298:) reaction, and antivenom should, therefore, be used with caution. Although rare, severe hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis to antivenom are possible. Despite this caution, antivenom is typically the sole effective treatment for a life-threatening condition, and once the precautions for managing these reactions are in place, an anaphylactoid reaction is not grounds to refuse to give antivenom if otherwise indicated. Although it is a popular myth that a person allergic to horses "cannot" be given antivenom, the side effects are manageable, and antivenom should be given rapidly as the side effects can be managed.
406:(Physical Research on the Venom of the Viper). Surgeon-Major Edward Nicholson wrote in the November 1870 Madras Medical Journal that he had witnessed a Burmese snake-catcher inoculating himself with cobra venom. However, the snake-catcher was unsure whether this was actually effective and therefore continued to treat his snakes with care. Nicholson, along with other Britons, began to consider that venom might provide its own cure. Although Scottish surgeon
310:(also called cryodesiccation or lyophilization). The process involves freezing the antisera, followed by application of high vacuum. This causes frozen water to sublimate. Sera is reduced to powder with no water content. In such an environment, microorganisms and enzymes cannot degrade the antivenom, and it can be stored for up to 5 years . Liquid antivenoms may also be stored for 5 years, but they must be stored at low temperatures (below 8 °
38:
197:. Due to the high cost of producing antibody-based antivenoms and their short shelf lives when not refrigerated, alternative methods of production of antivenoms are being actively explored. One such different method of production involves production from bacteria. Another approach is to develop targeted drugs (which, unlike antibodies, are usually synthetic and easier to manufacture at scale).
3749:
523:
Antivenom undergoes successive price markups after manufacturing, by licencees, wholesalers and hospitals. When weighed against profitability (especially for sale in poorer regions), the result is that many snake antivenoms, world-wide, are very expensive. Availability, from region to region, also
386:
at the
National Museum of National History in France, announced that they had achieved the same result—treatment of a vulnerable animal with serum from an immunized one—this time using snake venom as the source of protection and disease. Calmette went on subsequently to immunize horses using venom
538:
In 2024 researchers have discovered a synthetic antibody that can neutralize a key type of neurotoxin produced by four different deadly snake species from South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Africa. This might be a step toward an antivenom that could be used on any of the 200 or so dangerous venomous
243:
antivenom is no longer manufactured, and remaining stocks of in-date antivenom for coral snakebite expired in fall 2009, leaving the U.S. without a coral snake antivenom. Efforts are being made to obtain approval for a coral snake antivenom produced in Mexico which would work against U.S. coral
418:, Professor of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh, picked up Fayrer and Waddell's research to produce a serum to act against cobra venom. His "antivenene" was effective in the laboratory, but failed to make an impact as the public were focused on contemporary Pasteurian discoveries.
3368:
Calvete JJ, Arias AS, RodrĂguez Y, Quesada-Bernat S, Sánchez LV, Chippaux JP, et al. (September 2016). "Preclinical evaluation of three polyspecific antivenoms against the venom of Echis ocellatus: Neutralization of toxic activities and antivenomics".
338:
into the person. The host animals may include horses, donkeys, goats, sheep, rabbits, chickens, llamas, and camels. In addition, opossums are being studied for antivenom production. Antivenoms for medical use are often preserved as
178:. Antivenom is traditionally made by collecting venom from the relevant animal and injecting small amounts of it into a domestic animal. The antibodies that form are then collected from the domestic animal's blood and purified.
251:
to delay the effects of neurotoxic envenomation through snakebite. Some promising research results have also been reported for administering the drug nasally as a "universal antivenom" for neurotoxic snakebite treatment.
163:
bites and stings. Antivenoms are recommended only if there is significant toxicity or a high risk of toxicity. The specific antivenom needed depends on the species involved. It is given by injection.
3066:
Boyer L, Degan J, Ruha AM, Mallie J, Mangin E, AlagĂłn A (December 2013). "Safety of intravenous equine F(ab')2: insights following clinical trials involving 1534 recipients of scorpion antivenom".
2960:
2297:
2296:
Shortages of coral snake antivenom were previously reported, but one source states that production has resumed and, as of July 2021, Pfizer indicates that antivenom is available.
414:, and others began to consider venom-based remedies again. However, they and other naturalists working in India did not have the funding to fully develop their theories. In 1895
216:
bites and stings. They are recommended only if there is significant toxicity or a high risk of toxicity. The specific antivenom needed depends on the venomous species involved.
3023:
Rojas G, Jiménez JM, Gutiérrez JM (March 1994). "Caprylic acid fractionation of hyperimmune horse plasma: description of a simple procedure for antivenom production".
465:(CSL) began antivenom research in the 1920s. CSL has developed antivenoms for the redback spider, funnel-web spiders and all deadly Australian snakes. In the USA, the
3600:
2237:
861:
520:. Because of this shortage, clinical researchers are considering whether lower doses may be as effective as higher doses in severe neurotoxic snake envenoming.
3784:
95:
2802:"Colonial Encounter on Indian Snakes and their Venoms: The Transmission and Transformation of Western Ophiological Knowledge in British India, 1780s-1910s"
2758:"Colonial Encounter on Indian Snakes and their Venoms: The Transmission and Transformation of Western Ophiological Knowledge in British India, 1780s-1910s"
346:, but some are available only in liquid form and must be kept refrigerated. They are not immediately inactivated by heat, however, so a minor gap in the
2952:
2293:
3311:
410:
had noted in the late 18th century that snakes were not affected by their own venom, it was not until the late 19th century that Joseph Fayrer,
3562:
2715:
2349:
3593:
2982:
2207:
65:
2321:
2116:
247:
As an alternative when conventional antivenom is not available, hospitals sometimes use an intravenous version of the antiparalytic drug
2165:
2008:
255:
A monovalent antivenom is specific for one toxin or species, while a polyvalent one is effective against multiple toxins or species.
3586:
2423:
3268:
Theakston RD, Warrell DA, Griffiths E (April 2003). "Report of a WHO workshop on the standardization and control of antivenoms".
1295:
2569:
3225:
334:; however, instead of inducing immunity in the person directly, it is induced in a host animal and the hyperimmunized serum is
472:
Over time, a variety of improvements have been made in the specificity, potency, and purity of antivenom products, including "
461:. In Mexico in 1905, Daniel Vergara Lope developed an antivenom against scorpion venom, by immunizing dogs. In Australia, the
201:
2480:
2419:"Anaphylaxis to scorpion antivenin and its management following envenomation by Indian red scorpion, Mesobuthus tamulus"
3463:
Weinstein SA (September 2015). "Snake venoms: A brief treatise on etymology, origins of terminology, and definitions".
795:
ANTISCORP - Premium (Scorpion Venom
Antiserum North Africa) Purified lyophilized enzyme refined Equine Immunoglobulins
2245:
3558:
3535:
3447:
2692:"Venoms, venomous animals and antivenomous serum-therapeutics / by A. Calmette ; translated by Ernest E. Austen"
2510:
2159:
2030:
2002:
1970:
469:
began producing "Nearctic
Crotalidae antivenin" in 1927, via a consortium called the Antivenin Institute of America.
2544:
3250:
462:
407:
374:
could be prevented or cured using transfusions from an immune animal to a susceptible one. On
February 10, 1894,
3774:
3769:
2329:
1617:
477:
3177:"Low dose of snake antivenom is as effective as high dose in patients with severe neurotoxic snake envenoming"
2801:
2757:
2267:
2098:
1301:
3412:
75:
1289:
200:
Antivenom was first developed in the late 19th century and came into common use in the 1950s. It is on the
2897:"Factors involved in the resilience of incidence and decrease of mortality from scorpion stings in Mexico"
3646:
3150:
3739:
3628:
580:
2179:
1950:
1889:
1247:
532:
326:
Antivenoms act by binding to and neutralizing venoms. The principle of antivenom is based on that of
1466:
567:
2215:
3636:
2472:
2382:
Isbister GK (December 2002). "Failure of intramuscular antivenom in Red-back spider envenoming".
2318:
1317:
1145:
271:
83:
363:
3726:
3651:
3641:
3572:
1613:
1353:
228:
2149:
1992:
1105:
PANAF PREMIUM (Sub-Sahara Africa) Purified lyophilized enzyme refined Equine
Immunoglobulins
274:. The intramuscular route has been questioned in some situations as not uniformly effective.
3619:
1341:
1137:
873:
780:
Scorpion Venom Anti Serum (India) Purified lyophilized enzyme refined Equine
Immunoglobulins
493:
466:
415:
398:
Natural immunity of snakes to their own venom was observed at least as long ago as 1767, by
358:
The use of serum from immunized animals as a treatment for disease was pioneered in 1890 by
290:. Some individuals may react to the antivenom with an immediate hypersensitivity reaction (
3472:
3378:
3277:
3032:
2908:
1323:
1271:
1217:
1149:
282:
Antivenoms are purified from animal serum by several processes and may contain other serum
2545:"Guidelines for the production, control and regulation of snake antivenom immunoglobulins"
437:, developed the first monovalent and polyvalent antivenoms for Central and South American
8:
3779:
3683:
2821:
2777:
2595:"Ueber das Zustandekommen der Diphtherie-Immunität und der Tetanus-Immunität bei Thieren"
1174:
Snake Venom
Antiserum (India) Purified lyophilized enzyme refined Equine Immunoglobulins
1141:
925:
867:
654:
171:
3578:
3568:
3476:
3382:
3281:
3036:
2912:
3506:
3350:
3201:
3176:
3127:
3102:
2934:
2872:
2845:
2668:
2641:
2622:
2447:
2418:
2074:
2047:
1888:
was predominant around the world, its first published use being in 1895. In 1981, the
1672:
1534:
1461:
1347:
1241:
1235:
681:
426:
3289:
3531:
3488:
3443:
3394:
3354:
3293:
3206:
3132:
3083:
3048:
3044:
2938:
2926:
2877:
2826:
2782:
2673:
2614:
2506:
2452:
2399:
2395:
2155:
2124:
2079:
2026:
1998:
1966:
1421:
1265:
1211:
1113:
1062:
714:
542:
Antivenoms have been developed for the venoms associated with the following animals:
379:
335:
2626:
3480:
3386:
3342:
3315:
3285:
3196:
3188:
3122:
3114:
3075:
3040:
2916:
2867:
2857:
2816:
2772:
2663:
2653:
2606:
2469:
See, for example, the
Antivenom Precautions paragraph of the Medication section of
2442:
2432:
2391:
2364:
2187:
2069:
2059:
1958:
1714:
1708:
1259:
1157:
1153:
1129:
1125:
966:
411:
383:
359:
3484:
3390:
3079:
3007:
2921:
2896:
3753:
3511:
3312:
Powerful new antivenom raises hopes for a universal solution to lethal snakebites
2862:
2368:
2325:
2301:
1696:
1443:
1411:
1399:
1393:
1329:
1283:
1277:
1253:
1223:
1190:
1184:
1117:
1109:
748:
606:
517:
375:
259:
194:
2691:
395:(antivenomous serum) became the first commercially-available antivenom product.
2064:
1720:
1702:
1684:
1427:
1335:
1229:
1133:
1121:
983:
641:
593:
497:
399:
295:
267:
232:
213:
167:
160:
2658:
2319:
Universal antidote for snakebite: Experimental trial represents promising step
3763:
3711:
2830:
2786:
2618:
2437:
2334:
2128:
1690:
1678:
1307:
668:
528:
505:
481:
331:
307:
3528:
Progress in the characterization of venoms and standardization of antivenoms
3319:
3192:
2594:
3691:
3610:
3492:
3398:
3297:
3210:
3087:
2930:
2881:
2716:"Serum Antivenimeux Desseche, 10cc - Dried Antivenin Serum for Snake Bites"
2677:
2610:
2505:(2nd ed.). New Delhi: World Health Organization. p. 111,136,192.
2456:
2403:
2184:
World Health
Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019
2083:
1008:
501:
422:
388:
340:
182:
152:
103:
3346:
3136:
3052:
1872:
430:
29:
3721:
3716:
3696:
1642:
1609:
1526:
1480:
1025:
941:
627:
473:
291:
248:
240:
224:
190:
186:
175:
3118:
2192:
1892:
decided that the preferred terminology in the
English language would be
3706:
2740:
1962:
1844:
1605:
1547:
1522:
1507:
1205:
1001:
621:
367:
347:
315:
156:
119:
20:
3554:
2983:"Antivenin Nearctic Crotalidae - North American Anti-Snake-Bite Serum"
1862:
3701:
3661:
2745:. Wellcome Library. In Lucca : Nella stamperia di Jacopo Giusti.
1748:
1571:
1455:
1178:
1163:
1075:
287:
263:
220:
69:
3367:
2895:
Jean-Philippe C, Alfredo C, Leslie B, Alejandro A (December 2020).
2894:
1663:
651:
Black widow spider (Latrodectus Mactans) antivenin (equine origin)
454:
445:
439:
235:) snakebite, is based on a purified product made in sheep known as
3175:
Agarwal R, Aggarwal AN, Gupta D, Behera D, Jindal SK (June 2005).
2646:
Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases
496:, and a variety of other measures. Many equine facilities now use
3012:. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). US: Antivenin Institute of America.
2305:
1019:
972:
954:
915:
371:
343:
327:
311:
283:
2227:
Link to PDF for full prescribing information, retrieved 11/11/12
37:
1878:
1836:
1598:
1585:
1493:
1469:" snakes which account for nearly 75% of snakebites in India).
1449:
1414:
990:
947:
902:
879:
489:
485:
450:
434:
236:
2025:(69 ed.). British Medical Association. 2015. p. 43.
2294:
Potential Treatment For Snakebites Leads To A Paralyzing Test
1868:
1735:
1667:
1655:
1032:
930:
850:
807:
788:
527:
Internationally, antivenoms must conform to the standards of
43:
2642:"Paths to the discovery of antivenom serotherapy in France"
2416:
2099:"Bacteria Are Brewing Up the Next Generation of Antivenoms"
1659:
815:
458:
3174:
3608:
3525:
3267:
2846:"The Butantan Institute: history and future perspectives"
2178:
2048:"Recent Advances in Next Generation Snakebite Antivenoms"
1949:
2410:
2196:. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
1997:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 250–251.
1015:
Purified prevalent Anti-Scorpion Serum (equine source)
202:
World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines
2417:
Bhoite RR, Bhoite GR, Bagdure DN, Bawaskar HS (2015).
366:, who first demonstrated that the infectious diseases
3737:
3022:
2375:
3151:"Horses Key To Making Antivenom Up For FDA Approval"
3065:
2570:"Opossum Compounds Isolated to Help Make Antivenom"
516:There is an overall shortage of antivenom to treat
449:genera, as well as for certain species of venomous
239:. It was approved by the FDA in October 2000. U.S.
3440:The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Ralph Curtis Books
3226:"Why a Single Vial of Antivenom Can Cost $ 14,000"
244:snakebite, but such approval remains speculative.
2208:"CroFab Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab (Ovine)"
382:, and independently CĂ©saire Auguste Phisalix and
3761:
3414:Snake Antivenom for Sub – Sharan Africa EchiTAbG
3326:
1861:The name "antivenin" comes from the French word
3100:
2045:
1957:. World Health Organization. pp. 396–397.
1953:(2009). Stuart MC, Kouimtzi M, Hill SR (eds.).
16:Medical treatment for venomous bites and stings
3563:American Association of Poison Control Centers
3530:. Geneva: WHO Offset Publications. p. 5.
2843:
2268:"North American Micrurus (Coral Snake Venoms)"
2117:"How to simplify the treatment of snake bites"
3785:World Health Organization essential medicines
3594:
3103:"The plasmapheresis of hyperimmunized horses"
2742:Ricerche fisiche sopra il veleno della vipera
404:Ricerche Fisiche sopra il Veleno della Vipera
219:In the US, approved antivenom, including for
3437:
3009:Bulletin of the Antiven Institute of America
2477:eMedicine Emergency Medicine (environmental)
1201:INOSERP MENA (Middle East and North Africa)
2503:Guidelines for the management of snakebites
1601:—Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab (Ovine))
262:) are administered intravenously; however,
3601:
3587:
2550:. WHO Technical Series No, 1004. WHO. 2017
1433:Mexico (Instituto Bioclon); South America
258:The majority of antivenoms (including all
36:
3462:
3420:, World Health Organization, 20 June 2019
3200:
3126:
3107:Bulletin of the World Health Organization
3005:
2920:
2871:
2861:
2820:
2776:
2667:
2657:
2539:
2537:
2446:
2436:
2242:Florida Poison Information Center - Tampa
2191:
2073:
2063:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
484:, enzymatic reduction of antibodies with
166:Side effects may be severe. They include
2528:Handbook of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology
2424:Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine
2381:
2151:Handbook of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology
2052:Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease
2023:British national formulary : BNF 69
301:
2799:
2755:
2738:
2639:
2500:
2470:
1871:, which in turn was derived from Latin
1364:INOSERP PAN-AFRICA (Sub-Sahara Africa)
922:Anti-Scorpion Venom Serum I.P. (AScVS)
842:Leiurus quinquestriatus quinquestriatus
3762:
3442:. Dubai: Oriental Press. p. 192.
2534:
2172:
2154:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 692.
1979:
1926:
1296:Macrovipera lebetina transmediterranea
3582:
3223:
2347:
2186:. Geneva: World Health Organization.
2046:Knudsen C, Laustsen AH (April 2018).
1835:crotalidae immune F(ab')2 (equine)) (
74:
3431:
2809:Indian Journal of History of Science
2765:Indian Journal of History of Science
2015:
1990:
2599:Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift
2238:"Coral Snake & Antivenom FAQ's"
2147:
2096:
212:Antivenom is used to treat certain
174:, and allergic reactions including
13:
3565:which helps locate rare antivenoms
3526:World Health Organization (1981).
3251:"Antivenom Supply for Snake bites"
2963:from the original on 7 August 2016
2844:De Franco M, Kalil J (July 2014).
1560:Australian snakes as listed above
14:
3796:
3609:Immune sera and immunoglobulins (
3559:Association of Zoos and Aquariums
3548:
3255:www.pharmaceutical-technology.com
2483:from the original on 26 June 2006
1040:
294:) or a delayed hypersensitivity (
3747:
2850:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
2605:(49): 1113–1114. December 1890.
2396:10.1046/j.1442-2026.2002.00356.x
2168:from the original on 2017-01-09.
2011:from the original on 2017-01-09.
306:Most antivenoms are prepared by
3519:
3499:
3456:
3405:
3361:
3304:
3261:
3243:
3217:
3168:
3143:
3101:Levine L, Broderick EJ (1970).
3094:
3059:
3016:
2999:
2975:
2945:
2888:
2837:
2793:
2749:
2732:
2708:
2684:
2633:
2587:
2562:
2525:
2519:
2494:
2463:
2341:
2311:
2286:
2272:Toxnet: Toxicology Data Network
2260:
2230:
1597:Polyvalent crotalid antivenin (
1313:Montivipera raddei kurdistanica
846:Leiurus quinquestriatus hebreus
818:(Middle East and North Africa)
511:
463:Commonwealth Serum Laboratories
277:
207:
46:for the production of antivenom
3512:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
3333:"Appendix: Antivenom Tables".
2822:10.16943/ijhs/2018/v53i4/49536
2778:10.16943/ijhs/2018/v53i4/49536
2330:California Academy of Sciences
2200:
2141:
2109:
2090:
2039:
1856:
909:Tunisian polyvalent antivenom
151:, is a specific treatment for
19:For the comics character, see
1:
3485:10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.07.005
3391:10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.06.022
3290:10.1016/S0041-0101(02)00393-8
3224:Lewis D (11 September 2015).
3080:10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.07.017
2922:10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.10.011
1919:
1389:EchiTAbG (Sub-Sahara Africa)
1302:Macrovipera lebetina turanica
539:snakes throughout the world.
3045:10.1016/0041-0101(94)90087-6
2863:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002862
2369:10.18773/austprescr.2012.069
1631:Pit vipers and rattlesnakes
1628:Soro antibotropicocrotalico
1059:CSL box jellyfish antivenom
761:
564:Funnel web spider antivenom
321:
7:
3647:Hepatitis B immune globulin
3438:Spawls S, Branch B (1995).
1652:SAIMR polyvalent antivenom
1557:Polyvalent snake antivenom
1438:Polyvalent snake antivenom
1419:South American rattlesnake
1290:Macrovipera lebetina obtusa
678:Anti-Latrodectus antivenom
181:Versions are available for
10:
3801:
3181:Emergency Medicine Journal
2473:"Snake Envenomations, Sea"
2244:. May 2017. Archived from
2105:– via www.wired.com.
2065:10.3390/tropicalmed3020042
1842:North American species of
1780:Anti-mipartitus antivenom
1745:SAIMR Boomslang antivenom
1670:(Unsuitable small adders:
838:Buthus occitanus occitanus
834:Buthus occitanus mardochei
725:
692:
581:Brazilian wandering spider
545:
353:
159:and used to treat certain
18:
3682:
3660:
3627:
3618:
3557:, a joint project of the
2659:10.1186/s40409-016-0074-7
2640:Bochner R (8 June 2016).
2180:World Health Organization
1951:World Health Organization
1890:World Health Organization
1248:Echis carinatus sochureki
1086:
997:SAIMR scorpion antivenin
638:Redback spider antivenom
533:World Health Organization
118:
113:
94:
82:
64:
56:
51:
35:
2800:Bhaumik R (2018-11-01).
2756:Bhaumik R (2018-11-01).
2471:Forster J (2006-03-14).
2438:10.4103/0972-5229.164807
1955:WHO Model Formulary 2008
1308:Montivipera bornmuelleri
1072:CSL stonefish antivenom
826:Androctonus mauritanicus
803:Leiurus quinquestraiatus
568:Sydney funnel-web spider
149:antivenom immunoglobulin
3637:Anthrax immune globulin
3320:10.1126/science.zqvsmhr
3193:10.1136/emj.2004.020727
2987:Smithsonian Institution
2720:Smithsonian Institution
1884:Historically, the term
1824:Anti-micruricoscorales
1324:Pseudocerastes persicus
1146:Dendroaspis angusticeps
830:Androctonus crassicauda
665:SAIMR spider antivenom
3727:Tixagevimab/cilgavimab
3652:Zoster-immune globulin
3642:Rho(D) immune globulin
3573:Miami-Dade Fire Rescue
3569:Venom Response Program
3314:(Report). 2024-02-21.
2611:10.1055/s-0029-1207589
1732:SAIMR echis antivenom
1544:Brown snake antivenom
1523:Australian copperheads
1519:Tiger snake antivenom
1503:Black snake antivenom
1477:Death adder antivenom
1354:Walterinnesia aegyptia
912:All Iranian scorpions
603:Suero antiloxoscelico
3775:Polyclonal antibodies
3770:Toxicology treatments
3684:Monoclonal antibodies
3620:Polyclonal antibodies
3471:. Elsevier: 188–195.
3377:. Elsevier: 280–288.
3347:10.1081/CLT-120021117
2953:"CSL antivenoms 1956"
2357:Australian Prescriber
1791:Anticoral monovalent
1376:Dendroaspis polylepis
1138:Dendroaspis polylepis
979:Soro antiscorpionico
890:Centruroides limpidus
862:Centruroides limpidus
822:Androctonus australis
590:Soro antiloxoscelico
494:affinity purification
302:Method of preparation
270:antivenoms are given
60:antivenin, antivenene
3006:do Amaral A (1927).
2292:Franklin, Deborah, "
2274:. September 15, 2015
1568:Sea snake antivenom
1453:, spectacled cobra
1318:Pseuocerastes fieldi
1272:Echis megalocephalus
1218:Cerastes gasperettii
1150:Dendroaspis jamesoni
799:Androctonus amoerexi
655:Southern black widow
577:Soro antiaracnidico
467:H.K. Mulford company
391:, and the resulting
364:Shibasaburo Kitasato
155:. It is composed of
3477:2015Txcn..103..188W
3383:2016Txcn..119..280C
3341:(3): 317–27. 2003.
3335:Clinical Toxicology
3282:2003Txcn...41..541T
3037:1994Txcn...32..351R
2913:2020Txcn..188...65C
2696:Wellcome Collection
2574:Scientific American
1142:Dendroaspis viridis
961:Scorpion antivenom
926:Indian red scorpion
350:is not disastrous.
172:shortness of breath
32:
3515:. Merriam-Webster.
2957:Power House Museum
2739:Fontana F (1767).
2501:Warrell D (2016).
2384:Emergency Medicine
2350:"Antivenom update"
2324:2014-07-07 at the
2300:2014-08-09 at the
1994:Medical Toxicology
1758:Panamerican serum
1535:rough-scaled snake
1462:Bungarus caeruleus
1447:, Russell's viper
1242:Daboia palaestinae
1236:Daboia mauritanica
937:Anti-scorpionique
886:Suero Antialacran
744:soro antilonomico
682:Black widow spider
427:Instituto Butantan
393:Serum Antivenimeux
28:
3735:
3734:
3678:
3677:
1854:
1853:
1736:Saw-scaled vipers
1490:Taipan antivenom
1441:Saw-scaled viper
1425:and fer-de-lance
1422:Crotalus durissus
1266:Echis leucogaster
1212:Cerastes cerastes
1114:Echis leucogaster
1084:
1083:
1038:
1037:
759:
758:
723:
722:
690:
689:
478:ammonium sulphate
425:, working at the
416:Sir Thomas Fraser
380:Pasteur Institute
134:
133:
3792:
3752:
3751:
3750:
3743:
3625:
3624:
3603:
3596:
3589:
3580:
3579:
3542:
3541:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3460:
3454:
3453:
3435:
3429:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3419:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3308:
3302:
3301:
3265:
3259:
3258:
3257:. 24 April 2019.
3247:
3241:
3240:
3238:
3236:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3204:
3172:
3166:
3165:
3163:
3162:
3147:
3141:
3140:
3130:
3098:
3092:
3091:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2993:
2979:
2973:
2972:
2970:
2968:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2924:
2892:
2886:
2885:
2875:
2865:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2824:
2806:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2780:
2762:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2727:
2726:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2702:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2671:
2661:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2581:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2549:
2541:
2532:
2531:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2450:
2440:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2379:
2373:
2372:
2354:
2348:Whyte I (2012).
2345:
2339:
2315:
2309:
2308:, July 31, 2013.
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2234:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2214:. Archived from
2204:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2077:
2067:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1991:Dart RC (2004).
1988:
1977:
1976:
1947:
1465:(These are the "
1459:, common krait
1380:Naja nigricollis
1260:Echis khosatzkii
1158:Naja melanoleuca
1154:Naja nigricollis
1130:Bitis nasicornis
1126:Bitis rhinoceros
1091:
1090:
1045:
1044:
967:Buthus occitanus
964:Black scorpion,
766:
765:
730:
729:
697:
696:
550:
549:
412:Lawrence Waddell
384:Gabriel Bertrand
360:Emil von Behring
286:that can act as
260:snake antivenoms
139:, also known as
78:
40:
33:
31:
27:
3800:
3799:
3795:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3748:
3746:
3738:
3736:
3731:
3674:
3656:
3614:
3607:
3555:Antivenom Index
3551:
3546:
3545:
3538:
3524:
3520:
3505:
3504:
3500:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3436:
3432:
3423:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3366:
3362:
3332:
3331:
3327:
3310:
3309:
3305:
3266:
3262:
3249:
3248:
3244:
3234:
3232:
3222:
3218:
3173:
3169:
3160:
3158:
3149:
3148:
3144:
3113:(6): 998–1000.
3099:
3095:
3064:
3060:
3021:
3017:
3004:
3000:
2991:
2989:
2981:
2980:
2976:
2966:
2964:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2893:
2889:
2842:
2838:
2804:
2798:
2794:
2760:
2754:
2750:
2737:
2733:
2724:
2722:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2700:
2698:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2638:
2634:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2579:
2577:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2542:
2535:
2524:
2520:
2513:
2499:
2495:
2486:
2484:
2468:
2464:
2415:
2411:
2380:
2376:
2352:
2346:
2342:
2338:, May 28, 2014.
2326:Wayback Machine
2316:
2312:
2302:Wayback Machine
2291:
2287:
2277:
2275:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2251:
2249:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2221:
2219:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2177:
2173:
2162:
2148:Gad SC (2007).
2146:
2142:
2133:
2131:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2095:
2091:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2021:
2020:
2016:
2005:
1989:
1980:
1973:
1948:
1927:
1922:
1859:
1673:B. worthingtoni
1604:North American
1450:Daboia russelli
1444:Echis carinatus
1412:snake antivenom
1400:Echis pyramidum
1394:Echis ocellatus
1368:Echis ocellatus
1330:Vipera latastei
1284:Echis pyramidum
1278:Echis omanensis
1254:Echis coloratus
1224:Cerastes vipera
1191:Echis carinatus
1185:Vipera russelii
1118:Echis carinatus
1110:Echis ocellatus
1089:
1043:
764:
749:Lonomia obliqua
728:
711:Tick antivenom
695:
619:All species of
607:Chilean recluse
548:
514:
408:Patrick Russell
376:Albert Calmette
356:
330:, developed by
324:
304:
280:
272:intramuscularly
210:
195:scorpion stings
145:venom antiserum
130:
109:
85:
47:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3798:
3788:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3757:
3756:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3688:
3686:
3680:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3666:
3664:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3633:
3631:
3622:
3616:
3615:
3606:
3605:
3598:
3591:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3566:
3550:
3549:External links
3547:
3544:
3543:
3536:
3518:
3498:
3455:
3448:
3430:
3404:
3360:
3325:
3303:
3260:
3242:
3216:
3187:(6): 397–399.
3167:
3142:
3093:
3058:
3031:(3): 351–363.
3015:
2998:
2974:
2944:
2887:
2836:
2792:
2748:
2731:
2707:
2683:
2632:
2586:
2561:
2533:
2530:. p. 692.
2518:
2511:
2493:
2462:
2431:(9): 547–549.
2409:
2390:(4): 436–439.
2374:
2363:(5): 152–155.
2340:
2310:
2285:
2259:
2229:
2212:SavageLabs.com
2199:
2171:
2160:
2140:
2123:. 2021-01-02.
2108:
2089:
2038:
2031:
2014:
2003:
1978:
1971:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1848:
1840:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1799:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1755:
1754:
1751:
1746:
1742:
1741:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1728:
1725:
1653:
1649:
1648:
1645:
1640:
1639:Antielapidico
1636:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1625:
1624:
1623:North America
1621:
1602:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1582:
1578:
1577:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1564:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1540:
1537:
1520:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1486:
1483:
1478:
1474:
1473:
1470:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1428:Bothrops asper
1417:
1407:
1406:
1403:
1390:
1386:
1385:
1382:
1372:Bitis arietans
1365:
1361:
1360:
1357:
1230:Daboia deserti
1206:Bitis arietans
1202:
1198:
1197:
1194:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1167:
1134:Bitis gabonica
1122:Bitis arietans
1106:
1102:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1073:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1042:
1041:Marine animals
1039:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1016:
1012:
1011:
1006:
998:
994:
993:
988:
980:
976:
975:
970:
962:
958:
957:
952:
938:
934:
933:
928:
923:
919:
918:
913:
910:
906:
905:
900:
887:
883:
882:
877:
858:
854:
853:
848:
819:
811:
810:
805:
796:
792:
791:
786:
784:Buthus tamulus
781:
777:
776:
773:
770:
763:
760:
757:
756:
753:
745:
741:
740:
737:
734:
727:
724:
721:
720:
717:
715:Paralysis tick
712:
708:
707:
704:
701:
694:
691:
688:
687:
684:
679:
675:
674:
671:
666:
662:
661:
660:United States
658:
652:
648:
647:
644:
642:Redback spider
639:
635:
634:
631:
617:
613:
612:
609:
604:
600:
599:
596:
594:Recluse spider
591:
587:
586:
583:
578:
574:
573:
570:
565:
561:
560:
557:
554:
547:
544:
513:
510:
498:plasmapheresis
400:Felice Fontana
355:
352:
323:
320:
303:
300:
296:serum sickness
279:
276:
268:redback spider
233:water moccasin
209:
206:
168:serum sickness
132:
131:
129:
128:
124:
122:
116:
115:
111:
110:
108:
107:
100:
98:
92:
91:
88:
86:administration
80:
79:
72:
62:
61:
58:
54:
53:
49:
48:
41:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3797:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3755:
3745:
3744:
3741:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3712:Obiltoxaximab
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3681:
3671:
3668:
3667:
3665:
3663:
3659:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3632:
3630:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3617:
3612:
3604:
3599:
3597:
3592:
3590:
3585:
3584:
3581:
3574:
3570:
3567:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3539:
3537:92-4-170058-0
3533:
3529:
3522:
3514:
3513:
3508:
3502:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3451:
3449:0-88359-029-8
3445:
3441:
3434:
3416:
3415:
3408:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3364:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3329:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3307:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3276:(5): 541–57.
3275:
3271:
3264:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3231:
3227:
3220:
3212:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3171:
3156:
3152:
3146:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3062:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3011:
3010:
3002:
2988:
2984:
2978:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2948:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2883:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2840:
2832:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2796:
2788:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2759:
2752:
2744:
2743:
2735:
2721:
2717:
2711:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2679:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2636:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2590:
2575:
2571:
2565:
2546:
2540:
2538:
2529:
2522:
2514:
2512:9788177394979
2508:
2504:
2497:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2466:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2425:
2420:
2413:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2344:
2337:
2336:
2335:Science Daily
2331:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2314:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2248:on 2019-11-01
2247:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2218:on 2016-03-03
2217:
2213:
2209:
2203:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2175:
2167:
2163:
2161:9780470117101
2157:
2153:
2152:
2144:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2121:The Economist
2118:
2112:
2104:
2100:
2093:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2042:
2034:
2032:9780857111562
2028:
2024:
2018:
2010:
2006:
2004:9780781728454
2000:
1996:
1995:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1974:
1972:9789241547659
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1925:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1849:
1847:
1846:
1841:
1838:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1827:Coral snakes
1826:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1816:Coral snakes
1815:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1805:Coral snakes
1804:
1802:Antimicrurus
1801:
1800:
1796:
1794:Coral snakes
1793:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1783:Coral snakes
1782:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1772:Coral snakes
1771:
1768:
1767:
1763:
1761:Coral snakes
1760:
1757:
1756:
1753:South Africa
1752:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1740:South Africa
1739:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1730:
1727:South Africa
1726:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1716:
1715:B. schneideri
1711:
1710:
1709:B. peringueyi
1705:
1704:
1699:
1698:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1686:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1674:
1669:
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1176:
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1168:
1166:
1165:
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1155:
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1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1064:
1063:Box jellyfish
1061:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1003:
999:
996:
995:
992:
989:
986:
985:
981:
978:
977:
974:
971:
969:
968:
963:
960:
959:
956:
953:
950:
949:
944:
943:
939:
936:
935:
932:
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927:
924:
921:
920:
917:
914:
911:
908:
907:
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899:
895:
891:
888:
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875:
870:
869:
864:
863:
859:
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849:
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843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
820:
817:
813:
812:
809:
806:
804:
800:
797:
794:
793:
790:
787:
785:
782:
779:
778:
774:
771:
768:
767:
754:
751:
750:
746:
743:
742:
738:
735:
732:
731:
718:
716:
713:
710:
709:
705:
702:
699:
698:
685:
683:
680:
677:
676:
673:South Africa
672:
670:
669:Button spider
667:
664:
663:
659:
656:
653:
650:
649:
645:
643:
640:
637:
636:
632:
630:
629:
624:
623:
618:
615:
614:
610:
608:
605:
602:
601:
597:
595:
592:
589:
588:
584:
582:
579:
576:
575:
571:
569:
566:
563:
562:
558:
555:
552:
551:
543:
540:
536:
534:
530:
529:pharmacopoeia
525:
521:
519:
509:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
482:caprylic acid
479:
475:
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
447:
442:
441:
436:
432:
428:
424:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
396:
394:
390:
389:Indian cobras
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
351:
349:
345:
342:
337:
333:
332:Edward Jenner
329:
319:
317:
313:
309:
308:freeze drying
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
275:
273:
269:
265:
261:
256:
253:
250:
245:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
217:
215:
205:
203:
198:
196:
192:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
126:
125:
123:
121:
117:
112:
105:
102:
101:
99:
97:
93:
89:
87:
81:
77:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
52:Clinical data
50:
45:
39:
34:
26:
22:
3692:Bezlotoxumab
3669:
3527:
3521:
3510:
3501:
3468:
3464:
3458:
3439:
3433:
3422:, retrieved
3413:
3407:
3374:
3370:
3363:
3338:
3334:
3328:
3306:
3273:
3269:
3263:
3254:
3245:
3233:. Retrieved
3229:
3219:
3184:
3180:
3170:
3159:. Retrieved
3157:. 2011-08-02
3154:
3145:
3119:10665/262354
3110:
3106:
3096:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3028:
3024:
3018:
3008:
3001:
2990:. Retrieved
2986:
2977:
2965:. Retrieved
2956:
2947:
2904:
2900:
2890:
2856:(7): e2862.
2853:
2849:
2839:
2812:
2808:
2795:
2768:
2764:
2751:
2741:
2734:
2723:. Retrieved
2719:
2710:
2699:. Retrieved
2695:
2686:
2649:
2645:
2635:
2602:
2598:
2589:
2578:. Retrieved
2576:. 2015-03-30
2573:
2564:
2552:. Retrieved
2527:
2521:
2502:
2496:
2485:. Retrieved
2476:
2465:
2428:
2422:
2412:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2360:
2356:
2343:
2333:
2313:
2288:
2276:. Retrieved
2271:
2262:
2250:. Retrieved
2246:the original
2241:
2232:
2220:. Retrieved
2216:the original
2211:
2202:
2193:10665/325771
2183:
2174:
2150:
2143:
2132:. Retrieved
2120:
2111:
2102:
2092:
2055:
2051:
2041:
2022:
2017:
1993:
1954:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1900:rather than
1897:
1893:
1885:
1883:
1873:
1863:
1860:
1843:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1697:B. heraldica
1695:
1689:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1643:Coral snakes
1618:cottonmouths
1610:rattlesnakes
1584:
1548:Brown snakes
1530:
1527:tiger snakes
1506:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1426:
1420:
1398:
1392:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1352:
1348:Naja pallida
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1162:
1108:
1024:
1018:
1009:South Africa
1000:
982:
965:
946:
940:
897:
893:
889:
872:
866:
860:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
802:
798:
783:
752:caterpillar
747:
626:
620:
541:
537:
526:
522:
515:
512:Availability
502:blood plasma
471:
444:
438:
423:Vital Brazil
420:
403:
402:in his work
397:
392:
357:
341:freeze-dried
325:
305:
281:
278:Side effects
257:
254:
246:
218:
211:
208:Medical uses
199:
183:spider bites
180:
165:
153:envenomation
148:
144:
140:
136:
135:
25:
3722:Raxibacumab
3717:Palivizumab
3697:Motavizumab
3507:"Antivenin"
3424:14 December
3230:Smithsonian
3074:: 386–393.
2967:24 February
2278:October 31,
2252:October 31,
2097:Molteni M.
1963:10665/44053
1857:Terminology
1797:Costa Rica
1786:Costa Rica
1775:Costa Rica
1764:Costa Rica
1721:B. xeropaga
1703:B. inornata
1685:B. caudalis
1668:puff adders
1614:copperheads
1581:Vipera tab
1481:Death adder
1410:Polyvalent
1342:Naja nubiae
1026:Androctonus
942:Androctonus
898:C. suffusus
874:C. suffusus
628:Latrodectus
506:blood serum
504:instead of
500:to collect
474:salting out
292:anaphylaxis
249:neostigmine
241:coral snake
225:rattlesnake
191:fish stings
187:snake bites
176:anaphylaxis
114:Identifiers
57:Other names
3780:Antitoxins
3764:Categories
3707:Nirsevimab
3161:2023-05-24
2992:2023-05-24
2725:2023-05-24
2701:2023-05-24
2652:(20): 20.
2580:2020-02-01
2554:15 January
2487:2006-06-25
2222:2016-02-08
2134:2021-01-02
1920:References
1914:antivenene
1877:, meaning
1867:, meaning
1845:Crotalinae
1808:Argentina
1769:Anticoral
1691:B. cornuta
1679:B. atropos
1664:Rinkhalses
1606:pit vipers
1576:Australia
1572:Sea snakes
1563:Australia
1552:Australia
1539:Australia
1531:Pseudechis
1514:Australia
1508:Pseudechis
1498:Australia
1485:Australia
1405:Wales, UK
1094:Antivenom
1080:Australia
1067:Australia
1048:Antivenom
1029:scorpions
1002:Parabuthus
857:Alacramyn
814:INOSCORPI
769:Antivenom
733:Antivenom
719:Australia
700:Antivenom
686:Argentina
646:Australia
622:Loxosceles
572:Australia
553:Antivenom
518:snakebites
368:diphtheria
348:cold chain
336:transfused
288:immunogens
229:copperhead
157:antibodies
120:ChemSpider
42:Milking a
21:Anti-Venom
3702:Nebacumab
3670:Antivenom
3662:Antiserum
3355:218867125
3235:9 January
3155:Fronteras
2939:223558071
2907:: 65–75.
2831:0019-5235
2787:0019-5235
2619:0012-0472
2129:0013-0613
2058:(2): 42.
1906:antivenin
1898:antivenom
1886:antivenin
1830:Colombia
1813:Coralmyn
1749:Boomslang
1456:Naja naja
1336:Naja haje
1179:Naja naja
1164:Naja haje
1076:Stonefish
1023:spp. and
894:C. noxius
868:C. noxius
762:Scorpions
455:scorpions
431:SĂŁo Paulo
421:In 1901,
322:Mechanism
264:stonefish
221:pit viper
141:antivenin
137:Antivenom
90:injection
84:Routes of
76:Monograph
70:Drugs.com
30:Antivenom
3754:Medicine
3561:and the
3493:26166305
3399:27377229
3298:12676433
3211:15911942
3088:23916602
2961:Archived
2931:33065199
2882:24992341
2678:27279829
2627:80469638
2481:Archived
2457:26430342
2404:12534488
2322:Archived
2298:Archived
2182:(2019).
2166:Archived
2084:30274438
2009:Archived
1467:Big Four
1100:Country
1097:Species
1054:Country
1051:Species
775:Country
772:Species
739:Country
736:Species
706:Country
703:Species
616:Aracmyn
559:Country
556:Species
535:(WHO).
531:and the
524:varies.
488:or with
446:Bothrops
440:Crotalus
344:ampoules
328:vaccines
284:proteins
214:venomous
161:venomous
96:ATC code
3575:service
3571:of the
3473:Bibcode
3465:Toxicon
3379:Bibcode
3371:Toxicon
3278:Bibcode
3270:Toxicon
3202:1726801
3137:5312259
3128:2427561
3068:Toxicon
3053:8016856
3033:Bibcode
3025:Toxicon
2909:Bibcode
2901:Toxicon
2873:4080994
2669:4898362
2526:Gad S.
2448:4578200
2306:NPR.org
2075:6073149
1874:venenum
1819:Mexico
1647:Brazil
1634:Brazil
1020:Leiurus
973:Morocco
955:Algeria
916:Tunisia
755:Brazil
726:Insects
693:Acarids
657:spider
633:Mexico
598:Brazil
585:Brazil
546:Spiders
476:" with
451:spiders
378:at the
372:tetanus
354:History
3740:Portal
3534:
3491:
3446:
3397:
3353:
3296:
3209:
3199:
3135:
3125:
3086:
3051:
2937:
2929:
2880:
2870:
2829:
2785:
2676:
2666:
2625:
2617:
2509:
2455:
2445:
2402:
2158:
2127:
2082:
2072:
2029:
2001:
1969:
1879:poison
1837:Anavip
1660:cobras
1656:Mambas
1616:, and
1599:CroFab
1586:Vipera
1533:spp.,
1494:Taipan
1472:India
1415:Anavip
1384:Spain
1359:Spain
1196:India
1169:India
1087:Snakes
991:Brazil
984:Tityus
948:Buthus
945:spp.,
903:Mexico
880:Mexico
611:Chile
490:pepsin
486:papain
457:, and
435:Brazil
237:CroFab
193:, and
147:, and
106:
3418:(PDF)
3351:S2CID
2935:S2CID
2815:(4).
2805:(PDF)
2771:(4).
2761:(PDF)
2623:S2CID
2548:(PDF)
2353:(PDF)
2103:Wired
1910:venen
1902:venin
1894:venom
1869:venom
1864:venin
1608:(all
1589:spp.
1511:spp.
1033:Egypt
1005:spp.
987:spp.
951:spp.
931:India
851:Spain
808:India
789:India
459:frogs
387:from
314:/46 °
44:snake
3629:IVIG
3532:ISBN
3489:PMID
3444:ISBN
3426:2019
3395:PMID
3294:PMID
3237:2017
3207:PMID
3133:PMID
3084:PMID
3049:PMID
2969:2017
2927:PMID
2878:PMID
2827:ISSN
2783:ISSN
2674:PMID
2615:ISSN
2556:2020
2507:ISBN
2453:PMID
2400:PMID
2332:via
2280:2019
2254:2019
2156:ISBN
2125:ISSN
2080:PMID
2027:ISBN
1999:ISBN
1967:ISBN
1912:and
1904:and
1896:and
1378:and
1351:and
1188:and
1161:and
816:MENA
801:and
625:and
443:and
370:and
362:and
266:and
231:and
127:none
66:AHFS
3611:J06
3481:doi
3469:103
3387:doi
3375:119
3343:doi
3316:doi
3286:doi
3197:PMC
3189:doi
3123:PMC
3115:hdl
3076:doi
3041:doi
2917:doi
2905:188
2868:PMC
2858:doi
2817:doi
2773:doi
2664:PMC
2654:doi
2607:doi
2443:PMC
2433:doi
2392:doi
2365:doi
2328:",
2304:",
2188:hdl
2070:PMC
2060:doi
1959:hdl
1908:or
1850:US
1592:UK
480:or
429:in
318:).
104:J06
3766::
3509:.
3487:.
3479:.
3467:.
3393:.
3385:.
3373:.
3349:.
3339:41
3337:.
3292:.
3284:.
3274:41
3272:.
3253:.
3228:.
3205:.
3195:.
3185:22
3183:.
3179:.
3153:.
3131:.
3121:.
3111:42
3109:.
3105:.
3082:.
3072:76
3070:.
3047:.
3039:.
3029:32
3027:.
2985:.
2959:.
2955:.
2933:.
2925:.
2915:.
2903:.
2899:.
2876:.
2866:.
2852:.
2848:.
2825:.
2813:53
2811:.
2807:.
2781:.
2769:53
2767:.
2763:.
2718:.
2694:.
2672:.
2662:.
2650:22
2648:.
2644:.
2621:.
2613:.
2603:16
2601:.
2597:.
2572:.
2536:^
2479:.
2475:.
2451:.
2441:.
2429:19
2427:.
2421:.
2398:.
2388:14
2386:.
2361:35
2359:.
2355:.
2270:.
2240:.
2210:.
2164:.
2119:.
2101:.
2078:.
2068:.
2054:.
2050:.
2007:.
1981:^
1965:.
1928:^
1916:.
1881:.
1839:)
1724:)
1718:,
1712:,
1706:,
1700:,
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1620:)
1612:,
1529:,
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2190::
2137:.
2086:.
2062::
2056:3
2035:.
1975:.
1961::
1221:,
316:F
312:C
223:(
68:/
23:.
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