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been altered by humans to some degree whether managers undertake assisted migration or not. Given the reality of global change, it will be impossible to maintain past ecological communities indefinitely. Many therefore believe we should strive to maintain biodiversity and functioning ecosystems in the face of climate change, even if it means actively moving species beyond their native ranges. In the absence of assisted migration, climate change is already causing many highly mobile species, such as butterflies, to colonize areas they have not previously inhabited. Through assisted migration, managers could help rare or less-mobile species keep pace, possibly preventing future extinctions due to a their inability to colonize new areas fast enough. Though some argue that nature often responds to challenges more effectively in the absence of human intervention, others note that current climate change, itself, is a human intervention. Many species that would have been effective dispersers under slower, natural climate change may be left behind by more mobile species under current rates of human-caused climate change. Thus, through changing the climate, humans may already be artificially segregating species even without actively relocating them.
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The environmental conditions in which these populations are being introduced must also be taken into account. In order to enhance genetic variation, and thus adaptive potential, material could be sourced from multiple populations. This is known as composite provenancing. However, if the environmental gradient is well known, such as predictable changes in elevation or aridity, source populations should be βgenetically matchedβ to recipient sites as best as possible to ensure that the translocated individuals ae not maladapted. This strategy of moving species beyond their current range has been suggested for those that are severely threatened or endangered. By moving them outside their native range, hopefully the immediate threats of predation, disease, and habitat loss can be avoided. However, these species are usually already suffering from some sort of genetic issue resulting from low effective population size such as inbreeding depression, loss in genetic diversity, or maladaptation. Therefore, caution must be taken with what few individuals remain and rapid population growth must be the primary goal. In the case of some species, this can be accomplished with a captive breeding program
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position, however, noting that in many cases where extinctions due to climate change are likely, the risks of extinction from not facilitating migration are probably far worse than the risks of facilitating migration. They argue that the precautionary principle cuts both ways, and the risks of inaction must be compared against the risks of action. Others note that the ethics of assisting migration will depend on the values of the stakeholders involved in a specific decision rather than the position of scientists on assisted migration in general. At the very least, some note, scientists should conduct further research into assisted migration and improve our capacity to predict specific outcomes instead of outright rejecting it.
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for launching such a project for the pika did not occur. As for Joshua tree, in 2019 the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service ruled against listing this desert plant as a "threatened" species, and California state government did the same in 2022. During this time, three U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service scientists aggregated existing research (including range shift climate modelling) into a report titled, "Examining the Past, Present, and Future of an Iconic Mojave Desert Species, the Joshua Tree." It was published in December 2020. No mention was made of any form of translocation, including assisted migration, for securing the species against future climate change.
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within-continent movement of species proposed for assisted migration. For example, Mueller and
Hellman reviewed 468 documented species invasions and found that only 14.7% occurred on the same continent where the species originated. Of the 14.7%, the vast majority were fish and crustaceans. Terrestrial species that became invasive on the same continent where they originated were often transported across large biogeographic barriers, such as mountain ranges. These long-distance, within-continent translocations are unlike expected uses of assisted migration, which generally involve helping species colonize habitats immediately adjacent to their current ranges.
371:. These models predict the suitability of habitats in the future based on how closely their climates resemble the climate currently inhabited by the species. Though useful for describing broad trends, these models make a number of unrealistic assumptions that restrict the usefulness of their predictions. For instance, they do not consider the possibility that species may be able to develop tolerance of new climates through acclimatization or adaptation. Further, they do not account for the fact that a given species may perform better (e.g., become invasive) or worse (e.g., fail to establish) in a new habitat than in its current range if the community of
924:, also known as the Hihi, is a bird endemic to New Zealand. Changes in climate have shown to have a profound effect on the hihi's ability to thrive and reproduce. As a result, human caused climate change is an existential threat to the species. The hihi's current native habitat is becoming unstable due to rising temperatures, and suitable temperatures are shifting further south. Assisted migration is being considered as a means of ensuring the hihi can remain in its current natural habitat. Critics, however, argue the risks that are presented to the new host environments are not worth the potential benefits assisted migration may present.
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pros and cons of the concept through the years. Instead, more attention was given to modeling or mapping where particular species could be moved. While plants had been the focus of most of the early publications, animals took the lead in recent years. Corals, invertebrates, mammals, and birds were the leading types of animals assessed for assisted migration needs and prospects. Even so, "most authors presented assisted species migration as appropriate only for species under exceptionally high threat from climate change." By 2023, a news article in the journal
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The press release summarized the reason for the change as, "At the time the original 10(j) regulations were established, the potential impact of climate change on species and their habitats was not fully realized, yet in the decades since have become even more dramatic. These revisions will help prevent extinctions and support the recovery of imperiled species by allowing the
Service and our partners to implement proactive, conservation-based species introductions to reduce the impacts of climate change and other threats such as invasive species."
283:, who posthumously has been credited with the discovery of genes and alleles and their impact on an offspring's genotype. Benefits of hybridization include the increase in genetic diversity and the potential for genetic combinations which are able to adapt to, and reproduce in, increasingly difficult environments. Hybridization of coral reefs during the annual coral spawning is being experimented with to create hybrid offspring that will hopefully have higher survival and growth rates in a variety of climate change related conditions.
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826:), found in Mexico and California, has shifted to higher altitudes and surprisingly chosen a completely different species of plant on which to lay its eggs, according to research presented at the Butterfly Conservation's seventh international symposium in Southampton.... "Every butterfly biologist who knew anything about the quino in the mid-1990s thought it would be extinct by now, including me," said Prof Camille Parmesan of the Marine Sciences Institute at Plymouth University...."
401:, allowing species to naturally migrate into newly suitable areas. Under the rates of climate change projected for the coming decades, however, even perfectly connected habitats will probably be insufficient. Species that cannot naturally keep pace with shifting climates will be at risk regardless of habitat connectivity. Evidence suggests that slowly evolving and slowly dispersing species (including species that are dispersal-limited due to
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conditioning can be artificially induced in a laboratory environment to create desired responses based on their environments. Notable examples include a 1989 experiment which used stress conditioning via heat shock on rat kidneys to extend their safe cold storage time to 48 hours. More recently, stress conditioning is being studied as a potential solution for the preservation of coral reefs as they are continually exposed to
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species that have become invasive outside their native ranges by (often inadvertent) introduction by humans. Although most agree that assisted migration efforts, unlike accidental introductions, should involve detailed planning and risk assessment, for some, any threat of introducing invasive species, no matter how small, disqualifies assisted migration as a viable management response to climate change.
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basically seems untenable." Yet he also noted that climate-responsive translocations were more acceptable than another approach under consideration: initiating gene editing to make species more climate-proof. Lead scientist
Mitchell acknowledged the risks, while offering "we can potentially undo our mistakes by recapturing them." Additional translocations of baby turtles continued into 2023.
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populations, suggesting they were uncolonized because the butterfly could not reach them on its own. The data suggested that the suitable, uncolonized sites could be good targets for assisted migration. The results suggested that if investigators can demonstrate their model makes reliable predictions with real-world data, models might be trusted for informing assisted migration decisions.
309:. Other consequences of hybridization include the accumulation of deleterious genes, outbreeding depression, and genetic swamping. In the case of outbreeding depression which reduces the fitness of the hybrid species, there is a risk of extinction. This occurs when the population growth rate is below the replacement rate, wasting the reproductive potential of two populations.
465:(IUCN) published that "climate change currently affects at least 10,967 species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species." In another IUCN publication in 2021, climate change was mentioned 20 times in a 355-page report by the organization's Conservation Translocation Specialist Group; but "assisted colonization" as an adaptive response was mentioned just once.
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multi-directional climate shifts will make it especially difficult to determine the species that are at greatest risk of habitat loss due to climate change and to predict future suitable habitat. The uncertainties in predictions of future suitable habitat limits confidence in assisted migration decisions and has led some to reject assisted migration entirely.
255:). Determining which genes within the genome produce desired behaviors or environmental tolerance consist of experiments which measure the growth, survival, and behavior exhibition of offspring with varying genotypes. AGF is one possible strategy to preserve species that are threatened by climate change, and can be applied to both plants (e.g.
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climate. However, projections indicate that most or all of Quinoβs current range in the USA, including the new high elevation expansion, will become uninhabitable. Our most frequent projected future range (circa 2050) is c. 400 km northward from current populations, hence conservation of Quino may eventually require assisted colonization."
949:. Jesse Bellemare and colleagues may have coined the term in a paper published in 2017: "It appears that a subset of native plants, particularly those with ornamental value, might already have had opportunities to shift their ranges northward via inadvertent human assistance." A subcanopy tree native to the southeastern United States,
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plantings of trees northward of their native ranges are a form of assisted migration already underway. Because the original plantings likely did not include the goal of helping the trees migrate northward in a warming climate, this form of unintended climate adaptation enabled by humans can be called
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In a paper titled, "Endangered Quino checkerspot butterfly and climate change: Short-term success but long-term vulnerability?", the authors acknowledged the butterfly's surprising ability to utilize a new larval plant food in a cooler nearby habitat and concluded: "Quino appears resilient to warming
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Critics may also have major concerns about different genetic issues when considering assisted migration such as maladaptation to novel environmental conditions and hybridization with similar species. These often depend on the genetic structure and level of genetic variation in the source populations.
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butterflies in
Britain identified unoccupied habitat sites that were likely to support the species under a warmer climate based on their similarity to occupied sites. As the climate warmed, the butterfly colonized many of the sites; most of the sites it did not colonize were located far from existing
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trees, have longer generation times and therefore may adapt more slowly; they may take thousands of years to evolve a similar increase in temperature tolerance. Adaptation this slow would be insufficient for keeping up with expected future global warming if migration of new habitats is not an option.
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By 2018 the citizens had accomplished documentation of species thrival in a dozen legacy horticultural plantings β including seed production and next-generation saplings at several sites in North
Carolina. In 2018 their own plantings in Cleveland, Ohio, began producing seeds (turquoise star in image
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in June 2023 announced its decision to modify the section 10(j) rule by deleting reference to "historical range" as a parameter for where "experimental populations" were authorized to be located. This effectively authorized assisted species migration for endangered or threatened plants and animals.
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Due to climate change, accidental species introductions, and other global changes, there is nowhere on the planet free of human disturbance. Thus, the idea that land managers should refrain from creating human-altered communities through assisted migration may be moot given that all communities have
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In their rejection of assisted migration, Ricciardi and
Simberloff cite the precautionary principle, stating that any unknown risk, no matter how small, of assisted migration resulting in the creation of new invasive species is enough to require that it not be undertaken. Many scientists reject this
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In 2022 a review paper by seven researchers in the United States assessed shifts in what they called "conservation strategies for the climate crisis." Among the "novel strategies" surveyed was "climate-adaptive assisted migration." The team found that academic publications became less focused on the
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tree. The inability of species to migrate in response to human-caused climate change has led to some scientists and land managers to consider exploring assisted migration as a means for preventing extinction of species. As of 2023, however, there have been few examples of assisted migration projects
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Thomas, C. D.; Cameron, A.; Green, R. E.; Bakkenes, M.; Beaumont, L. J.; Collingham, Y. C.; Erasmus, B. F. N.; De
Siqueira, M. F. D.; Grainger, A.; Hannah, L.; Hughes, L.; Huntley, B.; Van Jaarsveld, A. S.; Midgley, G. F.; Miles, L.; Ortega-Huerta, M. A.; Peterson, A.; Phillips, O. L.; Williams, S.
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Mark
Schwartz, a conservation scientist at the University of California, Davis, was quoted in the article. Speaking about the scale of biodiversity threats posed by climate change, versus using assisted migration as an adaptive strategy, Schwartz said: "To move enough species to resolve this threat
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observations are reputable and reach back several centuries. It has also been documented that plants are being sold in nurseries in Europe far north of their historically native ranges, and with apparent success in the colder habitats. Evidence of such "inadvertent assisted migration", owing to the
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had pointed out that, while no statutory changes appeared necessary to facilitate this newly proposed form of climate adaptation, "current regulations are an impediment to assisted colonization for many endangered animal species, whereas regulations do not necessarily restrict assisted colonization
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Beginning around 2007, opposing pro and con positions became apparent in the field of conservation biology, while still relatively unknown to public promoters of conservation and managers of conservation lands. Supporters generally believe that the expected benefits of assisted migration, including
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Prehistoric climatic changes have resulted in massive global extinctions, and the rate of warming projected for the near future is many times faster than changes in the past 10,000 years. Geographic or human-caused barriers to natural dispersal may already be at cause for the listing as "critically
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approach, scientists have predicted that a failure to migrate or adapt will result in about a quarter of the world's species dying out this century under moderate climate change. The natural dispersal rates for many species are far slower than those needed to keep pace with projected habitat shifts
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At the time, when climate-adaptation tools were originally discussed, scientific applications to well-known species garnered media attention. Because successfully capturing, transporting, and releasing an alpine mammal would require planning and "considerable financial resources," serious advocacy
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By the time assisted migration trials began, the sole remaining original refuge for this species was inhabited only by captive-bred tortoises that had been reintroduced. The first trial began in 2016, with the release of 24 captive-raised juveniles. In contrast to the
Florida torreya tree example,
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Perhaps the principal concern scientists have expressed over assisted migration is the potential for relocated species to be invasive in their new habitats, driving out native species. The fear that assisted migration will facilitate invasions stems mostly from observations of the vast numbers of
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agreement recognized "climate change" as the third most significant threat to global biodiversity. "Changes in land and sea use" along with "direct exploitation of organisms" were regarded as greater threats. Because the agreement was at the level of "goals" and "targets," no mention was made of
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to keep pace with the changing environment. Assisted migration practitioners consider helping the species disperse into such sites, which are often immediately adjacent to the speciesβ historical range. In their eyes, assisted migration represents a small artificial boost to an otherwise natural
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is any act of establishing a species in a habitat it does not currently occupy. It often refers to a long-distance relocation, such as the accidental introduction of an invasive species from one continent to another, or the intentional relocation of a species in decline to a habitat where it can
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is an alternative to assisted migration that has been growing in popularity recently due to the worldwide coral reef crisis. Assisted evolution is the practice of using human intervention to accelerate the rate of natural evolutionary processes. There are three main types of assisted evolution.
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are not only better suited but are also more likely to succeed. This debate continued throughout the literature, generally due to a lack of real-world applications and follow-ups. Though these conservation efforts are becoming increasingly common, few long term looks at their success have been
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Stress conditioning consists of exposing organisms to sublethal stress, with the goal of inducing physiological changes that increase tolerance to future stress events. There has been documented evidence that some changes can be passed throughout generations in both plants and animals. Stress
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of higher temperature tolerances in some species of amphibians and reptiles will likely occur fast enough to allow these species to survive a 3 Β°C temperature increase over 100 years, consistent with low- to mid-range projections of global warming. By contrast, many species, such as most
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Those who wish to keep assisted migration on the table often note that the vast majority of historical species invasions have resulted from continent-to-continent or continent-to-island transportation of species and that very few invasions have resulted from the comparatively short-distance,
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Because confidence in expected outcomes is often greater in the short-term (e.g., 20 years) than the long-term future, it may be more reasonable to use short-term projections to guide actions. However, it is also important to consider whether the climate will remain suitable long enough for
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species is different there. Additionally, because different climate variables (e.g., minimum January temperature, average annual precipitation) rarely shift in unison, it is possible that few areas will exactly match the historical climates of species threatened by climate change. Such
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to allow for the introduction of previously impossible behaviors into the new species. AGF identifies genes that produce desired behaviors or tolerance to environmental conditions, and works to increase the chance that parental transmission of the gene in question occurs (also known as
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to better facilitate recovery by allowing for the introduction of listed species to suitable habitats outside of their historical ranges. The proposed change will help improve the conservation and recovery of imperiled ESA-listed species in the coming decades, as growing impacts from
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is such an example. The 2016 federal update of the recovery plan for this threatened cypress tree, endemic to a small geographic region along the California coast, warned of the dangers of hybridization. A section of the plan titled "Genetic introgression" (also known as
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Even under rapid climate change, dispersal into new areas may not be necessary for some species to persist. Instead of tracking climate shifts through space, some species may be able to survive in their present locations by developing tolerance to new conditions through
719:. It was deemed extinct until it was rediscovered in 1954 and reported in 1981 to be "a relict species of a monotypic genus, of very restricted range and specialized habitat." This species is notable in conservation history for being the first example of an endangered
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this first experiment in assisted migration of an endangered species in Australia was "preceded by detailed planning and research." A generally positive result, despite impediments to statistically significant data, was reported in a journal article four years later.
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cause habitats within their historical ranges to shift and become unsuitable." The comment period ended August 2022, with more than 500 comments posted online by supporters and opponents. The final decision is scheduled for publication June 2023. A 2010 paper in
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persist. By contrast, assisted migration acknowledges that the natural dispersal rate of many species may be too low to naturally respond to rapid human-caused climate change and instead focuses on where the species would be able to disperse fast enough via
109:. Another key difference between forestry practices and conservation biology is that the former, necessarily, was guided by "seed transfer guidelines" whenever a timber or pulp harvest was followed up by reforestation plantings. The provincial government of
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into a forest adjacent to its original horticultural planting in Massachusetts was the subject of an earlier paper by Bellemare. This and other examples suggest not only that poleward assisted migration of plants can be successful, but that distinguishing
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is expected to drive many species out of parts of their current ranges while creating new suitable habitats elsewhere. In order to avoid population declines and extinction, many species will need to either adapt or colonize newly suitable areas. Using a
1014:". Two years later, a decision was issued and published, with no change in species status of imperilment. But Factor E of the decision, "Documentation of Historical Groves," did acknowledge the citizen accomplishments in this regard.
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tactic by which plants or animals are intentionally moved to geographic locations better suited to their present or future habitat needs and climate tolerances β and to which they are unable to migrate or disperse on their own.
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is "the intentional establishment of populations or meta-populations beyond the boundary of a species' historic range for the purpose of tracking suitable habitats through a period of changing climate...." It is therefore a
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Warren, M. S.; Hill, J. K.; Thomas, J. A.; Asher, J.; Fox, R.; Huntley, B.; Roy, D. B.; Telfer, M. G.; Jeffcoate, S.; Harding, P.; Jeffcoate, G.; Willis, S. G.; Greatorex-Davies, J. N.; Moss, D.; Thomas, C. D. (2001).
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In the series below of actual and prospective assisted migration projects, all but one (Florida torreya tree) are being advocated and implemented by professional scientists, and usually with oversight by governmental
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Reports of full naturalization of poleward horticultural plantings of other native trees have been used as support for intentional deployment of assisted migration at larger scales as a tool for climate adaptation.
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The science is clear that climate change will drive many species extinct, and a traditional, land-preservation ethic will not prevent extinctions. Those wary of moving species instead suggest expanding networks of
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King, J.M., G. Kuchling, & S.D. Bradshaw (1998). Thermal environment, behavior, and body condition of wild Pseudemydura umbrina (Testudines: Chelidae) during late winter and early spring. Herpetologica. 54
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about the ethical imperative: Should humans just let nature run its course, thereby dooming this species to extinction because of climate change? "Or do we have an ethical responsibility" to act in its behalf?
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A butterfly species whose population collapsed because of climate change and habitat loss has defied predictions of extinction to rapidly move to cooler climes and change its food plant. The quino checkerspot
305:, whose historically native range is nearby: on the opposite side of Monterey Bay. Hybridization is known to occur between the two endemics β as well as with a widely planted sister species native to Arizona:
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Weeks, Andrew; Sgro, Carla; Young, Andrew; Frankham, Richard; Mitchell, Nicki; Byrne, Margaret; Coates, David; Eldridge, Mark; Sunnucks, Paul; Breed, Martin; James, Elizabeth; Hoffmann, Ary (18 June 2011).
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Early scholarly debates on the pros and cons of assisted migration as a climate-adaptation tool for endangered species conservation often mentioned the Florida torreya project., as did international media
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already offered "narrow strips of optimal habitat" for extending the range of coast redwood. As to Florida torreya, documentation of "historic groves in northward states" was presented by the group
290:, hybridization could result in a loss of biodiversity because closely related species that are offered a chance to interbreed could result in a single species rather than the original two or more.
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modified their tree reseeding guidelines to account for the northward movement of forest's optimal ranges. British Columbia even gave the green light for the relocation of a single species, the
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Schlaepfer, M. A.; Helenbrook, W. D.; Searing, K. B.; Shoemaker, K. T. (2009). "Assisted colonization: Evaluating contrasting management actions (and values) in the face of uncertainty".
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Notably, it became the first endangered species for which climate change was reported as a current threat and thus a factor to be considered in its recovery plan. However, as reported in
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did not in itself restrict assisted migration, a regulatory change in 1984 regarding "experimental populations" made prospective translocations more difficult to justify. June 2022, the
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efforts, and some results on the probable distances of future range shifts prompted attention. As well, translocation terminology was not controversial among forestry researchers because
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Gray, L. K.; Gylander, T.; Mbogga, M. S.; Chen, P. Y.; Hamann, A. (2011). "Assisted migration to address climate change: Recommendations for aspen reforestation in western Canada".
202:. The potential for acclimatization or adaptation to allow persistence in the face of climate change varies by species and is generally poorly understood. One study determined that
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Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Hughes, L.; McIntyre, S.; Lindenmayer, D. B.; Parmesan, C.; Possingham, H. P.; Thomas, C. D. (2008). "ECOLOGY: Assisted Colonization and Rapid Climate Change".
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saving and strengthening species, outweigh the potential harm of any project. Detractors generally believe that other conservation techniques which do not include the high risk of
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of assisted migration in forestry practice was both short-term and muted compared to that which prevails in conservation biology. For this reason, a separate Knowledge page titled
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Galatowitsch, S.; Frelich, L.; Phillips-Mao, L. (2009). "Regional climate change adaptation strategies for biodiversity conservation in a midcontinental region of North America".
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in North America during the thousands of years since the final glacial retreat. In the 1990s, forestry researchers had begun applying climate change projections to their own tree
246:, rather than the artificial creation and insertion of genetic code within the genome of the species. Assisted gene flow can also introduce related species' genomes into the
3820:"REVIEW: Climate Change, Managed Relocation, and the Risk of Intra-Continental Plant Invasions: A Theoretical and Empirical Exploration Relative to the Flora of New England"
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Skelly, D. K.; Joseph, L. N.; Possingham, H. P.; Freidenburg, L. K.; Farrugia, T. J.; Kinnison, M. T.; Hendry, A. P. (2007). "Evolutionary Responses to Climate Change".
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underway: A review paper concludes, "Assisted migration was most common for plants (particularly trees), followed by birds, and was rarely implemented for other taxa."
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are being interbred to test whether offspring display increased resistance to warmer living conditions. Increased resistance to warmer living conditions allow for the
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A number of scholarly reports have documented natural poleward range shifts of mobile species β notably, butterflies and birds, during the past several decades of
4698:"Horticultural Escape and Naturalization of Magnolia tripetala in Western Massachusetts: Biogeographic Context and Possible Relationship to Recent Climate Change"
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Despite the uncertainty inherent in predictions of future suitable habitat, some studies have demonstrated that predictions can be quite accurate. A study of
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3595:"Press release (6 June 2022): Department of the Interior Proposes Expanding Conservation Technique as Climate Change Threatens Greater Species Extinction"
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Dawson, T. P.; Jackson, S. T.; House, J. I.; Prentice, I. C.; Mace, G. M. (2011). "Beyond Predictions: Biodiversity Conservation in a Changing Climate".
734:. Lead scientist is Nicola Mitchell, an associate professor of conservation physiology at the University of Western Australia. She openly spoke to the
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science, two wide-ranging species in the western USA (image right) were scrutinized for possible application of the new climate adaptation tool. The
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990:(native to Florida) are two examples. In 2022 a Canadian Forestry Service publication pointed to the success of horticultural plantings in
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321:, it has also sparked debate over the possibility that the migrated species might spread diseases or even become too successful (that is,
4546:"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Findings on Petitions To List Eight Species as Endangered or Threatened Species"
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reported, "attitudes towards assisted migration are slowly shifting as conservationists realise just how fast the climate is changing."
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Leathwick, J.R.; Austin, M.P. (2001). "Competitive interactions between tree species in New Zealand's old-growth indigenous forests".
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Schwartz, M. W.; Hellmann, J. J.; McLachlan, J. S. (2009). "The precautionary principle in managed relocation is misguided advice".
2575:"Conservation strategies for the climate crisis: An update on three decades of biodiversity management recommendations from science"
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2010:
Menendez, R.; Megias, A. G.; Hill, J. K.; Braschler, B.; Willis, S. G.; Collingham, Y.; Fox, R.; Roy, D. B.; Thomas, C. D. (2006).
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McLachlan, J. S.; Clark, J. S.; Manos, P. S. (2005). "Molecular Indicators of Tree Migration Capacity Under Rapid Climate Change".
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Griffith, B.; Scott, J.M.; Carpenter, J.W.; Reed, C. (1989). "Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy".
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is discussed in its own journals and from perspectives different from those of conservation biologists. This is, in part, because
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Thomas, C. D. (2011). "Translocation of species, climate change, and the end of trying to recreate past ecological communities".
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Wilkening, Jennifer L; et al. (December 2015). "Alpine biodiversity and assisted migration: the case of the American pika (
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Zhu, K.; Woodall, C. W.; Clark, J. S. (2012). "Failure to migrate: Lack of tree range expansion in response to climate change".
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that was experimentally translocated to a distant location (300 kilometers poleward) expressly because of climate change.
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4089:"Review of science-based assessments of species vulnerability: Contributions to decision-making for assisted migration"
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4235:"Assisted colonisation trials for the western swamp turtle show that juveniles can grow in cooler and wetter climates"
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Aitken, Sally N.; Whitlock, Michael C. (2013). "Assisted Gene Flow to Facilitate Local Adaptation to Climate Change".
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Brodie, Jedediah F; et al. (30 April 2021). "Policy Forum: Global policy for assisted colonization of species".
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Williams, Mary I; Dumroese, R Kasten (4 July 2013). "Preparing for Climate Change: Forestry and Assisted Migration".
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2205:"Review: The application of assisted migration as a climate change adaptation tactic: An evidence map and synthesis"
1101:"Assisted Migration or Assisted Colonization: What's In a Name?: Chronological History of the Debate on Terminology"
3956:(Report). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory
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2531:"Why climate change is forcing conservationists to be more ambitious: by moving threatened species to pastures new"
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325:) in the recipient ecosystems. Even so, several assisted migration projects or experiments have begun for several
301:) explains how the integrity of this species is threatened by nearby horticultural plantings of a sister species,
3887:"The development of assisted migration policy in Canada: An analysis of the politics of composing future forests"
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Krosby, M.; Tewksbury, J.; Haddad, N. M.; Hoekstra, J. (2010). "Ecological Connectivity for a Changing Climate".
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675:. The controversy that developed was that the citizens used an exception (just for plants) in the United States
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While assisted migration has the potential to allow species that have poor natural dispersal abilities to avoid
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Shirey, Patrick D; Lamberti, Gary A (22 December 2023). "Assisted migrationβmoving species by translocation".
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Guisan, A.; Thuiller, W. (2005). "Predicting species distribution: Offering more than simple habitat models".
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in successfully translocating plant and animal species range from (a) maintaining the genetics of an isolated
3636:"Rulemaking document: Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Experimental Populations"
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Rice, Kevin J.; Emery, Nancy C. (2003). "Managing microevolution: Restoration in the face of global change".
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4392:"Endangered Quino checkerspot butterfly and climate change: Short-term success but long-term vulnerability?"
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3741:
1189:
Hunter, M. L. (2007). "Climate Change and Moving Species: Furthering the Debate on Assisted Colonization".
442:(of birds and mammals) from 1973 to 1989 in the United States, Hawaii, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
4088:
2574:
2204:
1718:(2009). "Biodiversity management in the face of climate change: A review of 22 years of recommendations".
1384:
757:
438:
in 1989, titled "Translocation as a Species Conservation Tool: Status and Strategy," compiled the use of
3635:
2691:
Sax, D. F.; Smith, K. F.; Thompson, A. R. (2009). "Managed relocation: A nuanced evaluation is needed".
1453:
Aitken, Sally N; Yeamam, Sam; Holliday, Jason A; Wang, Tongli; Curtis-McLane, Sierra (25 January 2008).
113:
in Canada was the first to update their guidelines with, what they call, "climate-based seed transfer."
4878:
648:
3886:
1865:
Davis, M. B.; Shaw, R. G. (2001). "Range Shifts and Adaptive Responses to Quaternary Climate Change".
158:
endangered" two small-range endemic species for which assisted migration is now underway: Australia's
4665:
2653:
Ricciardi, A.; Simberloff, D. (2009). "Assisted colonization is not a viable conservation strategy".
1023:
3395:"Assessing the benefits and risks of translocations in changing environments: a genetic perspective"
3229:"From Reintroduction to Assisted Colonization: Moving along the Conservation Translocation Spectrum"
1414:
Seliger, Benjamin J; McGill, Brian J; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Gill, Jacqueline L (November 2020).
1385:"Review: Ecology and genetics of tree invasions: from recent introductions to Quaternary migrations"
932:
4167:
2454:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Reclassifying
954:
3950:
3860:
2247:
Mueller, J. M.; Hellmann, J. J. (2008). "An Assessment of Invasion Risk from Assisted Migration".
89:
had already concluded that there were significant lags in northward movement of even the dominant
4918:
3155:
4443:
798:. In 1997 it became the second subspecies of Edith's checkerspot to be listed under the federal
546:
In the North American context, assisted migration is most often discussed in the context of the
238:
Assisted gene flow (AGF) works to increase the presence of desired naturally-occurring genes in
1287:
1100:
799:
783:
700:
473:
conservation tools, such as translocation, nor its climate-adaptive form (assisted migration).
20:
4444:"Past and ongoing shifts in Joshua tree distribution support future modeled range contraction"
3723:"Press release: Interior Department Takes Action to Strengthen Endangered Species Protections"
1556:"Climate change and forest seed zones: Past trends, future prospects and challenges to ponder"
367:
To identify populations at risk and locate new potential habitats, conservationists often use
4587:"Examining the Past, Present, and Future of an Iconic Mojave Desert Species, the Joshua Tree"
4276:
708:
636:
447:
439:
402:
372:
264:
51:
4133:
3517:"Global conservation translocation perspectives (2021): Case studies from around the globe"
3451:
3170:
2901:
2781:
2376:
2072:
1933:
1874:
1831:
1773:
1349:
1337:
1302:
983:
885:
853:
656:
292:
280:
176:
159:
47:
2441:
275:
Hybridization refers to the process where an egg and sperm from two different species can
8:
2405:
Perdrizet, George (1989). "Stress conditioning: a novel approach to organ preservation".
1919:"Rapid responses of British butterflies to opposing forces of climate and habitat change"
1010:
as a supportive factor in their 2019 "Petition to Downlist from endangered to threatened
908:) were experiencing climate-driven range contractions in their southernmost populations.
731:
579:
443:
376:
39:
4137:
3455:
3174:
2905:
2785:
2463:
2076:
1937:
1878:
1835:
1777:
1415:
1353:
1306:
30:
Three types of assisted migration. Source: Climate Hubs, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
4717:
4645:
4606:
4508:
4421:
4347:"Climate Change Will Leave Edith's Checkerspot Butterflies Out Of Sync (November 2009)"
4257:
4062:
4006:
3841:
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2011:
1992:
1957:
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1847:
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1693:
1479:
1454:
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1318:
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1214:
950:
571:
260:
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213:
127:
59:
4032:
4817:
4610:
4512:
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4425:
4391:
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3906:
3902:
3758:
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3136:
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2616:
2598:
2508:
2410:
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2346:
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2185:
2180:
2163:
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1949:
1918:
1890:
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1789:
1697:
1685:
1484:
1470:
1439:
1365:
1322:
1268:
1206:
1202:
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1028:
1007:
999:
987:
974:
660:
620:
181:
163:
106:
4721:
4649:
3845:
3767:
3688:
3479:
3252:
2809:
2617:"These animals are racing towards extinction. A new home might be their last chance"
2362:
2276:
2100:
1902:
1851:
1455:"Adaptation, migration or extirpation: Climate change outcomes for tree populations"
4908:
4709:
4678:
4637:
4598:
4500:
4458:
4411:
4403:
4249:
4212:
4141:
4100:
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3898:
3831:
3797:
3753:
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3414:
3406:
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3356:
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3284:
3240:
3209:
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3128:
3093:
3058:
3028:
3005:
2985:
2956:
2947:
Lawson, C. R.; Bennie, J. J.; Thomas, C. D.; Hodgson, J. A.; Wilson, R. J. (2012).
2919:
2909:
2870:
2835:
2789:
2738:
2700:
2662:
2628:
2586:
2498:
2488:
2437:
2342:
2302:
2256:
2216:
2175:
2080:
2031:
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1996:
1984:
1961:
1941:
1882:
1839:
1781:
1739:
1727:
1677:
1635:
1603:
1567:
1503:
1474:
1466:
1427:
1396:
1357:
1338:"Special Reviews: Range shifts and adaptive responses to Quaternary climate change"
1310:
1258:
1248:
1218:
1198:
1003:
995:
991:
791:
640:
615:
559:
505:
491:
398:
334:
322:
302:
110:
90:
4845:
4504:
4145:
3197:
2949:"Local and landscape management of an expanding range margin under climate change"
1801:
26:
4602:
3463:
3213:
3032:
2590:
2220:
1886:
1731:
1400:
1361:
775:
628:
539:
306:
195:
150:
4805:
4007:"Historic Groves of Torreya Trees: Long-term Experiments in Assisted Migration"
3312:"Intervention Ecology: Applying Ecological Science in the Twenty-first Century"
3288:
3097:
3062:
2704:
2666:
2632:
1715:
959:
664:
575:
543:
horticultural trade, has also been documented for plants in the United States.
535:
531:
501:
455:
145:
55:
4407:
4168:"A modern ark: To save endangered species, move them to more congenial places"
4902:
4779:
3910:
1608:
1591:
1043:
941:
905:
889:
802:. (The first was Bay checkerspot, which was listed as "threatened" in 1987.)
672:
563:
298:
227:
4641:
4528:"Op-Ed: 'Assisted migration' may save some species from climate change doom"
4298:"Australia's rarest tortoises get new home to save them from climate change"
4196:
3579:
3328:
3311:
3156:"Optimal timing for managed relocation of species faced with climate change"
3154:
McDonald-Madden, E.; Runge, M. C.; Possingham, H. P.; Martin, T. G. (2011).
2914:
2793:
2742:
2084:
1681:
1253:
1125:
413:
colonizing species to mature and reproduce, if that is the management goal.
405:) will decline or go extinct in the absence of assisted migration programs.
4470:
4153:
3471:
3428:
3378:
3345:"Seed supply for broadscale restoration: maximizing evolutionary potential"
3296:
3140:
3105:
3070:
2997:
2933:
2847:
2801:
2750:
2712:
2674:
2512:
2354:
2268:
2189:
2162:
McLachlan, Jason S; Hellmann, Jessica J; Schwartz, Mark W (26 March 2007).
2092:
2045:
2027:
1953:
1894:
1793:
1689:
1488:
1369:
1272:
1210:
252:
102:
86:
78:
2493:
2414:
2164:"A Framework for Debate of Assisted Migration in an Era of Climate Change"
50:, the term first appeared in publications in 2004. It signified a type of
4416:
3861:"Assisted Migration: What It Means to Nursery Managers and Tree Planters"
3182:
1416:"Widespread underfilling of the potential ranges of North American trees"
1038:
897:
287:
4626:"Saving the hihi under climate change: a case for assisted colonization"
4315:
4105:
1785:
2890:"Projected distributions of novel and disappearing climates by 2100 AD"
2728:
2314:
1639:
1572:
1555:
1314:
921:
779:
771:
720:
586:
318:
267:
of the Great Barrier Reef even as water temperatures continue to rise.
199:
4462:
4216:
3132:
2821:
2819:
1431:
137:
and especially its applications for management of endangered species.
4253:
1945:
1002:
and current range conditions, as grounds for proposing that Canada's
977:
and posted as photo-essays on the group's website and also as videos.
844:
767:
716:
590:(Quino checkerspot butterfly), to (c) preventing the extinction of a
276:
247:
239:
208:
203:
3310:
Hobbs, R. J.; Hallett, L. M.; Ehrlich, P. R.; Mooney, H. A. (2011).
3153:
3083:
2306:
2060:
1988:
1157:
Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations
866:. RIGHT: Modelled range contraction (red) and expansion (green) for
259:) or animal populations. Currently, different coral colonies of the
4754:
4682:
3924:
3801:
3228:
2816:
2121:"Can Australia Save a Rare Reptile by Moving It to a Cooler Place?"
962:
in this time of rapid climate change will require novel standards.
712:
644:
4713:
3836:
3819:
683:β even while the official recovery plan did not yet allow for it.
2332:
795:
652:
592:
555:
451:
71:
1655:"These birds are almost extinct; a radical idea could save them"
936:
Umbrella magnolia, a subcanopy tree, in flower northeast Alabama
663:
was created in 2004 to undertake the assisted migration of this
3018:
2477:"Consequences of Hybridization in Mammals: A Systematic Review"
834:
243:
175:
Assisted migration is a specific type of species introduction.
117:
3622:"Last Resort: Moving Endangered Species in Order to Save Them"
3592:
2140:"Last Resort: Moving Endangered Species in Order to Save Them"
730:
A second trial began in 2022 in the same region, this time in
596:(Florida torreya tree), and to (d) preventing extinction of a
126:
was launched in 2021 and made into a useful teaching tool for
4564:"California won't immediately list Joshua tree as threatened"
3663:"Assisted colonization under the U.S. Endangered Species Act"
3515:
IUCN SSC Conservation Translocation Specialist Group (CTSG).
2975:
1126:"Wild Earth Forum: Assisted Migration for an Endangered Tree"
598:
279:
and produce young. Hybridization was studied in the 1800s by
170:
133:
The remainder of this page therefore focuses on the topic of
1504:"Traveling trees: Assisted migration for climate resilience"
3720:
2875:
10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[2560:cibtsi]2.0.co;2
2009:
4737:"As World Warms, How Do We Decide When a Plant is Native?"
3704:"Assisted Migration Helps Animals Adapt to Climate Change"
3441:
2771:
1755:
1621:
1619:
130:
education and decision-making in the forestry profession.
3309:
3048:
2946:
2888:
Williams, J. W.; Jackson, S. T.; Kutzbach, J. E. (2007).
2161:
1554:
McKenney, Dan; Pedlar, John; O'Neill, Greg (March 2009).
1553:
1413:
454:
were the primary causes of decline listed in that paper.
1452:
973:
planted outside of native range have been documented by
746:
659:. A self-organized group of conservationists called the
3925:"Map of torreya seed distribution by Torreya Guardians"
3742:"REVIEW: Climate, Climate Change, and Range Boundaries"
2887:
2016:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1616:
495:
that would "revise section 10(j) regulations under the
242:. AGF relies on pre-existing genes within the species'
16:
Intentional transport of species to a different habitat
4879:"Evaluation of a Petition To Downlist Florida Torreya"
3391:
3118:
998:, along with a review of research detailing redwood's
694:
362:
105:
for natural movements of tree species recorded in the
4871:
4585:
Wilkening, Jennifer L; et al. (September 2020).
2464:
https://www.govinfo.gov/link/fr/81/8408?link-type=pdf
1915:
4846:"Petition to DOWNLIST from endangered to threatened
4806:"Potential for Assisted Migration of Coast Redwood (
4373:"Endangered butterfly species defies climate change"
4087:
Beardmore, Tannis; Winder, Richard (November 2011).
3818:
Bellemare, Jesse; Connolly, Bryan; Sax, Dov (2017).
3817:
2430:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
2012:"Species richness changes lag behind climate change"
751:
4663:Van der Veken, Sebastiaan; et al. (May 2008).
2652:
2462:) as Threatened. Federal Register Vol. 81. No. 33.
1974:
1592:"Placing Forestry in the Assisted Migration Debate"
1288:"Lags in vegetation response to greenhouse warming"
1237:"Multidimensional evaluation of managed relocation"
915:
584:(American pika), to (b) preventing extinction of a
4666:"Garden plants get a head start on climate change"
4664:
3783:"Garden plants get a head start on climate change"
2568:
2566:
2475:Adavoudi, Roya; Pilot, MaΕgorzata (January 2022).
679:to begin their own assisted migration of a listed
463:International Union for the Conservation of Nature
2203:Twardek, William M; et al. (February 2023).
1336:Davis, Margaret B; Shaw, Ruth B (27 April 2001).
927:
4900:
4837:
4281:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
4233:Bouma, Alexandra; et al. (September 2020).
3858:
2690:
2557:"Biologists Debate Relocating Imperiled Species"
1625:
74:β the latter in a paper entailing 22 coauthors.
54:intended to reduce biodiversity losses owing to
4804:Winder, Richard S; et al. (October 2022).
4086:
3859:Williams, Mary I.; Dumroese, R. Kasten (2014).
3593:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (June 6, 2022).
2894:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2860:
2563:
2246:
1821:
3948:
3660:
3565:
2825:
2610:
2608:
2427:
1713:
1590:Pedlar, John H; et al. (September 2012).
1235:Richardson, David M; et al. (June 2009).
1034:Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity
817:Quino Checkerspot Butterfly on a wild hyacinth
123:Assisted migration of forests in North America
4857:ECOS Environmental Conservation Online System
4695:
4662:
4442:Cole, Kenneth L; et al. (January 2011).
4324:ECOS Environmental Conservation Online System
4060:
3780:
3721:U.S. Department of Interior (June 30, 2023).
2648:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2474:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2058:
1585:
1583:
1094:
1092:
476:
429:
212:In addition to acclimatization and adaption,
4482:
4480:
4437:
4435:
4197:"The Ecology of the Western Swamp Tortoise,
3813:
3811:
3661:Shirey, Patrick D; Lamberti, Gary A (2010).
3559:
2548:
2524:
2522:
1230:
1228:
835:β’ American Pika (rodent) and Joshua Tree, US
4797:
4624:Chauvenet, Alienor L M (5 September 2013).
3968:
3695:
3542:"Convention on Biological Diversity (2022)"
3044:
3042:
2605:
2409:. Vol. 46, no. 1. pp. 23β6.
2114:
2112:
2110:
4264:. Archived from the original on 2020-11-05
3619:
3494:"Issues brief: Species and climate change"
3342:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3262:
2639:
2572:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2150:
1580:
1446:
1383:Petit, Remy J; et al. (August 2004).
1234:
1089:
468:In 2022, the update of the United Nations
458:was not mentioned as a cause for concern.
171:Assisted migration v. species introduction
135:assisted migration in conservation biology
4780:"Videos on the Torreya Guardians Website"
4734:
4623:
4584:
4486:
4477:
4432:
4415:
4295:
4194:
4104:
4000:
3998:
3942:
3835:
3808:
3757:
3678:
3418:
3368:
3327:
2960:
2923:
2913:
2528:
2519:
2502:
2492:
2404:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2292:
2179:
2137:
2035:
1864:
1751:
1749:
1709:
1707:
1646:
1607:
1571:
1495:
1478:
1335:
1262:
1252:
1225:
790:), which ranges as far north as southern
651:, at the state border region of northern
550:. In the late 2000s and early 2010s, the
548:relocalization of the continent's forests
4696:Bellemare, Jesse; Deeg, Claudia (2015).
4671:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
4389:
4228:
4226:
3852:
3790:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
3701:
3198:"Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems"
3195:
3039:
2724:
2722:
2295:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
2107:
1652:
1501:
1184:
1182:
1180:
964:
931:
896:, (a close relative of rabbits) and the
812:
614:
610:
434:A review paper published in the journal
424:
349:
25:
4772:
4755:"Assisted Migration, Torreya Guardians"
4390:Parmesan, Camille; et al. (2015).
4370:
3259:
2288:
2286:
2235:
2202:
1068:. Oxford University Press. p. 31.
4901:
4803:
3995:
3974:
3739:
3343:Broadhurst, Linda (4 September 2008).
3274:
3226:
2686:
2684:
2614:
2554:
2448:
2383:Australian Institute of Marine Science
2321:
2118:
2059:Karl, T. R.; Trenberth, K. E. (2003).
1746:
1704:
1667:
1589:
1188:
1061:
220:
4526:Smith, Thomas B (21 September 2014).
4525:
4232:
4223:
4119:
3954:. In: Fire Effects Information System
3884:
3878:
2719:
2573:McLaughlin, B C; et al. (2022).
2442:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135747
1858:
1759:"Extinction risk from climate change"
1382:
1285:
1177:
876:Within the first decade of the terms
747:Early advocacy without implementation
534:. This is especially the case in the
391:
233:
4814:Canadian Forest Service Publications
4441:
4344:
4308:
4120:Stone, Richard (24 September 2010).
3702:Thompson, Joanna (12 October 2023).
3620:St. George, Zach (27 October 2022).
3486:
2283:
1653:Grandoni, Dino (15 September 2024).
1153:
4296:Wahlquist, Calla (16 August 2016).
2681:
2555:Bethge, Philip (23 November 2007).
2138:St George, Zach (27 October 2022).
1815:
1502:Halleaux, Savannah (6 April 2023).
715:to a small portion of southwestern
695:β’ Western Swamp Tortoise, Australia
363:Uncertainty in the planning process
13:
4843:
4735:Marinelli, Janet (19 April 2016).
4004:
3781:Van der Veken, Sebastiaan (2008).
2615:Watson, Clare (5 September 2023).
1286:Davis, Margaret B (October 1989).
1098:
470:Convention on Biological Diversity
14:
4930:
4371:Barkham, Patrick (7 April 2014).
3975:Berdik, Chris (12 October 2008).
3277:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3086:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3051:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2693:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2655:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2529:Dalrymple, Sarah (16 July 2021).
1279:
752:β’ Quino Checkerspot butterfly, US
671:it in more northern parts of the
605:
525:
489:published a proposed rule in the
4892:(186): 53939. 29 September 2021.
4859:. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
4747:
4728:
4689:
4656:
4617:
4578:
4566:. Associated Press. 16 June 2022
4556:
4345:Toub, Steve (20 November 2009).
4326:. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
4063:"Torreya Guardians in the Media"
4030:
3903:10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.12.003
3759:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00642.x
3680:10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00083.x
3601:. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
3411:10.1111/j.1752-4571.2011.00192.x
3361:10.1111/j.1752-4571.2008.00045.x
3245:10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00724.x
3092:(9): 471β2, author reply 476β7.
2990:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01585.x
2962:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02098.x
2840:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00792.x
2699:(9): 472β3, author reply 476β7.
2347:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00764.x
2261:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00952.x
2181:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00676.x
2119:Zhuang, Yan (12 December 2022).
1844:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02571.x
1471:10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00013.x
1203:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00780.x
916:β’ Stitchbird (hihi), New Zealand
852:
843:
270:
4538:
4519:
4383:
4364:
4338:
4289:
4188:
4178:
4160:
4122:"Home, Home Outside the Range?"
4113:
4080:
4054:
4024:
3917:
3885:Klenk, Nicole L. (2015-03-01).
3774:
3733:
3714:
3654:
3628:
3613:
3586:
3534:
3508:
3435:
3385:
3336:
3303:
3220:
3189:
3147:
3112:
3077:
3012:
2969:
2940:
2881:
2854:
2765:
2468:
2421:
2398:
2369:
2196:
2131:
2052:
2003:
1968:
1909:
1661:
1547:
1521:
1407:
440:translocations for rare species
188:
116:Overall, debate concerning the
4396:Journal of Insect Conservation
4316:"Quino checkerspot butterfly (
3057:(9): 474, author reply 476β7.
2061:"Modern Global Climate Change"
1376:
1329:
1147:
1118:
1055:
960:native from non-native species
947:inadvertent assisted migration
928:Inadvertent assisted migration
862:LEFT: Current native range of
677:Endangered Species Act of 1973
487:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
483:Endangered Species Act of 1973
312:
154:in many regions of the world.
101:was the standard term used in
95:species distribution modelling
1:
4505:10.1080/14888386.2015.1112304
4146:10.1126/science.329.5999.1592
1535:. British Columbia government
1533:Managing our forest resources
1529:"Climate-based seed transfer"
1389:Forest Ecology and Management
1049:
884:appearing in the journals of
681:critically endangered species
327:critically endangered species
140:
4603:10.1894/0038-4909-65.3-4.216
4351:Endangered Species Coalition
4205:Australian Wildlife Research
3464:10.1126/science.245.4917.477
3214:10.1126/science.277.5325.494
3033:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.03.030
2591:10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109497
2221:10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109932
1887:10.1126/science.292.5517.673
1732:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.10.006
1401:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.05.009
1362:10.1126/science.292.5517.673
736:International New York Times
70:(2009) were soon offered as
7:
4591:The Southwestern Naturalist
4242:Endangered Species Research
3746:Diversity and Distributions
1017:
986:(native to California) and
519:U.S. Department of Interior
299:introgressive hybridization
10:
4935:
4914:Environmental conservation
4630:Journal of Applied Ecology
3547:. U.N. Environment Program
3289:10.1016/j.tree.2011.02.006
3098:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.008
3063:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.006
2953:Journal of Applied Ecology
2705:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.004
2667:10.1016/j.tree.2008.12.006
2633:10.1038/d41586-023-02732-0
904:, (the iconic tree of the
870:in future climate warming.
649:Southeastern United States
602:(Western swamp tortoise).
566:, 1000 km northward.
477:USA Endangered Species Act
430:Global conservation policy
18:
4850:, Florida Torreya (2019)"
4408:10.1007/s10841-014-9743-4
3399:Evolutionary Applications
3349:Evolutionary Applications
2456:Hesperocyparis abramsiana
1459:Evolutionary Applications
1024:Climate change adaptation
461:Three decades later, the
3740:Thomas, Chris D (2010).
3196:Vitousek, P. M. (1997).
2559:. Spiegel International.
1609:10.1525/bio.2012.62.9.10
1062:Allaby, Michael (2010).
619:Source: homepage of the
19:Not to be confused with
4642:10.1111/1365-2664.12150
4451:Ecological Applications
4318:Euphydryas editha quino
4201:(Testudines: Chelidae)"
4195:Burbridge, A A (1981).
3949:Esser, Lora L. (1993).
3624:. Yale Environment 360.
3580:10.1126/science.adn3245
3329:10.1525/bio.2011.61.6.6
3121:Ecological Applications
3021:Biological Conservation
2915:10.1073/pnas.0606292104
2794:10.1126/science.1200303
2743:10.1126/science.1157897
2579:Biological Conservation
2209:Biological Conservation
2085:10.1126/science.1090228
1720:Biological Conservation
1682:10.1126/science.abg0532
1420:Journal of Biogeography
1254:10.1073/pnas.0902327106
1065:A Dictionary of Ecology
824:Euphydryas editha quino
764:Euphydryas editha quino
514:of endangered plants."
4810:) to Vancouver Island"
4093:The Forestry Chronicle
3227:Seddon, P. J. (2010).
2028:10.1098/rspb.2006.3484
1560:The Forestry Chronicle
978:
937:
828:
818:
800:Endangered Species Act
701:western swamp tortoise
624:
576:Taxonomic significance
497:Endangered Species Act
160:western swamp tortoise
31:
21:Human-guided migration
3163:Nature Climate Change
2494:10.3390/genes13010050
1824:Global Change Biology
968:
935:
882:assisted colonization
816:
811:
709:critically endangered
637:critically endangered
618:
611:β’ Florida torreya, US
448:habitat fragmentation
425:Governmental policies
403:habitat fragmentation
350:Invasive species risk
64:assisted colonization
52:species translocation
29:
4808:Sequoia sempervirens
4741:Yale Environment 360
4199:Pseudemydura umbrina
3868:Tree Planters' Notes
3667:Conservation Letters
3183:10.1038/nclimate1170
2978:Conservation Biology
2460:Cupressus abramsiana
2377:"Assisted Evolution"
2335:Conservation Biology
2249:Conservation Biology
2168:Conservation Biology
2144:Yale Environment 360
1191:Conservation Biology
886:conservation biology
705:Pseudemydura umbrina
511:Conservation Letters
293:Cupressus abramsiana
281:Johann Gregor Mendel
177:Species introduction
58:. In the context of
48:conservation biology
4174:. 26 November 2016.
4138:2010Sci...329.1592S
4132:(5999): 1592β1594.
4106:10.5558/tfc2011-091
4061:Torreya Guardians.
4037:in Cleveland, Ohio"
3456:1989Sci...245..477G
3233:Restoration Ecology
3175:2011NatCC...1..261M
2906:2007PNAS..104.5738W
2786:2011Sci...332...53D
2077:2003Sci...302.1719K
2071:(5651): 1719β1723.
1938:2001Natur.414...65W
1879:2001Sci...292..673D
1836:2012GCBio..18.1042Z
1786:10.1038/nature02121
1778:2004Natur.427..145T
1628:Journal of Forestry
1508:U.S. Forest Service
1354:2001Sci...292..673D
1307:1989ClCh...15...75D
969:Historic groves of
784:Edith's checkerspot
770:native to southern
732:Scott National Park
444:Habitat destruction
230:and acidification.
221:Stress conditioning
40:nature conservation
3977:"Driving Mr. Lynx"
2585:(109497): 109497.
1657:. Washington Post.
1640:10.5849/jof.13-016
1573:10.5558/tfc85258-2
1315:10.1007/bf00138846
1241:Proc Natl Acad Sci
979:
938:
878:assisted migration
819:
633:Torreya taxifolia)
625:
572:endangered species
552:Canadian provinces
392:Risks and benefits
288:neoendemic species
261:Great Barrier Reef
257:forest restoration
234:Assisted gene flow
214:assisted evolution
128:climate adaptation
83:assisted migration
68:managed relocation
60:endangered species
35:Assisted migration
32:
4848:Torreya taxifolia
4784:Torreya Guardians
4759:Torreya Guardians
4552:. 15 August 2019.
4532:Los Angeles Times
4489:Ochotona princeps
4463:10.1890/09-1800.1
4217:10.1071/WR9810203
4067:Torreya Guardians
4041:Torreya Guardians
4035:Torreya taxifolia
4011:Torreya Guardians
3952:Torreya taxifolia
3929:Torreya Guardians
3642:. U.S. Government
3450:(4917): 477β480.
3208:(5325): 494β499.
3133:10.1890/10-1054.1
2737:(5887): 345β346.
2022:(1593): 1465β70.
1873:(5517): 673β679.
1772:(6970): 145β148.
1676:(6541): 456β458.
1432:10.1111/jbi.14001
1348:(5517): 673β679.
1247:(24): 9721β9724.
1170:978-2-8317-1609-1
1105:Torreya Guardians
1029:Forest management
1012:Torreya taxifolia
1008:Torreya Guardians
1000:paleobiogeography
988:Torreya taxifolia
975:Torreya Guardians
971:Torreya taxifolia
953:, that had fully
951:umbrella magnolia
894:Ochotona princeps
788:Euphydryas editha
774:and northwestern
759:Quino checkerspot
661:Torreya Guardians
655:and southwestern
621:Torreya Guardians
399:habitat corridors
286:In contrast, for
182:natural selection
107:geological record
4926:
4894:
4893:
4886:Federal Register
4883:
4875:
4869:
4868:
4866:
4864:
4854:
4844:Barlow, Connie.
4841:
4835:
4834:
4832:
4830:
4801:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4790:
4776:
4770:
4769:
4767:
4765:
4751:
4745:
4744:
4732:
4726:
4725:
4708:(971): 371β383.
4693:
4687:
4686:
4668:
4660:
4654:
4653:
4636:(6): 1330β1340.
4621:
4615:
4614:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4571:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4550:Federal Register
4542:
4536:
4535:
4523:
4517:
4516:
4484:
4475:
4474:
4448:
4439:
4430:
4429:
4419:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4368:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4357:
4342:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4331:
4312:
4306:
4305:
4293:
4287:
4286:
4280:
4272:
4270:
4269:
4254:10.3354/esr01053
4239:
4230:
4221:
4220:
4192:
4186:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4164:
4158:
4157:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4108:
4084:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4073:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4047:
4028:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4017:
4005:Barlow, Connie.
4002:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3982:The Boston Globe
3972:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3961:
3946:
3940:
3939:
3937:
3935:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3865:
3856:
3850:
3849:
3839:
3815:
3806:
3805:
3787:
3778:
3772:
3771:
3761:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3699:
3693:
3692:
3682:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3617:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3606:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3546:
3538:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3521:
3512:
3506:
3505:
3503:
3501:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3422:
3389:
3383:
3382:
3372:
3340:
3334:
3333:
3331:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3272:
3257:
3256:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3160:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3127:(5): 1591β1603.
3116:
3110:
3109:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3046:
3037:
3036:
3016:
3010:
3009:
2984:(6): 1686β1689.
2973:
2967:
2966:
2964:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2927:
2917:
2885:
2879:
2878:
2869:(9): 2560β2573.
2858:
2852:
2851:
2823:
2814:
2813:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2726:
2717:
2716:
2688:
2679:
2678:
2650:
2637:
2636:
2612:
2603:
2602:
2570:
2561:
2560:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2541:
2535:The Conversation
2526:
2517:
2516:
2506:
2496:
2472:
2466:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2341:(5): 1353β1355.
2330:
2319:
2318:
2290:
2281:
2280:
2244:
2233:
2232:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2183:
2159:
2148:
2147:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2116:
2105:
2104:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2039:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1946:10.1038/35102054
1923:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1809:(Full free text)
1804:. Archived from
1763:
1753:
1744:
1743:
1711:
1702:
1701:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1623:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1587:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1482:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1395:(1β3): 113β137.
1380:
1374:
1373:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1292:
1283:
1277:
1276:
1266:
1256:
1232:
1223:
1222:
1197:(5): 1356β1358.
1186:
1175:
1174:
1162:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1130:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1099:Barlow, Connie.
1096:
1087:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1059:
1004:Vancouver Island
996:Washington state
992:British Columbia
902:Yucca brevifolia
856:
847:
792:British Columbia
711:reptile that is
639:tree of the yew
560:British Columbia
506:invasive species
492:Federal Register
375:, predator, and
335:invasive species
303:Monterey cypress
111:British Columbia
81:and management,
79:forestry science
4934:
4933:
4929:
4928:
4927:
4925:
4924:
4923:
4899:
4898:
4897:
4881:
4877:
4876:
4872:
4862:
4860:
4852:
4842:
4838:
4828:
4826:
4824:
4802:
4798:
4788:
4786:
4778:
4777:
4773:
4763:
4761:
4753:
4752:
4748:
4733:
4729:
4694:
4690:
4661:
4657:
4622:
4618:
4583:
4579:
4569:
4567:
4562:
4561:
4557:
4544:
4543:
4539:
4524:
4520:
4485:
4478:
4446:
4440:
4433:
4388:
4384:
4369:
4365:
4355:
4353:
4343:
4339:
4329:
4327:
4314:
4313:
4309:
4294:
4290:
4274:
4273:
4267:
4265:
4237:
4231:
4224:
4193:
4189:
4183:
4179:
4166:
4165:
4161:
4118:
4114:
4085:
4081:
4071:
4069:
4059:
4055:
4045:
4043:
4029:
4025:
4015:
4013:
4003:
3996:
3987:
3985:
3973:
3969:
3959:
3957:
3947:
3943:
3933:
3931:
3923:
3922:
3918:
3891:Land Use Policy
3883:
3879:
3863:
3857:
3853:
3830:(978): 73β109.
3816:
3809:
3785:
3779:
3775:
3738:
3734:
3719:
3715:
3708:Sierra Magazine
3700:
3696:
3659:
3655:
3645:
3643:
3640:Regulations.gov
3634:
3633:
3629:
3618:
3614:
3604:
3602:
3591:
3587:
3564:
3560:
3550:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3539:
3535:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3513:
3509:
3499:
3497:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3440:
3436:
3390:
3386:
3341:
3337:
3308:
3304:
3273:
3260:
3225:
3221:
3194:
3190:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3117:
3113:
3082:
3078:
3047:
3040:
3017:
3013:
2974:
2970:
2945:
2941:
2900:(14): 5738β42.
2886:
2882:
2859:
2855:
2834:(9): 993β1009.
2828:Ecology Letters
2824:
2817:
2780:(6025): 53β58.
2770:
2766:
2727:
2720:
2689:
2682:
2651:
2640:
2613:
2606:
2571:
2564:
2553:
2549:
2539:
2537:
2527:
2520:
2473:
2469:
2453:
2449:
2426:
2422:
2403:
2399:
2389:
2387:
2375:
2374:
2370:
2331:
2322:
2307:10.2307/3868114
2291:
2284:
2245:
2236:
2201:
2197:
2160:
2151:
2136:
2132:
2117:
2108:
2057:
2053:
2008:
2004:
1989:10.1890/04-1036
1973:
1969:
1932:(6859): 65β69.
1921:
1914:
1910:
1863:
1859:
1820:
1816:
1808:
1761:
1757:E. (Jan 2004).
1754:
1747:
1716:Zavaleta, E. S.
1714:Heller, N. E.;
1712:
1705:
1666:
1662:
1651:
1647:
1624:
1617:
1588:
1581:
1552:
1548:
1538:
1536:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1512:
1510:
1500:
1496:
1451:
1447:
1412:
1408:
1381:
1377:
1334:
1330:
1295:Climatic Change
1290:
1284:
1280:
1233:
1226:
1187:
1178:
1171:
1160:
1152:
1148:
1138:
1136:
1128:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1109:
1107:
1097:
1090:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1020:
930:
918:
874:
873:
872:
871:
859:
858:
857:
849:
848:
837:
776:Baja California
754:
749:
697:
647:, found in the
629:Florida torreya
613:
608:
540:natural history
528:
479:
432:
427:
394:
365:
352:
315:
307:Arizona cypress
273:
236:
223:
196:acclimatization
191:
173:
164:Florida torreya
143:
87:paleoecologists
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4932:
4922:
4921:
4919:Climate change
4916:
4911:
4896:
4895:
4870:
4836:
4822:
4796:
4771:
4746:
4727:
4688:
4683:10.1890/070063
4677:(4): 212β216.
4655:
4616:
4597:(3): 216β229.
4577:
4555:
4537:
4518:
4499:(4): 224β236.
4476:
4457:(1): 137β149.
4431:
4402:(2): 185β204.
4382:
4363:
4337:
4307:
4288:
4222:
4211:(1): 203β223.
4187:
4177:
4159:
4112:
4099:(6): 745β754.
4079:
4053:
4023:
3994:
3967:
3941:
3916:
3877:
3851:
3807:
3802:10.1890/070063
3796:(4): 212β216.
3773:
3732:
3713:
3694:
3653:
3627:
3612:
3585:
3574:(6677): 1350.
3558:
3533:
3507:
3485:
3434:
3405:(6): 709β725.
3384:
3355:(4): 587β597.
3335:
3302:
3283:(5): 216β221.
3258:
3239:(6): 796β802.
3219:
3188:
3146:
3111:
3076:
3038:
3011:
2968:
2939:
2880:
2853:
2815:
2764:
2718:
2680:
2638:
2604:
2562:
2547:
2518:
2467:
2447:
2436:(1): 367β388.
2420:
2397:
2368:
2320:
2301:(9): 469β478.
2282:
2255:(3): 562β567.
2234:
2195:
2174:(2): 297β302.
2149:
2130:
2125:New York Times
2106:
2051:
2002:
1967:
1908:
1857:
1814:
1811:on 2012-02-07.
1745:
1703:
1660:
1645:
1634:(4): 287β297.
1615:
1602:(9): 835β842.
1579:
1566:(2): 258β266.
1546:
1520:
1494:
1445:
1426:(2): 359β371.
1406:
1375:
1328:
1301:(1β2): 75β82.
1278:
1224:
1176:
1169:
1146:
1117:
1088:
1074:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1019:
1016:
929:
926:
917:
914:
861:
860:
851:
850:
842:
841:
840:
839:
838:
836:
833:
782:of the common
753:
750:
748:
745:
696:
693:
665:glacial relict
612:
609:
607:
606:First projects
604:
536:United Kingdom
532:global warming
527:
526:Implementation
524:
502:climate change
478:
475:
456:Climate change
431:
428:
426:
423:
393:
390:
385:Hesperia comma
364:
361:
351:
348:
314:
311:
272:
269:
235:
232:
222:
219:
190:
187:
172:
169:
162:and America's
151:niche modeling
146:Climate change
142:
139:
56:climate change
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4931:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4891:
4887:
4880:
4874:
4858:
4851:
4849:
4840:
4825:
4823:9780660458618
4819:
4815:
4811:
4809:
4800:
4785:
4781:
4775:
4760:
4756:
4750:
4742:
4738:
4731:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4714:10.3119/15-04
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4692:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4667:
4659:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4620:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4581:
4565:
4559:
4551:
4547:
4541:
4533:
4529:
4522:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4483:
4481:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4445:
4438:
4436:
4427:
4423:
4418:
4417:10026.1/10112
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4386:
4378:
4374:
4367:
4352:
4348:
4341:
4325:
4321:
4319:
4311:
4303:
4299:
4292:
4284:
4278:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4236:
4229:
4227:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4200:
4191:
4181:
4173:
4172:The Economist
4169:
4163:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4116:
4107:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4083:
4068:
4064:
4057:
4042:
4038:
4036:
4027:
4012:
4008:
4001:
3999:
3984:
3983:
3978:
3971:
3955:
3953:
3945:
3930:
3926:
3920:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3881:
3873:
3869:
3862:
3855:
3847:
3843:
3838:
3837:10.3119/16-10
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3814:
3812:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3784:
3777:
3769:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3736:
3728:
3724:
3717:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3657:
3641:
3637:
3631:
3623:
3616:
3600:
3596:
3589:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3562:
3543:
3537:
3518:
3511:
3495:
3489:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3438:
3430:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3388:
3380:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3339:
3330:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3306:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3223:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3157:
3150:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3115:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3043:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2972:
2963:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2935:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2884:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2857:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2822:
2820:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2768:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2725:
2723:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2687:
2685:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2661:(5): 248β53.
2660:
2656:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2609:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2567:
2558:
2551:
2536:
2532:
2525:
2523:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2471:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2451:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2424:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2401:
2386:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2289:
2287:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2145:
2141:
2134:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2006:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1920:
1912:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1760:
1752:
1750:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1708:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1664:
1656:
1649:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1620:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1586:
1584:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1534:
1530:
1524:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1465:(1): 95β111.
1464:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1410:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1379:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
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1289:
1282:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1231:
1229:
1220:
1216:
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1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1172:
1166:
1159:
1158:
1154:IUCN (2013).
1150:
1135:. Winter 2004
1134:
1127:
1121:
1106:
1102:
1095:
1093:
1077:
1075:9780199567669
1071:
1067:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1045:
1044:Escaped plant
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
984:Coast redwood
976:
972:
967:
963:
961:
956:
952:
948:
943:
942:horticultural
934:
925:
923:
913:
909:
907:
906:Mojave Desert
903:
899:
895:
891:
890:American pika
887:
883:
879:
869:
865:
864:American pika
855:
846:
832:
827:
825:
815:
810:
808:
803:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
760:
744:
740:
737:
733:
728:
724:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
692:
688:
684:
682:
678:
674:
673:United States
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
622:
617:
603:
601:
600:
595:
594:
589:
588:
583:
582:
577:
573:
567:
565:
564:Western Larch
561:
557:
553:
549:
544:
541:
537:
533:
523:
520:
515:
512:
507:
503:
498:
494:
493:
488:
484:
481:Although the
474:
471:
466:
464:
459:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
404:
400:
389:
386:
381:
378:
374:
370:
360:
356:
347:
345:
339:
336:
330:
328:
324:
320:
310:
308:
304:
300:
295:
294:
289:
284:
282:
278:
271:Hybridization
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
249:
245:
241:
231:
229:
228:ocean warming
218:
215:
210:
205:
201:
197:
186:
183:
178:
168:
165:
161:
155:
152:
147:
138:
136:
131:
129:
125:
124:
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
75:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
44:
41:
36:
28:
22:
4889:
4885:
4873:
4861:. Retrieved
4856:
4847:
4839:
4827:. Retrieved
4816:(BC-X-459).
4813:
4807:
4799:
4787:. Retrieved
4783:
4774:
4762:. Retrieved
4758:
4749:
4740:
4730:
4705:
4701:
4691:
4674:
4670:
4658:
4633:
4629:
4619:
4594:
4590:
4580:
4568:. Retrieved
4558:
4549:
4540:
4531:
4521:
4496:
4493:Biodiversity
4492:
4488:
4454:
4450:
4399:
4395:
4385:
4377:The Guardian
4376:
4366:
4354:. Retrieved
4350:
4340:
4328:. Retrieved
4323:
4317:
4310:
4302:The Guardian
4301:
4291:
4277:cite journal
4266:. Retrieved
4245:
4241:
4208:
4204:
4198:
4190:
4185:(1):103-112.
4180:
4171:
4162:
4129:
4125:
4115:
4096:
4092:
4082:
4070:. Retrieved
4066:
4056:
4044:. Retrieved
4040:
4034:
4031:Bess, Fred.
4026:
4014:. Retrieved
4010:
3986:. Retrieved
3980:
3970:
3958:. Retrieved
3951:
3944:
3932:. Retrieved
3928:
3919:
3894:
3890:
3880:
3871:
3867:
3854:
3827:
3823:
3793:
3789:
3776:
3749:
3745:
3735:
3726:
3716:
3707:
3697:
3673:(1): 45β52.
3670:
3666:
3656:
3644:. Retrieved
3639:
3630:
3615:
3603:. Retrieved
3598:
3588:
3571:
3567:
3561:
3549:. Retrieved
3536:
3524:. Retrieved
3510:
3498:. Retrieved
3488:
3447:
3443:
3437:
3402:
3398:
3387:
3352:
3348:
3338:
3319:
3315:
3305:
3280:
3276:
3236:
3232:
3222:
3205:
3201:
3191:
3166:
3162:
3149:
3124:
3120:
3114:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3054:
3050:
3027:(10): 2012.
3024:
3020:
3014:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2952:
2942:
2897:
2893:
2883:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2831:
2827:
2777:
2773:
2767:
2734:
2730:
2696:
2692:
2658:
2654:
2624:
2620:
2582:
2578:
2550:
2538:. Retrieved
2534:
2484:
2480:
2470:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2433:
2429:
2423:
2407:βEurope PMCβ
2406:
2400:
2388:. Retrieved
2380:
2371:
2338:
2334:
2298:
2294:
2252:
2248:
2212:
2208:
2198:
2171:
2167:
2143:
2133:
2124:
2068:
2064:
2054:
2019:
2015:
2005:
1980:
1976:
1970:
1929:
1925:
1911:
1870:
1866:
1860:
1827:
1823:
1817:
1806:the original
1769:
1765:
1723:
1719:
1673:
1669:
1663:
1648:
1631:
1627:
1599:
1595:
1563:
1559:
1549:
1537:. Retrieved
1532:
1523:
1511:. Retrieved
1507:
1497:
1462:
1458:
1448:
1423:
1419:
1409:
1392:
1388:
1378:
1345:
1341:
1331:
1298:
1294:
1281:
1244:
1240:
1194:
1190:
1156:
1149:
1137:. Retrieved
1132:
1120:
1108:. Retrieved
1104:
1079:. Retrieved
1064:
1057:
1011:
980:
970:
939:
919:
910:
901:
893:
881:
877:
875:
867:
863:
829:
823:
820:
807:The Guardian
806:
804:
787:
763:
758:
755:
741:
735:
729:
725:
704:
698:
689:
685:
632:
626:
597:
591:
585:
580:
568:
545:
529:
516:
510:
490:
480:
467:
460:
435:
433:
419:
415:
411:
407:
395:
384:
382:
369:niche models
366:
357:
353:
343:
340:
331:
316:
291:
285:
274:
265:preservation
253:heritability
237:
224:
192:
189:Alternatives
174:
156:
144:
134:
132:
121:
115:
103:paleoecology
98:
91:canopy trees
76:
67:
63:
62:management,
45:
34:
33:
4570:21 December
4356:21 December
4330:21 December
4072:19 December
4046:19 December
3897:: 101β109.
3874:(1): 21β26.
3752:: 488β495.
3646:8 September
3605:8 September
3551:19 December
3526:18 December
3500:18 December
1983:(8): 2088.
1830:(3): 1042.
1539:19 December
1139:15 December
1110:15 December
1081:15 December
1039:Hemerochory
955:naturalized
898:Joshua tree
868:Joshua Tree
687:at right).
338:conducted.
313:Controversy
66:(2007) and
4903:Categories
4829:30 October
4268:2022-12-21
3988:2021-08-07
3322:(6): 442.
3316:BioScience
3169:(5): 261.
1596:BioScience
1133:Wild Earth
1050:References
922:stitchbird
809:April 2014
780:subspecies
778:. It is a
772:California
721:vertebrate
587:subspecies
581:population
574:programs.
373:competitor
319:extinction
200:adaptation
141:Background
4611:246340766
4513:131656767
4426:254600881
4262:222260601
4248:: 75β88.
3911:0264-8377
2759:206512777
2627:: 22β25.
2599:247417657
2487:(1): 50.
2229:257225019
1726:: 14β32.
1698:233448828
1440:228929332
1323:154368627
768:butterfly
717:Australia
669:rewilding
377:mutualist
277:fertilize
248:gene pool
240:offspring
209:temperate
204:evolution
185:process.
99:migration
4722:86153619
4650:86584128
4471:21516893
4154:20929823
3960:15 March
3846:52104073
3768:82893033
3689:49565853
3480:45514129
3472:17750257
3429:22287981
3379:25567799
3297:21411178
3253:84866686
3141:21830704
3106:19595475
3071:19595477
2998:20961330
2934:17389402
2848:34517687
2810:40618973
2802:21454781
2751:18635780
2713:19577321
2675:19324453
2513:35052393
2363:11140235
2355:17883501
2277:43612242
2269:18577085
2190:17391179
2101:45484084
2093:14657489
2046:16777739
1954:11689943
1903:20302257
1895:11326089
1852:31248474
1794:14712274
1690:33926936
1513:12 April
1489:25567494
1370:11326089
1273:19509337
1211:17883502
1018:See also
667:tree by
645:Taxaceae
623:website.
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