29:
721:
310:
180:
2791:
2153:
824:
remarkably accurate, and could only have been made from first-hand experience with dissection. Aristotle described the embryological development of a chick; he distinguished whales and dolphins from fish; he described the chambered stomachs of ruminants and the social organization of bees; he noticed that some sharks give birth to live youngâhis books on animals are filled with such observations, some of which were not confirmed until many centuries later.
643:
549:
490:
1820:
704:
674:, "moves with four feet and four wings: and, I may observe in passing, this creature is exceptional not only in regard to the duration of its existence, whence it receives its name, but also because though a quadruped it has wings also." Mayflies do in fact walk on four legs, the front pair not being adapted for walking, so, Wilkins concludes, Aristotle was correct.
898:
of copulation; and this last one, by the way, is extremely sharp, is exceptional as being of a whitish colour, and at its extremity is bifurcate; that is to say, it has an additional something on the rachis, and by rachis is meant the smooth surface or edge of the arm on the far side from the suckers."
897:
D'Arcy
Thompson translated the relevant passage of Book IV.1 as follows: "In all cases their feet are furnished with suckers. The octopus, by the way, uses his feelers either as feet or hands; with the two which stand over his mouth he draws in food, and the last of his feelers he employs in the act
1507:
Aristotle's belief that the brain is a cooling organ for the blood was definitely not based on anything that scientists today would consider scientific evidence. He also thought that in humans, goats and pigs, males have more teeth than females, a notion easy enough to correct. His statement that
653:
The text contains some claims that appear to be errors. Aristotle asserted in book II that female humans, sheep, goats, and swine have a smaller number of teeth than the males. This apparently false claim could have been a genuine observation, if as Robert Mayhew suggests women at that time had a
522:
for concealment; it shows itself in front of the pigment and then retreats back into it; it also hunts with its long tentacles not only little fishes, but oftentimes even mullets. The octopus is a stupid creature, for it will approach a man's hand if it be lowered in the water; but it is neat and
159:
guards the eggs after the female has left. Some of these were long considered fanciful before being rediscovered in the nineteenth century. Aristotle has been accused of making errors, but some are due to misinterpretation of his text, and others may have been based on genuine observation. He did
665:
In other cases, errors may have been wrongly attributed to
Aristotle. Katrin Weigmann wrote " statement that flies have four legs was repeated in natural history texts for more than a thousand years despite the fact that a little counting would have proven otherwise." However, the historian and
823:
Though
Aristotle's work in zoology was not without errors, it was the grandest biological synthesis of the time, and remained the ultimate authority for many centuries after his death. His observations on the anatomy of octopus, cuttlefish, crustaceans, and many other marine invertebrates are
1823:
691:, defines what in modern terms is a set of models of metabolism, temperature regulation, information processing, inheritance, and embryogenesis. All of these are wrong in the sense that modern science has replaced them with different models, but they were
258:. Aristotle investigates four types of differences between animals: differences in particular body parts (Books I to IV); differences in ways of life and types of activity (Books V, VI, VII and IX); and differences in specific characters (Book VIII).
120:. Throughout the work, Aristotle seeks to identify differences, both between individuals and between groups. A group is established when it is seen that all members have the same set of distinguishing features; for example, that all
523:
thrifty in its habits: that is, it lays up stores in its nest, and, after eating up all that is eatable, it ejects the shells and sheaths of crabs and shell-fish, and the skeletons of little fishes. It seeks its prey by so
606:
cares for its young, as the female leaves after giving birth; the male guards the eggs for forty or fifty days, chasing off small fish which threaten the eggs, and making a murmuring noise. The Swiss
American zoologist
654:
poorer diet than men; some studies have found that wisdom teeth erupt in men more often than women after age 25. But the claim is not true of other species either. Thus, Philippa Lang argues, Aristotle may have been
289:. This implies, in Aristotle's reasoning, that if something has lungs, it has red blood; but Aristotle is careful not to imply that all red-blooded animals have lungs, so the reasoning here is not bidirectional.
226:
was attempted until the sixteenth century; accordingly
Aristotle remained highly influential for some two thousand years. His writings on zoology form about a quarter of his surviving work. Aristotle's pupil
296:
was aimed mostly at describing attributes of animals, there is a debate about whether or not it suggests that
Aristotle was also interested in producing a taxonomy. Most philosophers who have studied the
427:
Reproduction, spontaneous and sexual of marine invertebrates, birds, quadrupeds, snakes, fish, and terrestrial arthropods including ichneumon wasps, bees, ants, scorpions, spiders, and grasshoppers.
518:
make the discharge solely from fear. These creatures never discharge the pigment in its entirety; and after a discharge the pigment accumulates again. The sepia, as has been said, often uses its
254:, Aristotle sets out to investigate the existing facts (Greek "hoti", what), prior to establishing their causes (Greek "dioti", why). The book is thus a defence of his method of investigating
474:, in sharp contrast to Plato's "symbolic zoology". Aristotle's style and precision can be seen in the passage where he discusses the behaviour and anatomy of the cephalopods, mentioning the
564:
Some of
Aristotle's observations were not taken seriously by science until they were independently rediscovered in the 19th century. For example, he recorded that male octopuses have a
448:
A tenth book is included in some versions, dealing with the causes of barrenness in women, but is generally regarded as not being by
Aristotle. In the preface to his translation,
353:
The different parts of red-blooded animals. Aristotle writes about limbs, the teeth of dogs, horses, man, and elephant; the elephant's tongue; and of animals such as the
167:
had a powerful influence on zoology for some two thousand years. It continued to be a primary source of knowledge until zoologists in the sixteenth century, such as
301:
and
Aristotle's other writings suggest that Aristotle was not trying to produce a taxonomy, but more recent studies by biologists reach different conclusions.
1508:
flies have four legs was repeated in natural history texts for more than a thousand years despite the fact that a little counting would have proven otherwise.
786:
A German translation of books IâVIII was made by Anton Karsch, starting in 1866. A translation of all ten books into German was made by Paul Gohlke in 1949.
277:; if something has feathers and wings, that also implies it is a bird, so the reasoning here is bidirectional. On the other hand, some animals that have red
576:
and which can transfer it into the female's body; sometimes it snaps off during mating. The account was dismissed as fanciful until the French naturalist
2108:
2498:
1692:
816:
626:
directly, though his interpretations of the functions of the structures he observed were subject to error. Like other classical authors such as
222:
in the island's lagoon at Pyrrha. This study made him the earliest natural historian whose written work survives. No similarly detailed work on
666:
philosopher of biology John S. Wilkins notes that
Aristotle did not say "all flies have four legs"; he wrote that one particular animal, the
1867:
265:': all members of this group possess the same distinguishing featuresâfeathers, wings, beaks, and two bony legs. This is an instance of a
2720:
28:
1195:
2189:
2138:
1880:
439:
The character and habits of animals, food, migration, health, animal diseases including bee parasites, and the influence of climate.
720:
2790:
2856:
1696:
2476:
2242:
1757:
1729:
1531:
1373:
1348:
1318:
1291:
1261:
1222:
1188:
991:
433:
Reproduction of man, including puberty, conception, pregnancy, lactation, the embryo, labour, milk, and diseases of infants.
210:, he sought universals in his philosophy, but unlike Plato he backed up his views with detailed observation, notably of the
2598:
1641:
1083:
FĂŒrst von Lieven, A.; Humar, M. (2008). "A Cladistic Analysis of Aristotle's Animal Groups in the "Historia animalium"".
309:
2825:
2040:
2015:
1023:
2341:
921:
741:
232:
1603:
783:
in 1883. Another translation into French was made by J. Tricot in 1957, following D'Arcy Thompson's interpretation.
780:
2667:
2488:
1860:
2830:
2809:
1987:
1927:
1897:
630:, Aristotle also gathered evidence from travellers and people with specialised knowledge, such as fishermen and
2871:
2866:
2732:
1962:
1442:
511:
475:
45:
2469:
2182:
1992:
1977:
1957:
1799:
1585:
837:
773:
449:
20:
695:
in that they attempted to explain observed phenomena, proposed mechanisms, and made testable predictions.
2876:
2861:
2851:
2540:
2353:
2156:
1853:
795:
2819:
2510:
1952:
160:
however make somewhat uncritical use of evidence from other people, such as travellers and beekeepers.
678:
116:(the causes of these characteristics). The book is thus an attempt to apply philosophy to part of the
2564:
2545:
2454:
1607:
2574:
2175:
1912:
1548:
595:
2715:
2407:
2264:
2030:
1967:
1907:
266:
129:
2881:
2805:
2657:
2605:
2522:
2060:
2010:
1982:
1942:
461:
80:
1719:
1212:
914:
Historia animalium book X: Aristotle's endoxon, topos and dialectic on On Failure to Reproduce
541:
His observations were almost all accurate, according to the philosopher Anthony Preus, though
375:
The internal organs, including generative system, veins, sinews, bone etc. He moves on to the
128:, wings, and beaks. This relationship between the birds and their features is recognized as a
2682:
2586:
2581:
2517:
2444:
2081:
1521:
1338:
1308:
1281:
1251:
873:
709:
703:
979:
2662:
2615:
2382:
2271:
2113:
2086:
2025:
1972:
1172:
831:
comments that Aristotle "perceptibly influenced" the founders of modern zoology, the Swiss
510:
is the most cunning, and is the only species that employs its dark liquid for the sake of
8:
2710:
2215:
2118:
2055:
1947:
1932:
1807:
854:
599:
261:
To illustrate the philosophical method, consider one grouping of many kinds of animal, '
156:
1812:
179:
2739:
2647:
2610:
2593:
2481:
2128:
2076:
1937:
1922:
1902:
1876:
1803:
1745:
1493:
1468:
1415:
1390:
1277:
1176:
1141:
1092:
1065:
952:
864:
846:
724:
528:
498:
445:
Social behaviour in animals; signs of intelligence in animals such as sheep and birds.
203:
184:
94:
2557:
1688:
582:
2815:
2402:
2296:
2276:
2249:
1917:
1753:
1725:
1527:
1498:
1420:
1369:
1344:
1314:
1287:
1257:
1218:
1184:
1145:
1100:
1057:
1019:
987:
980:
917:
842:
692:
524:
483:
1069:
804:
said in 1837 that "Zoological Science sprang from labours, we may almost say, like
2689:
2637:
2622:
2427:
2321:
2133:
1488:
1480:
1410:
1402:
1391:"Prevalence of missing and impacted third molars in adults aged 25 years and above"
1131:
1049:
494:
331:. Aristotle describes the parts that the human body is made of, such as the skull,
151:
had colour-changing abilities and a sperm-transferring tentacle, that the young of
2761:
2437:
2348:
2326:
2316:
2259:
2198:
2123:
1834:
1624:
1199:
772:
English translations were made by Richard Cresswell in 1862 and by the zoologist
687:
627:
211:
1845:
1136:
1119:
525:
changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it
2771:
2569:
2552:
2422:
2412:
2336:
2331:
2301:
858:
850:
832:
732:
587:
577:
557:
471:
219:
168:
152:
140:
84:
72:
58:
41:
1406:
1053:
548:
2845:
2754:
2749:
2677:
2642:
2627:
2505:
2493:
2432:
2311:
1721:
William Harvey's Biological Ideas: Selected Aspects and Historical Background
1484:
1061:
1018:
J. G. Lennox, Aristotleâs philosophy of biology, Cambridge University Press,
659:
608:
542:
519:
406:
1774:
1192:
1037:
2727:
2459:
2449:
2395:
2390:
2237:
1502:
1424:
1104:
853:(1534â1576), while his methods of looking at time series and making use of
828:
801:
766:
565:
228:
2632:
2417:
2367:
2288:
2093:
662:
about observation, "because was not expecting nature to be misleading".
418:
414:
410:
380:
19:"Historia animalium" redirects here. For the book by Conrad Gessner, see
1096:
754:
2035:
1120:"Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals"
655:
642:
615:
590:
grow inside their mother's body attached by a cord to something like a
507:
479:
328:
171:, all influenced by Aristotle, wrote their own studies of the subject.
108:, Aristotle frames his text by explaining that he is investigating the
87:
1310:
Understanding the Political Philosophers: From Ancient to Modern Times
881:
in context, and propose an interpretation of his biological theories.
470:
contains a large number of eye-witness observations, in particular of
421:
of animals. Chapter 10 considers sleep and whether it occurs in fish.
139:
contains many accurate eye-witness observations, in particular of the
2225:
2103:
2050:
2045:
2020:
762:
631:
362:
358:
344:
199:
101:. It was written in the fourth century BC; Aristotle died in 322 BC.
90:
2652:
2464:
2098:
1829:
758:
714:
591:
569:
489:
317:
313:
2167:
1674:
The Hunterian Lectures in Comparative Anatomy (May and June 1837)
809:
805:
728:
623:
594:(a yolk sac). This was confirmed in 1842 by the German zoologist
366:
340:
270:
255:
223:
192:
148:
125:
105:
761:
among others. It was in turn translated into Latin, along with
671:
646:
553:
392:
388:
215:
188:
144:
117:
98:
545:
argues that Aristotle sometimes let theory cloud observation.
1082:
573:
515:
396:
376:
336:
332:
286:
278:
262:
207:
121:
112:(the existing facts about animals) prior to establishing the
62:
1214:
The Oxford Handbook of Animals in Classical Thought and Life
560:
was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac).
1656:
750:
622:, contained illustrations of these), so he observed animal
384:
282:
274:
1724:. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. p. 335.
916:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
354:
1602:
1036:
Voultsiadou, Eleni; Vafidis, Dimitris (1 January 2007).
1657:
Gohlke, Paul Hermann Edward (1949). "VIII: Tierkunde".
739:
The Arabic translation comprises treatises 1â10 of the
1038:"Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology"
634:, without much attempt to corroborate what they said.
155:
grow inside their mother's body, or that the male of
1676:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 91.
681:, described across the five books sometimes called
206:in Athens, remaining there for some 17 years. Like
1035:
877:set Aristotle's biological writings including the
1875:
1672:Owen, Richard (1992). Sloan, Phillip Reid (ed.).
335:, face, eyes, ears, nose, tongue, thorax, belly,
2843:
1773:Leroi, Armand Marie (presenter) (11 June 2013).
1237:Aristotle, Book IV.I (D'Arcy Thompson, page 524)
285:; other red-blooded animals (such as fish) have
1693:University of California Museum of Paleontology
817:University of California Museum of Paleontology
812:, in a state of noble and splendid maturity".
2183:
2109:History of the creation-evolution controversy
1861:
1546:
1181:A catalogue of body patterning in Cephalopoda
586:. Aristotle also noted that the young of the
327:The grouping of animals and the parts of the
1547:Scott, T. C.; Marketos, P. (November 2014).
1204:
982:Ancient Natural History: Histories of Nature
614:Aristotle's methods of observation included
79:, "History of Animals") is one of the major
2721:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
1332:
1330:
1117:
1085:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
707:Page from the medieval Arabic translation,
33:
2190:
2176:
1868:
1854:
1750:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
1523:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
1436:
1434:
1283:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
911:
869:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
2139:Relationship between religion and science
1711:
1569:
1492:
1414:
1245:
1243:
1161:
1135:
611:found the account to be correct in 1890.
486:. This is D'Arcy Thompson's translation:
2372:Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes
1813:English translation by Richard Cresswell
1686:
1584:
1466:
1460:
1327:
1313:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 37â40.
1217:. Oxford University Press. p. 517.
1210:
946:
944:
942:
940:
719:
702:
641:
547:
488:
308:
178:
27:
1440:
1431:
1388:
1306:
1300:
649:walk on four legs, as Aristotle stated.
104:Generally seen as a pioneering work of
2844:
1639:
1622:
1441:Wilkins, John S. (16 September 2008).
1363:
1357:
1249:
1240:
1118:Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (2022).
977:
950:
417:, etc. In chapter 8, he describes the
231:later wrote a similar book on botany,
2171:
1849:
1772:
1744:
1717:
1699:from the original on 20 November 2016
1519:
1276:
1256:. Infobase Publishing. pp. 34â.
937:
452:calls it "spurious beyond question".
1671:
1336:
796:Aristotle's biology § Influence
2599:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
2197:
1389:Jung, YH; Cho, BH (December 2013).
1076:
957:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
13:
2016:Central dogma of molecular biology
1253:Animals: From Mythology to Zoology
637:
618:(Aristotle's lost companion work,
292:While there is consensus that the
14:
2893:
1802:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910.
1792:
1366:The Female in Aristotle's Biology
1340:Science: Antiquity and its Legacy
1211:Campbell, Gordon Lindsay (2014).
779:A French translation was made by
735:in a page of his 1910 translation
685:and some of his minor works, the
269:: if something is a bird, it has
2789:
2152:
2151:
1818:
1526:. Bloomsbury. pp. 370â373.
861:in his 1651 work on embryology.
512:concealment as well as from fear
316:'s edition with his commentary,
2831:List of natural history dealers
2499:The Natural History of Selborne
1766:
1738:
1680:
1665:
1650:
1633:
1616:
1609:Histoire des Animaux D'Aristote
1604:Barthélemy-Saint Hilaire, Jules
1596:
1578:
1563:
1540:
1513:
1382:
1368:. University Of Chicago Press.
1270:
1231:
891:
698:
536:Historia Animalium IX.621bâ622a
455:
2857:History of veterinary medicine
2733:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
2041:One geneâone enzyme hypothesis
1815:. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1862.
1343:. I.B.Tauris. pp. 60â63.
1175:. Cited in Borrelli, Luciana;
1152:
1111:
1029:
1012:
1000:
971:
951:Lennox, James (27 July 2011).
781:Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire
183:Aristotle spent many years at
46:Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana
1:
1687:Waggoner, Ben (9 June 1996).
986:. Routledge. pp. 92â99.
931:
757:(d. 850) and commented on by
598:. Aristotle noted, too, that
1689:"Aristotle (384â322 B.C.E.)"
1520:Leroi, Armand Marie (2014).
1395:Imaging Science in Dentistry
1364:Mayhew, Robert (2004). "5".
1286:. Bloomsbury. pp. 69â.
1183:. Firenze University Press.
1179:; Fiorito, Graziano (2006).
789:
552:Aristotle recorded that the
499:change colour when disturbed
493:Aristotle observed that the
476:use of ink against predators
21:Historia animalium (Gessner)
7:
2489:Bernard Germain de LacépÚde
1828:public domain audiobook at
1643:Natur-geschichte der Thiere
1570:Cresswell, Richard (1862).
1469:"The Consequence of Errors"
1137:10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1
912:Dean-Jones, Lesley (2023).
905:
849:(1507â1566), and the Dutch
769:in the early 13th century.
304:
245:
10:
2898:
2511:A History of British Birds
1586:Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth
1551:. University of St Andrews
800:The comparative anatomist
793:
459:
174:
71:, "Inquiries on Animals";
69:Ton peri ta zoia historion
63:
18:
2826:Natural History Societies
2798:
2787:
2703:
2694:The Royal Natural History
2546:Ornithological Dictionary
2533:
2455:Johan Christian Fabricius
2381:
2287:
2214:
2205:
2147:
2069:
2001:
1888:
1800:D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
1467:Weigmann, Katrin (2005).
1443:"Aristotle on the mayfly"
1407:10.5624/isd.2013.43.4.219
1054:10.1163/18759866-07602004
774:D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
580:described it in his 1817
450:D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
2672:The Naturalist's Library
2575:On the Origin of Species
1485:10.1038/sj.embor.7400389
1250:Allaby, Michael (2010).
1042:Contributions to Zoology
884:
857:assisted the Englishman
845:(1522â1605), the French
765:'s commentary on it, by
202:(384â322 BC) studied at
64:Î€áż¶Îœ ÏΔÏ᜶ Ïᜰ ζῷα ጱÏÏÎżÏÎčáż¶Îœ
2806:Natural history museums
2408:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
1798:English translation by
1646:. Krais & Hoffmann.
1337:Lang, Philippa (2015).
1167:Aristotle (c. 350 BC).
1158:Thompson, 1910, page iv
749:). It was known to the
727:'s illustration of the
405:Animals without blood (
365:, birds especially the
240:
2658:William Jackson Hooker
2606:Alexander von Humboldt
2523:Philosophie zoologique
2306:Pinax theatri botanici
2061:Spontaneous generation
2011:Germ theory of disease
1988:Zoology (through 1859)
1718:Pagel, Walter (1967).
1640:Karsch, Anton (1866).
1307:Haworth, Alan (2011).
1124:Comptes Rendus Palevol
978:French, Roger (1994).
826:
736:
717:
650:
561:
539:
502:
321:
196:
76:
49:
34:
2872:Ancient Greek physics
2867:Natural history books
2744:The Study of Instinct
2683:Kunstformen der Natur
2587:The Malay Archipelago
2582:Alfred Russel Wallace
2518:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
2082:Philosophy of biology
1661:. Ferdinand Schöning.
1612:. Librairie Hachette.
959:. Stanford University
953:"Aristotle's Biology"
821:
794:Further information:
723:
706:
645:
596:Johannes Peter MĂŒller
551:
504:
492:
460:Further information:
369:, fishes and snakes.
312:
182:
143:around the island of
93:, who had studied at
31:
2663:Joseph Dalton Hooker
2616:The Birds of America
2114:Human Genome Project
2026:Great chain of being
1993:Zoology (since 1859)
1928:Evolutionary thought
1898:Agricultural science
1775:"Aristotle's Lagoon"
1626:Histoire des Animaux
1590:A History of Animals
1572:A History of Animals
871:and BBC documentary
815:Ben Waggoner of the
763:Ibn Rushd (Averroes)
602:which he called the
2711:Martinus Beijerinck
2254:De Natura Animalium
2119:Humboldtian science
2056:Sequence hypothesis
1963:Molecular evolution
1746:Leroi, Armand Marie
1623:Tricot, J. (1957).
1278:Leroi, Armand Marie
1177:Gherardi, Francesca
855:comparative anatomy
838:Historiae animalium
835:with his 1551â1558
747:The Book of Animals
679:Aristotle's biology
658:, but he was quite
462:Aristotle's biology
234:Enquiry into Plants
147:, such as that the
2877:Works by Aristotle
2862:History of zoology
2852:History of biology
2816:Parson-naturalists
2648:Philip Henry Gosse
2611:John James Audubon
2594:Henry Walter Bates
2482:Histoire Naturelle
2470:Historia Plantarum
2358:Avium Praecipuarum
2342:Historia animalium
2243:Historia Plantarum
2231:History of Animals
2129:Natural philosophy
2077:History of science
1877:History of biology
1836:Historia animalium
1825:History of Animals
1592:. Clarendon Press.
1198:2018-02-06 at the
1169:Historia Animalium
1007:History of Animals
879:History of Animals
874:Aristotle's Lagoon
865:Armand Marie Leroi
847:Guillaume Rondelet
737:
718:
651:
562:
527:; it does so also
514:: the octopus and
503:
468:History of Animals
322:
299:History of Animals
294:History of Animals
252:History of Animals
197:
165:History of Animals
137:History of Animals
77:Historia Animalium
54:History of Animals
50:
35:Historia animalium
2839:
2838:
2785:
2784:
2403:Marcello Malpighi
2297:Ulisse Aldrovandi
2277:De Materia Medica
2165:
2164:
2031:Hierarchy of life
1978:Plant systematics
1958:Molecular biology
1759:978-0-670-02674-6
1731:978-3-8055-0962-6
1659:Die Lehrschriften
1533:978-1-4088-3620-0
1447:Evolving Thoughts
1375:978-0-226-51200-6
1350:978-0-85773-955-1
1320:978-1-135-19896-1
1293:978-1-4088-3620-0
1263:978-0-8160-6101-3
1224:978-0-19-103515-9
1189:978-88-8453-377-7
993:978-0-415-11545-2
843:Ulisse Aldrovandi
808:from the Head of
520:colouring pigment
214:of the island of
16:Work by Aristotle
2889:
2793:
2766:The Dancing Bees
2690:Richard Lydekker
2638:Jean-Henri Fabre
2623:William Buckland
2428:Regnier de Graaf
2322:Andrea Cesalpino
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742:KitÄb al-HayawÄn
710:KitÄb al-HayawÄn
677:More generally,
537:
506:Of molluscs the
81:texts on biology
66:
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44:, 12th century (
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2558:Le RĂšgne Animal
2529:
2477:Comte de Buffon
2438:Systema Naturae
2377:
2349:Frederik Ruysch
2327:Valerius Cordus
2317:Hieronymus Bock
2283:
2265:Natural History
2260:Pliny the Elder
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628:Pliny the Elder
620:The Dissections
600:a river catfish
583:Le RĂšgne Animal
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1968:Paleontology
1908:Biochemistry
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1779:. Retrieved
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2362:New Herball
2289:Renaissance
2272:Dioscorides
2208:naturalists
2094:Ethnobotany
1983:RNA biology
1891:disciplines
1804:Archive.org
1781:11 November
1703:27 November
1130:(1): 1â16.
963:28 November
819:wrote that
415:crustaceans
411:cephalopods
381:bone marrow
220:marine life
187:in Athens (
88:philosopher
2846:Categories
2206:Pioneering
2036:Lamarckism
1943:Immunology
1841:(in Greek)
1752:. Viking.
1629:. J. Vrin.
1555:22 October
1452:16 October
932:References
693:scientific
683:On Animals
632:beekeepers
616:dissection
484:signalling
480:camouflage
387:including
329:human body
2226:Aristotle
2218:antiquity
2216:Classical
2104:Dysgenics
2087:Teleology
2051:RNA world
2046:Protocell
2021:Darwinism
2002:Theories,
1973:Phycology
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790:Influence
776:in 1910.
668:ephemeron
656:empirical
558:a dogfish
437:Book VIII
363:chameleon
359:crocodile
345:genitalia
267:universal
200:Aristotle
153:a dogfish
130:universal
91:Aristotle
2653:Asa Gray
2465:John Ray
2157:Category
2099:Eugenics
2004:concepts
1948:Medicine
1933:Genetics
1881:timeline
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715:Al-Jahiz
647:Mayflies
592:placenta
570:tentacle
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373:Book III
318:Toulouse
314:Scaliger
305:Contents
271:feathers
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1093:JSTOR
1066:S2CID
885:Notes
574:sperm
508:sepia
397:semen
377:blood
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283:lungs
281:have
279:blood
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1783:2016
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