alarm calls as costly signals of antipredator vigilance: the watchful babbler game".
821:
Predators may feast on the emerging population, but are unable to consume more than a fraction of the brief surfeit of prey.
674:
spines are long, stiff, break at the tip, and in some species are barbed to stick into a would-be predator. In contrast, the
3635:
3760:
Andersson, Malte; Wiklund, Christer G. (1978). "Clumping versus spacing out: Experiments on nest predation in fieldfares (
980:
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fawns, which experience a drop in heart rate in response to approaching predators. This response, referred to as "alarm
4314:
4039:
4475:
4158:"Evolutionary dynamics in the Anthropocene: Life history and intensity of human contact shape antipredator responses"
3544:
403:
Pursuit-deterrent signals are behavioral signals used by prey to convince predators not to pursue them. For example,
171:. Although early access during brighter times permits easier foraging, it also leads to a higher predation risk from
2807:
Duncan, P.; Vigne, N. (1979). "The effect of group size in horses on the rate of attacks by blood-sucking flies".
1455:
666:
is a sharp, needle-like structure used to inflict pain on predators. An example of this seen in nature is in the
4242:
1422:
1137:
include seabirds, pinnipeds and cetaceans, but few fish, suggesting that predatory fish avoid hagfish as prey.
727:
1476:
1093:"many centimeters". The material is sticky and toxic to other insects. One of the terpenes in the secretion,
292:
718:
Group living can decrease the risk of predation to the individual in a variety of ways, as described below.
3512:
1110:
82:
Alternatively, prey animals may ward off attack, whether by advertising the presence of strong defences in
3508:
2989:
1754:(2005). "The role of eyespots as anti-predator mechanisms, principally demonstrated in the Lepidoptera".
1729:
1751:
955:
614:. Birds avoid eating both species because their wing patterns honestly signal their unpleasant taste.
1446:
1164:
1146:
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individual zebra. Furthermore, when moving rapidly, the zebra stripes create a confusing, flickering
287:
selectively hunt for abundant types of insect, ignoring less common types that were present, forming
3346:
1798:
531:
3536:
2249:
1226:
2698:
Vincent, J. F. V.; Owers, P. (1986). "Mechanical design of hedgehog spines and porcupine quills".
2086:
1938:
643:
Many animals are protected against predators with armour in the form of hard shells (such as most
4364:
1273:
908:
836:
440:
233:
232:, self-decoration, cryptic behavior, or changeable skin patterns and colour. Animals such as the
194:
135:
4307:
2169:"Chemical Composition of Inks of Diverse Marine Molluscs Suggests Convergent Chemical Defenses"
1933:
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1089:, a gland on the front of their head which can secrete and shoot an accurate jet of resinous
1073:
221:
2754:"Stinging spines protect slug caterpillars (Limacodidae) from multiple generalist predators"
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1229:
regurgitates a droplet of digestive fluid to repel attacking ants. Similarly, larvae of the
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Derby, Charles D.; Kicklighter, Cynthia E.; Johnson, P. M. & Xu Zhang (29 March 2007).
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or otherwise confuse predators. In response to a predator, animals in these groups release
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262:
254:
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addition, these lizards hide any remaining shadows by pressing their bodies to the ground.
229:
68:
33:
2933:"Sharks shape the geometry of a selfish seal herd: experimental evidence from seal decoys"
1846:(1986). "The functions of stotting in Thomson's gazelles: Some tests of the predictions".
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8:
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follows a zigzagging path, often doubling back erratically, when chased by a fish-eating
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Some prey animals are able to eject noxious materials to deter predators actively. The
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803:
632:
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363:
337:
322:
91:
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2288:
Endler, J. A. (1981). "An overview of the relationships between mimicry and crypsis".
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The first line of defence consists in avoiding detection, through mechanisms such as
4011:
3785:
3705:
3298:
3120:
2828:
2558:
Holen, O.H.; Johnstone, R. A. (2004). "The
Evolution of Mimicry under Constraints".
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1990:
1910:
1867:
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825:, which emerge at intervals of 13 or 17 years, are often used as an example of this
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21:
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Ritland, D. B. (1995). "Comparative unpalatability of mimetic viceroy butterflies (
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2013:
1978:
1955:
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1500:
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1082:
1042:
904:
592:
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Hingston, R. W. G. (1927). "The liquid-squirting habit of oriental grasshoppers".
2752:
Murphy, Shannon M.; Leahy, Susannah M.; Williams, Laila S.; Lill, John T. (2010).
4274:
Avoiding Attack: The
Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry
4174:
3825:
3409:
2424:"Contributions to an insect fauna of the Amazon valley. Lepidoptera: Heliconidae"
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can sacrifice a claw, which can be regrown over several successive moults; among
1219:
1204:
1192:
1098:
1086:
663:
628:
250:
3639:
2650:
4405:
3801:"Armed Rollers: Does Nestling's Vomit Function as a Defence against Predators?"
3597:"Canid Elicitation of Blood-Squirting in a Horned Lizard (Phrynosoma Cornutum)"
2885:
1356:
can distract predators, continuing to writhe while the lizard makes its escape.
1078:
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450:
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27:
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Some birds and insects use defensive regurgitation to ward off predators. The
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secrete noxious liquids when threatened, sometimes ejecting these forcefully.
4454:
4265:
4183:
3241:"The Incidence, Functions and Ecological Significance of Petrel Stomach Oils"
3240:
1434:
960:
875:
774:
731:
713:
453:. Thanatosis is a form of bluff in which an animal mimics its own dead body,
419:
317:
150:
Animals may avoid becoming prey by living out of sight of predators, whether
103:
2770:
2753:
1969:
Getty, T. (2002). "The discriminating babbler meets the optimal diet hawk".
829:, though other explanations of their unusual life-cycle have been proposed.
4395:
4238:
4201:
4003:
3844:
3746:
3581:
3526:
3489:
3171:
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2948:
2661:; a remarkable case of mimicry in butterflies. (R. Meldola translation.)".
2636:
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2579:
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2503:
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534:, affecting the predator's feeding senses, causing it to attack the cloud.
523:
493:
476:
415:
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180:
159:
143:
130:
3799:
Parejo, D; Avilés, JM; Peña, A; Sánchez, L; Ruano, F; et al. (2013).
3464:"The buccal buckle: The functional morphology of venom spitting in cobras"
3085:
2917:
1881:
Bildstein, Keith L. (May 1983). "Why White-Tailed Deer Flag Their Tails".
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832:
436:
4439:
4400:
4031:
Tropical rain forests : an ecological and biogeographical comparison
3937:
3916:
3719:
Lim, Jeanette; Fudge, Douglas F.; Levy, Nimrod; Gosline, John M. (2006).
3315:
Hulme, P. E.; Benkman, C. W. (2002). Herrera, C. M.; Pellmyr, O. (eds.).
1413:, including the use of ink as a distraction, camouflage, and signalling.
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Sherbrooke, Wade C.; George, A. Middendorf III; Douglas, M. E. (2004).
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2025:
2004:
Pasteur, Georges (1982). "A classificatory review of mimicry systems".
1902:
1481:"Hagfish Slime as a Defense Mechanism against Gill-breathing Predators"
1404:
1403:
recorded observations (around 350 BC) of the antipredator behaviour of
1381:
1345:
1282:
1242:
1176:
1102:
799:
701:
582:
511:
245:
216:
211:
190:
176:
151:
64:
3737:
3720:
3480:
3463:
3403:"See It to Believe It: Animals Vomit, Spurt Blood to Thwart Predators"
3134:
Stevens, M; Searle, WT; Seymour, JE; Marshall, KL; Ruxton, GD (2011).
1504:
4136:
3670:) to Antipredator Blood-Squirting and Blood of Texas Horned Lizards (
2863:
2271:
2269:
2129:
1417:
1400:
1365:
1328:
1307:
1295:
1278:
743:
671:
656:
606:, two or more aposematic forms share the same warning signals, as in
355:
186:
155:
139:
76:
49:
3879:
3612:
3596:
3178:
2423:
1821:
4226:
3462:
Young, B. A.; Dunlap, K.; Koenig, K.; Singer, M. (September 2004).
3269:
3099:
Bertram, Brian C. (1980). "Vigilance and group size in ostriches".
2571:
1894:
1843:
1420:
wrote a compendious study of camouflage, mimicry, and aposematism,
1373:
1361:
1353:
1340:
1256:
1014:
932:
878:
give different calls depending on the nature of the attack: for an
675:
507:
481:
407:
392:
384:
351:
328:
Many species make use of behavioral strategies to deter predators.
172:
57:
3272:"A review on self-destructive defense behaviors in social insects"
2266:
1479:; Stewart, Andrew L.; Struthers, Carl D.; Harvey, Euan S. (2011).
4434:
4424:
3915:
Smedley, Scott R., Elizabeth
Ehrhardt, and Thomas Eisner (1993).
3721:"Hagfish Slime Ecomechanics: testing the gill-clogging mechanics"
3136:"Motion dazzle and camouflage as distinct anti-predator defenses"
1133:
1126:
1090:
925:
921:
883:
848:
652:
644:
577:
558:
549:
519:
503:
404:
271:
163:
87:
38:
3374:
2468:
Norman, Mark; Finn, Julian; Tregenza, Tom (September 7, 2001).
2160:
1430:
1389:
1349:
1156:
1101:. Seeds deter predation with combinations of toxic non-protein
1094:
794:
596:
389:
312:
2452:
4155:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4101:
3358:
3356:
1474:
1385:
1303:
951:
937:
879:
852:
844:
588:, or warning signals, to avoid being attacked by a predator.
515:
284:
266:
3133:
2982:"The ecology, behavior, and evolution of periodical cicadas"
3633:
1377:
1151:
343:
291:
of the desired prey. This creates a mechanism for negative
168:
53:
4117:
4098:
4027:
3588:
3353:
3314:
2788:
1247:
An unusual type of predator deterrence is observed in the
362:
such as octopuses, make use of patterns of threatening or
3965:
1578:
Duverge, P.L.; Jones, G; Rydell, J.; Ransome, R. (2000).
1577:
1045:
similarly release blood at their joints when threatened (
3056:
Pulliam, H. R. (1973). "On the advantages of flocking".
2516:
1824:. The Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland
1621:
802:: millions emerge at once, at long intervals, likely to
3798:
3663:
3461:
3037:
2751:
2517:
Hanlon, R.T.; Forsythe, J.W.; Joneschild, D.E. (1999).
2319:
1451:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
102:, by using defensive structures such as spines, and by
3265:
3263:
3261:
2979:
2368:) from four south-eastern United States populations".
2038:
1689:
1225:
Numerous insects utilize defensive regurgitation. The
1021:. Many insects acquire toxins from their food plants;
1728:. University of California, Riverside. Archived from
1701:
1580:"Functional significance of emergence timing in bats"
1159:
in defensive formation, horns ready, and highly alert
1009:
for the animal's flesh itself to be toxic, as in the
704:, chooses larvae without spines when given a choice.
4034:(2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 197, 200.
3594:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3228:
2663:
1677:
1665:
1573:
1571:
990:, exuding a drop of noxious red liquid (upper right)
4288:
Antipredatory Behavior lecture by William E. Cooper
4264:
4054:
3718:
3595:Middendorf, George A.; Sherbrooke, Wade C. (1992).
3505:"Cobras Spit Venom at Eyes With Nearly Perfect Aim"
3437:
Transactions of the Entomological Society of London
3310:
3308:
3258:
3189:
3015:
2275:
1543:. University of California Press. pp. 117–118.
399:
to the predator that the chase will be unprofitable
25:Anti-predator adaptation in action: the seal shark
4253:
3917:"Defensive Regurgitation by a Noctuid Moth Larva (
2924:
2600:
2467:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2239:
1655:
1653:
573:, similar in appearance, unpalatable to predators.
4058:Trace Fossils: Biology, Taxonomy and Applications
4028:Corlett, Richard T.; Primack, Richard B. (2011).
3659:
3657:
3225:
3098:
2930:
1923:
1568:
1538:
1449: – Psychological impact induced by predators
18:Defensive feature of prey for selective advantage
4452:
3759:
3305:
3270:Davidson, D.W.; Salim, K.A.; Billen, J. (2011).
3502:
2308:
1650:
1541:Introduction to horned lizards of North America
1534:
1532:
3654:
3055:
2841:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2557:
2363:
1617:
1615:
1376:discard stinging papillae; arthropods such as
1207:vomits a bright orange, oily substance called
4308:
3023:. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–121.
2931:De Vos, A.; O'Riain, M. J. (September 2009).
2601:Norman, M.D.; Finn, J.; Tregenza, T. (2001).
2287:
2080:
2078:
1364:(self-amputation), shedding one of their own
874:that give warning of an attack. For example,
56:organisms in their constant struggle against
4081:
3951:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3900:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2697:
2603:"Dynamic Mimicry in an Indo-Malayan Octopus"
2470:"Dynamic mimicry in an Indo-Malayan octopus"
2084:
1529:
1458: – Plants' defenses against being eaten
373:
3418:blog, 28 July 2009, retrieved 17 March 2010
3200:
3198:
2806:
2718:
2686:
2359:
2357:
1842:
1612:
1429:By the 21st century, adaptation to life in
1171:monkeys exhibit mobbing when threatened by
90:animals which do possess such defences, by
4315:
4301:
4231:Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals
4023:
4021:
3559:
2075:
1819:
1553:
1395:
1182:
655:), or tough chitinous exoskeletons (as in
543:
366:, such as suddenly displaying conspicuous
4338:Coloration evidence for natural selection
4191:
4173:
4135:
3936:
3834:
3824:
3736:
3525:
3479:
3161:
3151:
2956:
2888:(1971). "Geometry for the selfish herd".
2779:
2769:
2626:
2542:
2523:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2493:
2453:Stearns, Stephen; Hoekstra, Rolf (2005).
2345:
2326:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2290:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1937:
1880:
1603:
1512:
1004:Many prey animals, and to defend against
331:
4322:
4082:Kruszelnicki, Karl S. (August 9, 1999).
3634:Pianka, Erika R. & Wendy L. Hodges.
3434:
3204:
3195:
2973:
2884:
2683:. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 96–97.
2354:
2006:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1790:
1344:
1272:
1186:
1150:
979:
931:
898:
831:
793:
773:The selfish herd theory was proposed by
753:
680:
616:
557:
475:
435:
383:
342:Many weakly-defended animals, including
321:, attempting to startle a predator with
306:
244:
185:
134:
20:
4251:
4123:
4111:
4048:
4018:
3430:
3428:
3426:
3424:
3362:
2794:
2724:
2457:. Oxford University Press. p. 464.
2003:
1997:
1796:
1750:
1132:The slime glands along the body of the
870:Animals that live in groups often give
638:
488:from its nest by feigning a broken wing
124:
4453:
3238:
2980:Williams, K.S. & C. Simon (1995).
2800:
2649:
278:
265:as inedible objects. For example, the
4296:
4094:from the original on October 1, 2016.
3959:
3638:. University of Texas. Archived from
3503:Mayell, Hillary (February 10, 2005).
2679:Thomas, Craig. Scott, Susan. (1997).
2418:
2412:
2115:
2109:
1968:
1475:Zintzen, Vincent; Roberts, Clive D.;
1120:A few vertebrate species such as the
944:
894:
789:
302:
113:
4237:
4225:
4075:
3421:
3043:
1822:"Octopus vulgaris. Dymantic display"
1707:
1695:
1683:
1671:
1659:
1236:
1195:chick protects itself with a jet of
975:
954:has been suggested by the zoologist
707:
449:Another pursuit-deterrent signal is
4145:. Vol. IX. pp. 621b–622a.
3725:The Journal of Experimental Biology
3003:10.1146/annurev.en.40.010195.001413
2428:Transactions of the Linnean Society
2248:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. p.
2018:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001125
1140:
963:effect in the eye of the predator.
261:Animals can hide in plain sight by
98:that pursuit is not worthwhile, by
13:
3996:10.1023/b:joec.0000042063.01424.28
3449:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1927.tb00060.x
2712:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1986.tb03620.x
2440:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1860.tb00146.x
2320:Holmgren, H.; Enquist, M. (1999).
2302:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1981.tb01840.x
1719:
1605:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2000.tb00258.x
721:
696:Many species of slug caterpillar,
14:
4487:
4281:
3190:Ruxton, Sherratt & Speed 2004
2276:Ruxton, Sherratt & Speed 2004
886:or other cat, a loud bark; for a
651:), leathery or scaly skin (as in
48:are mechanisms developed through
2607:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2474:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
966:
940:is hard to catch amongst a herd.
4149:
4129:
3925:Psyche: A Journal of Entomology
3908:
3851:
3792:
3753:
3712:
3627:
3553:
3532:Sociobiology: the New Synthesis
3519:
3496:
3468:Journal of Experimental Biology
3455:
3396:
3368:
3319:. Blackwell. pp. 132–154.
3127:
3092:
3049:
3009:
2878:
2835:
2745:
2673:
2643:
2594:
2551:
2510:
2461:
2446:
2322:"Dynamics of mimicry evolution"
2281:
2233:
2097:from the original on 2021-09-24
2032:
1962:
1917:
1874:
1836:
1813:
1744:
1713:
1456:Plant defense against herbivory
762:
425:
275:, looks just like a dead leaf.
4244:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
4233:. University of Chicago Press.
3248:New Zealand Ecological Society
2890:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2731:. Reaktion Books. p. 10.
2725:Warwick, Hugh (15 June 2014).
2085:Inman, Mason (29 March 2005).
1820:Smith, Ian (3 December 2012).
1557:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1547:
1468:
1423:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1025:caterpillars accumulate toxic
907:, chases up an alert flock of
859:
471:
460:An example of this is seen in
1:
4084:"Real Wheel Animals—Part Two"
4061:. Routledge. pp. 69–72.
3113:10.1016/S0003-3472(80)80030-3
1860:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80052-5
1636:10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80748-1
1462:
293:frequency-dependent selection
240:
205:
197:, its flattened, fringed and
4272:; Speed, Michael P. (2004).
4175:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000818
4055:Bromley, Richard G. (2012).
3826:10.1371/journal.pone.0068862
3778:10.1016/0003-3472(78)90110-0
3390:10.1016/0022-1910(77)90162-7
3378:Journal of Insect Physiology
3219:10.1016/0003-3472(95)90033-0
3078:10.1016/0022-5193(73)90184-7
2910:10.1016/0022-5193(71)90189-5
2821:10.1016/0003-3472(79)90201-x
2087:"Sea Hares Lose Their Lunch"
1560:. London: Methuen. pp.
1360:Some animals are capable of
1113:and amylase inhibitors, and
882:, a disyllabic cough; for a
7:
3976:Journal of Chemical Ecology
2990:Annual Review of Entomology
2240:Barrows, Edward M. (2001).
2176:Journal of Chemical Ecology
2041:Clinical Autonomic Research
1440:
1334:
1314:evade fast raptors such as
1268:
106:. Members of groups are at
10:
4492:
4247:. Oxford University Press.
4219:
2455:Evolution: An Introduction
1539:Sherbrooke, W. C. (2003).
1338:
1240:
1144:
993:
920:flocks are preyed upon by
863:
809:
766:
711:
547:
491:
451:thanatosis or playing dead
429:
377:
335:
209:
128:
117:
96:signalling to the predator
4378:
4330:
4252:Edmunds, Malcolm (1974).
3666:"Responses of Kit Foxes (
3291:10.1007/s00040-011-0210-x
2196:10.1007/s10886-007-9279-0
2053:10.1007/s10286-008-0479-7
1797:Edmunds, Malcolm (2012).
1768:10.1017/S1464793105006810
1447:Ecology of fear (concept)
1289:
1285:fly from possible danger.
1147:Mobbing (animal behavior)
374:Pursuit-deterrent signals
108:reduced risk of predation
75:, living underground, or
46:Anti-predator adaptations
37:(d–f) attempt to prey on
4476:Antipredator adaptations
4391:Anti-predator adaptation
4088:Great Moments in Science
3537:Harvard University Press
3019:; Harper, David (2003).
1722:"Antipredatory Behavior"
1227:eastern tent caterpillar
984:The bloody-nose beetle,
843:that warn of attacks by
742:in Southern France. The
530:, creating a cloud, and
224:, shadow elimination by
31:(a–c) and the wreckfish
4365:Paradox of the plankton
2560:The American Naturalist
2118:The Biological Bulletin
1883:The American Naturalist
1396:History of observations
1249:Malaysian exploding ant
1183:Defensive regurgitation
544:Mimicry and aposematism
441:Eastern hog-nosed snake
234:flat-tail horned lizard
201:body eliminating shadow
195:flat-tail horned lizard
4142:The History of Animals
3582:10.1006/jare.2001.0852
3153:10.1186/1741-7007-9-81
2949:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0628
2619:10.1098/rspb.2001.1708
2544:10.1006/bijl.1998.0264
2486:10.1098/rspb.2001.1708
2347:10.1006/bijl.1998.0269
1983:10.1006/anbe.2001.1890
1948:10.1006/anbe.2000.1636
1357:
1286:
1216:when diving for food.
1200:
1160:
1049:). Several species of
991:
941:
912:
856:
807:
759:
693:
635:
574:
489:
486:distracting a predator
446:
400:
332:Startling the predator
325:
258:
202:
199:disruptively patterned
147:
42:
4331:Patterns of evolution
3515:on November 10, 2005.
3239:Warham, John (1977).
2781:10.1093/beheco/arp166
2771:10.1093/beheco/arp166
2681:All Stings Considered
1348:
1276:
1241:Further information:
1190:
1154:
1145:Further information:
1107:cyanogenic glycosides
1074:Tegra novaehollandiae
994:Further information:
983:
935:
902:
835:
797:
757:
712:Further information:
684:
620:
561:
479:
439:
387:
378:Further information:
310:
248:
222:disruptive coloration
189:
138:
118:Further information:
24:
4343:Convergent evolution
4324:Evolutionary ecology
3919:Litoprosopus futilis
3539:. pp. 302–305.
3384:(11–12): 1383–1386.
1321:sonar clicks of bats
1261:submandibular glands
987:Timarcha tenebricosa
639:Defensive structures
538:Distraction displays
230:counter-illumination
125:Staying out of sight
34:Polyprion americanus
4416:Distraction display
4360:Divergent evolution
4270:Sherratt, Thomas N.
4126:, pp. 179–181.
4114:, pp. 145–149.
3988:2004JCEco..30.1479J
3972:Cylindricus complex
3872:1987Ecol...68.1268P
3817:2013PLoSO...868862P
3690:10.1643/ch-03-157r1
3672:Phrynosoma cornutum
3574:2002JArEn..50..109S
3509:National Geographic
3365:, pp. 189–201.
3070:1973JThBi..38..419P
3046:, pp. 115–149.
3017:Maynard Smith, John
2902:1971JThBi..31..295H
2856:1981Natur.293..466F
2797:, pp. 202–207.
2613:(1478): 1755–1758.
2535:1999BJLS...66....1H
2480:(1478): 1755–1758.
2382:1995Oecol.103..327R
2366:Limenitis archippus
2338:1999BJLS...66..145H
2221:on 15 November 2009
2188:2007JCEco..33.1105D
1799:"Deimatic Behavior"
1720:Cooper, William E.
1698:, pp. 318–320.
1596:2000Ecogr..23...32D
1554:Cott, H.B. (1940).
1497:2011NatSR...1E.131Z
1122:Texas horned lizard
1115:phytohemagglutinins
1056:Poecilocerus pictus
769:Selfish herd theory
612:monarch butterflies
498:distraction display
397:signalling honestly
364:startling behaviour
297:apostatic selection
279:Apostatic selection
193:illustrated by the
146:to avoid predators.
73:apostatic selection
4411:Deimatic behaviour
4370:Predator satiation
4355:Parallel evolution
4256:Defence in Animals
3938:10.1155/1993/67950
3408:2017-09-14 at the
2758:Behavioral Ecology
2700:Journal of Zoology
2390:10.1007/BF00328621
1756:Biological Reviews
1485:Scientific Reports
1477:Anderson, Marti J.
1410:History of Animals
1358:
1323:. Among fish, the
1312:black-headed gulls
1287:
1201:
1161:
1097:, functions as an
1068:Aularches miliaris
1062:Parasanaa donovani
1015:danaid butterflies
992:
945:Predator confusion
942:
913:
895:Improved vigilance
857:
827:predator satiation
823:Periodical cicadas
812:Predator satiation
808:
790:Predator satiation
784:great white sharks
760:
728:George C. Williams
694:
636:
633:warning coloration
624:Erethizon dorsatum
575:
490:
447:
401:
338:Deimatic behaviour
326:
323:deimatic behaviour
303:Warding off attack
259:
203:
148:
114:Avoiding detection
43:
4448:
4447:
4386:Signalling theory
4266:Ruxton, Graeme D.
4068:978-1-135-07607-8
3738:10.1242/jeb.02067
3527:O. Wilson, Edward
3481:10.1242/jeb.01170
3474:(20): 3483–3494.
3415:Discover Magazine
3326:978-0-632-05267-7
3192:, pp. 64–69.
3030:978-0-19852-685-8
2850:(5832): 466–467.
2738:978-1-78023-315-4
2259:978-0-8493-2005-7
2182:(33): 1105–1113.
1710:, pp. 61–65.
1686:, pp. 53–55.
1674:, pp. 35–60.
1505:10.1038/srep00131
1316:peregrine falcons
1237:Suicidal altruism
1047:autohaemorrhaging
1043:Armoured crickets
1038:bombardier beetle
1000:bombardier beetle
996:autohaemorrhaging
976:Chemical defences
816:Periodical cicada
804:satiate predators
800:periodical cicada
708:Safety in numbers
668:sohal surgeonfish
604:Müllerian mimicry
462:white-tailed deer
412:White-tailed deer
380:Signalling theory
104:living in a group
94:the attacker, by
4483:
4317:
4310:
4303:
4294:
4293:
4277:
4261:
4259:
4248:
4234:
4214:
4213:
4195:
4177:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4133:
4127:
4121:
4115:
4109:
4096:
4095:
4079:
4073:
4072:
4052:
4046:
4045:
4025:
4016:
4015:
3982:(8): 1479–1492.
3963:
3957:
3956:
3950:
3942:
3940:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3899:
3891:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3838:
3828:
3796:
3790:
3789:
3772:(4): 1207–1212.
3766:Animal Behaviour
3757:
3751:
3750:
3740:
3731:(Pt 4): 702–10.
3716:
3710:
3709:
3661:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3642:on 29 April 2011
3636:"Horned Lizards"
3631:
3625:
3624:
3592:
3586:
3585:
3557:
3551:
3550:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3511:. Archived from
3500:
3494:
3493:
3483:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3432:
3419:
3412:, Allison Bond,
3400:
3394:
3393:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3351:
3350:
3344:
3340:
3338:
3330:
3312:
3303:
3302:
3279:Insectes Sociaux
3276:
3267:
3256:
3255:
3245:
3236:
3223:
3222:
3207:Animal Behaviour
3202:
3193:
3187:
3176:
3175:
3165:
3155:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3101:Animal Behaviour
3096:
3090:
3089:
3053:
3047:
3041:
3035:
3034:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2986:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2960:
2928:
2922:
2921:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2864:10.1038/293466a0
2839:
2833:
2832:
2809:Animal Behaviour
2804:
2798:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2773:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2695:
2684:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2630:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2497:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2361:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2317:
2306:
2305:
2285:
2279:
2273:
2264:
2263:
2247:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2220:
2214:. Archived from
2173:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2130:10.2307/25066645
2113:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2082:
2073:
2072:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1971:Animal Behaviour
1966:
1960:
1959:
1941:
1926:Animal Behaviour
1921:
1915:
1914:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1848:Animal Behaviour
1840:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1699:
1693:
1687:
1681:
1675:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1648:
1647:
1624:Animal Behaviour
1619:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1575:
1566:
1565:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1536:
1527:
1526:
1516:
1472:
1452:
1141:Communal defence
1083:Nasutitermitinae
1029:from milkweeds (
909:American avocets
905:northern harrier
798:A newly emerged
593:Batesian mimicry
571:Müllerian mimics
311:A Mediterranean
4491:
4490:
4486:
4485:
4484:
4482:
4481:
4480:
4451:
4450:
4449:
4444:
4374:
4326:
4321:
4284:
4222:
4217:
4168:(9): e3000818.
4154:
4150:
4134:
4130:
4122:
4118:
4110:
4099:
4090:. ABC Science.
4080:
4076:
4069:
4053:
4049:
4042:
4026:
4019:
3964:
3960:
3944:
3943:
3931:(3–4): 209–21.
3913:
3909:
3893:
3892:
3880:10.2307/1939211
3866:(5): 1268–272.
3856:
3852:
3797:
3793:
3758:
3754:
3717:
3713:
3668:Vulpes macrotis
3662:
3655:
3645:
3643:
3632:
3628:
3613:10.2307/1446212
3593:
3589:
3558:
3554:
3547:
3524:
3520:
3501:
3497:
3460:
3456:
3433:
3422:
3410:Wayback Machine
3401:
3397:
3373:
3369:
3361:
3354:
3342:
3341:
3332:
3331:
3327:
3313:
3306:
3274:
3268:
3259:
3243:
3237:
3226:
3203:
3196:
3188:
3179:
3132:
3128:
3097:
3093:
3054:
3050:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3014:
3010:
2984:
2978:
2974:
2937:Biology Letters
2929:
2925:
2883:
2879:
2840:
2836:
2805:
2801:
2793:
2789:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2723:
2719:
2696:
2687:
2678:
2674:
2648:
2644:
2599:
2595:
2556:
2552:
2515:
2511:
2466:
2462:
2451:
2447:
2417:
2413:
2362:
2355:
2318:
2309:
2286:
2282:
2274:
2267:
2260:
2244:Animal behavior
2238:
2234:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2171:
2165:
2161:
2114:
2110:
2100:
2098:
2083:
2076:
2037:
2033:
2002:
1998:
1967:
1963:
1922:
1918:
1879:
1875:
1841:
1837:
1827:
1825:
1818:
1814:
1804:
1802:
1795:
1791:
1752:Stevens, Martin
1749:
1745:
1735:
1733:
1718:
1714:
1706:
1702:
1694:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1670:
1666:
1658:
1651:
1620:
1613:
1576:
1569:
1552:
1548:
1537:
1530:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1450:
1443:
1398:
1372:later. Certain
1343:
1337:
1292:
1271:
1245:
1239:
1220:European roller
1205:northern fulmar
1193:northern fulmar
1185:
1149:
1143:
1099:alarm pheromone
1087:fontanellar gun
1079:Spitting cobras
1002:
978:
969:
947:
897:
868:
862:
839:have different
818:
810:Main articles:
792:
782:predation from
771:
765:
740:Camargue horses
724:
722:Dilution effect
716:
710:
641:
627:combines sharp
556:
548:Main articles:
546:
500:
492:Main articles:
474:
434:
428:
382:
376:
340:
334:
305:
281:
251:Kallima inachus
243:
214:
208:
133:
127:
122:
116:
19:
12:
11:
5:
4489:
4479:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4420:
4419:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4406:Apparent death
4403:
4398:
4388:
4382:
4380:
4376:
4375:
4373:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4351:
4350:
4340:
4334:
4332:
4328:
4327:
4320:
4319:
4312:
4305:
4297:
4291:
4290:
4283:
4282:External links
4280:
4279:
4278:
4262:
4249:
4235:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4215:
4148:
4128:
4116:
4097:
4074:
4067:
4047:
4041:978-1444332551
4040:
4017:
3958:
3907:
3850:
3791:
3762:Turdus pilaris
3752:
3711:
3684:(3): 652–658.
3653:
3626:
3587:
3568:(1): 109–120.
3562:J Arid Environ
3552:
3545:
3518:
3495:
3454:
3420:
3395:
3367:
3352:
3325:
3304:
3257:
3224:
3213:(3): 577–587.
3194:
3177:
3126:
3107:(1): 278–286.
3091:
3058:J. Theor. Biol
3048:
3036:
3029:
3021:Animal Signals
3008:
2972:
2923:
2896:(2): 295–311.
2877:
2834:
2799:
2787:
2764:(1): 153–160.
2744:
2737:
2717:
2685:
2672:
2642:
2593:
2572:10.1086/424972
2566:(5): 598–613.
2550:
2509:
2460:
2445:
2434:(3): 495–566.
2411:
2376:(3): 327–336.
2353:
2332:(2): 145–158.
2307:
2280:
2278:, p. 198.
2265:
2258:
2232:
2159:
2124:(3): 274–289.
2108:
2091:Sciencemag.org
2074:
2031:
1996:
1977:(2): 397–402.
1961:
1932:(3): 535–543.
1916:
1895:10.1086/284096
1889:(5): 709–715.
1873:
1854:(3): 663–684.
1835:
1812:
1789:
1762:(4): 573–588.
1743:
1732:on 18 May 2018
1712:
1700:
1688:
1676:
1664:
1649:
1611:
1567:
1546:
1528:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1453:
1442:
1439:
1397:
1394:
1339:Main article:
1336:
1333:
1291:
1288:
1270:
1267:
1238:
1235:
1184:
1181:
1142:
1139:
1031:Asclepiadaceae
1006:seed predation
977:
974:
968:
965:
956:Martin Stevens
946:
943:
896:
893:
876:vervet monkeys
864:Main article:
861:
858:
837:Vervet monkeys
791:
788:
780:brown fur seal
767:Main article:
764:
761:
748:Water striders
723:
720:
709:
706:
640:
637:
621:The porcupine
545:
542:
473:
470:
432:apparent death
430:Main article:
427:
424:
420:honest signals
418:are similarly
375:
372:
336:Main article:
333:
330:
304:
301:
280:
277:
257:as a dead leaf
242:
239:
226:countershading
210:Main article:
207:
204:
158:, or by being
129:Main article:
126:
123:
120:Prey detection
115:
112:
28:Dalatias licha
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4488:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4393:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4377:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4318:
4313:
4311:
4306:
4304:
4299:
4298:
4295:
4289:
4286:
4285:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4258:
4257:
4250:
4246:
4245:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4223:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4144:
4143:
4138:
4132:
4125:
4120:
4113:
4108:
4106:
4104:
4102:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4078:
4070:
4064:
4060:
4059:
4051:
4043:
4037:
4033:
4032:
4024:
4022:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3962:
3954:
3948:
3939:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3920:
3911:
3903:
3897:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3854:
3846:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3811:(7): e68862.
3810:
3806:
3802:
3795:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3756:
3748:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3715:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3660:
3658:
3641:
3637:
3630:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3607:(2): 519–27.
3606:
3602:
3598:
3591:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3556:
3548:
3546:9780674000896
3542:
3538:
3534:
3533:
3528:
3522:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3499:
3491:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3458:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3425:
3417:
3416:
3411:
3407:
3404:
3399:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3371:
3364:
3359:
3357:
3348:
3336:
3328:
3322:
3318:
3311:
3309:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3273:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3253:
3249:
3242:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3229:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3201:
3199:
3191:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3064:(2): 419–22.
3063:
3059:
3052:
3045:
3040:
3032:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3012:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2991:
2983:
2976:
2968:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2927:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2881:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2796:
2791:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2748:
2740:
2734:
2730:
2729:
2721:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2682:
2676:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2651:Müller, Fritz
2646:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2554:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2513:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2464:
2456:
2449:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2415:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2360:
2358:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2284:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2261:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2245:
2236:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2163:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2079:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2035:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1939:10.1.1.28.773
1935:
1931:
1927:
1920:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1877:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1823:
1816:
1800:
1793:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1747:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1716:
1709:
1704:
1697:
1692:
1685:
1680:
1673:
1668:
1661:
1656:
1654:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1618:
1616:
1606:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1572:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1550:
1542:
1535:
1533:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1467:
1457:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1425:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1138:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1075:
1070:
1069:
1064:
1063:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1007:
1001:
997:
989:
988:
982:
973:
967:Fighting back
964:
962:
961:motion dazzle
957:
953:
939:
934:
930:
927:
923:
919:
910:
906:
901:
892:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
867:
854:
850:
846:
842:
841:alarm signals
838:
834:
830:
828:
824:
817:
813:
805:
801:
796:
787:
785:
781:
776:
775:W.D. Hamilton
770:
756:
752:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
732:W.D. Hamilton
729:
719:
715:
714:Social animal
705:
703:
699:
692:
688:
683:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
660:
658:
654:
650:
646:
634:
630:
626:
625:
619:
615:
613:
609:
605:
600:
598:
594:
589:
587:
584:
579:
572:
568:
564:
560:
555:
551:
541:
539:
535:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
499:
495:
487:
483:
478:
469:
467:
463:
458:
456:
452:
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4162:PLOS Biology
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4124:Edmunds 1974
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2943:(1): 48–50.
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2886:Hamilton, W.
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2090:
2047:(4): 170–8.
2044:
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1730:the original
1725:
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1590:(1): 32–40.
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1435:domesticated
1428:
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1231:noctuid moth
1224:
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903:A raptor, a
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866:Alarm signal
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763:Selfish herd
725:
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691:caterpillars
661:
642:
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501:
494:phagomimicry
459:
448:
444:playing dead
426:Playing dead
416:Eurasian jay
402:
341:
327:
316:
282:
270:
263:masquerading
260:
255:masquerading
249:
215:
149:
131:Nocturnality
81:
77:nocturnality
62:
52:that assist
45:
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4440:Unkenreflex
4401:Aposematism
3646:18 November
3343:|work=
2997:: 269–295.
2815:: 623–625.
2529:(1): 1–22.
2012:: 169–199.
1844:Caro, T. M.
1805:31 December
1405:cephalopods
1382:vertebrates
1370:regenerated
1325:stickleback
1253:hymenoptera
1214:hypothermia
1209:stomach oil
1197:stomach oil
1173:chimpanzees
1169:red colobus
1103:amino acids
1051:grasshopper
1011:puffer fish
918:wood pigeon
872:alarm calls
860:Alarm calls
698:Limacodidae
687:Limacodidae
554:aposematism
472:Distraction
466:bradycardia
360:cephalopods
348:butterflies
177:bat falcons
100:distraction
84:aposematism
4455:Categories
4430:Camouflage
4260:. Longman.
4239:Cott, Hugh
3968:Camponotus
1801:. Springer
1736:23 October
1463:References
1388:and other
1366:appendages
1283:partridges
1243:Autothysis
1177:Fieldfares
1053:including
702:paper wasp
689:slug moth
657:arthropods
586:coloration
583:aposematic
524:mimic food
512:cuttlefish
241:Masquerade
217:Camouflage
212:Camouflage
206:Camouflage
191:Camouflage
140:Fruit bats
69:masquerade
65:camouflage
4471:Predation
4466:Evolution
4276:. Oxford.
4227:Caro, Tim
4210:221864354
4184:1545-7885
4139:(1910) .
4137:Aristotle
3443:: 65–69.
3345:ignored (
3335:cite book
3317:Granivory
3044:Caro 2005
2706:: 55–75.
2653:(1879). "
2370:Oecologia
2296:: 25–31.
1934:CiteSeerX
1828:1 January
1708:Caro 2005
1696:Cott 1940
1684:Caro 2005
1672:Caro 2005
1660:Cott 1940
1584:Ecography
1437:animals.
1418:Hugh Cott
1416:In 1940,
1401:Aristotle
1374:sea slugs
1329:merganser
1308:ptarmigan
1296:burrowing
1279:pheasants
1277:Startled
1251:. Social
1155:Group of
936:A single
926:ostriches
744:horse-fly
685:Stinging
672:Porcupine
520:octopuses
508:sea hares
173:bat hawks
160:nocturnal
92:startling
88:mimicking
58:predators
50:evolution
39:hagfishes
4461:Ethology
4348:examples
4241:(1940).
4229:(2005).
4202:32960897
4092:Archived
4012:23756265
4004:15537154
3845:23874791
3805:PLOS ONE
3786:53195968
3747:16449564
3706:55365586
3529:(2000).
3490:15339944
3406:Archived
3299:13257903
3285:: 1–10.
3254:: 84–93.
3172:22117898
3140:BMC Biol
3121:53144763
2967:19793737
2829:53154054
2728:Hedgehog
2669:: 20–29.
2659:Thyridia
2637:11522192
2580:15540150
2504:11522192
2422:(1961).
2406:13436225
2398:28306826
2204:17393278
2146:18083967
2138:25066645
2095:Archived
2061:18592129
1991:53164940
1911:83504795
1868:53155678
1784:24868603
1776:16221330
1523:22355648
1491:: 2011.
1441:See also
1362:autotomy
1354:autotomy
1341:Autotomy
1335:Autotomy
1269:Escaping
1257:altruism
1255:rely on
1157:muskoxen
1111:protease
1091:terpenes
922:goshawks
849:leopards
736:shoaling
676:hedgehog
653:reptiles
645:molluscs
506:such as
504:molluscs
484:plover,
482:killdeer
455:feigning
405:gazelles
393:stotting
368:eyespots
356:phasmids
352:mantises
152:in caves
144:by night
4435:Mimicry
4425:Crypsis
4379:Signals
4220:Sources
4193:7508406
3984:Bibcode
3888:1939211
3868:Bibcode
3860:Ecology
3836:3707886
3813:Bibcode
3698:1448486
3621:1446212
3570:Bibcode
3163:3257203
3086:4734745
3066:Bibcode
2958:2817263
2918:5104951
2898:Bibcode
2872:4365789
2852:Bibcode
2628:1088805
2588:8153271
2531:Bibcode
2495:1088805
2378:Bibcode
2334:Bibcode
2184:Bibcode
2154:9539618
2069:7739227
2026:2097066
1956:2295026
1903:2460873
1644:4077513
1630:: 1–9.
1592:Bibcode
1562:330–335
1514:3216612
1493:Bibcode
1407:in his
1390:lizards
1384:, many
1300:rolling
1165:Mobbing
1134:hagfish
1127:Canidae
1085:have a
884:leopard
649:turtles
608:viceroy
597:insects
578:Mimicry
567:monarch
563:Viceroy
550:mimicry
532:opaline
502:Marine
272:Kallima
164:crypsis
156:burrows
142:forage
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1350:Lizard
1331:duck.
1290:Flight
1095:pinene
1071:, and
1023:Danaus
888:python
853:snakes
845:eagles
629:spines
390:impala
358:, and
313:mantis
4206:S2CID
4008:S2CID
3884:JSTOR
3782:S2CID
3702:S2CID
3694:JSTOR
3617:JSTOR
3295:S2CID
3275:(PDF)
3244:(PDF)
3117:S2CID
2985:(PDF)
2868:S2CID
2825:S2CID
2655:Ituna
2584:S2CID
2402:S2CID
2225:9 May
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2208:S2CID
2172:(PDF)
2150:S2CID
2134:JSTOR
2065:S2CID
2022:JSTOR
1987:S2CID
1952:S2CID
1907:S2CID
1899:JSTOR
1864:S2CID
1780:S2CID
1640:S2CID
1378:crabs
1352:tail
1304:snipe
952:zebra
938:zebra
880:eagle
664:spine
631:with
516:squid
344:moths
267:potoo
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2394:PMID
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2180:2007
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1830:2013
1807:2012
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