Architecture of Kerala

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paved the way of establishing settlements near the old port towns and gradually spreading in the interior. During the time of the second Chera Kingdom, the old port city of Makotai (Kodungallur) had different parts occupied by these groups. For example, the cultural contact of Jews with Kerala predates the time of Solomen and by fifteenth century there were Jewish settlements in Kodungallur, Kochi and other coastal towns. The most important Jewish settlement is seen at Kochi near the Mattancherry palace. Their residential buildings resemble the Kerala type in their external appearance; nevertheless they are of a different plan concept. The ground floor rooms are used as shops or warehouses and the living rooms are planned on the first floor. The frontage of the building about the streets and the sides are continuous with adjoining buildings in the pattern of the row houses. An important historic monument of the Jew town is the Synagogue. It is a simple tall structure with a sloping tile roof but it has a rich interior with hand painted tiles from Canton, China and ancient chandeliers from Europe. This religious structure built for worship according to Judaism stands in contrast with the temples of Hindus. Jewish community however did not influence the architecture of Kerala.

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the quarrying, dressing and sculpting of hard stone are rare in Kerala. Laterite, on the other hand, is the most abundant stone found as outcrops in most zones. Soft laterite, which can be found at shallow depths, can be easily cut, dressed and used as building blocks. It is a rare local stone that gets stronger and more durable with exposure to atmospheric air. Laterite blocks may be bonded in mortars of shell lime, the classic binding material in traditional buildings. The strength and performance of lime mortar can be improved using admixtures of vegetable juices. Such enriched mortars were used for plastering or to serve as the base for mural painting and low-relief work. Timber is the primary structural material, being abundantly available in many varieties in Kerala – from bamboo to teak. The skillful choice of timber, accurate joinery, artful assembly and delicate carving of woodwork for columns, walls, and roof frames could be considered as unique characteristics of Kerala architecture. Clay has been used in many forms – for walling, filling the timber floors and making bricks and tiles after

1666:

finally evolved from functional consideration. Structurally the roof frame was supported on the pillars on walls erected on a plinth raised from the ground for protection against dampness and insects in the tropical climate. Often the walls were also of timbers abundantly available in the land. The roof frame consisted of the bressumer or wall plate which supported lower ends of the rafters, the upper ends being connected to the ridge. The weight of the rafters and the roof covering created a sage in the ridge when the ridge piece was made of flexible materials like bamboo. This sage however remained as the hall-mark of roof construction even when strong timber was used for the roof frame. Further gable windows were evolved at the two ends to provide attic ventilation when ceiling was incorporated for the room spaces. This ensured air circulation and thermal control for the roof. The lower ends of the rafters projected much beyond the walls to shade the walls from the sun and driving rain.

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Nagara style in the architectural texts. The rectangular plan is favored for the Ananthasai Vishnu (Lord Vishnu in reclining posture) and the Sapta Matrikas (Seven Mother Goddesses). The circular plan and the apsidal plan are rare in other parts of India and unknown even in the civil architecture of Kerala, but they constitute an important group of temples. The circular plan is more common in the southern part of Kerala, in regions once under the influence of Buddhism. The apsidal plan is a combination of the semi-circle and the square, and is distributed sporadically over the whole coastal region. The circular temples belong to the Vasara category. A variation of circle-ellipse is also seen as an exception in the Siva shrine at Vaikkom. Polygonal shapes belonging to the Dravida category are rarely adopted in temple plans, but they find use as a feature of shikhara. As per the Thantrasamuchayam, every Sreekovil should be built either neutral or even-sided.

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all around. For upper floor rooms balconies were adopted as a necessary feature, originating from the Portuguese construction. The portico, the shaded spot for passage from one building to another was added. The solid wooden shutter of doors and windows underwent change to ribbed elements – Venetian blades – permitting air circulation and providing privacy simultaneously. By 1800 glazed panels came into vogue and semicircular fan light over doors and windows became fashionable features of domestic buildings. Brick arches, terracota pieces and exposed brick work in various bonding patterns became popular. With larger number and bigger size of windows, pediments or projections supported by ornamental brackets and column decoration for protecting the window opening from rain and sun also were introduced. Cast iron fences, stair balustrades and iron grills, made in England, were used to complete the bungalow architecture.

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or walls are again of simple shape with no projection or recesses. The main door faces only in one cardinal direction and the windows are small and are made like pierced screens of wood. The rectangular plan is usually divided into two or three activity rooms with access from a front passage. The projecting caves cover a verandah all round. By tenth century, the theory and practice of domestic architecture were codified in books such as Manushyalaya Chandrika and Vastu vidya. This attempt standardised the house construction suited to different socio-economic groups and strengthens the construction tradition among the craftsmen. The traditional craftsman, specially carpenters, preserved the knowledge by rigidly following the canonical rules of proportions of different elements as well as the construction details to this day.

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buildings and on rare occasisions with tiles for palaces or temples. The exterior of the laterite walls was either left as such or plastered with lime mortar to serve as the base for mural painting. The sculpting of the stone mainly took the form of moulding in horizontal bands in the plinth portion (adhistans) whereas the carving of timber covered all elements – pillars, beams, ceiling, rafters and the supporting brackets. The Kerala murals are paintings with vegetable dyes on wet walls in subdued shades of brown. The indigenous adoption of the available raw materials and their transformation as enduring media for architectural expression thus became the dominant feature of the Kerala style.

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is a courtyard type – nalukettu. The central courtyard is an outdoor living space which may house some object of cult worship such as a raised bed for tulsi or jasmine (mullathara). The four halls enclosing the courtyard, identical to the nalambalam of the temple, may be divided into several rooms for different activities such as cooking, dining, sleeping, studying, storage of grains etc. Depending on the size and importance of the household the building may have one or two upper storeys (malika) or further enclosed courtyard by repetition of the nalukettu to form ettukettu (eight halled building) or a cluster of such courtyards.

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building may also be extended horizontally on all the four sides adding alindams or side rooms for activities such as cooking, dining, additional sleeping rooms, and a front hall for receiving guests. The Chappamattam Tharavadu at Chirakkadavu is a classical example of extended Ekasala. If needed Ekasala may also be provided with ancillary buildings for cattle keeping, barn, bathing rooms near tanks, outhouse for guests, gate house etc. By such extension the building may become much larger than a Nalukettu in space, but it is still categorised as Ekasala with reference to its core unit.

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composition, the width of the shrine, the open space around it, the position and sizes of the surrounding structures, are all related to the standard module. In vertical composition, this dimensional co-ordination is carried right up to the minute construction details such as the size of the pillars, wall plates, rafters etc. The canonical rules of the proportionate system are given in the treatises and preserved by the skilled craftsmen. This proportionate system has ensured uniformity in architectural style irrespective of the geographical distribution and scale of construction.

1856:

including the location of trees and paths within the compound wall were to be decided from the analysis of the site according to the prescriptions in the classic texts. This analysis involved the concept of vastupurusha mandala wherein the site (vastu) was divided into a number of grids (padam) occupied by different deities (devatha) and appropriate grids were chosen to house the suspicious structures. The site planning and building design was done by learned vishwakarma sthapathis (master builders) who synthesised the technical matters with astrological and mystical sciences.

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walls withstand heavy monsoons, normally laid with tiles or a thatched labyrinth of palm leaves, supported on a roof frame made of hardwood and timber. Structurally the roof frames are supported on pillars on walls erected on a plinth raised from the ground for protection against dampness and insects in the tropical climate. Often the walls are also constructed using timbers that are abundantly available in Kerala. The structures came to include Dormer windows at the two ends to provide attic ventilation when the ceiling was incorporated into the room spaces.

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Hindu shrine. Sometimes a gateway like the temple gopuram with a kottupura or music room on the upper storey was also provided. The Marth Mariam church at Kuravilangad, originally built in 345 A.D had undergone renovations several times. The church has a rich collection of old relics including a statue of Virgin Mary and a cross carved in granite. The Knanaya Valiapally of Kaduthuruthy is another old church with the biggest cross formed in a single granite piece. The Valiapally of Piravom is also another old church with old Persian writings.

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Kozhikode. The last phase culminated in the concept of the composite shrines. Herein two or three shrines of equal importance are seen cloistered inside a common nalambalam. The typical example of this is the Vadakkumnatha temple at Thrissur, where in three shrines dedicated to Siva, Rama and Sankaranarayana are located inside the nalambalam. The prakara may also contain temple tanks, vedapadhasalas and dining halls. Paradoxically some shrines have not a single secondary shrine, the unique example being the Bharatha shrine at Irinjalakuda.

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in Kerala at Kodungallur, Chayil, Palur, Paravur-Kottakkavu, Kollam, Niranom and Kothamangalam, but none of these Syrian churches are now extant. It is possible that some of the temples were adapted as Syrian churches for services by the population who got converted into Syriac Christianity by St. Thomas. For example, the present Palur Syrian church has preserved the abhisheka patra (the letter of intonation) and certain shaiva symbols as the relics of the old church which is said to have been a Hindu shrine adapted for Christian worship.

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by the European style during seventeenth to nineteenth century. The influence of the Portuguese and Dutch was most predominant in the initial stages. A Portuguese architect Thomas Fernandez is credited with the construction of forts, warehouses and bungalows at Kochi, Kozhikode and Kannur. The projecting balconies, Gothic arches and cast-iron window grill work are a few of the features passed on to Kerala architecture by the Portuguese construction. Portuguese have commissioned more than 2000 office and warehouse complexes in

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European church architecture were introduced – the Gothic arches, the pilasters and buttresses, the rounded openings, the classic mouldings and stained glass windows making the whole composition completely different from the native architecture. Depending on the period of construction, one can also distinguish between the churches done in the simplicity of Gothic style as in the Palayam church, Tiruvananthapuram, and the luxury of renaissance style as in the church of Our Lady of Dolorous at Trissoor.

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capitals, door frames, wall plates and beams. Decorative sculptural work is seen best in the ceiling panels of the mandapas. Exquisite lacquer work in brick red and black colour was adopted for turned columns of timber. Metal craft was also used in sculpturing idols, motifs, cladding and finials. All sculptural works were done strictly according to the canons of proportions (ashtathala, navathala and dasathala system) applicable to different figures of men, gods and goddesses, prescribed in texts.

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Koothambalam is a large pillared hall with a high roof. Inside the hall is a stage structure called as Rangamandapam for the performances. The stage as well as the pillars are ornately decorated. Visual and acoustic considerations are incorporated in the layout of the pillars and construction details so that the performances can be enjoyed by the spectators without discomfort and distortion. The Koothambalam design seems to have been based on the canons given in the Natyasastra of Bharata Muni.

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over Kerala. By the fifteenth century, Kerala was broadly covered by the suzerainty of four principal chieftains – Venad rulers in the south, Kochi Maharajas in the centre, Zamorins of Kozhikode in the north and Kolathiri Rajas in the extreme north. They were rulers who patronised architectural activities. It was during this period that Kerala Architecture started to form its own distinctive style. A regional character in construction incorporating the Dravidian craft skills, unique forms of

1187: 257: 1315: 1518: 1255:) and these models are to be adapted for the new situations. The early mosques in Kerala consequently resemble the traditional building of the region. Arabic style of architecture was introduced to the Malabar area of present-day Kerala, during the period of occupation by Hyder Ali and later by Tipu Sultan during the eighteenth century. A large number of temples were converted to mosques during this period as evidenced by the traditional Kerala style of these structures. 1820: 1658: 273: 754: 1691: 1559: 962: 1603: 1303: 1848: 3617: 1753: 297: 237: 2017:

pediments, arches and domes for public buildings, town halls, hospitals, railway stations, colleges etc. Expression of dominance was inbuilt in Doric and Ionian columns of large dimension. At the same time the purity of classic Western style gave way to the effect of style by mixing different types of columns in all sorts of buildings. For example, Corinthian columns were used mixed with Doric order in public buildings as well as residences.

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be enquired by modern studies; however the system appears to be well founded on traditional computational methods and rigidly adhered to all sizes of buildings. All over Kerala and specially in villages where the building activity is still carried out under the control of traditional sthapathis, the system is still a living practice, though it has started disappearing under the impact of 'modern architecture'.

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Christ College church at Irinjalakkuda. The Cathedral church of Archbishop of Varapuzha at Ernakulam is a soaring hyperbolic paraboloid in reinforced concrete with a bold expression in sharp contrast with all traditional forms. Perhaps experimentation in religious architecture is mostly manifested in church architecture as compared to that in temples or mosques which more or less adhere to old evolved forms.

1259: 974:(a hall for drum beating). The Chuttambalam normally has four gates to enter from all sides. A stone paved walkway will be seen around the Chuttambalam to allow devotees to circulate around the temple, which for some large temples is covered with a roof supported with massive pillars on both sides. The Chuttambalam will have dwajavillakku or giant lamp-posts in several places, mostly in the mukha-mandapam. 1530: 1065:

associated with Siva worship. In the north similar rock-cut temples of saiva cult are seen at Trikkur and Irunilamkode in Thrissur district. Historically, the cave architecture in India begins with Buddhism and the technique of rock-cut architecture in Kerala seems to be a continuation of similar works in Tamil Nadu under the Pandyas. The rock-cut temples are all dated prior to the eighth century A.D.

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on the courtyard or anganam one may build any one of the four halls (Ekasala), a combination of two (Dwisala) or a complex of three (Thrisala) depending on the needs. The most commonly found type in Kerala is the Ekasala facing east or north. Being located on the western and southern sides of the anganam they are referred as western hall (padinjattini) and southern hall (thekkini) respectively.

909: – each with increasing height of the temple form. The total height is divided into two halves. The lower half consists of the basement, the pillar or the wall (stambha or bhithi), and the entablature (prasthara) in a ratio of 1:2:1 in height. Similarly, the upper half is divided into the neck (griva), the roof tower (shikhara), and the finial (kalasham) in the same ratio. The 918: 970:

The temple is now fully enclosed in a massive wall (kshetra-madillukal) pierced with gatehouses or gopurams. The gopuram is usually two-storeyed, which served two purposes. The ground floor was an open space generally used as a platform for temple dances such as kurathy dance or ottan thullal during festivals. The upper floor with wooden trails covering the sides functioned as a

167: 470:. The tombs are roughly oblong in shape with single or multiple-bed chambers, with a rectangular court in the east from which steps rise to ground level. Another type of burial chamber is made of four slabs placed on the edge and a fifth one covering them as a capstone. One or more such dolmens are marked by a stone circle. Among the megaliths are the umbrella stones ( 1611:

type. When Vasco De Gama died in Kochi in 1524 his body was interred in this church and later removed to Lisbon in 1538. The church thus came to be known as Vasco De Gama's church. It was later seized by the Dutch and was used for reformed services. Later with British occupation of Kochi it became an Anglican church and presently it belongs to church of south India.

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by the officers and engineers whose knowledge of the architectural style was essentially restricted to the classic books on renaissance architects – Vitruvious, Alberti & Palladio and executed by indigenous knowledge of traditional masons and carpenters recruited for the work. In a sense it was a compromise of antique craft and neo-classical construction needs.

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was the ornamental gable facade at the nave end, surmounted by a cross. An entry porch (shala) in front of the nave was another feature of these early shrines. The baptistry was a small chamber inside the nave near the entrance. Belfries were built on one side of the nave, but in smaller churches, the bell was hung in an opening in the nave gable.

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of carpentry) – timber was readily available and heavily used. The concept of Thachu underlines the fact that as timber is derived from a living form, the wood, when used for construction, has its own life which must be synthesised in harmony with its surroundings and the people who dwell within it. This idea encapsulates Kochi's construction.

2024:

from the interior walls of places to the exterior of buildings also to create the superwhite buildings of marble cult. The old pan tiles were replaced by Mangalore pattern tiles and flat tiles. The roof frame of traditional type was changed to trussed roof-using King post and Queen post trusses, making it possible to span large areas.

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instead images of Saints made of wood were used to adorn the riches. Generally pulpits were erected and altar pieces were ornamented in an impressive manner. Ceilings and walls were painted with religious themes in the style of European masters. Pointed and rounded arches were introduced and stained glass windows were installed.

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is used only by priests as a holy bath before the start of rituals as well as for various sacred rituals within the temple. In a few cases, a separate pond will be constructed to allow devotees to bath before entering in temple. Today, several temples have Mani-Kenar or Holy Well within the Nalambalam complex to get

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named Vadakkini (northern block), Padinjattini (western block), Kizhakkini (eastern block) and Thekkini (southern block). The architecture was especially catered to large families of the traditional tharavadu, to live under one roof and enjoy the commonly owned facilities of the marumakkathayam homestead.

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Vastuvidya texts prescribe the dimensions of different house types suitable for different classes. They also give the proportional system of measurements for different parts of the building all based on the perimeter (chuttu) of the core unit. The scientific basis of this dimensional system is yet to

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The closed form of the Kerala houses was thus gradually evolved from technical considerations. One can see the striking similarity of this form with the temple structure. The plinth, the lower most part is still called adhisthana, though it is plain or less ornate. The sthambas or pillars and bhithis

1622:

In the external features the central tower or rather the Roman dome now comes at the centre of the transept imparting a classic form of European architecture. Also on either side of the main entrance in the front, rose towers to serve as belfries. In the treatment of the exterior, typical features of

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However, original Syrians who had migrated to Kerala had brought with them some of the West Asian conventions in church architecture. Consequently, churches with regular chancel and nave began to be built and there evolved a distinctive style of church architecture. The peculiar feature of this style

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A significant feature of big temple complexes is the presence of a theatre hall known as Koothambalam, meant for dance, musical performance and religious recitals. This is a unique edifice of Kerala architecture, distinct from the natyasabha or natyamandir seen in north Indian temples of this period.

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The concept of the storeyed temple is also seen in this phase. The tower of the shrine rises to the second storey with a separate upper roof forming a dwitala (two-storied) temple. There is a unique example of thrithala (three-storeyed temple) is at Shiva shrine at Peruvanam with lower two storeys of

1072:

The middle phase of the evolution of the temples is characterised by the emergence of the Sandhara shrine. In the unitary shrine of the earlier type, Nirendhara (single level of srikovil), there is a cell with a single doorway to the cell. But in the Sandhara shrine, the cell has twin wells leaving a

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Every temple will have a sacred temple pond or water lake located within the temple complex. As per Vastu rules, water is considered a source of positive energy and synthesis balance of all energies. Hence a temple pond or Ambala Kulam will be made available within the temple complex. The temple pond

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were the first north Indian groups to cross the borders of Kerala and establish their monasteries. These religious groups were able to practise their faith and receive patronage from the local kings to build shrines and viharas. For nearly eight centuries, Buddhism and Jainism seem to have co-existed

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practices using locally available materials and suited to the climatic conditions was ultimately developed in Kerala. The theory and practice of architectural construction were also compiled during this period. These compilations constitute classical texts of a living tradition that continues to this

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The megaliths are not of particular architectural significance, but they speak to the custom of the primitive tribes erecting memorials at sites of mortuary rites. These places later became the annual meeting grounds of the tribes and gave rise to occult temples of ancestral worship. While the custom

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Perhaps the adaptations of European style to the climatic needs and the synthesis with traditional style are best seen in the bungalow architecture. The comfort requirement in the hot humid climate prompted the European settlers to go in for buildings with large rooms with high ceiling with verandah

2023:

For the masonry work the media of Indo-European work remained the laterite and lime plastering. The potentiality of exposed laterite was explored in many cases from railway quarters to government offices (e.g. old Huzur office – Collectorate, Kozhikode). Lime plastering and finishing was transferred

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By eighteenth century British style was being popularised in the land as a result of a large number of modern constructions directly carried out by the British rulers on the one hand and the fashion for things Western by the princely class and the rich on the other. The architectural work was guided

2004:

Portuguese were the first to introduce independent office complexes which stand away from residential quarters. This was out of necessity to make warehouses and its related offices away from residential apart as safety precautions. The public architectural development in Kerala was highly influenced

2000:

Unlike other parts of India as well as outside, most of the administrative functions under monarchical days were conducted within premises of palace complexes. Hence the concept of independent secular public structures and its architecture evolved towards later part of the 17th century, particularly

1896:

Nalukettus are primarily differentiated based on their structure. Traditionally Nalukettu has one courtyard with 4 blocks/halls constructed around it in cardinal directions. However some Nalukettus have 2 courtyards, which are known as Ettukettu (8 Blocked structure) as they have altogether 8 blocks

1863:

Nalukettu type buildings are also seen in many villages and towns, occupied by prominent people. The humbler buildings of the population are however smaller and simpler in form but basically derived from the nalukettu. Nalukettu is a combination of four halls along four cardinal directions, centered

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The whole being protected with a compound wall or fence. An entrance structure (padippura) may also be constructed like the gopuram of a temple. This may contain one or two rooms for guests or occasional visitors who are not entertained in the main house. The position and sizes of various buildings,

1681:

The domestic architecture of Kerala follows the style of detached building; row houses seen in other parts of India are neither mentioned in Kerala texts nor put up in practice except in settlements (sanketam) occupied by Tamil or Konkini Brahmans. In its most developed form the typical Kerala house

1513:

The evolution of the church architecture of Kerala springs from two sources – the first from the work of Apostle St. Thomas and the Syrian Christians and second from the missionary work of European settlers. The tradition has it that St. Thomas who landed in Muziris in 52 AD had seven churches built

1100:

Temple architecture is a synthesis of engineering and decorative arts. The decorative elements of the Kerala temples are of three types – mouldings, sculptures and painting. The moulding is typically seen in the plinth where in horizontal hands of circular and rectangular projections and recesses in

934:

The Namaskara mandapa is a square-shaped pavilion with a raised platform, a set of pillars and a pyramidal roof. The size of the mandapa is decided by the width of the shrine cell. The pavilion in its simplest form has four corner pillars, but larger pavilions are provided with two sets of pillars –

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plays an important role in developing architectural styles. The basic underlying belief is that every structure built on earth has its own life, with a soul and personality that is shaped by its surroundings. The important science that Kerala has developed indigenously is Thachu-Shastra (the science

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Kerala's location has influenced social development and, indirectly, the style of construction. In ancient times the Arabian Sea and the Ghats formed impenetrable barriers that influenced the evolution of an isolated culture of Proto-Dravidians. The earliest vestiges of construction in Kerala belong

2016:

A notable feature of the early European work in India was a tendency to demonstrate military, political and cultural superiority of the west. The Greek and Roman antiquity was considered as the richest heritage of the west and the same was emphasised in the classic orders of pillars with triangular

1827:

Nadumuttom will be normally open to sky, allowing sunshine and rains to pour in. This is to allow natural energies to circulate within the house and allow positive vibrance within. A thulsi or tree will be normally planted in center of Nadumuttom, which is used to worship. Architecturally the logic

1815:

Traditionally Nadumuttom or central open courtyard is the prime center the Nalukettu. There is an open area usually square shaped in the exact middle of the house dividing the house in its four sides. Due to this four side division of the house by having a Nadumuttom. Similarly there was Ettu kettu

1618:

The subsequent development in church architecture in the British period also saw the introduction of a new church design. In place of the rectangular Basilican plan the cross shaped plan became increasingly popular especially in places where large congregation had to be accommodated. Apart from the

1059:

The first phase is that of rock-cut temples. This earliest form is contemporary to Buddhist cave temples. Rock-cut temples are mainly located in southern Kerala—at Vizhinjam and Ayirurpara near Tiruvananthapuram, Kottukal near Kollam and Kaviyoor near Alappuzha. Of these, the one at Kaviyoor is the

943:

The shrine and the mandapa building are enclosed in a rectangular structure called the Nalambalam. Functionally the rear and side halls of the Nalambalam serve various purposes related to ritualistic worship. The front hall is pierced with the entry, dividing it into two parts: Agrasalas, which are

787:

The primary elements are generally the same in all structures. The base model usually consists of a plain circular, square or rectangular shape with a ribbed roof, for functional reasons. The distinctive visual form of Kerala architecture is the long, steep sloping roof built to protect the house's

674:

The amalgamation of different cultures and religious philosophies helped to evolve the architectural styles of Kerala temples. This was conducive to the architectural development and renovation of a large number of temples. After the decline of the Cheras, several small principalities developed all

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rains and a high average temperature, an abundance of wildlife and vegetation is observed across Kerala. Across the uneven terrain of this region, human habitation is densley concentrated in the fertile lowlands and more sparse towards the hostile highlands. Heavy rains have created large bodies of

1859:

There are numerous buildings of the nalukettu type in different parts of Kerala, though many of them are in a poor state of maintenance. Changing socio-economic conditions have split up the joint-family system centered on the large nalukettu. The Kailasa mandiram at Kottakkal belonging to the Arya

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where many generations of a matrilineal family lived. These types of buildings are typically found in the Indian state of Kerala. The traditional architecture is typically a rectangular structure where four blocks are joined with a central courtyard open to the sky. The four halls on the sides are

1665:

The evolution of domestic architecture of Kerala followed closely the trend of development in temple architecture. The primitive models were huts made of bamboo frame thatched with leaves in circular, square or rectangular plain shapes. The rectangular shape with a hipped roof appears to have been

1640:

The architectural scene of Kerala was influenced by many socio-cultural groups and religious thoughts from foreign lands. The sea board had promoted trade contacts with maritime nations such as Israel, Rome, Arabia and China even prior to the dawn of the Christian era. The trade contact would have

1589:

There was an open cross in front of the main entrance on a granite basement in the model of balikkal, the altar stone. A church also had the flag mast, (the dwajastambha) in front. In the Orthodox Syrian church at Chengannur, Peter and Paul occupy the place of dwarapalas, the guarding deities of a

1525:

Historical evidences suggest that the first wave of Christianity came from Edessa, Persia in the fourth century A.D. owing to the persecution of Syrian Christians in the Persian empire. According to the narration of Byzantine monk Cosmas, Kerala had many churches by sixth century A.D. According to

1092:

In the southernmost Kerala, the temple architecture was also influenced by the developments in Tamil Nadu. At Sucheendram and Tiruvananthapuram this influence is clearly seen. Herein lofty enclosures, sculptured corridors and ornate mandapas all in granite stone practically conceal the view of the

969:

The outer structure within the temple walls is known as a Chuttambalam. Normally, the Chuttambalam has a main pavilion known as a mukha-mandapam or thala-mandapam. The mukha-mandapam will have the Dwajastambam (sacred flag-post) in the center of it and have several pillars supporting the mandapam.

925:

The Sri-kovil is usually on a raised platform with a flight of 3, 5, or more steps. The steps are called Sopanapadi, and on the sides of the Sopanapadi, two large statues known as Dwarapalakas (door guards) are carved to guard the deity. As per Kerala ritual customs, only the main priest (Thantri)

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superimposed on it, made from a timber frame covered with planks and tiles. This sloping roof with its projecting caves gives a characteristic form to Kerala temples. The finial or kalasham, made of copper, provides the crowning spire denoting the focus of the shrine wherein the idol is installed.

828:

From the limitations of the materials, a mixed mode of construction was developed in Kerala architecture. The stonework was restricted to the plinth, even in important buildings such as temples. Laterite was used for walls. The roof structure in timber was covered with palm leaf thatching for most

812:

The natural building materials available for construction in Kerala are stone, timber, clay and palm leaves. Granite is a strong and durable building material; however, its availability is restricted mostly to the highlands and more scarce in other regions. For this reason, the skills required for

1631:

While the character of church architecture is generally identified with the form evolved in the medieval times, the modernistic trends in adapting new plan shapes and structural forms are visible in the Kerala scene as well. This circular plan shape with domical shell roof has been adopted in the

1614:

The Portuguese had introduced many innovations in the Kerala churches. For the first time, the dominating tower above the altar, which was the adaptation from temple architecture, was discarded. Inside the church, the granite images were not favoured owing to their association with the Hindu art;

1593:

Wood carving and mural paintings, the two decorative media of temples are seen to be adopted in ancient churches also. A famous piece of wooden carving is a large panel depicting the last supper in St. Thomas church, Mulanthuruthy. The All Saints church at Udayamperur has a beam resting on wooden

1574:

The church had a gable roof extending to the chancel, the most sacred part of the church and the sacristy by its side. The tower over the chancel soared higher than the roof of the nave similar to the shikhara over the garbhagriha in a Hindu temple. The residence of the priest and the parish hall

1064:

arranged axially facing the west. On the pillared facade as well as on the walls inside the ardhamandapa are sculptured reliefs of the donor, a bearded rishi, a seated four-armed Ganesh and dwarapalas. The other cave temples also have this general pattern of a shrine and an ante-room and they are

952:

At the entrance of the Nalambalam, a square-shaped raised stone altar called the Balithara can be seen. This altar is used to make ritualistic offerings to demi-gods and other spirits. Inside the Nalambalam, several small round stones, called Balikallukal can be seen, which are meant for the same

913:

or foundation is generally granite but the superstructure is built out of laterite. The roofs are usually taller than other temple structures. The structural roof of the shrine is constructed as a corbelled dome of masonry; however, to protect it from the vagaries of climate, a functional roof is

885:

The Sri-kovil may be built on different plan shapes – square, rectangular, circular, or apsidal. Of these, the square plan shows an even distribution throughout Kerala. The square shape is basically the form of the Vedic fire altar and strongly suggests the Vedic mooring. It is categorized as the

1789: 1610:

The Portuguese were the first to introduce European styles in the church architecture of Kerala, followed by Dutch and British. The first church of this type in India was built by the Franciscan missionaries in 1510 A.D. at Fort Kochi. It is a small unpretentious building of the medieval Spanish

1246:

of the imperial or provincial school in north India. The reason for this is not far to seek. The work of mosque construction was done by the local Hindu artisans under instructions of the Muslim religious heads who wanted to erect the places of worship. The models for places of worship were only

862:

Compared to other Indian regions, Kerala state has a large number of temples – almost 3000 – with a variety of structures. The temples of Kerala developed in strict accordance with two temple construction theses: Thantra-Samuchayam and Shilparatnam. The former deals in developing structures that

1722:

It is a structure containing a door forming part of Compound wall for the house with a tiled roof on top. It is the formal entry to the compound with the house. At present the door is not there as car will have to enter the house through the entry. Still tiled roof is provided preferably with a

1080:

In the last phase, (1300–1800 A.D.) the stylistic development reached its apogee with greater complexity in the temple layout and elaboration of detail. The vilakkumadam, the palisade structure fixed with rows of oil lamps is added beyond the nalambalam as an outer ring. The Altar stone is also

881:

The sanctum sanctorum is where the idol of the presiding deity is installed and worshiped. It is an independent structure, detached from other buildings with no connections, and sharing its roof with no other buildings. The Sri-kovil does not have any windows and has only one large door opening

608:

is a gateway within a palisade, visible in the vertical and horizontal structures of the vilakkumadam. In its most primitive form, this construction is seen in the hypaethral temples enshrining trees and later on the outer walls of the shrines proper. With the stylistic development of the Hindu

1838:

Pooja room should preferably be in the North East corner of the house. Idols can be placed facing east or west and the person praying can face west or east respectively. At present, wooden panelling is done on Pooja room walls and there is a standard design for Pooja room which can be given to

1068:

The structural temples appear in the second phase spanning the eighth to tenth centuries, and patronised by the Chera, Ay and Mushika chieftains. The earliest temples had a unitary shrine or a srikovil. In rare cases, a porch or ardhamandapa is seen attached to the shrine. A detached namaskara

2031:

Excellent examples of this synthesis are seen in the Napier museum at Tiruvananthapuram, and many government bungalows. In fact many of these features were smoothly adopted by the native builders to the extent that they are considered by most as traditional elements. The works of Public Works

1867:

The core unit of Ekasala consists of generally three rooms connected to a front passage. The central room is used as prayer room and grain store and the two side rooms are used as living rooms. The core unit may be raised to an upper storey with a steep stair located in the front passage. The

1117:

around the temple. The moulding, sculpture and painting are also taken in vertical compositions to emphasise the different storey heights, projecting dormer windows which break the sloping roof and the crowning finial. But in all cases, the decoration is secondary to the structural form. The

1108:

The sculptural work is of two types. One category is the low relief done on the outer walls of the shrine with masonry set in lime mortar and finished with plaster and painting. The second is the sculpturing of the timber elements – the rafter ends, the brackets, the timber columns and their

1096:

Technically an important feature of the temple architecture of Kerala is the construction technique using a dimensional standardisation. The nucleus of the temple plan is the shrine containing the garbhagriha cell. The width of this cell is the basic module of the dimensional system. In plan

1084:

Within the prakara but beyond the vilakkumadam, stood the secondary shrines of parivara devathas (sub-gods) in their assigned positions. These were unitary cells, in general, though in a few cases, each became a full-fledged shrine as in the case of Krishna shrine in the Siva temple at Tali,

1594:

mouldings of heads of elephants and rhinoceros. Floral figures, angels and apostles are the usual motifs of mural paintings. This form of decoration had continued in later churches as well. In St. Sebastian's church at Kanjoor a mural even depicts the fight between British and Tippu Sultan.

1619:

obvious symbolism of the cross, this plan is more suited for better visibility of the altar from all points in the church. Further, sufficient space was now available at the transepts for additional altars for services by several priests on important occasions like Christmas.

1566:

Unlike Kerala temples, there is no uniform or standard layout for all churches of Kerala. Rather most of churches have different set to architecture according to various sects and their traditions apart from experimentation of new designs. Still most of churches, particularly

1101:

varying proportions help to emphasize the form of the adhisthana. Occasionally this plinth is raised over a secondary platform – upapeedam – with similar treatment. Mouldings are also seen in the mandapam, the hand rails of the steps (sopanam) and even in the drain channel (

1069:

mandapa is generally built in front of the srikovil. A quadrangular building, nalambalam that encloses the srikovil, the namaskara mandapa, balikkal (altar stones), etc. became part of this basic plan composition of the Kerala temple and started emerging in this phase.

1533:

Syrian Christians have most of their churches built in traditional Kerala style, resembling temples of Kerala. The Old Syrian church of Chengannur has been built in Kerala style with stone lamps, and is a testimony of assimilation of Kerala Christianity with native

1903:

Likewise Nalukettus can be differentiated based on their height and number of floors. Some Nalukettus are single-storeyed and made with wood completely. Other Nalukettus are two-storeyed or sometimes even three-storeyed and have laterite-and-clay mixture as walls.

1526:

the inscription of the times of Stanu Ravi by ninth century, Syrian Christian communities enjoyed many rights and privileges. They also played a vital role in trade and commerce. The domestic buildings of the Syrian Christians were akin to the native architecture.

1417:

of Kerala construction is seen in a subtle manner in the secular architecture of Muslims. The bazar streets lined by buildings on both sides, the upper floor living rooms with view windows to the streets, the wooden screens used to provide privacy and shade in the

1290:

and nowhere else in the early ten mosques of the land. Wood was used extensively in superstructure for the construction of ceiling and roof. The roof in many cases is covered with sheets of copper incorporating finials in the ridge, completing the form of temple

428:(on carpentry) are important governing science of early traditional Kerala architectural forms. The traditional Kerala style of architecture has also further created its own branch of architectural manual texts since the medieval period; notable texts include 1178:

near the port and ear-marked the area around it for their settlement. The original mosque has undergone extensive repairs, but the traces of the original construction are seen in the plinth, the columns and the roof which are in the old traditional styles of

382:

The characteristic regional expression of Kerala architecture is a result of multiple geographical, climatic, and historical factors. Geographically, Kerala is a narrow strip of land lying on the seaboard of peninsular India and confined between the towering

1118:

sculptured walls are protected by the projecting caves which keep them in shade in sharp contrast with the bright sunlit exterior. This helps to impart the overall perceptual experience of light and shade revealing details only gradually to a keen observer.

1112:

The painting was executed in organic pigments on walls when the plaster was still wet – in soft subdued colours, making them into a class designated as Kerala murals. The theme of these paintings is invariably mythological and the epic stories unfold as one

2032:

Departments have helped to spread this type of construction all over Kerala. Further the introduction of engineering education with emphasis to the western practice of construction have promoted this trend practically displacing traditional design methods.

400:

and lagoons. These climatic factors have made significant contributions to the development of the architectural style: buildings are designed in such a way as to counter the wet climatic conditions coupled with heavy humidity and harsh tropical summers.

778:, which is seen in the majority of the residential houses. There are distinct styles in this area: the palaces and large mansions of feudal lords are different to the houses of commoners, and marked differences also exist between religious communities. 712:(Thirumangalathu Sri Neelakandan), dealing with the domestic architecture. A number of minor works based on the above texts, in Sanskrit, Manipravalam and refined Malayalam, have found popularity in Kerala with craftsmen and professionals in the field. 1778:

By the side of Chuttu verandah and Poomukham, wooden benches with carved decorative resting wooden pieces for resting the back are provided. This is called Charupady. Traditionally the family members or visitors used to sit on these charupady to talk

867:

so that positive energy flows in and negative energy does not remain stuck within the structure; the latter deals in developing stone and timber architecture in such manner that each carved structure is imbibed with a life and personality of its own.

1073:

passage in between them. Also, there are often four functional doors on all four cardinal directions and pierced windows to provide subdued light in the passage. Sometimes the functional doors on the sides and the rear are replaced by pseudo doors.

498:

temples had trees, stone symbols of mother goddesses, and other naturalistic or animistic images as objects of worship. The continuity of this early culture is seen in the folk arts, cult rituals, worship of trees, serpents and mother images in

1310:

The pulpit in the mosque present fine examples of wood carvings associated with Islamic architecture of Kerala. The Jama Masjid at Beypore and Mithqal Mosque at Kozhikode have the pulpit (mimbar) built by the ship masters of the Arab vessels.

1326:

and residences. The Arabic tradition of simplicity of plan had perhaps combined itself with the indigenous construction techniques giving rise to the unique style of mosque architecture, not found anywhere else in the world. In contrast the

1202:

and the gradual conversion of the native population in the permissive and all accommodating Indian cultural ethos and social set up of Kerala. By twelfth century AD there were at least ten major settlements of Muslims distributed from

944:

used for feeding Brahmans and performing yagas; and Koothuambalams which are used for staging temple arts such as Koothu and displaying murals. Occasionally, Koothuambalams are built as separate structures outside of the Nalambalam.

1174:. The visitors came to the port and handed over the letter to the reigning King who treated the guests with all respect and extended facilities to establish their faith in the land. The king arranged for the artisans to build the 6159: 1860:

Vaidyasala is a standing example of a three-storeyed nalukettu complex. Of the best preserved examples of this type are Mattancherry palace at Kochi and the taikottaram of the Padmanabhapuram palace near Kanyakumari.

935:

four inside and twelve outside. Pavilions of circular, elliptical and polygonal shapes are mentioned in the texts, but they are not seen in the Kerala temples. The Mandapams are used to conduct Vedic-Thantric rites.

671:. The Nannan line was a branch of the Ay originating in the Thiruvananthapuram area, and both were representatives (or vassals) under the suzerainty of the Cheras (and sometimes the Pandyas or Cholas or Pallavas). 1012:

Within Nalambalam, a separate complex will be constructed for cooking foods meant to serve the deity and distribution among devotees as holy prasadam. Such complexes are called Thevarapura, where the holy fire or

1661:

The Sree Padmanabhapuram Palace represents the most classic Kerala domestic architecture. It is also the world's largest wooden palace made on sloping roofs, granite and rosewood-teak wood work combinations.

1007:

Koothuambalams are prime venues for the conduct of temple dances and other art forms. The height of Koothuambalam's roof is similar to Pyramids, making it more majestic and giving a distant feeling from the

1741:

used to sit here in a reclining chair with thuppal kolambi (Spittoon) by the side of chair. This chair will have long rails on either side where the Karanavar will keep his legs raised for comfortable rest

1081:

housed in a pillared structure, the Balikkal mandapam in front of the agrasala (valiyambalam). A deepastambham and dwajasthambham (the lamp post and flag mast) are added in front of the balikkal mandapam.

1760:

From the Poomukham, a verandah to either side in front of the house through open passage called Chuttu Verandah. Chuttu verandah will have hanging lights in equal distance hanging from its slope roof.

1422:(specially of upper floors) etc., are a few features superposed on the traditional construction. These built forms would have been modelled in the pattern of the houses in Arab countries (such as 2156: 1797:

At the end of Chuttu verandah there used to be a small pond built with rubble on sides where lotus or Ambal used to be planted. The water bodies are maintained to synthesised energy flow inside.

1048:

rituals are performed seasonally. Noted for its standalone, singular, tile-roofed structure. All the Muthappan Madappura's are structured in a similar style. These structures are found mainly in

1299:

the Jama Masjid even has a gate built in the manner of temple gopuram, covered with copper sheeting. This mosque itself is a three-storeyed building with tiled roof crowned by five finials.

1093:

original main shrine in typical Kerala style. The entrance tower, Gopuram also rises to lofty heights in a style distinct from that of the humble two-storeyed structure seen elsewhere.

1586:

In their external feature Syrian churches retained some of the indigenous features of the Hindu style. The church and the ancillary buildings were enclosed in a massive laterite wall.

651:

and Kodagu, and the Kongu lands (present Salem and Coimbatore region). It had multiple capitals simultaneously administered by different lineages of the family, its main capital being

1551: 1318:

The Kannur Mosque symbolises the slow transit from Kerala style to Persian style with additions of Minarets and other classical Persian features in traditional Kerala style.

577:. Sculptured Kerala Jaina and Dravidian figures of Mahavira, Parswanatha and other thirthankaras have been recovered from these sites. This remained a Jain temple until 1522 1485: 1282:

all around. Generally it has a tall basement similar to the adhistana of the Brahmanical temple and often the columns are treated with square and octagonal section as in

1737:

soon after steps to the house. Traditionally it has a slope tiled roof with pillars supporting roof. Sides are open. In the earlier days, the head of the family called

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The Cheraman Mosque, the world's second and sub-continent's first mosque, was originally built in Kerala style, and was renovated recently to give an Arabic touch.

1363:

as well as in most old Muslim settlements. The austere architectural features of the old mosques are however in the process of being replaced in recent times by

882:

mostly towards the east (or sometimes towards the west; a few temples have a north-facing door as their specialty, while no temples have a south-facing door).

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Most of Kerala buildings appear to have low height visually, due to over-sloping of roofs, which are meant to protect walls from rains and direct sunshine.

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For the unitary temples, the overall height is taken as 13/7 to 2 and 1/8 of the width of the shrine, and categorized into five classes –

609:

temple, this form of palisade is removed from the shrine structure (srikovil) and taken as a separate edifice beyond the temple cloister (chuttambalam).

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The Mithqalpalli in Kozhikode is a classic example of Kerala's native Mosque style with gabled roofs, sloped wooden window panels and without minarets.

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Kerala architecture can be broadly divided into two distinctive areas based on functionality, where each is guided by different set of principles:

490:

of father worship can be seen in these cases, the protecting deities of the villages were always in female form and were worshiped in open groves (

3234: 663:. At this time, the two extremities of the Kerala region were administered by two Velir families. The southernmost part was administered by the 565:

near Nagercoil, a rock-cut temple at Kallil near Perumbavoor, and remains of structural temples at Alathoor near Palakkad and at Sultanbathery.

1509:

The Kadamattom Malankara Syrian Church near Muvattupuzha, is one of the oldest churches in Kerala, built in a mix of Baroque and Kerala styles.

5602: 334:. Kerala's architectural style includes a unique Hindu temple architecture that emerged in southwestern India, and varies slightly from the 6151: 6340: 5540: 2838: 129: 6278: 6258: 4278: 2892: 2206: 474:), resembling handless palm leaf umbrellas used for covering pits enclosing burial urns. Two other types of megaliths, hat stones ( 101: 1649: 5467: 185: 82: 37: 1897:

in cardinal directions. Some super structures have 4 courtyards, which then are known as Patinarukettu (16 blocked structure).

1262:

Miskal Mosque has three-storeyed gabled roofs with windows which offers an alternative to minarets in traditional Kerala style.

2376: 108: 5949: 3620: 2860: 2269: 276:"Arayum" wooden-panel walls and "Chuttu" verandah. Wooden houses follow the traditional prefabricated system of construction. 5875: 2756: 2451: 2232: 6228: 3438: 3227: 2463: 1582:

The Syro-Malabar Archbishop's Palace at Changassery is built assimilating Dutch architecture with Kerala's native styles.

1450:

etc. But basically the Muslim domestic architectures at large follow the traditional Hindu styles. Both "ekasalas" and "

115: 2994: 2783: 2458: 847: 5607: 817:

and tempering with admixtures. Palm leaves were used effectively to thatch the roofs and for making partition walls.

725:

in Kerala as important spiritual traditions, contributing to the social and architectural development of the region.

221: 203: 148: 51: 5645: 3606: 2865: 2845: 2712: 2626: 2296: 2262: 97: 2142: 4291: 2734: 1339:

and created highly ornamental style in the north India. The typical Kerala mosques are seen at Kollampalli, near

1996:

architecture draws influences from traditional Kerala architecture, it was built during colonial period in 1855.

542:

in the far southwest is significantly different. Very large temples are rare, and sloping roofs with projecting

5701: 4306: 4286: 3573: 3530: 3220: 2962: 2920: 2746: 2672: 2491: 2414: 86: 1900:

While Nalukettus and Ettukettus are more common, Pathinarukettu are extremely rare, due to its enormous size.

612: 6288: 6238: 5650: 5622: 3509: 3380: 2850: 2768: 2763: 2621: 2536: 2521: 2329: 6233: 1547: 4747: 4311: 4301: 3375: 3358: 3055: 2999: 2855: 2815: 2798: 2788: 2692: 2687: 1286:

pillars. The walls are made of laterite blocks. The arch form is seen only in one exceptional case for the

304: 3314: 342:. The architecture of Kerala is derived from the Indian Vedic architectural tradition and forms a part of 6171: 5617: 5612: 5594: 5460: 4296: 3655: 3647: 3504: 3484: 3257: 2957: 2825: 2773: 2682: 2419: 2324: 1490: 1399: 1219:

was converted to Islam. The primacy in trade, the spread of the faith and the experience of the sea made

592: 177: 43: 2020:

This trend was however moderated very much in Kerala owing to the limitations of materials and climate.

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to this period, dating between 3000 BC and 300 BC. They can be grouped into two types – tomb cells and

2337: 5766: 5751: 5731: 3545: 3514: 3494: 3474: 3409: 3400: 3169: 3152: 3116: 2972: 2808: 2741: 2556: 2531: 2516: 1988: 1880:

Nalukettus can be differentiated based on structure kind as well as based on caste of its occupants.

1387: 1328: 1243: 820: 597: 2187:

B.S. Baliga. (1995) Madras District Gazetteers: Kanniyakumari District. Superintendent, Govt. Press.

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The actual terms used for Nalukettus differ based on the caste and social status of its occupants.

589:, known as Ganapati vattam, which is an example of a cloistered temple built entirely of granite. 6335: 5835: 3665: 3555: 3535: 3469: 3431: 3343: 3262: 3186: 3060: 2729: 2486: 2381: 2301: 2285: 1969: 656: 652: 308: 75: 3584: 2342: 5786: 5453: 4384: 3938: 3748: 3560: 3550: 3464: 3370: 3334: 3324: 3147: 3070: 3050: 2987: 2616: 2406: 2354: 2319: 2071: 1568: 360: 343: 335: 1578: 1126: 5678: 5640: 5635: 5515: 5418: 5334: 4872: 4459: 4028: 3540: 3353: 3329: 3294: 3284: 3243: 3159: 3142: 3137: 3004: 2496: 2401: 2369: 2349: 566: 528: 6283: 6268: 6146: 5939: 5756: 5590: 4168: 3933: 3793: 3599: 3489: 3390: 3385: 3309: 3196: 3191: 3132: 3080: 3009: 2977: 2652: 2551: 2546: 2511: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2426: 1414: 1364: 1336: 1332: 1239: 1175: 1170:, he fell sick and died. But he had given introductory letters for the party to proceed to 864: 370:

are all architectural treatises that have had an impact on the architecture of Kerala. The

6198: 3616: 1438:) having contact with this region. This trend is most conspicuous in market towns such as 8: 6176: 5890: 5807: 5794: 5721: 5693: 5630: 5575: 5505: 4123: 3768: 3758: 3700: 3426: 3419: 3414: 3395: 3348: 3201: 3164: 3034: 3019: 2925: 2803: 2702: 2631: 2568: 2541: 2501: 2076: 2049: 1480: 1395: 1227:. Consequently, by fifteenth century Islamic constructions reached considerable heights. 1003: 511: 2210: 1056:

In its stylistic development, the temple architecture can be divided into three phases.

757:

Vadakumnatha Temple, Trissur, is a fine example of Kerala Style Dravidian architecture.

733: 6203: 6077: 6067: 5895: 5711: 5683: 5570: 5545: 5525: 5510: 4263: 4108: 4088: 3788: 3720: 3705: 3685: 3670: 3638: 3365: 3299: 3289: 3024: 2967: 2585: 2161: 1955: 1888: 1403: 1322:

All other construction work was done by the same local craftsmen who were building the

280: 791: 749:

The gabled roof and ceiling works are the prime feature of Kerala architectural style.

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traditional type lamp below the roof. Instead of door of entry, we now have the Gate

1199: 1135: 1060:

best example. The Kaviyoor cave temple dedicated to Siva comprises a shrine room and

769: 745: 636: 619:

gateway of Kidangoor Subramanya Swami Temple located on the banks of Meenachil river.

562: 558: 467: 397: 1673: 1406:

is the classic example of this new trend. Similar structures are coming up all over

6005: 5865: 5565: 5386: 5349: 5043: 4827: 4802: 4118: 3803: 3763: 3710: 3101: 2717: 1943: 1816:

and Pathinaru kettu which are quite rare with two and four Nadumuttom respectively

1114: 687: 1770: 982: 6097: 6082: 6072: 5550: 5479: 5408: 4742: 4569: 3993: 3830: 3778: 3773: 3730: 3715: 3680: 3660: 3592: 2697: 2677: 2196:"They Manage the Wealth of the Gods". The Times of India. 4 September 2012. p. 3. 2009:

area, apart from several European styled castles and private residential villas.

1939: 1391: 1167: 668: 519:

temple is a major historic Krishna temple in Kerala, built in the classical style

2236: 1807: 6120: 6087: 5944: 5934: 5919: 5827: 5706: 5149: 5083: 4867: 4832: 4644: 4609: 4584: 4574: 4564: 4424: 4188: 4158: 4018: 3988: 3983: 3870: 3846: 3822: 3738: 2930: 2657: 2393: 1851:

The exterior of Kanakakkunnu Palace built in Kerala style with Dutch influences

1575:

were located on one side of the church and the cemetery was on the other side.

1505: 582: 524: 339: 1190:

An example of traditional Kerala style of Mosque at Thazhathangady in Kottayam

1036: 6329: 5776: 5736: 5520: 5500: 5495: 5396: 5391: 5304: 5269: 5239: 5234: 5139: 5028: 4762: 4539: 4524: 4364: 4183: 4173: 4133: 4023: 3973: 3953: 3913: 2887: 2820: 2793: 2563: 1993: 1151: 1049: 1029: 992: 851: 717: 384: 356: 347: 5368: 1793:

Almost every Nalukettu has its own Kulam or Pond for bathing of its members.

1186: 256: 6316: 6218: 6125: 5995: 5985: 5880: 5840: 5761: 5746: 5436: 5354: 5339: 5289: 5229: 5224: 5214: 5194: 5098: 5053: 5048: 5033: 4973: 4922: 4882: 4862: 4772: 4767: 4707: 4639: 4549: 4514: 4469: 4454: 4399: 4243: 4208: 4148: 4113: 4083: 4048: 4033: 4013: 3978: 3963: 3948: 3903: 3304: 3085: 3065: 2940: 2063: 1352: 1323: 1296: 1267: 1248: 1180: 1061: 319: 2254: 1819: 1521:

A Syro-Malabar Church with a mixture of Portuguese and Kerala architecture

1517: 1451: 300:

Eloborate "Padippura" is a compound gateway used in domestic architecture.

6293: 6041: 6036: 5980: 5954: 5850: 5555: 5535: 5376: 5294: 5284: 5164: 5023: 5013: 4907: 4902: 4887: 4752: 4727: 4717: 4654: 4624: 4589: 4534: 4509: 4484: 4444: 4409: 4233: 4098: 4063: 4058: 4008: 3443: 3277: 3272: 3029: 2877: 2595: 2573: 2006: 1657: 1454:" are seen adopted for this. These buildings with extensive alindams and 1314: 1171: 824:

The typical wood carvings made on ceilings of Sree Padmanabhapuram Palace

660: 586: 570: 388: 272: 240:

Traditional features of Kerala architecture with low roofs and wood work.

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are also seen generally surrounding the mosques in Muslim settlements.

1447: 1443: 1238:

The mosque architecture of Kerala exhibits none of the features of the

961: 926:

and second priest (Melshanti) are allowed to enter into the Sri-kovil.

753: 664: 554:

rainfall. There is usually a stone core below a timber superstructure.

495: 486:), have no burial appendages and appear instead to be memorial stones. 366: 1847: 1752: 1602: 1552:

Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Roman Catholic Church, North Paravur

1302: 1211:

in the north each centered on the mosque. Also a branch of the ruling

631:

of the Dravidian Kovil of Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram

346:, one of the three styles of temple mentioned in the ancient books on 6273: 6062: 6046: 5970: 5660: 5144: 5134: 5118: 5073: 5063: 4993: 4857: 4842: 4792: 4782: 4712: 4544: 4479: 4464: 4429: 4419: 4394: 4379: 4369: 4359: 4339: 4138: 4103: 4053: 4043: 3998: 3943: 3928: 3918: 3908: 3862: 3106: 2611: 1948: 1932: 1917: 1699: 1439: 1360: 1348: 1344: 1208: 855: 648: 516: 331: 327: 296: 236: 1025: 374:, a work devoted to domestic architecture, has its roots in Kerala. 64: 5802: 5741: 5344: 5274: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5219: 5209: 5169: 5068: 5058: 4983: 4968: 4852: 4847: 4812: 4797: 4787: 4757: 4737: 4702: 4664: 4604: 4579: 4554: 4529: 4504: 4474: 4449: 4414: 4354: 4349: 4258: 4228: 4163: 4153: 4143: 4128: 4073: 4038: 3854: 3319: 3075: 3014: 2947: 1455: 1419: 1371: 1292: 1279: 1212: 1147: 814: 676: 667:

chieftains of Thiruvananthapuram and the northernmost parts by the

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The temple pond or Ambala-Kulam at Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna Temple

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dominate the outline, often arranged in a number of tiers. As in

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Korean visitors looking at an Ettukettu Architecture in Mattanur

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and other feudal lords, most of the Nalukettus are referred as

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due to the contributions made by colonial powers in Kerala.

1606:

The assimilated Dutch style in Kerala architectural patterns

1410:

in the modification of old mosques during the last decades.

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a prominent class and dear to the rulers, especially of the

1150:

or even before. As local Muslim legends and tradition go, a

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Kerala is referred to as one of the border kingdoms of the

1694:

A classic Nalukettu of Kerala built in Kerala architecture

1653:

Traditional houses on display at Charithra Malika, Kerala.

1554:

is a mixture of Portuguese, Kerala and Dutch architecture.

871: 2311: 1542: 440:. These Vastu and carpentry texts are unique to Kerala. 1626: 458:. The rock-cut tomb cells are generally located in the 1571:

churches of Kerala, do share several common features.

1839:

clients interested in having traditional Pooja room.

1823:

A classic Nadumuttom with holy thulsi in center of it

2039: 1077:

square plan and the third storey of octagonal form.

311:

is a type of wayside public resting place in Kerala.

2157:"15th-century Jain temple in Kerala to be reopened" 1146:coast from very early times, as far as the time of 573:located at Jainimedu, 3 km from the centre of 89:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2233:"Kerala Architecture – a knol by Thomas Viruvelil" 1774:The typical wooden windows and charupady of Kerala 6165:Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1989–present) 6327: 1983: 1828:is allow tree to act as a natural air purifier. 1756:The wooden Gabled windows of Krishnapuram Palace 6346:Indian architecture by state or union territory 581:AD before being consecrated as a Hindu temple. 538:The version of Dravidian architecture found in 180:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling 6160:Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1926–1989) 1920:communities, their residences are referred as 1677:The classic roof decors made in Kerala Palaces 1390:are being projected as the visible symbols of 772:as well as several old churches, mosques, etc. 404: 5461: 3600: 3228: 2270: 1198:through the migration of new groups from the 921:The flag post normally seen in Kerala temples 1044:(stand alone Kovil) from North Kerala where 728: 507:Hindu, Jain and Buddhist Kerala architecture 2284: 1479:It has been suggested that this section be 702:(Sreekumara), covering temple architecture. 52:Learn how and when to remove these messages 5468: 5454: 3607: 3593: 3235: 3221: 2277: 2263: 2149: 1946:, most of the Nalukettus were referred as 1698:Nālukettu is the traditional homestead of 1598:Colonial influences in church architecture 1234:Muchundi Mosque with classic Kerala styles 647:ruled all of present-day Kerala, parts of 410:Thatchu Shasthra, the Science of Carpentry 3242: 1162:. On his return trip accompanied by many 837: 533: 222:Learn how and when to remove this message 204:Learn how and when to remove this message 149:Learn how and when to remove this message 6279:List of tourist attractions in Kozhikode 1987: 1887: 1846: 1818: 1811:A typical Nadumuttom of Kerala Nalukettu 1806: 1788: 1769: 1751: 1706: 1689: 1672: 1656: 1648: 1644: 1601: 1577: 1557: 1546: 1528: 1516: 1504: 1313: 1301: 1257: 1229: 1185: 1125: 1035: 1024: 1002: 981: 960: 916: 846: 819: 790: 752: 744: 732: 622: 611: 591: 557:The Jain monuments are more numerous in 510: 462:zones of central Kerala, for example at 318:is a style of architecture found in the 303: 295: 279: 271: 255: 243: 235: 1121: 872:Elements and features of Kerala temples 6328: 1635: 1543:Elements of Kerala church architecture 1461: 1020: 842: 264:surrounded by woodwork windows called 6152:Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam 5449: 3588: 3216: 2258: 1883: 1875: 1483:out into another article titled 1266:In plan the mosque comprises a large 929: 1627:Modern trends in church architecture 1465: 720:. It is possible that Buddhists and 396:water in the form of lakes, rivers, 160: 87:adding citations to reliable sources 58: 17: 2095: 1972:, their residences are referred as 1958:, their residences are referred as 1142:also had direct trade contact with 698:(Chennas Narayanan Namboodiri) and 550:, this is an adaption to the heavy 248:The temple entrance gateway called 13: 6341:Buildings and structures in Kerala 5377:Kolathunadu (Kingdom of Cannanore) 2140: 2114: 2096:Tom, Binumol (20 September 2018). 448: 14: 6357: 5475: 2143:"Traditional Kerala Architecture" 1907: 768:, which is primarily used in the 33:This article has multiple issues. 6310: 6234:Places of Interest in Malappuram 5430: 3615: 2056: 2042: 1470: 683:times and canonical theories of 561:. They include rock shelters at 165: 63: 22: 6249:Tourist attractions of Palakkad 5674:2001 Kadalundi Train derailment 3396:Thantra-Samuchayam/Shilparatnam 2115:Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. 1842: 1278:is west to Kerala) and covered 977: 956: 691:day. Four important books are: 655:, which is associated with the 74:needs additional citations for 41:or discuss these issues on the 5702:Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve 3574:Category:Architecture in India 2225: 2199: 2190: 2181: 2134: 2108: 2089: 1331:drew its inspiration from the 998: 782: 741:(gable) and Charupadi windows. 679:buildings, design concepts of 639:says that by the first century 1: 6289:Tourism in Thiruvananthapuram 6239:Tourist attractions in Kannur 2537:Anatolian Seljuk architecture 2165:. 12 May 2013. Archived from 2082: 1984:Public structure architecture 938: 260:Traditional courtyard called 2121:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1685: 947: 876: 832: 807: 7: 6172:Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen 2035: 1274:on the western wall (since 1176:first mosque at Kodungallur 995:for purposes of Abisekham. 405:Early texts on architecture 338:observed in other parts of 284:Traditional rafters called 10: 6362: 1486:Kerala church architecture 1386:of the imperial school of 1244:Indo-Islamic architectures 627:The ornate multi-storeyed 585:also has the remains of a 522: 443: 377: 6307: 6189: 6139: 6096: 6055: 6014: 5963: 5915: 5906: 5896:colleges and universities 5785: 5752:Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve 5692: 5659: 5589: 5486: 5427: 5367: 5127: 4961: 4690: 4683: 4320: 4277: 3879: 3812: 3729: 3646: 3631: 3569: 3523: 3457: 3250: 3125: 3094: 3043: 2908: 2645: 2604: 2479: 2392: 2310: 2292: 2207:"www.keralahistory.ac.in" 1413:Perhaps the influence of 1388:Indo-Islamic architecture 1329:Indo-Islamic architecture 1164:Islamic religious leaders 965:The Goppuram or Gatehouse 729:Composition and structure 387:to its east and the vast 5727:Eravikulam National Park 5679:2016 Paravur temple fire 3656:Thiruvananthapuram KL-01 418:, along with texts like 98:"Architecture of Kerala" 5836:Saint Thomas Christians 5646:United Democratic Front 2302:History of construction 2286:History of architecture 6140:Organisations/Agencies 5964:Dance / Drama / Cinema 5747:Nelliampathi Mountains 4385:Chittur-Thathamangalam 4279:Municipal corporations 2297:Architectural timeline 2072:Padmanabhapuram Palace 1997: 1893: 1852: 1824: 1812: 1794: 1775: 1757: 1695: 1678: 1662: 1654: 1607: 1583: 1569:Saint Thomas Christian 1563: 1555: 1535: 1522: 1510: 1319: 1307: 1263: 1251:or the theatre halls ( 1235: 1191: 1131: 1105:) or the shrine cell. 1053: 1033: 1009: 987: 966: 922: 859: 838:Religious architecture 825: 796: 766:Religious Architecture 758: 750: 742: 710:Manushyalaya Chandrika 632: 620: 601: 534:Dravidian architecture 520: 434:Manushyalaya-Chandrika 372:Manushyalaya Chandrika 361:Manushyalaya Chandrika 344:Dravidian architecture 336:Dravidian architecture 326:, and in parts of the 312: 301: 293: 277: 269: 253: 241: 5641:Left Democratic Front 5576:Perumpadapu Swaroopam 5516:Chovvanur burial cave 4460:Kothamangalam, Kerala 3244:Architecture of India 2839:America and Australia 2459:Medieval Scandinavian 1991: 1891: 1850: 1822: 1810: 1792: 1773: 1755: 1707:Elements of Nalukettu 1693: 1676: 1660: 1652: 1645:Domestic architecture 1605: 1581: 1561: 1550: 1532: 1520: 1508: 1317: 1305: 1261: 1233: 1189: 1129: 1039: 1028: 1006: 985: 964: 920: 850: 823: 799:The belief system of 794: 776:Domestic Architecture 756: 748: 736: 669:Nannans of Ezhilmalai 626: 615: 595: 567:Jainimedu Jain temple 529:Jainism in Tamil Nadu 514: 307: 299: 283: 275: 259: 247: 239: 6284:Estuaries of Paravur 6269:Muzhappilangad Beach 6259:Tourism in Kasaragod 6147:Nair Service Society 5669:1988 Perumon tragedy 5618:Legislative Assembly 5536:Kingdom of Cannanore 3666:Pathanamthitta KL-03 3081:Critical regionalism 1944:older Malabar region 1562:Altar-Kanjoor Church 1365:Islamic architecture 1343:, Panthalayani near 1122:Islamic architecture 391:to its west. Due to 252:in Aranmula, Kerala. 83:improve this article 6177:Syro-Malabar Church 5631:Saptakakshi Munnani 5506:Ariyannur Umbrellas 3020:Stripped Classicism 2995:International style 2978:Rationalist-Fascist 2627:Portuguese Colonial 2377:Pre-Islamic Persian 2077:Krishnapuram Palace 2050:Architecture portal 1636:Jewish architecture 1462:Church architecture 1295:with the stupi. At 1021:Phases of evolution 843:Temple architecture 737:Traditional ornate 316:Kerala architecture 6204:Athirappilly Falls 6078:Suriyani Malayalam 6068:Malayalam calendar 5712:Kavvayi Backwaters 5684:2018 Kerala floods 5571:Vaikom Satyagraham 5546:Battle of Kulachal 5526:Zamorin of Calicut 5511:Kudakkallu Parambu 5369:Historical regions 4287:Thiruvananthapuram 4219:Thiruvananthapuram 3639:Thiruvananthapuram 3025:Postconstructivism 2968:Streamline Moderne 2239:on 13 October 2011 2162:The Times of India 2098:"Ground realities" 1998: 1956:Samantha Kshatriya 1894: 1884:Based on structure 1876:Types of Nalukettu 1853: 1825: 1813: 1795: 1784:Ambal Kulam (Pond) 1776: 1758: 1696: 1679: 1663: 1655: 1608: 1584: 1564: 1556: 1536: 1523: 1511: 1404:Thiruvananthapuram 1337:Persian traditions 1320: 1308: 1264: 1236: 1225:Kozhikode Zamorins 1213:kingdom at Arakkal 1192: 1132: 1054: 1034: 1010: 988: 967: 930:Namaskara Mandapam 923: 860: 826: 797: 759: 751: 743: 633: 621: 602: 598:Peruvanam Mahadeva 596:Central shrine of 569:is a 15th-century 521: 430:Tantra Samucchayam 313: 302: 294: 278: 270: 254: 242: 184:You can assist by 6323: 6322: 6244:Islands of Kollam 6224:Kerala Backwaters 6209:Beaches in Kerala 6185: 6184: 5950:Triumvirate poets 5856:Jainism in Kerala 5772:Sasthamcotta Lake 5581:Malabar Migration 5561:Anglo-Mysore Wars 5443: 5442: 5419:Travancore–Cochin 5363: 5362: 3582: 3581: 3210: 3209: 1970:Syrian Christians 1503: 1502: 1498: 1288:mosque at Ponnani 1242:nor those of the 1200:Arabian Peninsula 1160:a voyage to Mecca 1136:Arabian Peninsula 1052:region of Kerala. 1032:Nalukettu complex 770:temples of Kerala 696:Thantrasamuchayam 637:Sangam literature 563:Chitral Jain cave 468:Thrissur district 232: 231: 224: 214: 213: 206: 159: 158: 151: 133: 56: 6353: 6317:India portal 6315: 6314: 6313: 6006:Cinema of Kerala 5913: 5912: 5876:Scheduled Tribes 5566:Battle of Quilon 5470: 5463: 5456: 5447: 5446: 5437:India portal 5435: 5434: 5433: 5350:Thalayolaparambu 5109:Sreekrishnapuram 5044:Sreemoolanagaram 4688: 4687: 3701:Malappuram KL-10 3619: 3609: 3602: 3595: 3586: 3585: 3237: 3230: 3223: 3214: 3213: 3102:Deconstructivism 2861:Spanish Colonial 2622:Spanish Colonial 2522:Western Chalukya 2330:Ancient Egyptian 2279: 2272: 2265: 2256: 2255: 2249: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2235:. Archived from 2229: 2223: 2222: 2220: 2218: 2209:. Archived from 2203: 2197: 2194: 2188: 2185: 2179: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2153: 2147: 2146: 2138: 2132: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2112: 2106: 2105: 2093: 2066: 2061: 2060: 2059: 2052: 2047: 2046: 1938:For some of the 1733:It is the prime 1717: 1716: 1494: 1474: 1473: 1466: 1207:in the south to 1194:Islam spread in 1138:, the cradle of 708:(anonymous) and 657:Thiruvanchikulam 642: 580: 227: 220: 209: 202: 198: 195: 189: 169: 168: 161: 154: 147: 143: 140: 134: 132: 91: 67: 59: 48: 26: 25: 18: 6361: 6360: 6356: 6355: 6354: 6352: 6351: 6350: 6326: 6325: 6324: 6319: 6311: 6309: 6303: 6181: 6135: 6092: 6083:Judeo-Malayalam 6073:Arabi Malayalam 6051: 6010: 5959: 5902: 5793: 5789: 5781: 5767:Protected areas 5732:Flora and fauna 5688: 5655: 5608:Chief Ministers 5593: 5585: 5551:Arakkal kingdom 5531:Venad Swaroopam 5482: 5474: 5444: 5439: 5431: 5429: 5423: 5409:Venad (kingdom) 5359: 5123: 4957: 4823:Kottappadi Part 4679: 4316: 4273: 3875: 3831:Indian elephant 3808: 3725: 3721:Kasaragod KL-14 3706:Kozhikode KL-11 3686:Ernakulam KL-07 3671:Alappuzha KL-04 3642: 3627: 3613: 3583: 3578: 3565: 3519: 3453: 3376:Badami Chalukya 3246: 3241: 3211: 3206: 3121: 3090: 3039: 2973:Totalitarianism 2963:New Objectivity 2904: 2757:Serbo-Byzantine 2752:Russo-Byzantine 2641: 2600: 2475: 2452:Islamic Persian 2388: 2306: 2288: 2283: 2253: 2252: 2242: 2240: 2231: 2230: 2226: 2216: 2214: 2213:on 21 July 2011 2205: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2182: 2172: 2170: 2169:on 15 June 2013 2155: 2154: 2150: 2141:Philip, Boney. 2139: 2135: 2125: 2123: 2117:"Western Ghats" 2113: 2109: 2094: 2090: 2085: 2062: 2057: 2055: 2048: 2041: 2038: 1986: 1940:Mappila Muslims 1910: 1886: 1878: 1845: 1747:Chuttu verandah 1714: 1713: 1709: 1688: 1647: 1638: 1629: 1600: 1545: 1499: 1475: 1471: 1464: 1392:Islamic culture 1168:Malik ibn Dinar 1124: 1115:circumambulates 1023: 1001: 980: 959: 950: 941: 932: 879: 874: 845: 840: 835: 810: 785: 731: 640: 578: 536: 531: 509: 451: 449:Prehistoric era 446: 407: 380: 353:Tantrasamuchaya 228: 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5797: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5707:Ashtamudi Lake 5704: 5698: 5696: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5665: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5599: 5597: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5492: 5490: 5484: 5483: 5473: 5472: 5465: 5458: 5450: 5441: 5440: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5400: 5399: 5394: 5384: 5379: 5373: 5371: 5365: 5364: 5361: 5360: 5358: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5150:Chirayinkeezhu 5147: 5142: 5137: 5131: 5129: 5125: 5124: 5122: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5084:Vadakkencherry 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4965: 4963: 4959: 4958: 4956: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4868:Muzhappilangad 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4833:Padinharethara 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4694: 4692: 4685: 4681: 4680: 4678: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4645:Thrippunithura 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4610:Sreekandapuram 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4585:Perinthalmanna 4582: 4577: 4575:Pathanamthitta 4572: 4567: 4565:Parappanangadi 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4425:Karunagappalli 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4326: 4324: 4322:Municipalities 4318: 4317: 4315: 4314: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4283: 4281: 4275: 4274: 4272: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4189:Sultan Bathery 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4169:Perinthalmanna 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3989:Karunagappalli 3986: 3984:Karthikappally 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3941: 3936: 3934:Chirayinkeezhu 3931: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3885: 3883: 3877: 3876: 3874: 3873: 3871:Papilio buddha 3868: 3865: 3860: 3857: 3852: 3849: 3844: 3841: 3836: 3833: 3828: 3825: 3823:Great hornbill 3820: 3816: 3814: 3810: 3809: 3807: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3735: 3733: 3727: 3726: 3724: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3696:Palakkad KL-09 3693: 3691:Thrissur KL-08 3688: 3683: 3678: 3676:Kottayam KL-05 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3652: 3650: 3644: 3643: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3612: 3611: 3604: 3597: 3589: 3580: 3579: 3577: 3576: 3570: 3567: 3566: 3564: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3527: 3525: 3521: 3520: 3518: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3467: 3461: 3459: 3455: 3454: 3452: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3439:Indo-Saracenic 3436: 3435: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3423: 3422: 3407: 3406: 3405: 3404: 3403: 3398: 3393: 3388: 3383: 3378: 3366:Hindu-southern 3363: 3362: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3338: 3337: 3332: 3327: 3317: 3312: 3300:Hindu-northern 3297: 3292: 3287: 3282: 3281: 3280: 3275: 3265: 3260: 3258:Ancient Indian 3254: 3252: 3248: 3247: 3240: 3239: 3232: 3225: 3217: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3189: 3184: 3179: 3178: 3177: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3156: 3155: 3150: 3140: 3135: 3129: 3127: 3123: 3122: 3120: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3091: 3089: 3088: 3083: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3047: 3045: 3041: 3040: 3038: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3017: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2991: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2958:Constructivism 2955: 2950: 2945: 2944: 2943: 2933: 2931:Prairie School 2928: 2923: 2918: 2912: 2910: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2902: 2901: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2875: 2874: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2842: 2841: 2836: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2812: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2760: 2759: 2754: 2739: 2738: 2737: 2727: 2726: 2725: 2720: 2715: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2695: 2690: 2685: 2680: 2675: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2642: 2640: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2601: 2599: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2583: 2578: 2577: 2576: 2566: 2561: 2560: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2526: 2525: 2524: 2519: 2514: 2506: 2505: 2504: 2499: 2494: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2476: 2474: 2473: 2472: 2471: 2464:Pre-Romanesque 2461: 2456: 2455: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2424: 2423: 2422: 2417: 2409: 2404: 2398: 2396: 2394:1st millennium 2390: 2389: 2387: 2386: 2385: 2384: 2374: 2373: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2352: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2340: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2316: 2314: 2308: 2307: 2305: 2304: 2299: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2282: 2281: 2274: 2267: 2259: 2251: 2250: 2224: 2198: 2189: 2180: 2148: 2133: 2107: 2087: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2080: 2079: 2074: 2068: 2067: 2053: 2037: 2034: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1966: 1952: 1936: 1924: 1909: 1908:Based on caste 1906: 1885: 1882: 1877: 1874: 1844: 1841: 1836: 1835: 1805: 1804: 1787: 1786: 1768: 1767: 1750: 1749: 1731: 1730: 1720: 1719: 1708: 1705: 1687: 1684: 1646: 1643: 1637: 1634: 1628: 1625: 1599: 1596: 1544: 1541: 1501: 1500: 1478: 1476: 1469: 1463: 1460: 1123: 1120: 1022: 1019: 1000: 997: 979: 976: 958: 955: 949: 946: 940: 937: 931: 928: 878: 875: 873: 870: 844: 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 809: 806: 784: 781: 780: 779: 773: 730: 727: 714: 713: 703: 583:Sultan Bathery 535: 532: 525:Tamil Buddhism 508: 505: 450: 447: 445: 442: 406: 403: 379: 376: 357:Thachu-Shastra 340:southern India 230: 229: 212: 211: 173: 171: 164: 157: 156: 71: 69: 62: 57: 31: 30: 28: 21: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6358: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6333: 6331: 6318: 6306: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6196: 6194: 6192: 6188: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6157: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6144: 6142: 6138: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6111: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6099: 6095: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6060: 6058: 6054: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6013: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5962: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5905: 5897: 5894: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5798: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5777:Vembanad Lake 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5757:Nilgiri Hills 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5737:Malabar Coast 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5695: 5691: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5658: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5636:Aikya Munnani 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5625: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5541:Kerala school 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5501:Edakkal Caves 5499: 5497: 5496:Sangam period 5494: 5493: 5491: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5478: 5471: 5466: 5464: 5459: 5457: 5452: 5451: 5448: 5438: 5426: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5398: 5397:South Malabar 5395: 5393: 5392:North Malabar 5390: 5389: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5370: 5366: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5305:Kanjirappally 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5270:Vadasserikara 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5140:Balaramapuram 5138: 5136: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5126: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5114:Lakkidi-Perur 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5029:Chottanikkara 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4960: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4763:Kunnamangalam 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4695: 4693: 4689: 4686: 4682: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4540:North Paravur 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4525:Neyyattinkara 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4365:Changanassery 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4327: 4325: 4323: 4319: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4276: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4134:North Paravur 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4124:Neyyattinkara 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4029:Kothamangalam 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3974:Kanjirappally 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3914:Changanassery 3912: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3886: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3818: 3817: 3815: 3811: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3728: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3711:Wayanad KL-12 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3653: 3651: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3610: 3605: 3603: 3598: 3596: 3591: 3590: 3587: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3568: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3528: 3526: 3522: 3516: 3513: 3511: 3510:Uttar Pradesh 3508: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3471: 3468: 3466: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3456: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3433: 3430: 3428: 3425: 3421: 3418: 3417: 3416: 3413: 3412: 3411: 3408: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3389: 3387: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3377: 3374: 3373: 3372: 3369: 3368: 3367: 3364: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3322: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3307: 3306: 3303: 3302: 3301: 3298: 3296: 3293: 3291: 3288: 3286: 3283: 3279: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3270: 3269: 3266: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3255: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3238: 3233: 3231: 3226: 3224: 3219: 3218: 3215: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3176: 3173: 3172: 3171: 3168: 3166: 3163: 3161: 3158: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3145: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3130: 3128: 3124: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3112:New Classical 3110: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3093: 3087: 3084: 3082: 3079: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3056:Structuralism 3054: 3052: 3049: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3036: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3013: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3003: 3001: 3000:Functionalism 2998: 2996: 2993: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2975: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2942: 2939: 2938: 2937: 2936:Expressionism 2934: 2932: 2929: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2913: 2911: 2907: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2888:Liberty style 2886: 2884: 2881: 2880: 2879: 2876: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2821:Neo-Manueline 2819: 2817: 2814: 2810: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2797: 2796: 2795: 2794:Monumentalism 2792: 2790: 2787: 2785: 2784:Mediterranean 2782: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2758: 2755: 2753: 2750: 2749: 2748: 2745: 2744: 2743: 2740: 2736: 2733: 2732: 2731: 2728: 2724: 2721: 2719: 2716: 2714: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2699: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2655: 2654: 2651: 2650: 2648: 2644: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2587: 2584: 2582: 2579: 2575: 2572: 2571: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2564:Romano-Gothic 2562: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2520: 2518: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2500: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2489: 2488: 2485: 2484: 2482: 2478: 2470: 2467: 2466: 2465: 2462: 2460: 2457: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2440: 2438: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2429: 2428: 2425: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2413: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2383: 2380: 2379: 2378: 2375: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2365:Ancient Roman 2363: 2361: 2360:Ancient Greek 2358: 2357: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2341: 2339: 2336: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2280: 2275: 2273: 2268: 2266: 2261: 2260: 2257: 2238: 2234: 2228: 2212: 2208: 2202: 2193: 2184: 2168: 2164: 2163: 2158: 2152: 2144: 2137: 2122: 2118: 2111: 2103: 2099: 2092: 2088: 2078: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2069: 2065: 2054: 2051: 2045: 2040: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2008: 2002: 1995: 1994:Napier Museum 1990: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1951: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1914: 1913: 1905: 1901: 1898: 1890: 1881: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1849: 1840: 1834: 1831: 1830: 1829: 1821: 1817: 1809: 1803: 1800: 1799: 1798: 1791: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1772: 1766: 1763: 1762: 1761: 1754: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1729: 1726: 1725: 1724: 1718: 1711: 1710: 1704: 1701: 1692: 1683: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1659: 1651: 1642: 1633: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1604: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1570: 1560: 1553: 1549: 1540: 1534:architecture. 1531: 1527: 1519: 1515: 1507: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1468: 1467: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1430:(present day 1429: 1425: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1370: 1367:. The use of 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1325: 1324:Hindu temples 1316: 1312: 1304: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1260: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1249:Hindu temples 1245: 1241: 1232: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1201: 1197: 1188: 1184: 1182: 1181:Hindu temples 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1128: 1119: 1116: 1110: 1106: 1104: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1063: 1057: 1051: 1050:North Malabar 1047: 1043: 1038: 1031: 1027: 1018: 1016: 1005: 996: 994: 993:sacred waters 984: 975: 973: 963: 954: 945: 936: 927: 919: 915: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 887: 883: 869: 866: 857: 853: 852:Madhur Temple 849: 830: 822: 818: 816: 805: 802: 793: 789: 777: 774: 771: 767: 764: 763: 762: 755: 747: 740: 735: 726: 723: 719: 718:Maurya empire 711: 707: 704: 701: 697: 694: 693: 692: 689: 686: 682: 678: 672: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 638: 630: 625: 618: 614: 610: 607: 599: 594: 590: 588: 584: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 555: 553: 549: 545: 541: 530: 526: 518: 513: 504: 502: 497: 493: 487: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 441: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 422: 417: 416: 411: 402: 399: 394: 390: 386: 385:Western Ghats 375: 373: 369: 368: 363: 362: 358: 354: 349: 348:Vastu Shastra 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 310: 306: 298: 291: 287: 282: 274: 267: 263: 258: 251: 246: 238: 234: 226: 223: 208: 205: 197: 187: 181: 179: 174:This article 172: 163: 162: 153: 150: 142: 131: 128: 124: 121: 117: 114: 110: 107: 103: 100: – 99: 95: 94:Find sources: 88: 84: 78: 77: 72:This article 70: 66: 61: 60: 55: 53: 46: 45: 40: 39: 34: 29: 20: 19: 16: 6219:Chembra Peak 6126:Panchavadyam 5996:Ottamthullal 5986:Mohiniyattam 5925:Architecture 5924: 5881:Kerala model 5841:Kerala Iyers 5808:Namboothiris 5787:Demographics 5762:Palakkad Gap 5623: 5355:Kaduthuruthy 5340:Kuravilangad 5290:Ambalappuzha 5230:Kozhencherry 5225:Kulathupuzha 5215:Pathanapuram 5195:Sasthamkotta 5099:Puthunagaram 5049:Nedumbassery 5034:Udayamperoor 4974:Vandiperiyar 4923:Vellarikundu 4883:Pappinisseri 4863:Anjarakkandy 4773:Thiruvambady 4768:Thamarassery 4708:Puthanathani 4640:Thrikkakkara 4515:Muvattupuzha 4470:Kottarakkara 4455:Kuthuparamba 4400:Irinjalakuda 4264:Vellarikundu 4244:Udumbanchola 4209:Thamarassery 4149:Pathanapuram 4114:Muvattupuzha 4109:Mukundapuram 4089:Manjeshwaram 4084:Mananthavady 4049:Kozhencherry 4034:Kottarakkara 3904:Ambalappuzha 3749:Demographics 3716:Kannur KL-13 3681:Idukki KL-06 3661:Kollam KL-02 3637: 3479: 3410:Indo-Islamic 3401:Vijayanagara 3315:Māru-Gurjara 3170:Mesoamerican 3117:Contemporary 3095:2000–present 3086:Neo-futurism 3066:Blobitecture 2893:Modern Style 2809:Neoclassical 2557:Indo-Islamic 2532:Great Seljuk 2517:Vijayanagara 2411:East Slavic 2325:Mesopotamian 2241:. Retrieved 2237:the original 2227: 2215:. Retrieved 2211:the original 2201: 2192: 2183: 2171:. Retrieved 2167:the original 2160: 2151: 2136: 2124:. Retrieved 2120: 2110: 2101: 2091: 2064:India portal 2030: 2026: 2022: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2003: 1999: 1977: 1973: 1963: 1959: 1947: 1931: 1921: 1911: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1879: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1843:Key features 1837: 1832: 1826: 1814: 1801: 1796: 1783: 1777: 1764: 1759: 1746: 1738: 1732: 1727: 1721: 1712: 1697: 1680: 1668: 1664: 1639: 1630: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1592: 1588: 1585: 1573: 1565: 1537: 1524: 1512: 1496:(March 2020) 1495: 1484: 1415:Arabic style 1412: 1321: 1309: 1265: 1253:koothambalam 1252: 1240:Arabic style 1237: 1193: 1133: 1111: 1107: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1062:ardhamandapa 1058: 1055: 1041: 1017:is invoked. 1011: 989: 978:Ambala-Kulam 971: 968: 957:Chuttambalam 951: 942: 933: 924: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 888: 884: 880: 865:energy flows 861: 827: 811: 798: 786: 775: 765: 760: 738: 715: 709: 705: 699: 695: 673: 635:Early Tamil 634: 616: 605: 603: 556: 537: 500: 491: 488: 483: 475: 471: 452: 437: 433: 429: 425: 419: 413: 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2866:Territorial 2846:Renaissance 2830:Queen Anne 2703:Elizabethan 2596:Plateresque 2591:Renaissance 2574:Sondergotik 2469:Carolingian 2415:Kievan Rus' 2007:Fort Cochin 1396:Jama Masjid 1268:prayer hall 1172:Kodungallur 999:Thevarapura 783:Composition 700:Silpiratnam 661:Kodungallur 587:Jaina basti 571:Jain temple 484:pulachikkal 389:Arabian Sea 6330:Categories 6110:Thayambaka 5991:Margamkali 5940:Literature 5866:Dravidians 5717:Backwaters 5591:Government 5414:Travancore 5325:Karukachal 5315:Mundakayam 5245:Mallapally 5180:Neendakara 5160:Parippally 5155:Kilimanoor 5104:Malampuzha 5079:Chelakkara 5039:Varappuzha 5009:Puthencruz 5004:Kolenchery 4953:Manjeshwar 4943:Mangalpady 4878:Cherukunnu 4838:Meenangadi 4778:Kodencheri 4660:Valanchery 4635:Thodupuzha 4630:Thiruvalla 4620:Thalassery 4520:Nedumangad 4490:Malappuram 4440:Kayamkulam 4435:Kattappana 4375:Chengannur 4224:Thodupuzha 4214:Thiruvalla 4204:Thalassery 4199:Thalapilly 4119:Nedumangad 4094:Mannarkkad 4079:Mallapally 3969:Kanayannur 3924:Chengannur 3794:Government 3500:Tamil Nadu 3432:Qutb Shahi 3344:Hemadpanti 3187:Portuguese 3061:Postmodern 3010:Organicism 2898:Modernisme 2883:Jugendstil 2742:Revivalism 2730:Industrial 2713:Portuguese 2487:Romanesque 2382:Achaemenid 2126:31 October 2083:References 1960:kovilakoms 1833:Pooja Room 1802:Nadumuttom 1452:nālukettus 1448:Kasaragode 1444:Thalassery 1166:including 1152:Chera King 939:Nalambalam 911:adhisthana 907:savakamika 706:Vastuvidya 523:See also: 496:hypaethral 476:thoppikkal 438:Silparatna 398:backwaters 367:Silparatna 330:region of 309:Kalithattu 262:Nadumuttom 186:editing it 109:newspapers 38:improve it 6274:Peruvanam 6199:Alappuzha 6156:Samastha 6063:Malayalam 6056:Languages 6047:Christmas 6015:Festivals 5971:Kathakali 5891:Education 5818:Samanthas 5803:Malayalis 5722:Districts 5694:Geography 5661:Incidents 5626:elections 5624:Panchayat 5613:Governors 5200:Kunnathur 5145:Kattakada 5135:Parassala 5119:Thrithala 5074:Pavaratty 5064:Puthukkad 4994:Devikulam 4858:Dharmadom 4843:Panamaram 4793:Nadapuram 4783:Balussery 4713:Kottakkal 4545:Ottapalam 4480:Koyilandy 4465:Kottakkal 4430:Kasaragod 4420:Kanhangad 4395:Guruvayur 4380:Cherthala 4370:Chavakkad 4360:Chalakudy 4340:Alappuzha 4292:Kozhikode 4139:Ottapalam 4104:Meenachil 4069:Kunnathur 4054:Kozhikode 4044:Koyilandy 3999:Kattakada 3994:Kasaragod 3944:Devikulam 3929:Cherthala 3919:Chavakkad 3909:Chalakudy 3863:Jackfruit 3769:Geography 3759:Education 3648:Districts 3546:Hyderabad 3515:Telangana 3495:Rajasthan 3475:Karnataka 3371:Dravidian 3148:Dravidian 3107:Neomodern 3071:High-tech 3051:Brutalism 3044:1950–2000 2988:Stalinist 2921:Mycenaean 2909:1900–1950 2747:Byzantine 2723:Ukrainian 2708:Naryshkin 2673:Edwardian 2646:1750–1900 2617:Palladian 2612:Manueline 2605:1500–1750 2480:1000–1500 2420:Muscovite 2407:Byzantine 2355:Classical 2343:Mycenaean 2320:Neolithic 2102:The Hindu 1964:kottarams 1949:tharavadu 1933:tharavadu 1918:Nambudiri 1765:Charupady 1739:Karanavar 1728:Poomukham 1715:Padippura 1700:Tharavadu 1686:Nalukettu 1456:verandahs 1440:Kozhikode 1420:verandahs 1361:Kasargode 1349:Kozhikode 1345:Koyilandy 1209:Mangalore 1158:and made 1154:embraced 1042:Madappura 972:kottupura 953:purpose. 948:Balithara 895:purshtika 877:Sri-kovil 863:regulate 856:Kasaragod 833:Structure 808:Materials 649:Tulu Nadu 517:Guruvayur 494:). These 456:megaliths 332:Karnataka 328:Tulu Nadu 266:Charupadi 194:July 2023 44:talk page 5871:Adivasis 5828:Mappilas 5795:Religion 5742:Marayoor 5603:Agencies 5595:Politics 5345:Uzhavoor 5275:Parumala 5260:Kulanada 5255:Aranmula 5250:Kumbanad 5220:Thenmala 5210:Kadakkal 5170:Kottiyam 5069:Manaloor 5059:Kodakara 4984:Rajakkad 4969:Peermade 4873:Azhikode 4853:Peravoor 4848:Pulpally 4813:Chundale 4798:Kuttiady 4788:Perambra 4758:Olavanna 4738:Areekode 4703:Thavanur 4665:Vatakara 4605:Shoranur 4580:Payyanur 4555:Palakkad 4530:Nilambur 4505:Mattanur 4475:Kottayam 4450:Kondotty 4415:Kalpetta 4355:Attingal 4350:Angamaly 4307:Thrissur 4259:Vatakara 4229:Thrissur 4164:Peermade 4159:Payyanur 4154:Pattambi 4144:Palakkad 4129:Nilambur 4074:Kuttanad 4039:Kottayam 4019:Kondotty 3855:Karimeen 3789:Wildlife 3458:By state 3381:Chalukya 3359:Rock-cut 3354:Nilachal 3320:Shikhara 3295:Harappan 3285:Buddhist 3160:Japanese 3138:Colonial 3126:Regional 3076:Arcology 3015:Art Deco 3005:Futurism 2948:De Stijl 2851:Romanian 2769:Egyptian 2764:Colonial 2718:Siberian 2528:Islamic 2497:Ottonian 2492:Galician 2402:Sasanian 2370:Herodian 2350:Etruscan 2036:See also 1384:minarets 1369:arcuated 1293:shikhara 1280:verandah 1148:Muhammad 891:santhika 858:, Kerala 739:Mukhappu 677:Buddhist 575:Palakkad 472:kudakkal 464:Porkulam 460:laterite 426:Mayamata 421:Manasara 286:Kazhukol 6299:Wayanad 6254:Kovalam 6191:Tourism 6131:Sopanam 6116:Kolkali 6001:Theyyam 5976:Kolkali 5930:Cuisine 5908:Culture 5886:Tourism 5861:Pulayar 5846:Ezhavas 5832:Thiyyas 5791:Economy 5488:History 5387:Malabar 5382:Zamorin 5330:Pampady 5320:Vazhoor 5310:Erumely 5265:Omallur 5190:Oachira 5185:Chavara 5175:Kundara 5094:Nemmara 5089:Alathur 4999:Adimali 4962:Central 4933:Karadka 4928:Parappa 4898:Alakode 4893:Irikkur 4818:Meppadi 4808:Vythiri 4803:Lakkidi 4748:Vengara 4743:Wandoor 4733:Karipur 4723:Mankada 4698:Edappal 4675:Varkala 4600:Punalur 4595:Ponnani 4570:Paravur 4495:Manjeri 4335:Anthoor 4269:Vythiri 4254:Varkala 4179:Punalur 4174:Ponnani 3954:Hosdurg 3939:Chittur 3894:Alathur 3839:Coconut 3813:Symbols 3799:Tourism 3784:History 3754:Economy 3744:Culture 3634:Capital 3556:Lucknow 3536:Chennai 3524:By city 3470:Gujarat 3391:Kadamba 3386:Hoysala 3335:Sekhari 3325:Bhumija 3310:Kalinga 3197:Spanish 3192:Russian 3133:Chinese 2953:Bauhaus 2856:Russian 2834:Britain 2816:Moorish 2799:Baroque 2789:Mission 2735:British 2698:Petrine 2693:Maltese 2688:Italian 2678:English 2653:Baroque 2552:Ottoman 2547:Timurid 2512:Hoysala 2508:Indian 2447:Fatimid 2442:Abbasid 2437:Moorish 2432:Umayyad 2427:Islamic 2334:Aegean 2173:20 July 1942:of the 1735:portico 1491:Discuss 1400:Palayam 1357:Ponnani 1333:Turkish 1284:mandapa 1270:with a 1221:Muslims 1103:pranala 1046:Theyyam 1030:Paliyam 903:achudha 815:pugging 643:AD the 629:Gopuram 617:Gopuram 606:Thorana 600:temple. 552:monsoon 480:menhirs 444:History 393:monsoon 378:Origins 290:Uttaram 250:Gopuram 123:scholar 6264:Munnar 6229:Kollam 6106:Chenda 6032:Pooram 5480:topics 5477:Kerala 5404:Cochin 5280:Mannar 5205:Anchal 5019:Kalady 4989:Munnar 4979:Kumily 4948:Uppala 4938:Kumbla 4828:Muttil 4670:Vaikom 4560:Panoor 4500:Maradu 4405:Iritty 4312:Kannur 4302:Kollam 4249:Vaikom 4014:Kollam 3979:Kannur 3964:Iritty 3959:Idukki 3949:Eranad 3881:Taluks 3867:Insect 3843:Flower 3827:Animal 3804:Sports 3731:Topics 3625:Kerala 3561:Mumbai 3551:Jaipur 3490:Odisha 3480:Kerala 3465:Bengal 3427:Sharqi 3420:Akbari 3415:Mughal 3349:Meitei 3330:Latina 3305:Nagara 3268:Bengal 3202:Somali 3182:Newari 3165:Korean 3143:Indian 3035:Googie 2941:Cubism 2926:Modern 2826:Pueblo 2804:Rococo 2774:Gothic 2683:French 2658:Andean 2632:Mughal 2569:Gothic 2542:Mamluk 2502:Norman 2338:Minoan 2243:28 May 2217:28 May 1978:veedus 1922:illams 1434:) and 1408:Kerala 1394:. 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