269:. There have been two explanations proposed for this behavior. One hypothesis is that the display arose from a courtship behavior in which the male normally "points" an approaching female towards his nest so that she may lay her eggs within it. Therefore, pointing at the sediment away from a nest containing eggs may divert a cannibalistic female's attention through sexual cues. A second hypothesis is that the stickleback distraction display arose from displaced foraging behavior and as such represents faux-foraging. In support of this hypothesis was the finding that all-male, all-female, and mixed foraging groups responded equally to the display, which would not be expected if it were indeed mimicking a sexual display.
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among foxes, which feed on the rodents, and therefore a greater population of one-year-old foxes in the following year. Yearling foxes are not yet experienced enough grouse hunters to be considered "smart". As such, distraction display may be a profitable strategy for the grouse in years following rodent population booms, as there is less risk of encountering a "smart" predator. However, a low rodent population in a given year may result in lower birth rates among foxes for that year, thereby resulting in a higher proportion of older, more experienced foxes in the population in the following year. In such a case, grouse may profit from not displaying, as they are more likely to encounter a "smart" predator.
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distraction display has tended to evolve in species whose nests alone do not provide a substantial physical barrier to predators, and in those that nest on exposed terrain or close to the ground. If the nest is on open terrain, the parent may perceive predators at a greater distance and be able to leave the nest and begin displaying before the predator is in sufficient proximity to locate the nest. Ground-nesting birds employ different defensive behaviors as part of their antipredator strategies because they nest where a wide range of predators have access.
124:, have taken issue with these arguments. While Armstrong acknowledged that displaying animals could make mistakes, as Lack's nightjar seems to have done in leading him around the nest, he attributed such mistakes not to paralytic fear but to a conflict of interest between self-preservation and reproductive or enemy attack impulses: the bird at once experiences a drive to lure the predator away and also to directly guard the young. Armstrong also thought that the incorporation of sexual and
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parent and to the vulnerable young. The type of predator has also been shown to be of importance, with birds tending to display most intensely to ground-dwelling carnivores and less intensely to humans and flying predators. Finally, the number of potential predators has also been shown to be important in sticklebacks, in which frequency of distraction displaying by the male is positively correlated with the number of conspecifics in a foraging shoal.
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145:
apparent control is attention seemingly paid to routes used by the displaying animal when moving away from the nest. Furthermore, researchers have noted parent animals moving towards the predator during the display. While some of these cases could be attributed to mistakes made during "partial paralysis", in the case described by
Wiklund and Stigh,
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Factors influencing the decision to display when a predator approaches. Circles on the left represent circumstances that lead to lower intensity distraction displays, while circles on the right represent circumstances that lead to higher intensity distraction displays. Different combinations of these
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While animals performing distraction displays are rarely documented as being killed, risks to the displaying animal do exist. One researcher observed and documented an instance in which a second predator became attracted to an animal already performing a distraction display. The displaying animal was
185:
a predator or otherwise performing communal defense, although some species have been observed to display in groups. Finally, distraction display tends to be adaptive when diurnal predation by visually-stimulated predators takes place (as these predators are most likely to notice the visual display).
163:
In any case, there are some forms of distraction display which may in fact have evolved from stress responses, an idea more in alignment with Lack's hypothesis. One of these is the "rodent-run" display, in which a bird fluffs its feathers to mimic the fur of a rodent and scurries away from the nest.
128:
into the distraction display did not necessarily represent a mistake on the part of the animal, but "might make the display more effective by increasing its conspicuousness". Finally, the observation of less vigorous displays due to repeated nest approaches does not preclude the parent animal simply
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has been employed to explain how grouse may decide to display or not based on proxies for the abundance of "smart" predators, such as abundance of rodents in the preceding year. In this particular study, it was assumed that a greater abundance of rodents in one year may result in higher birth rates
358:
young. In species with precocial young, distraction display is most frequent just after hatching, while in altricial young, it is most frequent just before fledging. This may represent a greater tendency to display at the times when parental investment in young is greatest, and the young are still
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Several considerations involving the predator have been shown to be important, including the distance of the predator from the nest. Intensity of display has been shown to decrease as the distance of the predator from the nest increases, perhaps representing the balancing of risk to the displaying
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False brooding is an approach used by plovers. The bird moves away from the nest site and crouches on the ground so as to appear to be sitting at a nonexistent nest and allows the predator to approach closely before escaping. Another display seen in plovers, as well as some passerine birds, is the
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Armstrong additionally noted that displaying animals were rarely captured by predators, as would be expected if the display were truly uncontrolled, and that the movements seemed to show signs of some sort of control by the animal, although likely not conscious, intelligent control. One example of
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mixed with the distraction displays of the bird, suggesting that distraction display is not a purposeful action unto itself, and observed that the display became less vigorous the more frequently he visited the nest, as would be expected if the display were a response driven by fear and surprise.
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Given these risks, an animal must decide when distraction display is an appropriate response to a predator. Researchers have found several important factors that appear to influence the decision to use a distraction display and the intensity of the display, although it is not evident that these
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It has been shown that for
Kentish plovers there is a positive correlation between male and female defense behaviors within pairs and that nests in which parents invested more on defense survived longer. Furthermore, if the nest is on or near the ground, the parent may be able to display more
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There are several conditions in which distraction display may be advantageous to the animal, such that the incorporation of displacement or stress behaviors into offspring defense will most likely undergo positive selection. Most such cases depend upon the condition or location of the nest:
42:
behaviors used to attract the attention of an enemy away from something, typically the nest or young, that is being protected by a parent. Distraction displays are sometimes classified more generically under "nest protection behaviors" along with aggressive displays such as
181:, which nest arboreally, dropping to the ground to perform a distraction display when disturbed, as well as displaying along a tree branch. In addition, distraction display tends to be most adaptive when animals nest solitarily, as solitary nesters lack the opportunity for
253:, and sexual displays, such as courtship dancing by stilts, can become incorporated into distraction displays where the bird is feigning injury. In both cases the incorporated components may increase conspicuousness, resulting in a more effective distraction display.
221:
displays, is one of the more common forms of distraction. In broken-wing displays, birds that are at the nest walk away from it with wings quivering so as to appear as an easy target for a predator. Such injury-feigning displays are particularly well known in nesting
156:. Displacement occurs when an animal, unable to satisfy two conflicting impulses, may initiate an out-of-context behavior to "vent". If a displacement behavior served an adaptive function, such as increased survival of the young, then it may have experienced
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effectively; Armstrong noted the relative rarity in the literature of distraction display in arboreal-nesting species, and attributed this to the difficulty of displaying convincingly while on a branch. Nonetheless, there have been anecdotal reports of
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in order to protect her young. When the nest was approached, the female attempted to lead the researcher away through the trees using a ventriloquistic call that resembled the cries of the young. An additional study documented distraction display in
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Third, the timing of distraction display as a correlate of nestling age has been a matter of particular interest in birds, with study results showing that the age at which displays are performed differs in species with
50:
Distraction displays frequently take the form of injury-feigning. However, animals may also imitate the behavior of a small rodent or alternative prey item for the predator; imitate young or nesting behaviors such as
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An additional hypothesis in alignment with
Armstrong's ideas about conflicting impulses suggests that the incorporation of sexual and threat displays into the distraction display may represent
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very vulnerable. However, some studies have failed to find any correlation between the cost of replacing a brood (a measure of parental investment) and the frequency of distraction display.
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In addition, the presence of a second parent at the nest correlates with increased display intensity, perhaps representing a diluted predation risk. The number of potential extra-pair
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Though rarely documented in mammals, a few instances of distraction display have appeared in the literature. One researcher documented a distraction display performed by a female
574:
Ruxton, Graeme D; Thomas N. Sherratt; Michael
Patrick Speed. (2004) Avoiding attack: the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals and mimicry. Oxford University Press.
265:, when approached by a group of conspecifics, will perform a distraction display by digging or pointing into the substrate away from the nest in order to protect his eggs from
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has also been shown to marginally increase the intensity of the display, again representing a possible dilution of risk to each of the animals engaging in the distraction.
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Additionally, it has been shown that some predators are "smart", or have learned to recognize that distraction displays indicate a nearby nest. One study recorded a
47:. These displays have been studied most extensively in bird species, but also have been documented in populations of stickleback fish and in some mammal species.
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postulated that distraction displays simply resulted from the bird's alarm at having been flushed from the nest and had no decoy purpose. He noted a case in the
242:, in which the nesting bird ruffles its back feathers, crouches, and runs away from the predator. This display resembles the flight response of a small rodent.
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55:(to cause confusion as to the true location of the nest), mimic foraging behaviors away from the nest, or simply draw attention to oneself.
1908:
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Baskett, Thomas S. and Sayre, Mark W. and
Tomlinson, Roy E. (1993) Ecology and Management of the Mourning Dove. Stackpole Books, p. 167,
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Tinbergen, Nikolaas (1952). ""Derived" activities: Their causation, biological significance, origin, and emancipation during evolution".
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1773:
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Hudson, Peter; Newborn, David (1990). "Brood defence in a precocial species: Variations in the distraction displays of red grouse,
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possessed the ability to distinguish between different types of predators of varying threat levels, a behavior which is presumably
1401:
Pavel, Vaclav; Bures, Stanislav (2001). "Offspring age and nest defence: Test of the feedback hypothesis in the meadow pipit".
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Whoriskey, Frederick (1991). "Stickleback distraction displays: Sexual or foraging deception against egg cannibalism?".
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Wiklund, Christer; Stigh, Jimmy (1983). "Nest defense and evolution of reversed sexual size dimorphism in snowy owls
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864:
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Barash, David (1975). "Evolutionary aspects of parental behavior: Distraction behavior of the alpine accentor".
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Distraction display has been most extensively studied in birds. It has been observed in many species, including
112:, when a bird led him around the nest several times but made no attempt to lure him away. He additionally noted
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Curio, E.; Ernst, U.; Vieth, W. (1978). "Cultural transmission of enemy recognition: One function of mobbing".
592:
Foster, Susan (1988). "Diversionary displays of paternal stickleback: Defenses against cannibalistic groups".
286:, whereby a male will call loudly and bounce on branches while the female and young are able to quietly hide.
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consistently walked or ran towards the predator while displaying, suggesting that the action was deliberate.
1576:
Ristau, Carolyn (1991). "Aspects of the cognitive ethology of an injury-feigning bird, the piping plover".
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Armstrong, Edward (1949). "Diversionary display.--Part 2. The nature and origin of distraction display".
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Ridgway, Mark; McPhail, John (1987). "Raiding shoal size and a distraction display in male sticklebacks
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234:. Impeded flight displays additionally may suggest an injured wing, but through an airborne display.
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1532:"Deceiving predators: linking distraction behavior with nest survival in a ground-nesting bird"
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Duffey, Eric; Creasey, N. (2008). "The "rodent-run" distraction-behaviour of certain waders".
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learning that the human is not a threat to its young. Jeffrey
Walters provided evidence that
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Rowley, Ian (1962). ""Rodent-run" distraction display by a passerine, the superb blue wren
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Tilson, Ronald; Tenaza, Richard (1976). "Monogamy and duetting in an Old World monkey".
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Armstrong, Edward (1949). "Diversionary display.--Part 1. Connotation and terminology".
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1676:"Four-legged foes: dogs disturb nesting plovers more than people do on tourist beaches"
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Whoriskey, Frederick; FitzGerald, Gerard (1985). "Sex, cannibalism and sticklebacks".
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Stickleback fish have been documented performing distraction displays. A nesting male
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It is possible that this display originates from a feather ruffling reflex to alarm.
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Barrows, Edward M. (2001) Animal behavior desk reference. CRC Press. 2nd ed. p. 177
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that increased its searching behavior in response to the distraction display of a
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1019:"Anti-predatory behavior of lapwings: Field evidence of discriminative abilities"
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It has additionally been postulated that threat displays, such as gaping by the
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Rodent-run distraction display by superb blue wren. Redrawn from Rowley, 1962.
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226:, but also have been documented in other species, including snowy owls, the
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Sonerud, Geir (1988). "To distract display or not: Grouse hens and foxes".
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factors are taken into consideration consciously by the displaying animal.
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1650:"The risks of avian mobbing and distraction behavior: an anecdotal review"
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Gómez-Serrano, Miguel Ángel; López-López, Pascual (10 September 2014).
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and non-passerines, and has been particularly well documented in the
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Gómez-Serrano, Miguel Ángel; López-López, Pascual (8 October 2016).
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circles result in a spectrum of intensity of distraction displays.
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2005:
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564:. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 335–379.
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178:
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533:
Armstrong, Edward (1954). "The ecology of distraction display".
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2011:
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Gómez-Serrano, Miguel Ángel; López-López, Pascual (2017).
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and become ritualized and stereotyped in its new context.
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810:, with comments on outlier nesting and nesting behavior"
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and eventually found and killed the grouse nestlings.
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1323:Grimes, A. (1936). ""Injury feigning" by birds".
862:
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865:"Nest defense behavior of lesser golden-plovers"
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1578:Cognitive Ethology: The Minds of Other Animals
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1597:Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior
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535:British Journal of Animal Behaviour
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914:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1950.tb01730.x
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560:Caro, Tim (2005). "Nest defense".
487:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1949.tb02239.x
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88:) close to the blackbird's nest.
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1160:The Quarterly Review of Biology
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306:killed by the second predator.
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2260:Frequency-dependent selection
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684:10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80637-2
547:10.1016/S0950-5601(54)80001-3
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290:Costs and decision to display
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120:Other researchers, including
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1072:10.1126/science.202.4370.899
321:Factors influencing decision
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638:Canadian Journal of Zoology
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213:Injury-feigning, including
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80:) attempting to distract a
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1032:(1): 49–70. Archived from
863:Byrkjedal, Ingvar (1989).
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249:and wing-extension by the
122:Edward Allworthy Armstrong
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2004:
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1017:Walters, Jeffrey (1990).
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2336:Antipredator adaptations
2189:Anti-predator adaptation
1827:Anti-predator adaptation
1443:Lagopus lagopus scoticus
382:Anti-predator adaptation
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263:three-spined stickleback
1801:Paradox of the plankton
952:10.1163/156853961X00240
808:Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
1932:Advertising in biology
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804:Long, Charles (1993).
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23:feigning a broken wing
2280:Underwater camouflage
2059:Aggressive/Wicklerian
1918:Signalling in biology
1767:Patterns of evolution
1724:The Birder's Handbook
1648:Sordahl, Tex (1990).
1593:"Broken Wing Display"
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1298:10.1093/beheco/arw157
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294:Further information:
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139:cultural transmission
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32:diversionary displays
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2331:Animal communication
2255:Evolutionary ecology
2240:Deception in animals
2234:Dazzled and Deceived
2194:Animal communication
1779:Convergent evolution
1760:Evolutionary ecology
973:, book 9, chapter 9.
28:Distraction displays
2101:Emsleyan/Mertensian
1981:Distraction display
1937:Agonistic behaviour
1852:Distraction display
1796:Divergent evolution
1501:1988Oikos..51..233S
1227:2014PLoSO...9j7121G
1064:1978Sci...202..899C
770:1976Natur.263..320T
2245:Deimatic behaviour
1986:Handicap principle
1976:Deimatic behaviour
1847:Deimatic behaviour
1806:Predator satiation
1791:Parallel evolution
1536:Behavioral Ecology
1285:Behavioral Ecology
1122:Ornis Scandinavica
970:History of Animals
724:10.1007/BF00299233
606:10.1007/BF00295102
332:
224:waders and plovers
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168:Adaptive functions
158:positive selection
137:, perhaps through
114:courtship displays
99:History of Animals
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2326:Signalling theory
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2275:Signalling theory
2250:Mimicry#Evolution
2223:Community ecology
2218:Animal coloration
2064:Ant/Myrmecomorphy
1969:Courtship display
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1883:
1822:Signalling theory
1692:10.1111/ibi.12879
1614:978-3-319-47829-6
1058:(4370): 899–901.
764:(5575): 320–321.
296:Signalling theory
110:European nightjar
86:Falco tinnunculus
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40:anti-predator
37:
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2270:Polymorphism
2265:Phagomimicry
2232:
2213:Co-evolution
2068:
1980:
1942:Alarm signal
1851:
1832:Alarm signal
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1034:the original
1029:
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905:
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831:. Retrieved
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387:Displacement
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279:red squirrel
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154:displacement
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35:
31:
27:
26:
2199:Aposematism
2074:Automimicry
1952:Unkenreflex
1947:Aposematism
1925:Non-mimicry
1876:Unkenreflex
1837:Aposematism
1166:(1): 1–32.
833:October 13,
364:game theory
267:cannibalism
215:broken-wing
36:paratrepsis
2320:Categories
2204:Camouflage
2173:Vavilovian
2163:Gilbertian
2126:Wasmannian
2051:In animals
1866:Camouflage
408:References
273:In mammals
240:rodent run
230:, and the
204:passerines
147:snowy owls
106:David Lack
2158:Dodsonian
2145:In plants
2111:Müllerian
2084:Locomotor
1708:225315679
1700:1474-919X
1245:1932-6203
965:Aristotle
940:Behaviour
356:altricial
352:precocial
94:Aristotle
59:Evolution
2346:Ethology
2153:Bakerian
2096:Chemical
2079:Batesian
1996:Stotting
1784:examples
1558:88712141
1467:53165886
1423:53161782
1307:88712141
1263:25208045
1215:PLOS ONE
1196:31957387
1188:14930222
1096:33299917
1088:17752463
740:21522305
692:53193441
614:35942608
582:. p. 198
371:See also
362:Lastly,
251:killdeer
190:In birds
179:warblers
131:lapwings
53:brooding
21:Killdeer
2208:Crypsis
2106:Eyespot
2043:Mimicry
2006:Mimicry
1964:Display
1871:Mimicry
1861:Crypsis
1815:Signals
1517:3565647
1497:Bibcode
1381:4160651
1345:4078314
1254:4160202
1223:Bibcode
1180:2812621
1142:3676252
1080:1747814
1060:Bibcode
1052:Science
938:(L.)".
786:4194724
766:Bibcode
732:4599857
392:Mobbing
344:mobbers
311:red fox
257:In fish
183:mobbing
135:learned
96:in his
72:A male
45:mobbing
2292:
2116:Sexual
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758:Nature
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315:grouse
64:Origin
2091:Brood
1704:S2CID
1653:(PDF)
1554:S2CID
1513:JSTOR
1489:Oikos
1463:S2CID
1419:S2CID
1377:JSTOR
1341:JSTOR
1303:S2CID
1192:S2CID
1176:JSTOR
1138:JSTOR
1092:S2CID
1076:JSTOR
1037:(PDF)
1022:(PDF)
868:(PDF)
782:S2CID
736:S2CID
728:JSTOR
688:S2CID
610:S2CID
301:Risks
34:, or
1696:ISSN
1680:Ibis
1629:ISBN
1609:ISBN
1259:PMID
1241:ISSN
1184:PMID
1084:PMID
985:Ibis
902:Ibis
835:2015
636:)".
576:ISBN
501:ISBN
475:Ibis
445:Ibis
354:and
217:and
38:are
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
