765:: when mechanical energy is applied to the shaft, a temperature difference appears between the reservoirs. The essential mechanical components of a Stirling cryocooler are identical to a Stirling engine. In both the engine and the heat pump, heat flows from the expansion space to the compression space; however, input work is required in order for heat to flow "uphill" against a thermal gradient, specifically when the compression space is hotter than the expansion space. The external side of the expansion-space heat exchanger may be placed inside a thermally insulated compartment such as a vacuum flask. Heat is in effect pumped out of this compartment, through the working gas of the cryocooler and into the compression space. The compression space will be above ambient temperature, and so heat will flow out into the environment.
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283:(CAFE) requirements that were to be achieved by automobiles sold in the U.S. were being increased. Moreover, the Stirling engine design continued to exhibit a shortfall in fuel efficiency There were also two major drawbacks for consumers using the Stirling engines: first was the time needed to warm up â because most drivers do not like to wait to start driving; and second was the difficulty in changing the engine's speed â thus limiting driving flexibility on the road and traffic. The process of auto manufacturers converting their existing facilities and tooling for the
317:) with no change in vehicle gross weight. Startup time in the NASA vehicle was a maximum of 30 seconds, while Ford's research vehicle used an internal electric heater to quickly start the engine, giving a start time of only a few seconds. The high torque output of the Stirling engine at low speed eliminated the need for a torque converter in the transmission resulting in decreased weight and transmission drivetrain losses negating somewhat the weight disadvantage of the Stirling in auto use. This resulted in increased efficiencies being mentioned in the test results.
179:, reducing friction losses and completely eliminating refrigerant leakage. For example, a Free Piston Stirling Cooler (FPSC) can convert an electrical energy input into a practical heat pump effect, used for high-efficiency portable refrigerators and freezers. Conversely, a free-piston electrical generator could be built, converting a heat flow into mechanical energy, and then into electricity. In both cases, energy is usually converted from/to electrical energy using magnetic fields in a way that avoids compromising the hermetic seal.
1108:) Stirling engine will run on any low-temperature differential, for example, the difference between the palm of a hand and room temperature, or room temperature and an ice cube. A record of only 0.5 °C temperature differential was achieved in 1990. Usually they are designed in a gamma configuration for simplicity, and without a regenerator, although some have slits in the displacer typically made of foam for partial regeneration. They are typically unpressurized, running at pressure close to 1
588:(SES) to purchase electricity created using over 30,000 Solar Powered Stirling Engines over a twenty-year period sufficient to generate 850 MW of electricity. These systems, on an 8,000 acre (19 km) solar farm will use mirrors to direct and concentrate sunlight onto the engines which will in turn drive generators. "In January, 2010, four months after breaking ground, Stirling Energy partner company Tessara Solar completed the 1.5 MW Maricopa Solar power plant in
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849:. For this application, Stirling cryocoolers are the highest-performance technology available, due to their ability to lift heat efficiently at very low temperatures. They are silent, vibration-free, can be scaled down to small sizes, and have very high reliability and low maintenance. As of 2009, cryocoolers were considered to be the only widely deployed commercially successful Stirling devices.
508:, a heat engine can generate power from this temperature difference. In a CHP system, the high-temperature primary heat enters the Stirling engine heater, then some of the energy is converted to mechanical power in the engine, and the rest passes through to the cooler, where it exits at a low temperature. The "waste" heat actually comes from the engine's main
596:) that focus sunlight onto a power conversion unit, which contains the Stirling engine. The dish uses dual-axis tracking to follow the sun precisely as it moves across the sky." There have been disputes over the project due to concerns of environmental impact on animals living on the site. The Maricopa Solar Plant has been closed.
486:(CHP) system, mechanical or electrical power is generated in the usual way, however, the waste heat given off by the engine is used to supply a secondary heating application. This can be virtually anything that uses low-temperature heat. It is often a pre-existing energy use, such as commercial space heating, residential
592:, just outside Phoenix. The power plant is composed of 60 SES SunCatchers." The SunCatcher is described as "a large, tracking, concentrating solar power (CSP) dish collector that generates 25 kilowatts (kW) of electricity in full sun. Each of the 38-foot-diameter collectors contains over 300 curved mirrors (
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Los Alamos
National Laboratory has developed an "Acoustic Stirling Heat Engine" with no moving parts. It converts heat into intense acoustic power which (quoted from given source) "can be used directly in acoustic refrigerators or pulse-tube refrigerators to provide heat-driven refrigeration with no
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cooling systems, because they are less energy-efficient. However, below about â40...â30 °C, Rankine cooling is not effective because there are no suitable refrigerants with boiling points this low. Stirling cryocoolers are able to "lift" heat down to â200 °C (73 K), which is sufficient to
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for use in space exploration. It is designed to generate electricity for deep space probes on missions lasting decades. The engine uses a single displacer to reduce moving parts and uses high energy acoustics to transfer energy. The heat source is a dry solid nuclear fuel slug, and the heat sink is
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radiator. The heater must be made of stainless steel, exotic alloy, or ceramic to support high heating temperatures needed for high power density, and to contain hydrogen gas that is often used in automotive
Stirlings to maximize power. The main difficulties involved in using the Stirling engine in
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Based on the companies' published performance specifications, the off-grid diesel-fueled unit produces combined heat (5.5 kW heat) and electric (800W electric) output, from a unit being fed 0.75 liters of automotive-grade diesel fuel per hour. Whispergen units are claimed to operate as a
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Robert McConaghy created the first flying
Stirling engine-powered aircraft in August 1986. The Beta type engine weighed 360 grams, and produced only 20 watts of power. The engine was attached to the front of a modified Super Malibu radio control glider with a gross takeoff weight of 1 kg. The
797:). They can go as low as 40â60 K for single-stage machines, depending on the particular design. Two-stage Stirling cryocoolers can reach temperatures of 20 K, sufficient to liquify hydrogen and neon. Cryocoolers for this purpose are more or less competitive with other cryocooler technologies. The
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designs use liquid sodium as a coolant. If the heat is to be employed in a steam plant, a water/sodium heat exchanger is required, which raises some concern if a leak were to occur, as sodium reacts violently with water. A Stirling engine eliminates the need for water anywhere in the cycle. This
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However the preliminary results of an Energy Saving Trust review of the performance of the
WhisperGen microCHP units suggested that their advantages were marginal at best in most homes. However another author shows that Stirling engine microgeneration is the most cost effective of various
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the
Stirling would perform a similar function as in a petro-electric series-hybrid turning a pump charging a hydraulic buffer tank. Although successful in the MOD 1 and MOD 2 phases of the experiments, cutbacks in funding further research and lack of interest by automakers ended possible
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The expansion side of the heat pump is thermally coupled to the heat source, which is often the external environment. The compression side of the
Stirling device is placed in the environment to be heated, for example, a building, and heat is "pumped" into it. Typically there will be
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However, a modified
Stirling engine has been introduced that uses concepts taken from a patented internal-combustion engine with a sidewall combustion chamber (US patent 7,387,093) that promises to overcome the deficient power-density and specific-power problems, as well as the slow
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The experiments indicated that the
Stirling engine could improve vehicle operational efficiency by ideally detaching the Stirling from direct power demands, eliminating a direct mechanical linkage as used in most current vehicles. Its prime function used in an extended-range
1076:. This cooler is still being manufactured, with Global Cooling now coordinating distribution to North America and Europe. Other variants offered by Twinbird include a portable deep freezer (to −80 °C), collapsible coolers, and a model for transporting blood and
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There is a potential for nuclear-powered
Stirling engines in electric power generation plants. Replacing the steam turbines of nuclear power plants with Stirling engines might simplify the plant, yield greater efficiency, and reduce the radioactive byproducts. A number of
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The power produced by the engine can be used to run an industrial or agricultural process, which in turn creates biomass waste refuse that can be used as free fuel for the engine, thus reducing waste removal costs. The overall process can be efficient and cost-effective.
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production plants. The
Philips Cryogenics business evolved until it was split off in 1990 to form the Stirling Cryogenics BV, The Netherlands. This company is still active in the development and manufacturing of Stirling cryocoolers and cryogenic cooling systems.
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It is often claimed that the Stirling engine has too low a power/weight ratio, too high a cost, and too long a starting time for automotive applications. They also have complex and expensive heat exchangers. A Stirling cooler must reject twice as much heat as an
983:). The mechanical energy input can be supplied by an electrical motor, or an internal combustion engine, for example. When the mechanical work for the heat pump is provided by a second Stirling engine, then the overall system is called a "heat-driven heatpump".
403:, are developing an experimental fourâcylinder engine using hydrogen peroxide as an oxidant in underwater power systems. The SAGA (Submarine Assistance Great Autonomy) submarine became operational in the 1990s and is driven by two Stirling engines supplied with
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Heat pumps are by far the most energy-efficient types of heating systems, since they "harvest" heat from the environment, rather than only turning their input energy into heat. In accordance with the Second Law of Thermodynamics, heat pumps always require the
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sold a version of the Twinbird "SC-C925 Portable Freezer Cooler 25L" under its own brand name, but it has since discontinued offering the product. The portable cooler can be operated more than a day, maintaining sub-freezing temperatures while powered by an
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acceleration-response problem inherent in all Stirling engines. It could be possible to use these in co-generation systems that use waste heat from a conventional piston or gas turbine engine's exhaust and use this either to power the ancillaries (e.g.: the
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is very similar to a Stirling cryocooler, the main difference being that it usually operates at room temperature. At present, its principal application is to pump heat from the outside of a building to the inside, thus heating it at lowered energy costs.
279:, revealed the Stirling engines "could be developed into an automotive power train for passenger vehicles and that it could produce favorable results." However, progress was achieved with equal-power spark-ignition engines since 1977, and the
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successfully lofted a Stirling cycle cooler in a form "similar in size and shape to the small domestic units often used in college dormitories" for use in the Life Science Laboratory. Further research on this unit for domestic use led to a
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Stirling engines can power pumps to move fluids like water, air and gasses. For instance the ST-5 from Stirling Technology Inc. power output of 5 horsepower (3.7 kW) that can run a 3 kW generator or a centrifugal water pump.
411:. This system also has potential for surface-ship propulsion, as the engine's size is less of a concern, and placing the radiator section in seawater rather than open air (as a land-based engine would be) allows for it to be smaller.
1022:. The piston is typically driven by an oscillating magnetic field that is the source of the power needed to drive the refrigeration cycle. The magnetic drive allows the piston to be driven without requiring any seals, gaskets,
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has built eight successful Stirling-powered submarines since the late 1980s. They carry compressed oxygen to allow fuel combustion submerged, providing heat for the Stirling engine. They are currently used on submarines of the
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A desktop gamma Stirling engine. The working fluid in this engine is air. The hot heat exchange is the glass cylinder on the right, and the cold heat exchanger is the finned cylinder on the top. This engine uses a small
1195:. In a typical nuclear power plant, two-thirds of the thermal energy produced by the reactor is waste heat. In a Stirling assembly the waste heat has the potential to be used as an additional source of electricity.
1006:. Stirling systems have seen limited commercial use; however, use is expected to increase along with market demand for energy conservation, and adoption will likely be accelerated by technological refinements.
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Inspirit Energy, a UK-based company have a gas fired CHP unit called the Inspirit Charger which is on sale in 2016. The floor standing unit generates 3 kW of electrical and 15 kW of thermal energy.
504:. However, there are large quantities of waste heat produced which often go unused. In other situations, high-grade fuel is burned at high temperatures for a low-temperature application. According to the
233:(AMC) with several cars equipped with units from Sweden's United Stirling built under a license from Philips. The NASA vehicle test projects were designed by contractors and designated MOD I and MOD II.
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announced a similar initiative for the UK. Domestic Stirling engines would supply the client with hot water, space heating, and a surplus electric power that could be fed back into the electric grid.
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A Stirling engine is a mechanical device which operates on a *closed* regenerative thermodynamic cycle, with cyclic compression and expansion of the working fluid at different temperature levels.
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of 38.5%, compared to a modern spark-ignition (gasoline) engine, which has a peak efficiency of 20-25%. The Mod II project replaced the normal spark-ignition engine in a 1985 4-door
1041:. He founded Sunpower Inc., which researches and develops FPSC systems for military, aerospace, industrial, and commercial applications. A FPSC cooler made by Sunpower was used by
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There are several design configurations for Stirling engines that can be built (many of which require rotary or sliding seals) which can introduce difficult tradeoffs between
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WhisperGen, (bankruptcy 2012) a New Zealand-based company has developed Stirling engines that can be powered by natural gas or diesel. An agreement has been signed with
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is the cryogenic temperature. At these temperatures, solid materials have lower specific heat values, so the regenerator must be made from unexpected materials, such as
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for heating or cooling. In the late 1930s, the Philips Corporation of the Netherlands successfully utilized the Stirling cycle in cryogenic applications. During the
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The Stirling engine could be well suited for underwater power systems where electrical work or mechanical power is required on an intermittent or continuous level.
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was also converted to United Stirling P-40 power to demonstrate the Stirling engine to the public and to promote the U.S. government's alternative engine program.
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The Free Piston Stirling Cooler (FPSC) is a completely sealed heat transfer system that has only two moving parts (a piston and a displacer), and which can use
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heat engine can also be driven in reverse, using a mechanical energy input to drive heat transfer in a reversed direction (i.e. a heat pump, or refrigerator).
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1988:. 8th Intemational Cryocooler Conference sponsored by the ICC Conference Committee Vail, Colorado, June 28-30, 1994. NASA Technical Memorandum 106309. NASA.
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However, larger (typically 1 m square) low temperature engines have been built for pumping water using direct sunlight with minimal or no magnification.
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at cryogenic temperatures is typically 0.04â0.05 (corresponding to a 4â5% efficiency). Empirically, the devices show a linear trend, typically with the
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assemblies except that any additional use of the heat raises the effective heat sink temperature for the thermal power plant resulting in some loss of
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1147:, a Spanish firm, to produce WhisperGen's microCHP (Combined Heat and Power) and make them available for the domestic market in Europe. Some time ago
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system. Claimed advantages for the system include improved efficiency and cooling capacity, lighter weight, smaller size and better controllability.
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1112:. The power produced is less than 1 W, and they are intended for demonstration purposes only. They are sold as toys and educational models.
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best-published test flight lasted 6 minutes and exhibited "barely enough power to make the occasional gentle turn and maintain altitude".
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an automotive application are startup time, acceleration response, shutdown time, and weight, not all of which have ready-made solutions.
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As with any other Stirling device, heat flow is from the expansion space to the compression space. However, in contrast to the Stirling
776:. At typical refrigeration temperatures, Stirling coolers are generally not economically competitive with the less expensive mainstream
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has undertaken work on advanced Stirling cycle engines which include thermal storage for underwater applications. United Stirling, in
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would be as a generator providing electricity to drive the electric vehicle traction motors and charging a buffer battery set. In a
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gain by a factor of three and a weight reduction of 1kg for the unit. Experiments have been performed using wind power driving a
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301:. In the 1986 MOD II Design Report (Appendix A) the results showed that highway gas mileage was increased from 40 to 58 mpg
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A wide variety of smaller Stirling cryocoolers are commercially available for tasks such as the cooling of electronic
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The MOD II project in 1980 produced one of the most efficient automotive engines ever made. The engine reached a peak
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was tested extensively for over 50,000 miles (80,467 km) and achieved average fuel efficiency up to 28.5 mpg
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1187:. However, there's no reason that the waste heat cannot be diverted to run Stirling engines to pump seawater through
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moving parts, or ... to generate electricity via a linear alternator or other electro-acoustic power transducer".
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range from mechanical propulsion to heating and cooling to electrical generation systems. A Stirling engine is a
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to develop and demonstrate practical alternatives for standard engines. The United Stirling AB's P-40 powered
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539:. WhisperGen announced in 2004 that they were producing 80,000 units for the residential market in the
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374:. Called the DEKA Revolt, the car can reach approximately 60 miles (97 km) on a single charge of its
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system may be able to bypass the design challenges or disadvantages of a non-hybrid Stirling automobile.
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The FPSC was invented in 1964 by William Beale (1928-2016), a professor of Mechanical Engineering at
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1270:"Study on the COP of free piston Stirling cooler (FPSC) in the anti-sublimation CO2 capture process"
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of some external energy to "pump" the collected heat "uphill" against a temperature differential.
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1600:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration and U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from
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A low-temperature-difference Stirling engine, shown here running on the heat from a warm hand
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United States government labs have developed a modern Stirling engine design known as the
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1847:"What is Microgeneration? And what is the most cost effective in terms of CO2 reduction"
2400:"Acoustic Stirling Heat Engine: More Efficient than Other No-Moving-Parts Heat Engines"
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Automobiles exclusively powered by Stirling engines were developed in test projects by
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between the two sides so there will be a temperature rise inside the insulated space.
512:, and possibly from other sources such as the exhaust of the burner, if there is one.
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NASA's Stirling MOD 1 powered engineering vehicles were built in partnership with the
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531:, has developed an "AC Micro Combined Heat and Power" Stirling cycle engine. These
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If supplied with mechanical power, a Stirling engine can function in reverse as a
435:(AIP), which extends their underwater endurance from a few days to several weeks.
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of the Netherlands, which (like Sunpower) has a research center in Athens, Ohio.
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units are gas-fired central heating boilers that sell unused power back into the
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1343:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration & SolidWorks. Archived from
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1574:. National Aeronautics and Space Administration and U.S. Department of Energy
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Compared to conventional heat pumps, Stirling heat pumps often have a higher
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1805:"Inspirit Energy | A New Generation Heat & Electrical Power Boiler"
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Mcconaghy, Robert (1986). "Design of a Stirling Engine for Model Aircraft".
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Energy technology: proceedings of the Energy Technology Conference, Volume 8
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combined co-generation unit reaching as high as ~80% operating efficiency.
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528:
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127:
2203:"2004 Coleman Free Piston Stirling Cooler [photographic teardown]"
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2005:. 3rd Annual IIF-IIR International Congress of Refrigeration, Oslo, Norway
1982:
NASA Advanced Refrigerator/Freezer Technology Development Project Overview
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148:", at different temperature levels such that there is a net conversion of
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temperature than the compression space, so instead of producing work, an
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Placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror, a Stirling engine can convert
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2426:"Hersteller des WhisperGen muss Insolvenz anmelden | BHKW-Infothek"
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classes. They are the first submarines in the world to feature Stirling
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operating by cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas, the "
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887: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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769:
685: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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of a completely new design and type of powerplant was also questioned.
253:
249:
1717:"The Kockums Stirling AIP system â proven in operational service"
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MSI (Taiwan) developed a miniature Stirling engine cooling system for
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of mechanical work is required by the system (in order to satisfy the
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and a Stirling engine was announced by the Precer project in Sweden.
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variant of the Stirling engine can be built, which can be completely
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1049:. The firm was sold by the Beale family in 2015 to become a unit of
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Structural schematic diagram of a Free Piston Stirling Engine system
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2440:"Micro CHP (Combined Heat and Power) Accelerator - Final report"
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An Introduction to Low Temperature Differential Stirling Engines
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1246:(Second ed.). National Aeronautics and Space Administration
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would have advantages for nuclear installations in dry regions.
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to electricity with an efficiency better than non-concentrated
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commercialization of the Automotive Stirling Engine Program.
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Tests conducted with the 1979 AMC Spirit, as well as a 1977
2229:"Model 5726-750 Instruction Manual (26 Quart Power Cooler)"
1042:
635:
272:
218:
149:
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In all thermal power plants there has to be an exhaust of
1593:
Ernst, William D.; Shaltens, Richard K. (February 1997).
1431:"Blast from the Past: NASA's Stirling-powered AMC Spirit"
782:
543:. A 20 unit trial in Germany was conducted in 2006.
1482:
Annual ASQC Quality Congress & Exposition, Volume 37
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448:
This capability has previously only been available with
1401:"Stirling auto engine â a lot of progress, but..."
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that uses the waste heat from the chip to drive a fan.
309:) and achieved an urban range of 26 to 33 mpg
1753:"First Improved Oyashio-class boat takes to the water"
2002:
Maximized Performance of Stirling Cycle Refrigerators
1337:"Modified Stirling Engine With Greater Power Density"
1083:
829:
The first Stirling-cycle cryocooler was developed at
647:
heat pump for domestic heating and air conditioning.
214:
system that adds power and torque to the crankshaft.
1841:
1839:
1159:
microgeneration technologies in terms of reducing CO
1697:McConaghy, Robert (Feb 1996). "A Hot Aero Engine".
182:
833:in the 1950s and commercialized in such places as
240:1979 DOE NASA AMC Spirit DL with a Stirling engine
1880:Stirling SunCatcher with "Heat Engine" Technology
1836:
1569:"Automotive Stirling Engine Mod II Design Report"
1310:"Sunpower Free-Piston Stirling Engine Technology"
1268:JingwenLubYut, ChunfengSong; kaKitamurab (2015).
305:(5.9 to 4.1 L/100 km; 48 to 70 mpg
2488:
2402:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from
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2082:
1595:"Automotive Stirling Engine Development Project"
1123:
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1953:
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1056:Other suppliers of FPSC technology include the
2347:"Low Temperature Differential Stirling Engine"
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1906:"Battle Brewing Over Giant Desert Solar Farm"
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1479:American Society for Quality Control (1983).
16:Practical uses for Sterling engine technology
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1947:
1458:. Government Institutes. 1981. p. 659.
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1067:For several years starting around 2004, the
785:(specifically the primary constituent gases
438:The Kockums engine also powers the Japanese
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2168:
2062:"Welcome to the Dr. Cool's FAQ Room !"
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313:(9.0â7.1 L/100 km; 31â40 mpg
2442:. Carbon Trust. March 2011. Archived from
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1998:
1830:"Yorkshire Business Insider December 2015"
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1627:"Solid Biofuel-Powered Vehicle Technology"
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947:Learn how and when to remove this message
745:Learn how and when to remove this message
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109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1978:
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248:(DOE) and NASA, under contract by AMC's
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2260:"SC-C925 (-18°C) [spec sheet]"
1876:"Building Green's Product of the Week"
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260:(8.3 L/100 km; 34.2 mpg
130:burner (bottom right) as a heat source
45:Please improve this article by adding
2398:Backhaus, Scott; Swift, Greg (2003).
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1903:
1781:. Stirling Technology. Archived from
1567:Nightingale, Noel P. (October 1986).
1508:
1497:
1334:
1118:
896:"Applications of the Stirling engine"
694:"Applications of the Stirling engine"
221:, as well as earlier projects by the
187:
58:"Applications of the Stirling engine"
2467:"MSI employs Stirling Engine Theory"
2465:Wilmot, Cameron (29 February 2008).
1992:
1882:. Building Green.com. Archived from
1771:
1429:Korzeniewski, Jeremy (8 July 2009).
885:adding citations to reliable sources
856:
683:adding citations to reliable sources
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333:
18:
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1999:Berchowitz, David M. (1998-06-02).
757:Any Stirling engine will also work
381:
13:
1373:. 9 September 1974. Archived from
1084:Low temperature difference engines
618:radiation into free space itself.
246:United States Department of Energy
14:
2528:
2205:. CTL Electronics. Archived from
1367:"Science: A Stirling Performance"
1145:Mondragon CorporaciĂłn Cooperativa
641:Carnot coefficient-of-performance
390:
2262:. Global Cooling. Archived from
2179:. Global Cooling. Archived from
1759:from the original on 7 June 2011
1341:Create the Future Design Contest
861:
659:
599:
183:Mechanical output and propulsion
23:
2458:
2432:
2418:
2391:
2369:
2339:
2324:
2200:
2108:
2017:
1874:Wilson, Alex (April 29, 2010).
1822:
1797:
1745:
1709:
1672:
1619:
1586:
1560:
1527:
1485:. The ASQC Society. p. 308
1472:
1399:Lindsley, E.F. (January 1983).
1241:"Stirling Engine Design Manual"
1178:
1166:
872:needs additional citations for
768:One of their modern uses is in
670:needs additional citations for
615:Stirling Radioisotope Generator
455:
2227:Coleman Company (2004-05-17).
1657:. Union Leader. Archived from
1511:Automotive engine alternatives
1448:
1422:
1359:
1328:
1232:
1215:. Clarenden Press. p. 1.
1204:
1026:, or other compromises to the
971:, the expansion space is at a
345:In November 2007, a prototype
338:Stirling engines as part of a
323:series electric hybrid vehicle
281:Corporate Average Fuel Economy
1:
1979:Cairelli, J.E. (March 1995).
1540:. Vantage Press. p. 64.
1537:Stirring Among the Playthings
1335:Hasci, James (14 July 2008).
1198:
1130:Thermoacoustic hot air engine
1124:Acoustic Stirling Heat Engine
852:
553:Solar-powered Stirling engine
47:secondary or tertiary sources
2377:"Solar Electrical Generator"
1534:Hodgetts, Philip J. (2010).
1286:10.1016/j.renene.2014.08.071
1239:Martini, William R. (1983).
1193:energy conversion efficiency
981:Second Law of Thermodynamics
584:announced an agreement with
506:second law of thermodynamics
490:, or an industrial process.
7:
2517:External combustion engines
2307:"FPSC Application Products"
1956:The Philips Stirling Engine
1513:. Plenum Press. p. 6.
1138:
1045:to cool instrumentation in
465:Electrical power generation
231:American Motors Corporation
10:
2533:
2379:. Sunvention International
2309:. Twinbird. Archived from
2162:"About Sunpower - History"
2118:. Sunpower. Archived from
2093:. Twinbird. Archived from
2064:. Twinbird. Archived from
1904:Woody, Todd (2009-08-05).
1312:. Sunpower. Archived from
1127:
1098:low temperature difference
1004:coefficient of performance
799:coefficient of performance
582:Southern California Edison
578:concentrated photovoltaics
550:
450:nuclear-powered submarines
433:air-independent propulsion
359:New Hampshire Union Leader
264:). A 1980 4-door liftback
225:using engines provided by
2234:. Coleman. Archived from
1509:Evans, Robert L. (1987).
772:and, to a lesser extent,
2331:Senft, James R. (1996).
1954:C.M. Hargreaves (1991).
1211:Walker, Graham (1980).
1173:personal computer chips
586:Stirling Energy Systems
484:combined heat and power
478:Combined heat and power
1755:. IHS. June 12, 2007.
1653:Wickham, S.K. (2008).
1093:
1010:Portable refrigeration
580:. On August 11, 2005,
565:
547:Solar power generation
494:Thermal power stations
474:
327:petro-hydraulic hybrid
241:
131:
34:relies excessively on
1316:on September 10, 2018
1091:
632:Space Shuttle program
560:
527:firm with offices in
472:
340:hybrid electric drive
239:
124:
2357:on 22 September 2010
2286:"[Homepage]"
2025:"The Stirling Cycle"
1958:. Elsevier Science.
1851:Claverton-energy.com
1785:on December 19, 2012
1058:Twinbird Corporation
881:improve this article
679:improve this article
651:Stirling cryocoolers
576:, and comparable to
500:use fuel to produce
414:Swedish shipbuilder
135:Applications of the
2351:animatedengines.com
2175:Global Cooling NV.
2032:Stirling Cryogenics
1028:hermetically sealed
622:Heating and cooling
366:developed a series
296:Chevrolet Celebrity
177:hermetically sealed
2497:Cooling technology
2241:on August 21, 2010
2209:on August 26, 2011
2089:Twinbird Company.
2060:Twinbird Company.
1910:The New York Times
1779:"Uses of the ST-5"
1435:green.autoblog.com
1244:(17.9 MB PDF)
1119:Other applications
1094:
1074:automotive battery
989:thermal insulation
574:photovoltaic cells
566:
475:
292:thermal efficiency
242:
223:Ford Motor Company
188:Automotive engines
132:
2313:on March 30, 2010
1547:978-0-533-16224-6
1465:978-0-86587-008-6
1347:on 6 January 2009
1106:Low Delta T (LDT)
957:
956:
949:
931:
755:
754:
747:
729:
334:Electric vehicles
119:
118:
111:
93:
2524:
2507:Stirling engines
2482:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2446:on 28 March 2014
2436:
2430:
2429:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2406:on 1 August 2008
2395:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2353:. Archived from
2343:
2337:
2336:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2288:. Global Cooling
2284:Global Cooling.
2281:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2240:
2233:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2188:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2127:
2116:"Stirling Cycle"
2112:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2102:
2086:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2073:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2040:
2034:. Archived from
2029:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2010:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1930:"Maricopa Solar"
1926:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1871:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1843:
1834:
1833:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1807:. Archived from
1801:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1731:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1721:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1694:
1685:
1684:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1666:
1655:"Kamen's Revolt"
1650:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1631:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1606:
1599:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1573:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1506:
1495:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1396:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1377:on June 14, 2008
1363:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1274:Renewable Energy
1265:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1245:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1213:Stirling Engines
1208:
997:additional input
952:
945:
941:
938:
932:
930:
889:
865:
857:
814:
750:
743:
739:
736:
730:
728:
687:
663:
655:
537:electricity grid
382:Aircraft engines
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2475:
2473:
2463:
2459:
2449:
2447:
2438:
2437:
2433:
2424:
2423:
2419:
2409:
2407:
2396:
2392:
2382:
2380:
2375:
2374:
2370:
2360:
2358:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2335:. Moriya Press.
2329:
2325:
2316:
2314:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2291:
2289:
2282:
2278:
2269:
2267:
2258:
2257:
2253:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2225:
2221:
2212:
2210:
2201:Lui, Chi-Tien.
2199:
2195:
2186:
2184:
2173:
2169:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2146:
2144:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2125:
2123:
2114:
2113:
2109:
2100:
2098:
2087:
2080:
2071:
2069:
2058:
2054:
2044:
2042:
2038:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2008:
2006:
1997:
1993:
1985:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1952:
1948:
1938:
1936:
1934:bizjournals.com
1928:
1927:
1923:
1914:
1912:
1902:
1898:
1889:
1887:
1886:on July 8, 2011
1872:
1865:
1856:
1854:
1845:
1844:
1837:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1814:
1812:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1788:
1786:
1777:
1776:
1772:
1762:
1760:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1734:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1695:
1688:
1677:
1673:
1664:
1662:
1661:on May 22, 2011
1651:
1644:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1591:
1587:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1561:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1507:
1498:
1488:
1486:
1477:
1473:
1466:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1439:
1437:
1427:
1423:
1413:
1411:
1404:Popular Science
1397:
1390:
1380:
1378:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1348:
1333:
1329:
1319:
1317:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1266:
1259:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1237:
1233:
1223:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1189:reverse osmosis
1181:
1169:
1162:
1141:
1132:
1126:
1121:
1086:
1069:Coleman Company
1035:Ohio University
1012:
953:
942:
936:
933:
890:
888:
878:
866:
855:
847:microprocessors
821:
812:
802:
751:
740:
734:
731:
688:
686:
676:
664:
653:
624:
607:breeder reactor
602:
590:Peoria, Arizona
555:
549:
480:
467:
458:
393:
384:
376:lithium battery
336:
316:
312:
308:
304:
285:mass production
263:
259:
210:) or even as a
190:
185:
137:Stirling engine
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
44:
40:primary sources
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2530:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2512:Piston engines
2509:
2504:
2499:
2484:
2483:
2457:
2431:
2417:
2390:
2368:
2338:
2323:
2298:
2276:
2251:
2219:
2193:
2167:
2153:
2132:
2107:
2078:
2052:
2041:on 3 July 2015
2016:
1991:
1971:
1964:
1946:
1921:
1896:
1863:
1835:
1821:
1796:
1770:
1744:
1732:
1708:
1699:Model Engineer
1686:
1671:
1642:
1632:. Precer Group
1618:
1585:
1559:
1546:
1526:
1519:
1496:
1471:
1464:
1447:
1421:
1388:
1358:
1327:
1301:
1257:
1231:
1221:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1180:
1177:
1168:
1165:
1160:
1140:
1137:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1085:
1082:
1062:Global Cooling
1011:
1008:
955:
954:
869:
867:
860:
854:
851:
845:and sometimes
819:
810:
753:
752:
667:
665:
658:
652:
649:
645:Stirling cycle
623:
620:
601:
598:
551:Main article:
548:
545:
541:United Kingdom
523:WhisperGen, a
479:
476:
466:
463:
457:
454:
397:General Motors
392:
391:Marine engines
389:
383:
380:
368:plug-in hybrid
362:reported that
335:
332:
314:
310:
306:
302:
261:
257:
212:turbo-compound
189:
186:
184:
181:
158:Stirling cycle
152:to mechanical
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2529:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2472:
2471:tweaktown.com
2468:
2461:
2445:
2441:
2435:
2427:
2421:
2405:
2401:
2394:
2378:
2372:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2342:
2334:
2327:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2287:
2280:
2266:on 2012-01-21
2265:
2261:
2255:
2237:
2230:
2223:
2208:
2204:
2197:
2183:on 2012-01-21
2182:
2178:
2171:
2163:
2157:
2142:
2141:"Cryocoolers"
2136:
2122:on 2013-07-22
2121:
2117:
2111:
2097:on 2012-04-14
2096:
2092:
2085:
2083:
2068:on 2012-04-14
2067:
2063:
2056:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2020:
2004:
2003:
1995:
1984:
1983:
1975:
1967:
1965:0-444-88463-7
1961:
1957:
1950:
1935:
1931:
1925:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1870:
1868:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1840:
1831:
1825:
1811:on 2016-01-27
1810:
1806:
1800:
1784:
1780:
1774:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1739:
1737:
1718:
1712:
1704:
1700:
1693:
1691:
1682:
1675:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1647:
1628:
1622:
1607:on 2006-09-08
1603:
1596:
1589:
1570:
1563:
1549:
1543:
1539:
1538:
1530:
1522:
1520:9780306425493
1516:
1512:
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1393:
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1372:
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1338:
1331:
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1295:2241/00123026
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1222:9780198562092
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1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1090:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1063:
1060:of Japan and
1059:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1020:working fluid
1017:
1007:
1005:
1000:
998:
992:
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940:
937:February 2022
929:
926:
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915:
912:
908:
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898: â
897:
893:
892:Find sources:
886:
882:
876:
875:
870:This section
868:
864:
859:
858:
850:
848:
844:
839:
836:
832:
827:
825:
818:
813: â 0.065
809:
805:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
779:
775:
774:refrigeration
771:
766:
764:
760:
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746:
738:
735:February 2022
727:
724:
720:
717:
713:
710:
706:
703:
699:
696: â
695:
691:
690:Find sources:
684:
680:
674:
673:
668:This section
666:
662:
657:
656:
648:
646:
642:
637:
633:
629:
619:
616:
611:
608:
600:Nuclear power
597:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
563:
562:Dish Stirling
559:
554:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
521:
517:
513:
511:
507:
503:
499:
498:electric grid
495:
491:
489:
488:water heating
485:
471:
462:
453:
451:
446:
444:
442:
436:
434:
430:
429:
424:
423:
417:
412:
410:
409:liquid oxygen
406:
402:
401:Malmö, Sweden
398:
388:
379:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
360:
354:
352:
348:
343:
341:
331:
328:
324:
318:
300:
297:
293:
288:
286:
282:
278:
274:
269:
267:
255:
251:
247:
238:
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
215:
213:
209:
203:
200:
199:diesel engine
196:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
159:
155:
151:
147:
146:working fluid
143:
139:
138:
129:
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113:
110:
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54:Find sources:
48:
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32:This article
30:
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2474:. Retrieved
2470:
2460:
2448:. Retrieved
2444:the original
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2408:. Retrieved
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2381:. Retrieved
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2359:. Retrieved
2355:the original
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2311:the original
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2264:the original
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2243:. Retrieved
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2181:the original
2170:
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2135:
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2110:
2099:. Retrieved
2095:the original
2091:"About FPSC"
2070:. Retrieved
2066:the original
2055:
2043:. Retrieved
2036:the original
2031:
2019:
2009:February 12,
2007:. Retrieved
2001:
1994:
1981:
1974:
1955:
1949:
1939:November 10,
1937:. Retrieved
1933:
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1913:. Retrieved
1909:
1899:
1888:. Retrieved
1884:the original
1879:
1855:. Retrieved
1853:. 2008-11-06
1850:
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1813:. Retrieved
1809:the original
1799:
1787:. Retrieved
1783:the original
1773:
1761:. Retrieved
1747:
1724:. Retrieved
1711:
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1663:. Retrieved
1659:the original
1634:. Retrieved
1621:
1609:. Retrieved
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570:solar energy
567:
529:Christchurch
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525:New Zealand
502:electricity
445:submarine.
405:diesel fuel
277:AMC Concord
275:and a 1980
195:Otto engine
173:free-piston
171:leakage. A
169:refrigerant
167:losses and
142:heat engine
2502:Heat pumps
2491:Categories
2476:2 November
2450:2 November
2410:2 November
2383:2 November
2361:2 November
2317:2011-04-06
2292:2011-04-06
2270:2011-04-06
2245:2011-04-06
2213:2011-04-06
2187:2011-04-06
2147:2011-04-06
2143:. Sunpower
2126:2013-04-12
2101:2011-04-06
2072:2011-04-06
1915:2010-01-21
1890:2011-03-03
1857:2009-07-24
1815:2016-01-26
1726:2011-06-07
1683:: 490â493.
1665:2009-01-19
1636:2009-01-19
1611:2 November
1578:2 November
1553:2024-02-18
1489:2 November
1440:2 November
1414:2 November
1410:(1): 50â53
1381:2 November
1351:2 November
1250:2 November
1199:References
1185:waste heat
1128:See also:
1110:atmosphere
1047:satellites
907:newspapers
853:Heat pumps
835:liquid air
770:cryogenics
759:in reverse
705:newspapers
594:heliostats
372:Ford Think
364:Dean Kamen
347:hybrid car
315:‑imp
307:‑imp
262:‑imp
254:AMC Spirit
250:AM General
208:alternator
165:frictional
69:newspapers
36:references
1722:. Kockums
961:heat pump
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763:heat pump
628:heat pump
311:‑US
303:‑US
299:notchback
266:VAM Lerma
258:‑US
229:, and by
99:June 2011
1789:April 6,
1757:Archived
1139:MicroCHP
815:, where
791:nitrogen
781:liquefy
564:from SES
533:microCHP
2177:"About"
2045:30 June
1763:June 3,
1705:(4009).
1149:E.ON UK
1078:vaccine
1024:O-rings
1018:as the
921:scholar
843:sensors
831:Philips
778:Rankine
719:scholar
496:on the
422:Gotland
416:Kockums
351:biofuel
227:Philips
128:alcohol
83:scholar
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1104:, or
977:input
973:lower
928:JSTOR
914:books
795:argon
761:as a
726:JSTOR
712:books
482:In a
441:SĆryĆ«
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76:books
2478:2014
2452:2014
2412:2014
2385:2014
2363:2014
2047:2014
2011:2021
1960:ISBN
1941:2022
1791:2013
1765:2011
1613:2014
1580:2014
1542:ISBN
1515:ISBN
1491:2014
1460:ISBN
1442:2014
1416:2014
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1371:Time
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1217:ISBN
1043:NASA
900:news
793:and
698:news
636:NASA
425:and
407:and
356:The
273:Opel
219:NASA
154:work
150:heat
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