4928:
4984:
9419:
4125:
5001:
3990:
1293:
488:
4927:
1119:
4972:
7629:
9431:
7059:
5063:
1473:
981:
380:
5035:
4477:
5049:
793:
404:. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by mole fraction in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by mole fraction in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are other
9393:
8294:
7555:
37:
4983:
1541:
9455:
9467:
4183:
9443:
1378:) -- for altitudes out to around 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height.
1359:. Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×10 kg (1.135×10 lb), about 2.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and
3975:, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal before reaching your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.
4703:
1227:. During daytime hours, it stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000 ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the
1280:. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 metres (330 ft) on clear, calm nights to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) or more during the afternoon in dry regions.
951:, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.
1266:
is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the
1034:
of ice particles. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or similarly before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning-induced
1242:
are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surface-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by
1186:
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate
814:, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The altitudes of the five layers are:
1492:
The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes over a large vertical distance through the rest of the
3929:. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that humans cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be
877:
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one another.
1095:
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar
4989:
This image shows the Moon at the centre, with the limb of Earth near the bottom transitioning into the orange-colored troposphere. The troposphere ends abruptly at the tropopause, which appears in the image as the sharp boundary between the orange- and blue-colored atmosphere. The silvery-blue
4197:) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.
1173:
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the
1182:
of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (3.5 mi;
1007:
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi;
4706:
1215:
concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi;
4705:
4710:
4709:
4704:
931:
at an altitude range of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the
796:
Earth's atmosphere. Lower four layers of the atmosphere in three dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae shown at the bottom of the thermosphere can form at any altitude within this
4711:
865:
The upper limit varies depending on the definition. Various authorities consider it to end at about 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) or about 190,000 kilometres (120,000 mi)—about halfway to the moon, where the influence of Earth's gravity is about the same as
1531:
depends only on temperature and not on pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.
4152:
of air is close to, but just greater than, 1. Systematic variations in the refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers on board ships can see other vessels just over the
4708:
1561:
The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m (1.2 g/L, 0.0012 g/cm). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the
1088:, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of
801:
In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, the temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the
383:
Composition of Earth's atmosphere by molecular count, excluding water vapor. Lower pie represents trace gases that together compose about 0.0434% of the atmosphere (0.0442% at August 2021 concentrations). Numbers are mainly from 2000, with
1092:(UV) from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.
4020:
O) absorbs at many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
4093:), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 °C; 62 °F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.
4545:. Free oxygen molecules did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reductant materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a
297:
10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and
4415:
appeared as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30% lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the
926:
The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the
4467:
dating from between about 2.15 and 2.08 billion years ago provide a record of Earth's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the
Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.
4107:
is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are
1366:
If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1.2 kg per m) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft).
4081:" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000
845:
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (though it is so tenuous that some scientists consider it to be part of interplanetary space rather than part of the atmosphere). It extends from the
904:—the aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights)—sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains many of the
4694:. The cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not precisely understood. Periods with more oxygen in the atmosphere were often associated with more rapid development of animals.
5000:
1047:
burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by
4686:
release sulfur into the atmosphere, which reacts and hence reduces oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which can fuel oxygenic photosynthesis by
781:
of dry air, which can be used to calculate densities or to convert between mole fraction and mass fraction, is about 28.946 or 28.96 g/mol. This is decreased when the air is humid.
4707:
4719:
in the
Northern Hemisphere with a maximum around May. The maximum in the vegetation cycle follows in the late summer. Following the peak in vegetation, the drawdown of atmospheric CO
862:. The altitude of the exobase varies from about 500 kilometres (310 mi; 1,600,000 ft) to about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) in times of higher incoming solar radiation.
4096:
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H
1146:
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft), although this
1262:
Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which includes the exosphere and most of the thermosphere. Here, the chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because the
1593:
10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27
943:
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height and can rise as high as 1500 °C (2700 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its
8423:
306:, at 100 km (62 mi) or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during
1284:
The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K) or 15 °C (59 °F; 288 K), depending on the reference.
4971:
1458:
will occur resulting in a return to Earth. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.
1216:
49,000–115,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
4164:
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the
1100:
are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by
5529:
is 1866.1 ppbv (parts per billion). Two older reliable sources have dry atmospheric compositions, including trace molecules, that total less than 100%:
5407:
1505:
by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named
4652:
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago during the
3971:
day when you cannot see your shadow, there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called
6133:
1130:
casting shadows. Sunlight, filtered into a reddish hue by passing through much of the troposphere at sunset, is reflected off the ocean. The above-lying
1203:
Within the five principal layers above, which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:
966:
orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi). It is this layer where many of the satellites orbiting the Earth are present.
6750:
6151:
1497:, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by the capture of significant
4077:
is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "
893:
or the solar wind. Every second, the Earth loses about 3 kg of hydrogen, 50 g of helium, and much smaller amounts of other constituents.
6860:
1411:
typically cruise between 10 and 13 km (33,000 and 43,000 ft) where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy;
263:
6115:
6036:
6072:
5432:
6094:
5903:
1015:
that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85
8330:
7515:
5518:
values were increased to 345 ppmv, without changing their other constituents to compensate. This is made worse by the April 2019 CO
1030:
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can condense into polar-mesospheric
1073:. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the
5127:
1430:
begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's
1370:
Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1/
5795:
5712:
7628:
1582:
5502:
Two recent reliable sources cited here have total atmospheric compositions, including trace molecules, that exceed 100%. They are
1069:
The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the
192:
8364:
6399:
5929:
3984:
1254:
4407:
About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major component of the then-stable "second atmosphere". The influence of the
4100:
O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.
7591:
6602:
Timothy W. Lyons, Christopher T. Reinhard & Noah J. Planavsky (2014). "Atmospheric oxygenation three billion years ago".
6175:
Geometric altitude vs. temperature, pressure, density, and the speed of sound derived from the 1962 U.S. Standard
Atmosphere.
5419:
5379:
5297:
5688:
7520:
5169:
9492:
6853:
936:. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains the
6786:
9246:
6326:
6291:
6247:
5971:
5607:
5488:
5202:
5133:
1548:
1336:
874:
visible in the far ultraviolet (caused by neutral hydrogen) extends to at least 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi).
8870:
7905:
6814:
6174:
1481:
954:
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the
5402:
4498:
influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental
1566:). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the
8323:
7261:
6988:
5143:
5112:
4060:
at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimetre to about eleven-metre waves.
1276:
is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through
7732:
6186:
Trenberth, Kevin E.; Smith, Lesley (1970-01-01). "The Mass of the
Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses".
5887:
5862:
314:
can be distinguished in the atmosphere based on characteristics such as temperature and composition, namely the
7090:
6846:
4915:
4745:
4657:
1476:
Temperature trends in two thick layers of the atmosphere as measured between
January 1979 and December 2005 by
200:
6350:
6137:
5817:
1488:
weather satellites. The instruments record microwaves emitted from oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. Source:
8387:
1301:
491:
The volume fraction of the main constituents of the Earth's atmosphere as a function of height, based on the
133:
43:
more than other wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere, surrounding Earth in a visibly blue layer at the
6058:
5276:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 331. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 17.
9487:
8939:
8774:
7771:
7766:
6761:
6432:
4485:
4453:
proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the
267:
203:, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air composition, temperature and
6158:
4460:
4124:
9263:
7996:
7990:
7860:
7432:
7354:
5148:
1439:
963:
52:
7876:
Atmospheres in boldface are significant atmospheres; atmospheres in italics are unconfirmed atmospheres.
5458:
4910:
On
October 19, 2015, NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth at
4656:
period, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: the
9409:
9396:
9280:
9224:
8316:
7826:
7359:
4784:
4525:
Before this time, any oxygen produced by cyanobacterial photosynthesis would be readily removed by the
432:. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as
7712:
6825:
1395:. By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered
354:
8811:
7584:
7364:
5863:"Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80–105 km) at 40°N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Variations"
5742:
4861:
4143:
1371:
6819:
6208:
6076:
5963:
1174:
troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence, the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος,
9497:
8796:
7166:
7080:
6119:
6028:
5639:
4825:
4622:) first proliferated. The following time span from 539 million years ago to the present day is the
4423:
The geological record however shows a continuous relatively warm surface during the complete early
1273:
1036:
231:
220:
6428:"Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point"
8971:
8860:
8182:
6601:
5992:
5436:
5117:
5082:
4503:
4502:
stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the
4439:
4427:
of Earth – with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late
4417:
4377:
4268:
4177:
1477:
1467:
1192:
1167:
1052:
944:
784:
The relative concentration of gases remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).
6090:
5907:
5478:
4232:
3989:
9374:
9217:
9089:
7751:
6203:
5831:
5663:
4592:
4353:
4137:
4129:
3946:
1297:
91:
5765:
5611:
1187:
the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional
9502:
9423:
9171:
9166:
8961:
8902:
7672:
7645:
7133:
5269:
4813:
4511:
4507:
4299:
which eventually cooled and condensed to contribute to ocean water at the end of the Hadean.
1352:
1348:
1231:. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth.
1163:
1089:
1081:
859:
374:
153:
5956:
4404:. Water-related sediments have been found that date from as early as 3.8 billion years ago.
9365:
9337:
9302:
9229:
9029:
8966:
8784:
8605:
7898:
7850:
7799:
7686:
7577:
7294:
7246:
7018:
6611:
6494:
6441:
6195:
5874:
5277:
4411:
has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere because hints of
4308:
3930:
1330:
1101:
204:
20:
5234:
4856:
higher in the 2011–2020 decade than they were in 1850. It has raised concerns of man-made
4638:
metazoan life began to appear and rapidly diversify in another radiation event called the
1551:
model (the eight dotted lines in each "decade" are at the eight cubes 8, 27, 64, ..., 729)
1166:(i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone that is
8:
9471:
9360:
9268:
9256:
9146:
9099:
8907:
8830:
8556:
8109:
7792:
7718:
7651:
7437:
7394:
7228:
7171:
6981:
6315:
Bergman, Theodore L.; Lavine, Adrienne S.; Incropera, Frank P.; DeWitt, David P. (2007).
6259:
4893:
4889:
4869:
4833:
4806:
4546:
4542:
4431:, an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently due to a billion years of
4412:
3972:
1416:
1292:
1139:
1077:
at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).
487:
350:
342:
40:
7761:
6709:
6615:
6498:
6445:
6199:
5878:
5791:
5716:
5281:
5216:
to four significant digits without affecting the total because 0.004% was removed from N
1223:
is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for
9459:
9370:
9355:
9285:
9241:
9131:
8717:
8622:
8377:
7865:
7665:
7617:
7306:
6687:
6654:
6635:
6553:
6528:
6467:
6404:
6221:
5547:
5077:
5040:
4799:
4639:
4424:
4025:
1567:
1438:
propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the
1423:
1224:
1118:
879:
867:
736:
530:
238:, but the atmosphere changed significantly over time, affected by many factors such as
224:
7781:
6734:
408:, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides argon, other
9342:
8806:
8712:
8685:
8532:
8482:
8418:
8372:
7743:
7525:
7502:
7422:
7389:
6692:
6674:
6627:
6558:
6524:
6471:
6332:
6322:
6297:
6287:
6243:
5967:
5603:
5484:
5415:
5375:
5293:
5198:
4991:
4905:
4757:
4753:
4687:
4683:
4643:
4408:
4284:
4194:
4104:
4069:
1360:
1356:
1031:
996:
735:
The total ppm above adds up to more than 1 million (currently 83.43 above it) due to
729:
469:
429:
307:
251:
216:
145:
75:
7786:
6506:
6225:
5933:
4977:
Limb view of Earth's atmosphere. Colors roughly denote the layers of the atmosphere.
1381:
In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:
1257:, which places it about 20 km (12 mi; 66,000 ft) above the mesopause.
9507:
9447:
9292:
9251:
9234:
9121:
9019:
8551:
8455:
8339:
8097:
7986:
7956:
7833:
7756:
7548:
7543:
7449:
7316:
7301:
7178:
7158:
7100:
6682:
6666:
6639:
6619:
6548:
6540:
6502:
6457:
6449:
6374:
6213:
5882:
5285:
4845:
4675:
4603:
4318:
4288:
4210:
4206:
4149:
4041:
4029:
1451:
1412:
1392:
1250:
959:
778:
473:
362:
303:
129:
114:
9430:
4954:
9309:
9275:
9161:
9141:
9051:
8700:
8666:
8600:
8397:
8382:
8297:
8172:
8127:
8021:
8016:
8006:
7891:
7855:
7444:
7427:
7384:
7374:
7266:
5411:
5343:
4881:
4873:
4788:
4664:
4627:
4599:
4495:
4049:
1570:. More sophisticated models are used to predict the orbital decay of satellites.
1151:
1048:
955:
811:
722:
358:
287:
283:
7819:
7776:
6544:
5573:
5514:. Both are used as references in this article. Both exceed 100% because their CO
5062:
4193:
is the large-scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with
1472:
1191:
activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer accessible by
9435:
9350:
9297:
9207:
9126:
9111:
9106:
9058:
8946:
8742:
8690:
8673:
8507:
7558:
7477:
7467:
7331:
7326:
7085:
7075:
6974:
5138:
5122:
5054:
5011:
4877:
4865:
4857:
4849:
4817:
4749:
4724:
4588:
4573:
4558:
4530:
4435:
4365:
4314:
4280:
4279:
heated the atmosphere, driving off the most volatile gases. The collision with
4033:
1556:
1528:
1518:
1313:
1263:
1097:
980:
947:
is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of
878:
Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly
598:
477:
405:
279:
255:
212:
117:. The atmosphere serves as a protective buffer between the Earth's surface and
7725:
6838:
6670:
1158:, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the
1080:
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the
806:
section). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile, or
492:
9481:
9314:
9151:
9041:
8998:
8779:
8656:
8542:
8492:
8356:
7981:
7487:
7417:
7369:
7336:
7208:
7198:
7188:
7148:
7143:
6678:
5675:
The composition of air is unchanged until elevation of approximately 10.000 m
5522:
value, which is 413.32 ppmv. Although minor, the
January 2019 value for
5456:
5316:
5034:
4829:
4821:
4792:
4732:
4691:
4653:
4584:) injected further oxygenation into the air, especially after the end of the
4450:
4432:
4333:
4325:
4004:
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O
3998:
3994:
1563:
1455:
1443:
1404:
1340:
1228:
1127:
1040:
890:
749:
718:
379:
271:
172:
7693:
6336:
6301:
6286:(9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. pp. 600–606.
5289:
3997:(or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including
9116:
9074:
8850:
8801:
8737:
8593:
8497:
8205:
8191:
7704:
7530:
7492:
7482:
7472:
7412:
7193:
7038:
7028:
6895:
6885:
6834:
Interactive global map of current atmospheric and ocean surface conditions.
6818:
6721:
6696:
6631:
6562:
5068:
4958:
4942:
4761:
4534:
4476:
4454:
4443:
4272:
4228:
4053:
3934:
1506:
1494:
1375:
1239:
1131:
1064:
992:
921:
851:
453:
327:
319:
243:
235:
44:
7679:
4933:
Earth's night-side upper atmosphere appearing from the bottom as bands of
9212:
9156:
8978:
8956:
8951:
8818:
8695:
8661:
8649:
8537:
8460:
8164:
8039:
7289:
7095:
7023:
6945:
6928:
6918:
6880:
6453:
6321:(6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 941–950.
6316:
6281:
6011:
5097:
5092:
4938:
4802:
4795:
4623:
4577:
4566:
4519:
4393:
4256:
4221:
4057:
4044:(commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the
4037:
1609:
Table of physical and thermal properties of air at atmospheric pressure:
1545:
1498:
1317:
1305:
1208:
1123:
1113:
1085:
1074:
988:
928:
897:
847:
693:
346:
315:
310:
of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several
299:
275:
149:
126:
118:
98:
48:
27:
6623:
6217:
484:) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.
9319:
9136:
9094:
9036:
9005:
8644:
8576:
8514:
8487:
8450:
8256:
8137:
7600:
7379:
7346:
7321:
7203:
7123:
7033:
6955:
6950:
6913:
6890:
6462:
6426:
Marshak, Alexander; Várnai, Tamás; Kostinski, Alexander (15 May 2017).
4949:(pink area) extends to the orange and faintly green line of the lowest
4946:
4646:
4619:
4585:
4570:
4428:
4389:
4341:
4337:
4090:
4078:
3967:
is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an
1431:
1277:
1245:
1235:
1220:
1159:
1070:
1020:
1000:
975:
937:
886:
883:
855:
807:
792:
537:
331:
323:
247:
5048:
9202:
9084:
8892:
8887:
8865:
8754:
8747:
8566:
8561:
8468:
8445:
8215:
8177:
8132:
8122:
8062:
7883:
7810:
7311:
7256:
7241:
7213:
7183:
7110:
7043:
6923:
6900:
6745:
5087:
5015:
4934:
4780:
4772:
4768:
4611:
4596:
4581:
4550:
4526:
4499:
4491:
4397:
4385:
4373:
4345:
4322:
4276:
4244:
4158:
4013:
3922:
1524:
1408:
1396:
1012:
984:
905:
871:
840:
457:
449:
409:
335:
239:
196:
165:
122:
8308:
6427:
1422:
Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as
428:
are also present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other
36:
9329:
8897:
8823:
8764:
8759:
8707:
8617:
8588:
8581:
8571:
8502:
8476:
8472:
8464:
8266:
8210:
8142:
8077:
7963:
7951:
7923:
6260:"Atmospheric Temperature Trends, 1979–2005 : Image of the Day"
5927:
4885:
4741:
4635:
4631:
4615:
4565:, until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the
4401:
4361:
4349:
4329:
4236:
4045:
3968:
3959:. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called
3916:
1540:
1435:
1309:
1264:
distance that particles can move without colliding with one another
1249:
found at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the very
1188:
1147:
544:
465:
461:
393:
208:
180:
176:
6016:
It contains about four-fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere.
1391:
99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the
227:
is found only within 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from the ground.
9197:
8993:
8988:
8934:
8840:
8769:
8612:
8413:
8261:
8249:
8187:
8117:
8092:
8052:
8031:
8001:
7404:
7281:
7251:
7067:
7048:
6932:
6736:
Pollution – Definition from the
Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
6400:"Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away"
5107:
5102:
5007:
4950:
4841:
4837:
4607:
4562:
4381:
4369:
4357:
4292:
4264:
4260:
4248:
4240:
4154:
4086:
1447:
1427:
1374:(0.368) every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), (this is called the
1155:
1150:
varies from about 9 km (5.6 mi; 30,000 ft) at the
1135:
1016:
933:
672:
651:
433:
421:
157:
137:
102:
94:
71:
6833:
4032:, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The
1589:
10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5
1415:
reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest
1335:
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the
9046:
9011:
8835:
8791:
8639:
8437:
8244:
8237:
7946:
7941:
7915:
7637:
7271:
7138:
7118:
4962:
4775:
in the Earth's atmosphere, causing noticeable problems such as
4679:
4668:
4538:
4515:
4446:
4252:
4225:
4182:
4165:
4082:
3952:
1178:, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the
1044:
1024:
948:
901:
635:
563:
445:
441:
417:
397:
184:
148:), redistributes heat and moisture among different regions via
7569:
6722:
Back to Earth
History : Summary Chart for the Precambrian
4911:
4012:
absorb almost all radiation with wavelengths shorter than 300
1039:(TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric
388:
and methane from 2019, and do not represent any single source.
9079:
8919:
8845:
8632:
8274:
8232:
8225:
8220:
8057:
8011:
7973:
7931:
7459:
7236:
7218:
7058:
6997:
5904:"Atmosphere, Climate & Environment Information Programme"
4765:
4671:
4660:
4464:
4296:
3963:
and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun.
1578:
1212:
909:
582:
425:
401:
259:
188:
141:
106:
83:
6314:
4480:
Oxygen content of the atmosphere over the last billion years
4449:
from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (
1581:
or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the
American
1573:
The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5
341:
The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is called
9024:
8880:
8875:
8855:
8729:
8680:
8524:
8152:
8087:
8082:
8072:
8067:
7936:
7608:
7510:
7128:
6746:
6056:
5888:
10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<0066:TSOTMR>2.0.CO;2
4776:
4186:
An idealised view of three pairs of large circulation cells
1485:
1344:
1179:
619:
437:
413:
161:
110:
79:
56:
26:"Qualities of air" redirects here. Not to be confused with
4805:
radiations, is also caused by air pollution, chiefly from
4557:
showed major variations during the Proterozoic, including
1243:
turbulence. This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the
8983:
8627:
5267:
4723:
due to photosynthesis is apparent, particularly over the
3926:
1502:
68:
6966:
6655:"The human physiological impact of global deoxygenation"
6653:
Martin, Daniel; McKenna, Helen; Livina, Valerie (2016).
4667:, and the consumption of oxygen by rapidly diversifying
4157:
because light is refracted in the same direction as the
1419:
flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).
999:
begins, leaving smoke trails, such as in this case of a
5861:
States, Robert J.; Gardner, Chester S. (January 2000).
1544:
Temperature and mass density against altitude from the
392:
The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are
6425:
5457:
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1976),
4328:
to the surface, causing the atmosphere to cool, which
4283:, in particular, melted and ejected large portions of
4028:
of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows" of low
810:, is constant and measurable by means of instrumented
9407:
6590:
Earth's Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evolution.
4852:, with the global average surface temperatures being
4678:
and their own metabolic needs at night. Breakdown of
818:
Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)
345:(aerology), and includes multiple subfields, such as
6787:"Daily Views of Earth Available on New NASA Website"
6522:
6485:
Edlén, Bengt (1966). "The refractive index of air".
5030:
4961:(invisible). Continuing with green and red bands of
4918:(DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day.
4771:
have significantly increased the amount of airborne
4457:
became established as early as 4 billion years ago.
3925:(or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the
1211:
is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer
6652:
6238:Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995)
6152:"Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Control Run"
6134:"Earth's Radiation Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes"
5760:
5758:
5600:
Luft: Chemie, Physik, Biologie, Reinhaltung, Recht.
5986:
5955:
5389:but includes only ten of its largest constituents.
4200:
1585:, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480
1154:to 17 km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) at the
1011:Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the
460:also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as
6592:Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1983
6059:"The 4 Most Abundant Gases in Earth's Atmosphere"
4812:Since 1750, human activity, especially after the
1597:10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003
1454:to require reboosts every few months, otherwise,
1122:A picture of Earth's troposphere, with different
821:Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)
211:. Within the atmosphere, air suitable for use in
55:at an altitude of 335 km (208 mi) (the
9479:
6008:Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology
5755:
5197:(Fourth ed.), AIP Press, pp. 258–259,
4752:that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. The
4321:at the end of the Hadean closed off most of the
1407:is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial
850:(also known as the "exobase") at the top of the
59:is visible as a crescent in the far background).
6868:
6829:. Vol. III (9th ed.). pp. 28–36.
6379:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
5736:
5734:
4820:, most importantly carbon dioxide, methane and
1446:typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the
962:are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The
6185:
5483:(Third ed.), Athlone Press, p. 119,
5397:
5395:
5374:(97th ed.), CRC Press, p. 14-3,
4941:in orange with silhouettes of clouds, and the
4816:, has increased the concentrations of various
4715:Animation shows the buildup of tropospheric CO
4506:and its appearance is indicated by the end of
3951:When light passes through Earth's atmosphere,
1450:of the ionosphere where they encounter enough
1355:). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of
1320:with approximate altitudes of various objects.
1043:. The mesosphere is also the layer where most
827:Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)
8324:
7899:
7585:
6982:
6854:
6419:
6057:Anne Marie Helmenstine, PhD (June 16, 2018).
5860:
5824:
5740:
5348:Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network, NOAA
5321:Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network, NOAA
824:Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
361:. The study of historic atmosphere is called
6391:
5953:
5928:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences (1993).
5731:
5006:Earth's atmosphere backlit by the Sun in an
725:; these are identical for an ideal gas only.
5921:
5404:Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey
5392:
5369:
5188:
5186:
4965:stretching over several hundred kilometers.
4376:. A major part of carbon dioxide emissions
4348:, supplemented by gases introduced by huge
900:phenomena to be possible. However, Earth's
830:Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)
501:Major constituents of air, by mole fraction
8331:
8317:
7906:
7892:
7592:
7578:
6989:
6975:
6861:
6847:
6533:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
5989:The Weather and Climate of Southern Africa
5592:
5365:
5363:
4040:-C) up into the range humans can see, the
1385:50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft).
1008:260,000–280,000 ft) above sea level.
995:(blue) and the mesosphere (dark) at which
199:. Air also contains a variable amount of
19:"Air" redirects here. For other uses, see
6710:Graph: Atmospheric Oxygen and CO2 vs Time
6686:
6552:
6518:
6516:
6461:
6397:
6207:
5987:Tyson, P.D.; Preston-Whyte, R.A. (2013).
5962:. London: Menthuen & Co Ltd. p.
5886:
5851:. Published by Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005.
5705:
5470:
5338:
5336:
5274:Ultraviolet Radiation in the Solar System
5128:COSPAR international reference atmosphere
4953:, at about one hundred kilometers at the
4798:, which shields the surface from harmful
4380:in water and reacted with metals such as
1388:90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft).
1324:
896:The exosphere is too far above Earth for
5901:
5640:"Air - Molecular Weight and Composition"
5623:
5450:
5183:
4701:
4649:was fuelled by the rising oxygen level.
4475:
4181:
4132:upon the shape of the sun at the horizon
4123:
3988:
1583:National Center for Atmospheric Research
1539:
1471:
1291:
1162:, a boundary marked in most places by a
1138:as a band of its characteristic glow of
1117:
979:
791:
769:Water vapor varies significantly locally
486:
378:
35:
6784:
6262:. Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2000-01-01
6050:
5838:May 2009, p. 26 (accessed 25 July 2012)
5786:
5784:
5782:
5626:Termodinamica e trasmissione del calore
5360:
5235:"What Is... Earth's Atmosphere? - NASA"
4360:atmosphere, which consisted largely of
4332:most of the water vapor out of the air
4048:to around 1100 nm. There are also
1604:
495:; the model only works above 85 km
436:in an unfiltered air sample, including
293:The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15
9480:
7913:
6813:
6513:
6318:Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer
6279:
6116:"Global Surface Temperature Anomalies"
6039:from the original on 14 September 2010
5830:David C. Catling and Kevin J. Zahnle,
5510:(2016–2017, 100.004667%), which cites
5496:
5333:
5317:"Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide"
5170:"Gateway to Astronaut Photos of Earth"
4809:and other ozone-depleting substances.
4514:that can react with oxygen to produce
4215:
3985:Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)
1287:
854:to a poorly defined boundary with the
353:. Early pioneers in the field include
230:Earth's early atmosphere consisted of
8338:
8312:
7887:
7573:
6970:
6842:
6659:The Journal of Physiological Sciences
6484:
6478:
6351:"Absorption / reflection of sunlight"
6242:, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp. 14–17,
5508:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
5476:
5401:Wallace, John M. and Peter V. Hobbs.
5372:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
5311:
5309:
4994:extend far above Earth's troposphere.
3910:
882:. These free-moving particles follow
7521:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
6097:from the original on 30 October 2010
5779:
5686:
5268:Vázquez, M.; Hanslmeier, A. (2006).
4899:
4302:
1183:18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
440:of mineral and organic composition,
51:, when seen from space on board the
6398:St. Fleur, Nicholas (19 May 2017).
5954:Barry, R.G.; Chorley, R.J. (1971).
5867:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
5192:
4610:life forms (including the earliest
4471:
4119:
1535:
311:
13:
5414:. Elsevier. Second Edition, 2006.
5306:
5258:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1996: 14–17
3993:Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric
889:and may migrate in and out of the
264:contributed to atmospheric changes
14:
9519:
6807:
5256:Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
5134:Environmental effects of aviation
4220:The first atmosphere, during the
1512:
1482:advanced microwave sounding units
1337:International Standard Atmosphere
787:
9465:
9453:
9441:
9429:
9417:
9392:
9391:
8293:
8292:
7627:
7554:
7553:
7057:
5798:from the original on 17 May 2017
5512:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities
5504:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities
5387:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities
5370:Haynes, H. M., ed. (2016–2017),
5195:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities
5061:
5047:
5033:
4999:
4982:
4970:
4926:
4914:. The images are taken from the
4740:is the introduction of airborne
4697:
4533:on the Earth's surface, notably
4510:(which signals the depletion of
4267:. During this earliest era, the
4056:that transmit some infrared and
803:
472:vapor. Sulfur compounds such as
121:, shields the surface from most
7599:
7262:Human impact on the environment
6778:
6739:
6727:
6714:
6703:
6646:
6595:
6582:
6569:
6367:
6343:
6308:
6273:
6252:
6232:
6179:
6168:
6144:
6126:
6108:
6083:
6065:
6021:
5999:
5980:
5958:Atmosphere, Weather and Climate
5947:
5906:. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from
5895:
5854:
5841:
5810:
5680:
5656:
5632:
5617:
5566:
5540:
5435:. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from
5425:
5344:"Trends in Atmospheric Methane"
5144:Instrumental temperature record
5113:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
4490:The constant re-arrangement of
4243:such as those now found in the
4201:Evolution of Earth's atmosphere
1198:
1058:
915:
7091:Climate variability and change
6760:. pp. 4–5. Archived from
6529:"Earth's Earliest Atmospheres"
6091:"NASA – Earth Fact Sheet"
6035:. Amsglossary.allenpress.com.
5766:"The height of the tropopause"
5531:U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976
5460:U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976
5261:
5248:
5227:
5224:. It includes 20 constituents.
5162:
4916:Deep Space Climate Observatory
4569:. The rise of the more robust
4171:
4036:runs from around 300 nm (
1461:
1107:
945:temperature in the usual sense
368:
136:(temperature extremes between
90:, with variable quantities of
1:
7516:Evolution of the Solar System
6785:Northon, Karen (2015-10-19).
5548:"Vital signs: Carbon Dioxide"
5155:
4860:, which can have significant
4663:and their increasing role in
3978:
3940:
1403:By comparison, the summit of
969:
464:(elemental or in compounds),
195:, and small amounts of other
134:diurnal temperature variation
8357:Pollution / quality
7267:Evolutionary history of life
6433:Geophysical Research Letters
5818:"Earth's Atmospheric Layers"
5715:. UCAR. 2011. Archived from
5193:Cox, Arthur N., ed. (2000),
4945:in white and blue. Next the
4486:Geological history of oxygen
4442:), which have been found as
4231:, consisted of gases in the
1527:of constant composition the
834:
750:increasing in recent decades
721:is sometimes referred to as
132:, keeps it warm and reduces
7:
7861:Extraterrestrial atmosphere
6545:10.1101/cshperspect.a004895
6355:Understanding Global Change
5506:(2000, 100.001241343%) and
5149:Reference atmospheric model
5026:
4912:https://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/
4850:rise in global temperatures
4591:, which was followed by an
4518:deposits) during the early
4063:
1440:International Space Station
964:International Space Station
762:Water vapor is about 0.25%
493:MSIS-E-90 atmospheric model
179:), dry air contains 78.08%
74:that surrounds the Earth's
10:
9524:
9493:Atmospheric thermodynamics
7055:
6751:"Summary for Policymakers"
6579:Wiley Press, New York 1984
5689:"Earth's Upper Atmosphere"
5687:Zell, Holly (2015-03-02).
5644:www.engineeringtoolbox.com
4957:and the lower edge of the
4903:
4848:, have caused an observed
4785:pollution-related diseases
4730:
4483:
4306:
4204:
4175:
4141:
4135:
4067:
3982:
3944:
3914:
1554:
1516:
1465:
1357:standard atmospheres (atm)
1328:
1253:itself as accepted by the
1111:
1062:
973:
919:
838:
692:
671:
650:
634:
618:
597:
581:
562:
543:
372:
144:) through heat retention (
67:is composed of a layer of
47:, above the clouds of the
17:
9387:
9328:
9193:
9186:
9067:
8928:Types / location
8927:
8918:
8728:
8523:
8436:
8406:
8355:
8346:
8288:
8201:
8160:
8151:
8108:
8030:
7972:
7922:
7874:
7843:
7809:
7742:
7703:
7636:
7625:
7607:
7539:
7501:
7458:
7403:
7345:
7280:
7227:
7157:
7109:
7066:
7004:
6996:
6941:
6909:
6876:
6671:10.1007/s12576-016-0501-0
6507:10.1088/0026-1394/2/2/002
5849:Essentials of Meteorology
5666:. The Engineering ToolBox
5602:Walter de Gruyter, 2003,
5270:"Historical Introduction"
4626:eon, during the earliest
4356:, created the subsequent
4144:Scintillation (astronomy)
3955:interact with it through
1193:propeller-driven aircraft
1037:transient luminous events
712:
687:
514:
511:
506:
86:), known collectively as
7526:Location in the Universe
7468:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
7167:List of sovereign states
6720:Christopher R. Scotese,
6577:The Evolving Continents.
6375:"The Atmospheric Window"
6280:Holman, Jack P. (2002).
5991:(2nd ed.). Oxford:
5535:Astrophysical Quantities
5480:Astrophysical Quantities
4826:Greenhouse gas emissions
1478:microwave sounding units
1274:planetary boundary layer
468:compounds and elemental
6826:Encyclopædia Britannica
6093:. Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov.
5993:Oxford University Press
5290:10.1007/1-4020-3730-9_1
5118:Atmospheric electricity
5083:Air (classical element)
4674:and also by plants for
4504:Great Oxygenation Event
4440:Great Oxygenation Event
4418:faint young Sun paradox
4400:that were deposited as
4295:significant amounts of
4191:Atmospheric circulation
4178:Atmospheric circulation
1468:Atmospheric temperature
1296:Comparison of the 1962
1053:rocket-powered aircraft
744:The concentration of CO
355:Léon Teisserenc de Bort
41:Blue light is scattered
5832:The Planetary Air Leak
5792:"Exosphere - overview"
5741:Randy Russell (2008).
5713:"Exosphere - overview"
5612:(View in Google Books)
5574:"Vital signs: Methane"
4894:mass dying of wildlife
4728:
4593:evolutionary radiation
4508:banded iron formations
4481:
4354:Late Heavy Bombardment
4269:Moon-forming collision
4239:, and probably simple
4187:
4138:Atmospheric refraction
4133:
4130:atmospheric refraction
4001:
3947:Atmospheric scattering
1630:Thermal conductivity
1552:
1489:
1325:Pressure and thickness
1321:
1298:US Standard Atmosphere
1143:
1004:
798:
496:
389:
175:(i.e., by quantity of
60:
7247:Biogeochemical cycles
7172:dependent territories
6527:; Fegley, B. (2010).
5477:Allen, C. W. (1976),
4862:environmental impacts
4814:Industrial Revolution
4714:
4559:a billion-year period
4479:
4185:
4128:Distortive effect of
4127:
4068:Further information:
3992:
1633:Thermal diffusivity
1627:Kinematic viscosity
1543:
1475:
1295:
1164:temperature inversion
1121:
1090:ultraviolet radiation
1082:pressure at sea level
983:
906:artificial satellites
860:interplanetary medium
795:
490:
456:. Various industrial
382:
375:Atmospheric chemistry
39:
9303:remnant natural area
8940:storage and recovery
8606:habitat conservation
8424:Deforestation (REDD)
8173:Evolutionary history
7851:Prebiotic atmosphere
7295:Computer cartography
7019:Prebiotic atmosphere
6454:10.1002/2017GL073248
6073:"Earth's Atmosphere"
5836:Scientific American,
5537:(1976, 99.9999357%).
4750:biological materials
4309:Prebiotic atmosphere
4161:of Earth's surface.
1605:Tabulated properties
1493:troposphere. In the
1331:Atmospheric pressure
1102:jet-powered aircraft
1035:discharges known as
766:over full atmosphere
205:atmospheric pressure
160:conditions allowing
21:Air (disambiguation)
9488:Atmosphere of Earth
9257:Earth Overshoot Day
8831:Marine conservation
8812:non-timber products
8110:Natural environment
7438:Geologic time scale
7159:Culture and society
7014:Atmosphere of Earth
6624:10.1038/nature13068
6616:2014Natur.506..307L
6499:1966Metro...2...71E
6446:2017GeoRL..44.5197M
6218:10.1175/JCLI-3299.1
6200:2005JCli...18..864T
5879:2000JAtS...57...66S
5847:Ahrens, C. Donald.
5820:. January 22, 2013.
5533:(99.9997147%); and
5282:2005ASSL..331.....V
4890:ecological collapse
4870:ocean acidification
4807:chlorofluorocarbons
4547:reducing atmosphere
4543:atmospheric methane
4531:reducing substances
4413:earliest life forms
4216:Earliest atmosphere
3973:Rayleigh scattering
3937:in the atmosphere.
1624:Dynamic viscosity
1549:standard atmosphere
1501:radiation from the
1288:Physical properties
1278:turbulent diffusion
1134:can be seen at the
870:from sunlight. The
732:by molecular count
688:If air is not dry:
599:Carbon dioxide
503:
351:atmospheric physics
343:atmospheric science
308:atmospheric reentry
225:terrestrial animals
152:, and provides the
113:), all retained by
65:atmosphere of Earth
9242:Ecosystem services
8365:Ambient standards
7866:Stellar atmosphere
7744:Natural satellites
7433:Geological history
7307:Geodetic astronomy
6870:Earth's atmosphere
6820:"Atmosphere"
6724:, Paleomar Project
6405:The New York Times
6188:Journal of Climate
5743:"The Thermosphere"
5410:2018-07-28 at the
5078:Aerial perspective
5041:Environment portal
4992:noctilucent clouds
4746:particulate matter
4729:
4684:volcanic eruptions
4640:Cambrian explosion
4482:
4425:temperature record
4188:
4134:
4026:absorption spectra
4002:
3965:Indirect radiation
3911:Optical properties
1568:barometric formula
1553:
1509:above 90 km.
1490:
1322:
1302:geometric altitude
1144:
1084:. It contains the
1032:noctilucent clouds
1005:
868:radiation pressure
799:
737:experimental error
499:
497:
430:chemical compounds
390:
262:activity has also
254:(particularly the
217:terrestrial plants
61:
9405:
9404:
9383:
9382:
9182:
9181:
8861:genetic resources
8797:genetic resources
8432:
8431:
8340:Natural resources
8306:
8305:
8284:
8283:
7957:chemical elements
7881:
7880:
7567:
7566:
7503:Planetary science
7423:Extremes on Earth
7390:Signal processing
6964:
6963:
6815:Buchan, Alexander
5664:"Air Composition"
5439:on 9 October 2010
5420:978-0-12-732951-2
5381:978-1-4987-5428-6
5299:978-1-4020-3730-6
4937:illuminating the
4906:Weather satellite
4900:Images from space
4876:(which threatens
4846:land developments
4758:industrialization
4754:population growth
4712:
4595:event during the
4589:global glaciation
4461:Ancient sediments
4409:evolution of life
4303:Second atmosphere
4195:ocean circulation
4105:greenhouse effect
4070:Emission spectrum
3908:
3907:
1267:lightest element.
1096:stratospheric or
997:atmospheric entry
880:escape into space
812:balloon soundings
775:
774:
752:, as has that of
730:parts per million
252:evolution of life
146:greenhouse effect
105:features such as
76:planetary surface
9515:
9470:
9469:
9468:
9458:
9457:
9456:
9446:
9445:
9444:
9434:
9433:
9422:
9421:
9420:
9413:
9395:
9394:
9346:
9293:Natural heritage
9252:overexploitation
9191:
9190:
8925:
8924:
8871:herbal medicines
8851:FAO Plant Treaty
8391:
8368:
8353:
8352:
8333:
8326:
8319:
8310:
8309:
8296:
8295:
8168:
8158:
8157:
8098:tropical cyclone
8048:
7908:
7901:
7894:
7885:
7884:
7631:
7594:
7587:
7580:
7571:
7570:
7557:
7556:
7450:History of Earth
7101:Paleoclimatology
7061:
6991:
6984:
6977:
6968:
6967:
6863:
6856:
6849:
6840:
6839:
6830:
6822:
6801:
6800:
6798:
6797:
6782:
6776:
6775:
6773:
6772:
6766:
6755:
6743:
6737:
6731:
6725:
6718:
6712:
6707:
6701:
6700:
6690:
6650:
6644:
6643:
6610:(7488): 307–15.
6599:
6593:
6586:
6580:
6573:
6567:
6566:
6556:
6520:
6511:
6510:
6482:
6476:
6475:
6465:
6423:
6417:
6416:
6414:
6412:
6395:
6389:
6388:
6386:
6385:
6371:
6365:
6364:
6362:
6361:
6347:
6341:
6340:
6312:
6306:
6305:
6277:
6271:
6270:
6268:
6267:
6256:
6250:
6236:
6230:
6229:
6211:
6183:
6177:
6172:
6166:
6165:
6163:
6157:. Archived from
6156:
6148:
6142:
6141:
6136:. Archived from
6130:
6124:
6123:
6118:. Archived from
6112:
6106:
6105:
6103:
6102:
6087:
6081:
6080:
6075:. Archived from
6069:
6063:
6062:
6054:
6048:
6047:
6045:
6044:
6025:
6019:
6018:
6003:
5997:
5996:
5984:
5978:
5977:
5961:
5951:
5945:
5944:
5942:
5941:
5932:. Archived from
5925:
5919:
5918:
5916:
5915:
5899:
5893:
5892:
5890:
5858:
5852:
5845:
5839:
5828:
5822:
5821:
5814:
5808:
5807:
5805:
5803:
5788:
5777:
5776:
5774:
5773:
5762:
5753:
5752:
5750:
5749:
5738:
5729:
5728:
5726:
5724:
5709:
5703:
5702:
5700:
5699:
5684:
5678:
5677:
5672:
5671:
5660:
5654:
5653:
5651:
5650:
5636:
5630:
5629:
5621:
5615:
5596:
5590:
5589:
5587:
5585:
5570:
5564:
5563:
5561:
5559:
5544:
5538:
5528:
5500:
5494:
5493:
5474:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5454:
5448:
5447:
5445:
5444:
5429:
5423:
5399:
5390:
5384:
5367:
5358:
5357:
5356:
5355:
5340:
5331:
5330:
5329:
5328:
5313:
5304:
5303:
5265:
5259:
5252:
5246:
5245:
5243:
5242:
5231:
5225:
5208:, which rounds N
5207:
5190:
5181:
5180:
5178:
5177:
5166:
5071:
5066:
5065:
5057:
5052:
5051:
5043:
5038:
5037:
5003:
4986:
4974:
4930:
4855:
4818:greenhouse gases
4713:
4676:photorespiration
4606:, where complex
4604:Avalon explosion
4472:Third atmosphere
4211:Paleoclimatology
4207:History of Earth
4150:refractive index
4120:Refractive index
4042:visible spectrum
3961:direct radiation
3904:
3903:
3896:
3891:
3889:
3882:
3877:
3875:
3868:
3866:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3830:
3823:
3818:
3816:
3809:
3807:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3783:
3782:
3775:
3770:
3768:
3761:
3756:
3754:
3747:
3745:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3721:
3720:
3713:
3708:
3706:
3699:
3694:
3692:
3685:
3683:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3659:
3658:
3651:
3646:
3644:
3637:
3632:
3630:
3623:
3621:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3597:
3596:
3589:
3584:
3582:
3575:
3570:
3568:
3561:
3559:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3523:
3516:
3511:
3509:
3502:
3500:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3476:
3475:
3468:
3463:
3461:
3454:
3449:
3447:
3440:
3438:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3414:
3413:
3406:
3401:
3399:
3392:
3387:
3385:
3378:
3376:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3352:
3351:
3344:
3339:
3337:
3330:
3325:
3323:
3316:
3314:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3290:
3289:
3282:
3277:
3275:
3268:
3263:
3261:
3254:
3252:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3228:
3227:
3220:
3215:
3213:
3206:
3201:
3199:
3192:
3190:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3166:
3165:
3158:
3153:
3151:
3144:
3139:
3137:
3130:
3128:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3104:
3103:
3096:
3091:
3089:
3082:
3077:
3075:
3068:
3066:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3042:
3041:
3034:
3029:
3027:
3020:
3015:
3013:
3006:
3004:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2980:
2979:
2972:
2967:
2965:
2958:
2953:
2951:
2944:
2942:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2906:
2899:
2898:
2891:
2889:
2882:
2880:
2873:
2871:
2864:
2859:
2852:
2851:
2844:
2839:
2837:
2830:
2829:
2822:
2820:
2813:
2811:
2804:
2802:
2795:
2790:
2783:
2782:
2775:
2770:
2768:
2761:
2760:
2753:
2751:
2744:
2742:
2735:
2733:
2726:
2721:
2714:
2713:
2706:
2701:
2699:
2692:
2691:
2684:
2682:
2675:
2673:
2666:
2664:
2657:
2652:
2645:
2644:
2637:
2632:
2630:
2623:
2622:
2615:
2613:
2606:
2604:
2597:
2595:
2588:
2583:
2576:
2575:
2568:
2563:
2561:
2554:
2553:
2546:
2544:
2537:
2535:
2528:
2526:
2519:
2514:
2507:
2506:
2499:
2494:
2492:
2485:
2480:
2478:
2471:
2469:
2462:
2460:
2453:
2448:
2441:
2440:
2433:
2428:
2426:
2419:
2418:
2411:
2409:
2402:
2400:
2393:
2391:
2384:
2379:
2372:
2371:
2364:
2359:
2357:
2350:
2349:
2342:
2340:
2333:
2331:
2324:
2322:
2315:
2310:
2303:
2302:
2295:
2290:
2288:
2281:
2276:
2274:
2267:
2265:
2258:
2256:
2249:
2244:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2225:
2218:
2217:
2210:
2208:
2201:
2199:
2192:
2190:
2183:
2178:
2171:
2170:
2163:
2158:
2156:
2149:
2148:
2141:
2139:
2132:
2130:
2123:
2121:
2114:
2109:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2090:
2083:
2082:
2075:
2073:
2066:
2064:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2040:
2039:
2032:
2027:
2025:
2018:
2017:
2010:
2008:
2001:
1999:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1975:
1974:
1967:
1962:
1960:
1953:
1952:
1945:
1943:
1936:
1934:
1927:
1925:
1918:
1913:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1894:
1887:
1886:
1879:
1877:
1870:
1868:
1861:
1859:
1852:
1847:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1828:
1821:
1820:
1813:
1811:
1804:
1802:
1795:
1793:
1786:
1781:
1774:
1773:
1766:
1761:
1759:
1752:
1751:
1744:
1742:
1735:
1733:
1726:
1724:
1717:
1712:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1693:
1686:
1685:
1678:
1676:
1669:
1667:
1660:
1658:
1651:
1646:
1636:Prandtl number
1612:
1611:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1576:
1536:Density and mass
1452:atmospheric drag
1413:weather balloons
1152:geographic poles
1049:sounding rockets
960:aurora australis
779:molecular weight
758:
504:
498:
474:hydrogen sulfide
406:greenhouse gases
363:paleoclimatology
296:
270:(mainly through
31:
24:
9523:
9522:
9518:
9517:
9516:
9514:
9513:
9512:
9498:Breathing gases
9478:
9477:
9476:
9466:
9464:
9454:
9452:
9442:
9440:
9428:
9418:
9416:
9408:
9406:
9401:
9379:
9344:
9324:
9310:Systems ecology
9276:Natural capital
9178:
9063:
9052:reclaimed water
8914:
8876:UPOV Convention
8724:
8519:
8428:
8402:
8398:Ozone depletion
8389:
8366:
8342:
8337:
8307:
8302:
8280:
8197:
8166:
8147:
8104:
8046:
8026:
8017:Gaia hypothesis
8007:Plate tectonics
7968:
7918:
7912:
7882:
7877:
7870:
7839:
7805:
7738:
7699:
7632:
7623:
7603:
7598:
7568:
7563:
7535:
7497:
7454:
7445:Geologic record
7399:
7385:Plate tectonics
7375:Mineral physics
7355:Earth structure
7341:
7276:
7223:
7153:
7105:
7062:
7053:
7000:
6995:
6965:
6960:
6937:
6905:
6872:
6867:
6810:
6805:
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6715:
6708:
6704:
6651:
6647:
6600:
6596:
6587:
6583:
6574:
6570:
6539:(10): a004895.
6521:
6514:
6483:
6479:
6424:
6420:
6410:
6408:
6396:
6392:
6383:
6381:
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6309:
6294:
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6237:
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6209:10.1.1.727.6573
6184:
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6169:
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6149:
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6132:
6131:
6127:
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6098:
6089:
6088:
6084:
6071:
6070:
6066:
6055:
6051:
6042:
6040:
6033:– AMS Glossary"
6027:
6026:
6022:
6006:"Troposphere".
6005:
6004:
6000:
5985:
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5974:
5952:
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5598:Detlev Möller:
5597:
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5412:Wayback Machine
5400:
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5342:
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5266:
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5254:Lide, David R.
5253:
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4987:
4978:
4975:
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4931:
4908:
4902:
4882:extreme weather
4874:glacial retreat
4853:
4828:, coupled with
4735:
4722:
4718:
4702:
4700:
4665:carbon fixation
4636:actively moving
4574:photoautotrophs
4556:
4496:plate tectonics
4488:
4474:
4313:The increasing
4311:
4305:
4218:
4213:
4203:
4180:
4174:
4146:
4140:
4122:
4115:
4111:
4099:
4072:
4066:
4019:
4011:
4007:
3987:
3981:
3949:
3943:
3931:reflected light
3919:
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2154:
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2100:
2095:
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2069:
2062:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2037:
2035:
2030:
2023:
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2015:
2013:
2006:
2004:
1997:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1972:
1970:
1965:
1958:
1956:
1950:
1948:
1941:
1939:
1932:
1930:
1923:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1904:
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1683:
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1672:
1665:
1663:
1656:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1621:Specific heat
1607:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1574:
1559:
1538:
1521:
1515:
1470:
1464:
1434:, important to
1347:; 14.6959
1333:
1327:
1290:
1201:
1116:
1110:
1098:nacreous clouds
1067:
1061:
978:
972:
956:aurora borealis
924:
918:
843:
837:
790:
757:
753:
747:
723:volume fraction
701:
661:
654:
608:
601:
571:
552:
483:
387:
377:
371:
359:Richard Assmann
294:
288:acid deposition
284:ozone depletion
256:photoautotrophs
234:gases from the
130:solar radiation
115:Earth's gravity
32:
25:
18:
12:
11:
5:
9521:
9511:
9510:
9505:
9500:
9495:
9490:
9475:
9474:
9462:
9450:
9438:
9426:
9424:Earth sciences
9403:
9402:
9400:
9399:
9388:
9385:
9384:
9381:
9380:
9378:
9377:
9368:
9363:
9358:
9353:
9348:
9345:(perpetuation)
9340:
9334:
9332:
9326:
9325:
9323:
9322:
9317:
9312:
9307:
9306:
9305:
9298:Nature reserve
9295:
9290:
9289:
9288:
9283:
9273:
9272:
9271:
9261:
9260:
9259:
9254:
9244:
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9056:
9055:
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8954:
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8873:
8868:
8863:
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8853:
8843:
8838:
8833:
8828:
8827:
8826:
8816:
8815:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8789:
8788:
8787:
8782:
8777:
8775:climate change
8767:
8762:
8757:
8752:
8751:
8750:
8743:Bioprospecting
8740:
8734:
8732:
8726:
8725:
8723:
8722:
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8720:
8715:
8705:
8704:
8703:
8698:
8693:
8688:
8678:
8677:
8676:
8671:
8670:
8669:
8664:
8654:
8653:
8652:
8647:
8637:
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8610:
8609:
8608:
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8569:
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8505:
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8480:
8458:
8453:
8448:
8442:
8440:
8434:
8433:
8430:
8429:
8427:
8426:
8421:
8416:
8410:
8408:
8404:
8403:
8401:
8400:
8395:
8394:
8393:
8388:Clean Air Act
8380:
8375:
8370:
8361:
8359:
8350:
8344:
8343:
8336:
8335:
8328:
8321:
8313:
8304:
8303:
8301:
8300:
8289:
8286:
8285:
8282:
8281:
8279:
8278:
8271:
8270:
8269:
8264:
8254:
8253:
8252:
8247:
8242:
8241:
8240:
8230:
8229:
8228:
8213:
8208:
8202:
8199:
8198:
8196:
8195:
8185:
8180:
8175:
8170:
8161:
8155:
8149:
8148:
8146:
8145:
8140:
8135:
8130:
8125:
8120:
8114:
8112:
8106:
8105:
8103:
8102:
8101:
8100:
8095:
8085:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8065:
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8055:
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8042:
8036:
8034:
8028:
8027:
8025:
8024:
8019:
8014:
8009:
8004:
7999:
7994:
7984:
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7970:
7969:
7967:
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7959:
7954:
7944:
7939:
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7903:
7896:
7888:
7879:
7878:
7875:
7872:
7871:
7869:
7868:
7863:
7858:
7853:
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7837:
7830:
7823:
7815:
7813:
7807:
7806:
7804:
7803:
7796:
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7784:
7779:
7774:
7769:
7764:
7759:
7754:
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7736:
7729:
7722:
7715:
7709:
7707:
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7698:
7697:
7690:
7683:
7676:
7669:
7662:
7655:
7648:
7642:
7640:
7634:
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7611:
7605:
7604:
7597:
7596:
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7574:
7565:
7564:
7562:
7561:
7551:
7546:
7540:
7537:
7536:
7534:
7533:
7528:
7523:
7518:
7513:
7507:
7505:
7499:
7498:
7496:
7495:
7490:
7485:
7480:
7478:Atlantic Ocean
7475:
7470:
7464:
7462:
7456:
7455:
7453:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7441:
7440:
7430:
7425:
7420:
7415:
7409:
7407:
7401:
7400:
7398:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7377:
7372:
7367:
7362:
7360:Fluid dynamics
7357:
7351:
7349:
7343:
7342:
7340:
7339:
7334:
7332:Geopositioning
7329:
7327:Remote Sensing
7324:
7319:
7314:
7309:
7304:
7299:
7298:
7297:
7286:
7284:
7278:
7277:
7275:
7274:
7269:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7233:
7231:
7225:
7224:
7222:
7221:
7216:
7211:
7206:
7201:
7196:
7191:
7186:
7181:
7176:
7175:
7174:
7163:
7161:
7155:
7154:
7152:
7151:
7146:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7121:
7115:
7113:
7107:
7106:
7104:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7088:
7086:Climate change
7083:
7081:Energy balance
7078:
7076:Climate system
7072:
7070:
7064:
7063:
7056:
7054:
7052:
7051:
7046:
7041:
7036:
7031:
7026:
7021:
7016:
7010:
7008:
7002:
7001:
6994:
6993:
6986:
6979:
6971:
6962:
6961:
6959:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6942:
6939:
6938:
6936:
6935:
6926:
6921:
6916:
6910:
6907:
6906:
6904:
6903:
6898:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6877:
6874:
6873:
6866:
6865:
6858:
6851:
6843:
6837:
6836:
6831:
6809:
6808:External links
6806:
6803:
6802:
6777:
6738:
6733:Starting from
6726:
6713:
6702:
6645:
6594:
6581:
6568:
6512:
6477:
6418:
6390:
6366:
6342:
6327:
6307:
6292:
6272:
6251:
6240:The Atmosphere
6231:
6178:
6167:
6164:on 2008-05-28.
6143:
6140:on 2005-03-03.
6125:
6122:on 2009-03-03.
6107:
6082:
6079:on 2009-06-14.
6064:
6049:
6020:
5998:
5979:
5972:
5946:
5920:
5902:Joe Buchdahl.
5894:
5853:
5840:
5823:
5809:
5794:. UCAR. 2011.
5778:
5768:. Das.uwyo.edu
5754:
5730:
5719:on 17 May 2017
5704:
5679:
5655:
5631:
5624:Yunus Çengel.
5616:
5591:
5565:
5539:
5525:
5519:
5515:
5495:
5489:
5469:
5449:
5424:
5391:
5385:, which cites
5380:
5359:
5332:
5305:
5298:
5260:
5247:
5226:
5221:
5220:and added to O
5217:
5213:
5209:
5203:
5182:
5160:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5139:Global dimming
5136:
5131:
5125:
5123:Climate system
5120:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5080:
5074:
5073:
5072:
5058:
5055:Science portal
5044:
5028:
5025:
5021:
5020:
5010:observed from
5005:
4998:
4996:
4988:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4969:
4967:
4932:
4925:
4922:
4921:
4920:
4904:Main article:
4901:
4898:
4880:), increasing
4878:water security
4866:sea level rise
4858:climate change
4739:
4731:Main article:
4725:boreal forests
4720:
4716:
4699:
4696:
4692:aquatic plants
4630:of which, the
4554:
4484:Main article:
4473:
4470:
4436:photosynthesis
4433:cyanobacterial
4366:carbon dioxide
4315:solidification
4304:
4301:
4285:Earth's mantle
4217:
4214:
4202:
4199:
4176:Main article:
4173:
4170:
4136:Main article:
4121:
4118:
4113:
4109:
4097:
4089:; 10,340
4065:
4062:
4034:optical window
4017:
4009:
4005:
3983:Main article:
3980:
3977:
3945:Main article:
3942:
3939:
3912:
3909:
3906:
3905:
3897:
3892:
3883:
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3869:
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3379:
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2883:
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2791:
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2762:
2754:
2745:
2736:
2727:
2722:
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2685:
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2667:
2658:
2653:
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2633:
2624:
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2607:
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2529:
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2500:
2495:
2486:
2481:
2472:
2463:
2454:
2449:
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2442:
2434:
2429:
2420:
2412:
2403:
2394:
2385:
2380:
2374:
2373:
2365:
2360:
2351:
2343:
2334:
2325:
2316:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2296:
2291:
2282:
2277:
2268:
2259:
2250:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2233:
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2211:
2202:
2193:
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2179:
2173:
2172:
2164:
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2142:
2133:
2124:
2115:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2084:
2076:
2067:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2033:
2028:
2019:
2011:
2002:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1968:
1963:
1954:
1946:
1937:
1928:
1919:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1888:
1880:
1871:
1862:
1853:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1822:
1814:
1805:
1796:
1787:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1767:
1762:
1753:
1745:
1736:
1727:
1718:
1713:
1707:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1687:
1679:
1670:
1661:
1652:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1639:Bulk modulus
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1606:
1603:
1557:Density of air
1555:Main article:
1537:
1534:
1529:speed of sound
1523:Because in an
1519:Speed of sound
1517:Main article:
1514:
1513:Speed of sound
1511:
1466:Main article:
1463:
1460:
1401:
1400:
1389:
1386:
1351:; 760.00
1329:Main article:
1326:
1323:
1314:speed of sound
1289:
1286:
1282:
1281:
1269:
1268:
1259:
1258:
1232:
1217:
1200:
1197:
1140:blue scattered
1128:high altitudes
1112:Main article:
1109:
1106:
1063:Main article:
1060:
1057:
991:(orange), the
974:Main article:
971:
968:
920:Main article:
917:
914:
898:meteorological
839:Main article:
836:
833:
832:
831:
828:
825:
822:
819:
789:
788:Stratification
786:
773:
772:
771:
770:
767:
760:
755:
745:
742:
741:
740:
726:
710:
709:
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703:
699:
696:
690:
689:
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684:
681:
678:
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669:
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662:
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644:
641:
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632:
631:
628:
625:
622:
616:
615:
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606:
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595:
594:
591:
588:
585:
579:
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575:
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566:
560:
559:
556:
553:
550:
547:
541:
540:
534:
526:
523:
519:
518:
513:
509:
508:
481:
478:sulfur dioxide
385:
373:Main article:
370:
367:
330:(formally the
280:global warming
268:climate change
213:photosynthesis
193:carbon dioxide
101:(which create
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9520:
9509:
9506:
9504:
9501:
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9437:
9432:
9427:
9425:
9415:
9414:
9411:
9398:
9390:
9389:
9386:
9376:
9375:Non-renewable
9372:
9369:
9367:
9364:
9362:
9359:
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9352:
9349:
9347:
9341:
9339:
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9318:
9316:
9315:Urban ecology
9313:
9311:
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9301:
9300:
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9150:
9148:
9147:Privatization
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9143:
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9138:
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9133:
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9050:
9049:
9048:
9045:
9043:
9042:Surface water
9040:
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9021:
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9013:
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8573:
8570:
8568:
8565:
8564:
8563:
8560:
8558:
8555:
8553:
8550:
8544:
8543:peak farmland
8541:
8540:
8539:
8536:
8535:
8534:
8531:
8530:
8528:
8526:
8522:
8516:
8513:
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8506:
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8362:
8360:
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8329:
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8320:
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8314:
8311:
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8290:
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8277:
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8268:
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8260:
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8248:
8246:
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8231:
8227:
8224:
8223:
8222:
8219:
8218:
8217:
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8212:
8209:
8207:
8204:
8203:
8200:
8193:
8189:
8186:
8184:
8181:
8179:
8176:
8174:
8171:
8169:
8167:(abiogenesis)
8163:
8162:
8159:
8156:
8154:
8150:
8144:
8141:
8139:
8136:
8134:
8131:
8129:
8126:
8124:
8121:
8119:
8116:
8115:
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8107:
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8096:
8094:
8091:
8090:
8089:
8086:
8084:
8081:
8079:
8076:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8051:
8049:
8043:
8041:
8038:
8037:
8035:
8033:
8029:
8023:
8020:
8018:
8015:
8013:
8010:
8008:
8005:
8003:
8000:
7998:
7995:
7992:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7982:Earth science
7980:
7979:
7977:
7975:
7971:
7965:
7962:
7958:
7955:
7953:
7950:
7949:
7948:
7945:
7943:
7940:
7938:
7935:
7933:
7930:
7929:
7927:
7925:
7921:
7917:
7909:
7904:
7902:
7897:
7895:
7890:
7889:
7886:
7873:
7867:
7864:
7862:
7859:
7857:
7854:
7852:
7849:
7848:
7846:
7842:
7836:
7835:
7831:
7829:
7828:
7824:
7822:
7821:
7817:
7816:
7814:
7812:
7808:
7802:
7801:
7797:
7795:
7794:
7790:
7788:
7785:
7783:
7780:
7778:
7775:
7773:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7755:
7753:
7750:
7749:
7747:
7745:
7741:
7735:
7734:
7730:
7728:
7727:
7723:
7721:
7720:
7716:
7714:
7711:
7710:
7708:
7706:
7705:Dwarf planets
7702:
7696:
7695:
7691:
7689:
7688:
7684:
7682:
7681:
7677:
7675:
7674:
7670:
7668:
7667:
7663:
7661:
7660:
7656:
7654:
7653:
7649:
7647:
7644:
7643:
7641:
7639:
7635:
7630:
7620:
7619:
7615:
7614:
7612:
7610:
7606:
7602:
7595:
7590:
7588:
7583:
7581:
7576:
7575:
7572:
7560:
7552:
7550:
7547:
7545:
7542:
7541:
7538:
7532:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7512:
7509:
7508:
7506:
7504:
7500:
7494:
7491:
7489:
7488:Pacific Ocean
7486:
7484:
7481:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7471:
7469:
7466:
7465:
7463:
7461:
7457:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7439:
7436:
7435:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7424:
7421:
7419:
7418:Earth science
7416:
7414:
7411:
7410:
7408:
7406:
7402:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7370:Magnetosphere
7368:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7353:
7352:
7350:
7348:
7344:
7338:
7337:Virtual globe
7335:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7323:
7320:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7302:Earth's orbit
7300:
7296:
7293:
7292:
7291:
7288:
7287:
7285:
7283:
7279:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7263:
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7234:
7232:
7230:
7226:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7209:World history
7207:
7205:
7202:
7200:
7199:World economy
7197:
7195:
7192:
7190:
7187:
7185:
7182:
7180:
7177:
7173:
7170:
7169:
7168:
7165:
7164:
7162:
7160:
7156:
7150:
7149:South America
7147:
7145:
7144:North America
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7116:
7114:
7112:
7108:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7073:
7071:
7069:
7065:
7060:
7050:
7047:
7045:
7042:
7040:
7037:
7035:
7032:
7030:
7027:
7025:
7022:
7020:
7017:
7015:
7012:
7011:
7009:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6992:
6987:
6985:
6980:
6978:
6973:
6972:
6969:
6957:
6954:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6943:
6940:
6934:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6915:
6912:
6911:
6908:
6902:
6899:
6897:
6894:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6879:
6878:
6875:
6871:
6864:
6859:
6857:
6852:
6850:
6845:
6844:
6841:
6835:
6832:
6828:
6827:
6821:
6816:
6812:
6811:
6792:
6788:
6781:
6767:on 2021-08-11
6763:
6759:
6752:
6748:
6742:
6735:
6730:
6723:
6717:
6711:
6706:
6698:
6694:
6689:
6684:
6680:
6676:
6672:
6668:
6665:(1): 97–106.
6664:
6660:
6656:
6649:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6613:
6609:
6605:
6598:
6591:
6585:
6578:
6572:
6564:
6560:
6555:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6534:
6530:
6526:
6519:
6517:
6508:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6481:
6473:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6455:
6451:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6434:
6429:
6422:
6407:
6406:
6401:
6394:
6380:
6376:
6370:
6356:
6352:
6346:
6338:
6334:
6330:
6328:9780471457282
6324:
6320:
6319:
6311:
6303:
6299:
6295:
6293:9780072406559
6289:
6285:
6284:
6283:Heat transfer
6276:
6261:
6255:
6249:
6248:0-13-350612-6
6245:
6241:
6235:
6227:
6223:
6219:
6215:
6210:
6205:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6182:
6176:
6171:
6160:
6153:
6147:
6139:
6135:
6129:
6121:
6117:
6111:
6096:
6092:
6086:
6078:
6074:
6068:
6060:
6053:
6038:
6034:
6032:
6024:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6002:
5994:
5990:
5983:
5975:
5973:9780416079401
5969:
5965:
5960:
5959:
5950:
5936:on 2013-10-19
5935:
5931:
5930:"stratopause"
5924:
5910:on 2010-07-01
5909:
5905:
5898:
5889:
5884:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5857:
5850:
5844:
5837:
5833:
5827:
5819:
5813:
5797:
5793:
5787:
5785:
5783:
5767:
5761:
5759:
5744:
5737:
5735:
5718:
5714:
5708:
5694:
5690:
5683:
5676:
5665:
5659:
5645:
5641:
5635:
5627:
5620:
5613:
5609:
5608:3-11-016431-0
5605:
5601:
5595:
5579:
5575:
5569:
5553:
5549:
5543:
5536:
5532:
5513:
5509:
5505:
5499:
5492:
5490:0-485-11150-0
5486:
5482:
5481:
5473:
5462:
5461:
5453:
5438:
5434:
5433:"Trace Gases"
5428:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5406:
5405:
5398:
5396:
5388:
5383:
5377:
5373:
5366:
5364:
5349:
5345:
5339:
5337:
5322:
5318:
5312:
5310:
5301:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5264:
5257:
5251:
5236:
5230:
5206:
5204:0-387-98746-0
5200:
5196:
5189:
5187:
5171:
5165:
5161:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5070:
5064:
5059:
5056:
5050:
5045:
5042:
5036:
5031:
5017:
5013:
5009:
5002:
4997:
4993:
4985:
4980:
4973:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4955:edge of space
4952:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4929:
4924:
4923:
4919:
4917:
4913:
4907:
4897:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4830:deforestation
4827:
4823:
4822:nitrous oxide
4819:
4815:
4810:
4808:
4804:
4801:
4797:
4794:
4793:stratospheric
4790:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4738:Air pollution
4737:
4734:
4733:Air pollution
4726:
4698:Air pollution
4695:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4659:
4655:
4654:Carboniferous
4650:
4648:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4602:known as the
4601:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4553:atmosphere. O
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4523:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4487:
4478:
4469:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4456:
4452:
4451:isotope ratio
4448:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4421:
4419:
4414:
4410:
4405:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4394:crustal rocks
4391:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4334:precipitating
4331:
4327:
4326:heat transfer
4324:
4320:
4319:Earth's crust
4316:
4310:
4300:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4271:and numerous
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4227:
4223:
4212:
4208:
4198:
4196:
4192:
4184:
4179:
4169:
4167:
4162:
4160:
4156:
4151:
4145:
4139:
4131:
4126:
4117:
4106:
4101:
4094:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4071:
4061:
4059:
4055:
4054:radio windows
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4024:The combined
4022:
4015:
4000:
3999:visible light
3996:
3995:transmittance
3991:
3986:
3976:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3948:
3938:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3918:
3898:
3893:
3884:
3879:
3870:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3845:
3839:
3834:
3825:
3820:
3811:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3786:
3777:
3772:
3763:
3758:
3749:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3724:
3715:
3710:
3701:
3696:
3687:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3662:
3653:
3648:
3639:
3634:
3625:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3600:
3591:
3586:
3577:
3572:
3563:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3538:
3532:
3527:
3518:
3513:
3504:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3479:
3470:
3465:
3456:
3451:
3442:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3417:
3408:
3403:
3394:
3389:
3380:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3355:
3346:
3341:
3332:
3327:
3318:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3293:
3284:
3279:
3270:
3265:
3256:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3231:
3222:
3217:
3208:
3203:
3194:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3169:
3160:
3155:
3146:
3141:
3132:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3107:
3098:
3093:
3084:
3079:
3070:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3045:
3036:
3031:
3022:
3017:
3008:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2983:
2974:
2969:
2960:
2955:
2946:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2921:
2915:
2910:
2901:
2893:
2884:
2875:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2855:
2846:
2841:
2832:
2824:
2815:
2806:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2777:
2772:
2763:
2755:
2746:
2737:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2717:
2708:
2703:
2694:
2686:
2677:
2668:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2648:
2639:
2634:
2625:
2617:
2608:
2599:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2579:
2570:
2565:
2556:
2548:
2539:
2530:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2510:
2501:
2496:
2487:
2482:
2473:
2464:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2444:
2435:
2430:
2421:
2413:
2404:
2395:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2375:
2366:
2361:
2352:
2344:
2335:
2326:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2306:
2297:
2292:
2283:
2278:
2269:
2260:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2240:
2234:
2229:
2220:
2212:
2203:
2194:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2174:
2165:
2160:
2151:
2143:
2134:
2125:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2099:
2094:
2085:
2077:
2068:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2043:
2034:
2029:
2020:
2012:
2003:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1969:
1964:
1955:
1947:
1938:
1929:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1909:
1903:
1898:
1889:
1881:
1872:
1863:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1843:
1837:
1832:
1823:
1815:
1806:
1797:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1777:
1768:
1763:
1754:
1746:
1737:
1728:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1708:
1702:
1697:
1688:
1680:
1671:
1662:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1615:Temperature
1614:
1613:
1610:
1602:
1601:10 kg."
1584:
1580:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1564:ideal gas law
1558:
1550:
1547:
1542:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1520:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1459:
1457:
1456:orbital decay
1453:
1449:
1445:
1444:Space Shuttle
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1426:still occur.
1425:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1405:Mount Everest
1398:
1394:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1343:(760.00
1342:
1338:
1332:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1285:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1251:edge of space
1248:
1247:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1229:magnetosphere
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1204:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1171:
1170:with height.
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1076:
1072:
1066:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1041:thunderclouds
1038:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
977:
967:
965:
961:
957:
952:
950:
946:
941:
939:
935:
930:
923:
913:
911:
907:
903:
899:
894:
892:
891:magnetosphere
888:
885:
881:
875:
873:
869:
863:
861:
857:
853:
849:
842:
829:
826:
823:
820:
817:
816:
815:
813:
809:
805:
794:
785:
782:
780:
768:
765:
761:
751:
743:
738:
734:
733:
731:
727:
724:
720:
719:Mole fraction
717:
716:
715:
711:
707:
704:
697:
695:
691:
686:
682:
679:
676:
674:
670:
666:
663:
657:
653:
649:
645:
642:
639:
637:
633:
629:
626:
623:
621:
617:
613:
610:
604:
602:(April 2022)
600:
596:
592:
589:
586:
584:
580:
576:
573:
567:
565:
561:
557:
554:
548:
546:
542:
539:
535:
533:
532:
527:
524:
521:
520:
517:
516:Mole fraction
510:
505:
502:
494:
489:
485:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
381:
376:
366:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
339:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
272:deforestation
269:
265:
261:
258:). Recently,
257:
253:
249:
245:
244:impact events
241:
237:
233:
228:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
173:mole fraction
169:
167:
164:to exist and
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
70:
66:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
29:
22:
16:
9503:Environments
9472:Solar System
9373: /
9247:Exploitation
9132:Conservation
9075:Desalination
9010:
8903:conservation
8738:Biodiversity
8686:conservation
8533:Agricultural
8461:Fossil fuels
8347:
8273:
8206:Biodiversity
8192:astrobiology
8044:
7914:Elements of
7832:
7825:
7818:
7798:
7791:
7731:
7724:
7717:
7692:
7685:
7678:
7671:
7664:
7658:
7657:
7650:
7616:
7531:Solar System
7493:Oceanography
7483:Indian Ocean
7473:Arctic Ocean
7413:Age of Earth
7365:Geomagnetism
7039:Thermosphere
7029:Stratosphere
7013:
7005:
6896:Thermosphere
6886:Stratosphere
6869:
6824:
6794:. Retrieved
6790:
6780:
6769:. Retrieved
6762:the original
6758:IPCC AR6 WG1
6757:
6741:
6729:
6716:
6705:
6662:
6658:
6648:
6607:
6603:
6597:
6589:
6584:
6576:
6575:B. Windley:
6571:
6536:
6532:
6525:Schaefer, L.
6523:Zahnle, K.;
6493:(2): 71–80.
6490:
6486:
6480:
6440:(10): 5197.
6437:
6431:
6421:
6409:. Retrieved
6403:
6393:
6382:. Retrieved
6378:
6369:
6358:. Retrieved
6354:
6345:
6317:
6310:
6282:
6275:
6264:. Retrieved
6254:
6239:
6234:
6191:
6187:
6181:
6170:
6159:the original
6146:
6138:the original
6128:
6120:the original
6110:
6099:. Retrieved
6085:
6077:the original
6067:
6052:
6041:. Retrieved
6030:
6023:
6015:
6007:
6001:
5995:. p. 4.
5988:
5982:
5957:
5949:
5938:. Retrieved
5934:the original
5923:
5912:. Retrieved
5908:the original
5897:
5873:(1): 66–77.
5870:
5866:
5856:
5848:
5843:
5835:
5826:
5812:
5800:. Retrieved
5770:. Retrieved
5746:. Retrieved
5721:. Retrieved
5717:the original
5707:
5696:. Retrieved
5692:
5682:
5674:
5668:. Retrieved
5658:
5647:. Retrieved
5643:
5634:
5625:
5619:
5599:
5594:
5582:. Retrieved
5580:. April 2022
5578:NASA Climate
5577:
5568:
5556:. Retrieved
5554:. April 2022
5552:NASA Climate
5551:
5542:
5534:
5530:
5511:
5507:
5503:
5498:
5479:
5472:
5459:
5452:
5441:. Retrieved
5437:the original
5427:
5403:
5386:
5371:
5352:, retrieved
5347:
5325:, retrieved
5320:
5273:
5263:
5255:
5250:
5239:. Retrieved
5237:. 2024-05-13
5229:
5194:
5174:. Retrieved
5164:
5069:World portal
4959:thermosphere
4943:stratosphere
4909:
4811:
4762:motorization
4736:
4658:evolution of
4651:
4535:ferrous iron
4524:
4489:
4459:
4455:carbon cycle
4444:stromatolite
4422:
4406:
4312:
4235:, primarily
4233:solar nebula
4219:
4190:
4189:
4163:
4147:
4102:
4095:
4085:(5,730
4074:
4073:
4023:
4003:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3950:
3935:ice crystals
3920:
1608:
1572:
1560:
1522:
1507:thermosphere
1495:stratosphere
1491:
1421:
1402:
1380:
1376:scale height
1369:
1365:
1334:
1283:
1244:
1240:heterosphere
1202:
1199:Other layers
1185:
1175:
1172:
1145:
1132:stratosphere
1094:
1079:
1068:
1065:Stratosphere
1059:Stratosphere
1029:
1010:
1006:
993:stratosphere
953:
942:
925:
922:Thermosphere
916:Thermosphere
895:
887:trajectories
876:
864:
852:thermosphere
844:
800:
783:
777:The average
776:
763:
713:
528:
515:
500:
454:volcanic ash
391:
340:
328:thermosphere
320:stratosphere
292:
236:solar nebula
229:
170:
150:air currents
99:particulates
87:
64:
62:
45:stratosphere
33:
15:
9460:Spaceflight
9366:Nationalism
9338:Common-pool
8979:Hydrosphere
8972:remediation
8957:Groundwater
8552:Degradation
8257:Prokaryotes
8045:Atmosphere
8040:Meteorology
7827:HD 209458 b
7601:Atmospheres
7290:Cartography
7229:Environment
7096:Climatology
7024:Troposphere
6946:Ozone layer
6929:Thermopause
6919:Stratopause
6881:Troposphere
6588:J. Schopf:
6463:11603/13118
6012:McGraw-Hill
5466:, p. 3
5422:. Chapter 1
5098:Lithosphere
5093:Hydrosphere
4939:troposphere
4884:events and
4854:1.1 °C
4834:destruction
4803:ultraviolet
4796:ozone layer
4688:terrestrial
4624:Phanerozoic
4620:bilaterians
4567:Precambrian
4520:Proterozoic
4374:inert gases
4352:during the
4275:with large
4257:water vapor
4255:), notably
4222:Early Earth
4172:Circulation
4058:radio waves
4038:ultraviolet
1546:NRLMSISE-00
1499:ultraviolet
1462:Temperature
1393:Kármán line
1318:temperature
1306:air density
1209:ozone layer
1126:at low and
1124:cloud types
1114:Troposphere
1108:Troposphere
1086:ozone layer
1075:stratopause
1023:; 190
1019:(−120
989:troposphere
929:thermopause
848:thermopause
804:temperature
694:Water vapor
410:noble gases
369:Composition
347:climatology
316:troposphere
304:Kármán line
300:outer space
276:fossil fuel
221:respiration
201:water vapor
197:trace gases
127:ultraviolet
119:outer space
49:troposphere
28:Air quality
9482:Categories
9361:Extraction
9320:Wilderness
9281:accounting
9264:Management
9230:ecological
9218:tragedy of
9137:Peak water
9122:Efficiency
9095:Sanitation
9037:Stormwater
9030:harvesting
9006:Irrigation
8908:management
8866:gene banks
8807:management
8785:management
8701:resilience
8667:phosphorus
8623:industrial
8601:Management
8577:soundscape
8483:Geothermal
8138:Wilderness
7991:geological
7811:Exoplanets
7395:Tomography
7380:Seismology
7347:Geophysics
7322:Navigation
7214:Time zones
7179:In culture
7124:Antarctica
7111:Continents
7034:Mesosphere
7006:Atmosphere
6956:Ionosphere
6951:Turbopause
6914:Tropopause
6891:Mesosphere
6796:2015-10-21
6771:2021-11-20
6487:Metrologia
6384:2023-06-13
6360:2023-06-13
6266:2014-06-10
6194:(6): 864.
6101:2010-10-16
6043:2010-10-16
6031:homosphere
5940:2013-10-18
5914:2012-04-18
5772:2012-04-18
5748:2013-10-18
5698:2017-02-20
5670:2017-07-04
5649:2021-04-27
5610:, S. 173.
5443:2010-10-16
5354:2019-05-31
5327:2019-05-31
5241:2024-06-18
5176:2018-01-29
5156:References
5012:deep space
4947:mesosphere
4781:acid rains
4773:pollutants
4647:metabolism
4644:locomotive
4616:placozoans
4612:cnidarians
4586:Cryogenian
4571:eukaryotic
4512:substrates
4492:continents
4429:Neoarchean
4398:carbonates
4390:weathering
4342:outgassing
4340:. Further
4338:superocean
4307:See also:
4277:meteorites
4245:gas giants
4205:See also:
4142:See also:
4079:black body
4016:. Water (H
4014:nanometres
3979:Absorption
3957:scattering
3941:Scattering
3915:See also:
1432:ionosphere
1397:astronauts
1339:as 101325
1246:turbopause
1236:homosphere
1221:ionosphere
1168:isothermal
1160:tropopause
1071:tropopause
1001:spacecraft
976:Mesosphere
970:Mesosphere
938:ionosphere
856:solar wind
808:lapse rate
458:pollutants
332:ionosphere
324:mesosphere
266:, such as
248:weathering
207:vary with
168:on Earth.
123:meteoroids
9448:Astronomy
9371:Renewable
9356:Depletion
9343:Conflict
9225:Economics
9203:enclosure
9162:Resources
9142:Pollution
9059:Watershed
8962:pollution
8893:Seed bank
8888:Rangeland
8770:Fisheries
8755:Biosphere
8748:biopiracy
8691:fertility
8567:cityscape
8562:Landscape
8469:peak coal
8456:Resources
8407:Emissions
8216:Eukaryota
8183:Hierarchy
8178:Biosphere
8143:Wildfires
8133:Radiation
8123:Ecosystem
8063:Moonlight
7997:Structure
7952:particles
7834:Kepler-7b
7820:GJ 1132 b
7777:Enceladus
7312:Geomatics
7257:Ecosystem
7242:Biosphere
7204:Etymology
7184:Earth Day
7134:Australia
7044:Exosphere
6924:Mesopause
6901:Exosphere
6679:1880-6546
6472:109930589
6204:CiteSeerX
5802:April 19,
5723:April 19,
5088:Biosphere
5016:Apollo 12
4935:afterglow
4886:wildfires
4789:depletion
4769:societies
4742:chemicals
4597:Ediacaran
4582:red algae
4551:oxidizing
4527:oxidation
4500:carbonate
4402:sediments
4386:magnesium
4378:dissolved
4350:asteroids
4346:volcanism
4330:condensed
4323:advective
4293:outgassed
4159:curvature
3923:radiation
1618:Density
1525:ideal gas
1409:airliners
1300:graph of
1142:sunlight.
1013:mesopause
985:Afterglow
884:ballistic
872:geocorona
841:Exosphere
835:Exosphere
748:has been
705:0–30,000
683:0.000114
667:0.000191
646:0.000524
630:0.001818
450:sea spray
336:exosphere
278:-related
240:volcanism
183:, 20.95%
177:molecules
92:suspended
9397:Category
9330:Resource
9269:adaptive
9167:improved
9127:Conflict
9112:Security
9107:Scarcity
9100:improved
9090:Leaching
8967:recharge
8947:Drinking
8898:Wildlife
8765:Bushmeat
8760:Bushfood
8713:planning
8618:gemstone
8613:Minerals
8594:property
8582:viewshed
8572:seascape
8503:sunlight
8477:peak oil
8473:peak gas
8298:Category
8267:bacteria
8250:protista
8211:Organism
8078:Sunlight
7924:Universe
7844:See also
7772:Callisto
7767:Ganymede
7726:Makemake
7559:Category
7511:The Moon
6817:(1878).
6749:(2021).
6697:27848144
6632:24553238
6563:20573713
6337:62532755
6302:46959719
6226:16754900
6095:Archived
6037:Archived
6014:. 1984.
5796:Archived
5408:Archived
5027:See also
5014:onboard
4864:such as
4838:wetlands
4800:ionizing
4642:, whose
4632:Cambrian
4608:metazoan
4396:to form
4362:nitrogen
4241:hydrides
4237:hydrogen
4075:Emission
4064:Emission
4050:infrared
4046:infrared
3969:overcast
3917:Sunlight
1436:HF radio
1310:pressure
1304:against
1189:aviation
1148:altitude
574:209,460
555:780,840
545:Nitrogen
525:Formula
507:Dry air
466:fluorine
462:chlorine
434:aerosols
394:nitrogen
250:and the
232:accreted
209:altitude
191:, 0.03%
187:, 0.93%
181:nitrogen
154:chemical
95:aerosols
9508:Climate
9436:Weather
9410:Portals
9198:Commons
9187:Related
9152:Quality
9068:Aspects
8994:glacial
8935:Aquifer
8841:Pasture
8792:Forests
8718:reserve
8493:Nuclear
8463: (
8419:Trading
8414:Airshed
8275:Viruses
8262:archaea
8238:animals
8190: (
8188:Biology
8165:Origin
8118:Ecology
8093:tornado
8053:Climate
8047:(Earth)
8032:Weather
8002:Geology
7989: (
7987:History
7694:Neptune
7673:Jupiter
7646:Mercury
7638:Planets
7549:History
7544:Outline
7405:Geology
7317:Gravity
7282:Geodesy
7252:Ecology
7068:Climate
7049:Weather
6933:Exobase
6688:5138252
6640:4443958
6612:Bibcode
6554:2944365
6495:Bibcode
6442:Bibcode
6196:Bibcode
5875:Bibcode
5278:Bibcode
5108:Airshed
5103:Airglow
5018:in 1969
5008:eclipse
4963:aurorae
4951:airglow
4842:logging
4634:, more
4563:euxinia
4463:in the
4447:fossils
4388:during
4382:calcium
4370:methane
4358:Archean
4336:into a
4273:impacts
4265:ammonia
4261:methane
4249:Jupiter
4155:horizon
4030:opacity
3953:photons
1448:F-layer
1428:Meteors
1424:auroras
1361:weather
1341:pascals
1225:auroras
1156:Equator
1136:horizon
1045:meteors
1003:reentry
987:of the
934:exobase
912:Earth.
902:auroras
764:by mass
673:Krypton
655:(2022)
652:Methane
614:0.0417
593:0.9340
577:20.946
558:78.084
470:mercury
422:krypton
158:climate
103:weather
72:mixture
9208:global
9172:policy
9117:Supply
9080:Floods
9047:Sewage
9020:Marine
9012:huerta
8846:Plants
8836:Meadow
8696:health
8674:rights
8662:copper
8640:mining
8538:arable
8438:Energy
8378:Indoor
8226:plants
8058:Clouds
8022:Future
8012:Oceans
7964:Change
7947:Matter
7942:Energy
7916:nature
7800:Triton
7762:Europa
7687:Uranus
7680:Saturn
7460:Oceans
7428:Future
7272:Nature
7194:Symbol
7139:Europe
7119:Africa
6695:
6685:
6677:
6638:
6630:
6604:Nature
6561:
6551:
6470:
6411:20 May
6335:
6325:
6300:
6290:
6246:
6224:
6206:
5970:
5606:
5558:16 May
5487:
5418:
5378:
5350:, 2019
5323:, 2019
5296:
5201:
5172:. NASA
5130:(CIRA)
4787:. The
4680:pyrite
4672:faunae
4669:animal
4661:plants
4628:period
4600:period
4549:to an
4539:sulfur
4516:ferric
4253:Saturn
4226:Hadean
4166:mirage
3921:Solar
3853:0.1135
3841:0.0004
3794:0.1394
3732:0.1458
3670:0.1538
3608:0.1602
3546:0.1682
3534:0.0005
3487:0.1762
3425:0.1858
3301:0.2082
3239:0.2211
3205:0.0946
3177:0.2355
3143:0.0891
3115:0.2515
3081:0.0837
3053:0.2707
3019:0.0782
2991:0.2947
2957:0.0732
2929:0.3204
2863:0.3524
2794:0.3716
2725:0.3925
2656:0.4149
2587:0.4405
2518:0.4709
2484:0.0523
2314:0.5879
2280:0.0436
2248:0.6423
2182:0.7048
2113:0.7833
2101:0.0025
2051:0.8826
1917:1.1774
1851:1.4128
1785:1.7684
1716:2.3675
1579:tonnes
1312:, the
1176:tropos
949:oxygen
797:layer.
714:notes:
636:Helium
627:18.18
590:9,340
564:Oxygen
452:, and
446:spores
442:pollen
424:, and
418:helium
400:, and
398:oxygen
334:) and
312:layers
302:. The
185:oxygen
166:evolve
107:clouds
84:oceans
78:(both
9351:Curse
9157:Right
8999:polar
8989:bergs
8952:Fresh
8920:Water
8633:metal
8557:Field
8508:shade
8498:Solar
8488:Hydro
8373:Index
8245:fungi
8233:fauna
8221:flora
8128:Field
8083:Tides
7974:Earth
7932:Space
7793:Titan
7782:Dione
7719:Pluto
7713:Ceres
7659:Earth
7652:Venus
7609:Stars
7237:Biome
7219:World
6998:Earth
6765:(PDF)
6754:(PDF)
6636:S2CID
6468:S2CID
6222:S2CID
6162:(PDF)
6155:(PDF)
5584:2 Feb
5464:(PDF)
5212:and O
4777:smogs
4766:human
4578:green
4522:eon.
4465:Gabon
4438:(see
4364:plus
4344:from
4297:steam
4289:crust
4281:Theia
4112:and H
4008:and O
3933:from
3900:0.000
3895:0.536
3881:0.486
3858:2.726
3822:0.175
3779:0.000
3774:0.718
3760:0.161
3717:0.000
3698:0.149
3655:0.000
3650:0.707
3636:0.139
3593:0.000
3574:0.131
3529:0.702
3515:0.124
3472:0.000
3467:0.704
3453:0.117
3410:0.000
3405:0.704
3391:0.111
3363:0.197
3348:0.000
3343:0.705
3329:0.105
3286:0.000
3281:0.705
3224:0.000
3219:0.705
3162:0.000
3157:0.705
3100:0.000
3095:0.705
3038:0.000
3033:0.707
2976:0.000
2971:0.704
2917:0.001
2912:0.702
2895:0.067
2848:0.001
2843:0.699
2826:0.065
2779:0.001
2774:0.696
2757:0.062
2710:0.001
2705:0.692
2688:0.060
2641:0.001
2636:0.689
2619:0.057
2572:0.001
2567:0.686
2550:0.055
2503:0.001
2498:0.684
2452:0.503
2437:0.001
2432:0.682
2415:0.049
2383:0.543
2368:0.001
2346:0.046
2299:0.001
2236:0.002
2214:0.040
2167:0.002
2162:0.683
2145:0.037
2096:0.689
2079:0.033
2036:0.002
2031:0.697
2014:0.030
1986:0.998
1971:0.003
1966:0.708
1949:0.026
1905:0.004
1900:0.722
1883:0.022
1839:0.005
1834:0.738
1817:0.018
1770:0.006
1765:0.753
1748:0.013
1682:0.000
1650:3.601
1213:ozone
910:orbit
908:that
728:ppm:
708:0–3%
680:1.14
664:1.91
643:5.24
583:Argon
522:Name
426:xenon
402:argon
260:human
189:argon
142:night
111:hazes
80:lands
9286:good
9235:land
9213:land
9025:Rain
8881:wood
8856:food
8819:Game
8730:Life
8681:Soil
8657:peak
8650:sand
8525:Land
8515:Wind
8390:(US)
8367:(US)
8153:Life
8088:Wind
8073:Snow
8068:Rain
7937:Time
7856:Coma
7787:Rhea
7752:Moon
7733:Eris
7666:Mars
7189:Flag
7129:Asia
6791:NASA
6747:IPCC
6693:PMID
6675:ISSN
6628:PMID
6559:PMID
6413:2017
6333:OCLC
6323:ISBN
6298:OCLC
6288:ISBN
6244:ISBN
5968:ISBN
5804:2015
5725:2015
5693:NASA
5604:ISBN
5586:2024
5560:2022
5485:ISBN
5416:ISBN
5376:ISBN
5294:ISBN
5199:ISBN
4892:and
4844:and
4840:via
4832:and
4783:and
4760:and
4690:and
4682:and
4618:and
4580:and
4541:and
4384:and
4372:and
4291:and
4287:and
4263:and
4251:and
4209:and
4148:The
4103:The
4052:and
3902:3333
3886:1.57
3872:8.41
3863:9.55
3848:3000
3836:0.73
3827:7.44
3813:5.44
3804:7.57
3799:1688
3789:2500
3765:7.02
3751:5.04
3742:7.35
3737:1574
3727:2400
3712:0.71
3703:6.54
3689:4.64
3680:7.14
3675:1482
3665:2300
3641:6.12
3627:4.33
3618:6.93
3613:1419
3603:2200
3579:5.72
3565:4.00
3556:6.72
3551:1372
3541:2100
3520:5.26
3506:3.69
3497:6.50
3492:1338
3482:2000
3458:4.81
3444:3.39
3435:6.29
3430:1309
3420:1900
3396:4.38
3382:3.08
3373:6.07
3368:1287
3358:1800
3334:3.98
3320:2.81
3311:5.85
3306:1267
3296:1700
3272:3.61
3258:2.55
3249:5.63
3244:1248
3234:1600
3210:3.26
3196:2.29
3187:5.40
3182:1230
3172:1500
3148:2.92
3134:2.06
3125:5.17
3120:1214
3110:1400
3086:2.58
3072:1.82
3063:4.93
3058:1197
3048:1300
3024:2.25
3010:1.59
3001:4.69
2996:1179
2986:1200
2962:1.97
2948:1.39
2939:4.44
2934:1160
2924:1100
2903:1.68
2886:1.18
2877:4.15
2858:1000
2834:1.55
2817:1.08
2808:4.02
2765:1.43
2748:9.93
2739:3.90
2696:1.31
2679:9.08
2670:3.77
2627:1.20
2610:8.23
2601:3.63
2558:1.08
2541:7.39
2532:3.48
2489:9.67
2475:6.63
2466:3.33
2423:8.58
2406:5.85
2397:3.18
2363:0.68
2354:7.51
2337:5.13
2328:3.02
2294:0.68
2285:6.53
2271:4.43
2262:2.85
2231:0.68
2222:5.56
2205:3.79
2196:2.67
2153:4.22
2136:3.17
2127:2.48
2087:3.76
2070:2.59
2061:2.29
2056:1014
2022:2.98
2005:2.08
1996:2.08
1991:1009
1957:2.22
1940:1.57
1931:1.85
1891:1.57
1874:1.13
1865:1.60
1825:1.02
1808:7.49
1799:1.33
1756:5.75
1739:4.34
1730:1.03
1704:0.01
1699:0.77
1690:2.50
1673:1.92
1664:6.92
1577:10)
1486:NOAA
1480:and
1442:and
1417:X-15
1353:mmHg
1345:Torr
1316:and
1272:The
1238:and
1234:The
1219:The
1207:The
1180:mass
1051:and
958:and
858:and
620:Neon
611:417
512:Gas
476:and
444:and
438:dust
414:neon
357:and
349:and
286:and
274:and
219:and
162:life
156:and
140:and
125:and
109:and
97:and
82:and
63:The
57:Moon
9085:Law
8984:Ice
8824:law
8802:law
8780:law
8708:Use
8645:law
8628:ore
8589:Law
8465:gas
8451:Law
8446:Bio
8383:Law
8348:Air
7618:Sun
6683:PMC
6667:doi
6620:doi
6608:506
6549:PMC
6541:doi
6503:doi
6458:hdl
6450:doi
6214:doi
5883:doi
5286:doi
4836:of
4791:of
4764:of
4748:or
4561:of
4529:of
4494:by
4420:".
4392:of
4317:of
4229:eon
4224:'s
4116:O.
3927:Sun
3781:417
3719:435
3657:455
3595:476
3588:0.7
3474:526
3412:556
3350:588
3288:625
3267:0.1
3226:667
3164:714
3102:769
3040:833
2978:909
2870:141
2850:053
2801:132
2789:950
2781:111
2732:121
2720:900
2712:176
2663:109
2651:850
2594:097
2582:800
2574:333
2525:085
2513:750
2505:429
2459:075
2447:700
2439:538
2390:063
2378:650
2370:667
2321:055
2309:600
2301:818
2255:039
2243:550
2189:029
2177:500
2169:222
2120:020
2108:450
2046:400
2038:857
1981:350
1973:333
1924:005
1912:300
1858:005
1846:250
1792:006
1780:200
1772:667
1750:735
1723:009
1711:150
1684:925
1657:026
1645:100
1503:Sun
1484:on
1349:psi
1255:FAI
1027:).
677:Kr
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