Radioactive decay - Knowledge

3024:. Because the process is not thought to vary significantly in mechanism over time, it is also a valuable tool in estimating the absolute ages of certain materials. For geological materials, the radioisotopes and some of their decay products become trapped when a rock solidifies, and can then later be used (subject to many well-known qualifications) to estimate the date of the solidification. These include checking the results of several simultaneous processes and their products against each other, within the same sample. In a similar fashion, and also subject to qualification, the rate of formation of carbon-14 in various eras, the date of formation of organic matter within a certain period related to the isotope's half-life may be estimated, because the carbon-14 becomes trapped when the organic matter grows and incorporates the new carbon-14 from the air. Thereafter, the amount of carbon-14 in organic matter decreases according to decay processes that may also be independently cross-checked by other means (such as checking the carbon-14 in individual tree rings, for example). 8423: 857: 8255: 2860: 1261: 8243: 1192: 8271: 1675: 1412: 3616:

stays constant, no matter how long the nucleus has existed. This constant probability may differ greatly between one type of nucleus and another, leading to the many different observed decay rates. However, whatever the probability is, it does not change over time. This is in marked contrast to complex objects that do show aging, such as automobiles and humans. These aging systems do have a chance of breakdown per unit of time that increases from the moment they begin their existence.

1737: 1067: 870: 1502: 85: 8413: 55: 3569: 8077:(which exemplified the effects of thermal neutrons on nuclear decay), and astrophysical observations of the luminosity decays of distant supernovae (which occurred far away so the light has taken a great deal of time to reach us), for example, strongly indicate that unperturbed decay rates have been constant (at least to within the limitations of small experimental errors) as a function of time as well. 6202: 9115: 5882: 8001: 1359:, the increased range and quantity of radioactive substances being handled as a result of military and civil nuclear programs led to large groups of occupational workers and the public being potentially exposed to harmful levels of ionising radiation. This was considered at the first post-war ICR convened in London in 1950, when the present 3290: 2955:) have long since decayed. Isotopes of elements heavier than boron were not produced at all in the Big Bang, and these first five elements do not have any long-lived radioisotopes. Thus, all radioactive nuclei are, therefore, relatively young with respect to the birth of the universe, having formed later in various other types of 5993: 1859:, as a result of the re-ordering of electrons to fill the place of the missing captured electron). These types of decay involve the nuclear capture of electrons or emission of electrons or positrons, and thus acts to move a nucleus toward the ratio of neutrons to protons that has the least energy for a given total number of 1244:, also reported burns. Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an X-ray tube over a period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects, including ultraviolet rays and ozone, were sometimes blamed for the damage, and many physicians still claimed that there were no effects from X-ray exposure at all. 8065: 5388: 3710:, are irrelevant in what follows). The decay of an unstable nucleus is entirely random in time so it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay. However, it is equally likely to decay at any instant in time. Therefore, given a sample of a particular radioisotope, the number of decay events 8226:). The limits of these timescales are set by the sensitivity of instrumentation only, and there are no known natural limits to how brief or long a decay half-life for radioactive decay of a radionuclide may be. A radioactive nucleus (or any excited system in quantum mechanics) is unstable, and can, thus, 8024:

can affect the rate of electron capture to a small degree (in general, less than 1%) depending on the proximity of electrons to the nucleus. In Be, a difference of 0.9% has been observed between half-lives in metallic and insulating environments. This relatively large effect is because beryllium is a

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Since radioactive decay is exponential with a constant probability, each process could as easily be described with a different constant time period that (for example) gave its "(1/3)-life" (how long until only 1/3 is left) or "(1/10)-life" (a time period until only 10% is left), and so on. Thus, the

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wrote almost despairingly that his warnings about the dangers involved in the careless use of X-rays were not being heeded, either by industry or by his colleagues. By this time, Rollins had proved that X-rays could kill experimental animals, could cause a pregnant guinea pig to abort, and that they

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The mathematics of radioactive decay depend on a key assumption that a nucleus of a radionuclide has no "memory" or way of translating its history into its present behavior. A nucleus does not "age" with the passage of time. Thus, the probability of its breaking down does not increase with time but

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is sometimes defined as associated with the difference between the mass of the parent nuclide products and the mass of the decay products, this is true only of rest mass measurements, where some energy has been removed from the product system. This is true because the decay energy must always carry

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The combined effects of these forces produces a number of different phenomena in which energy may be released by rearrangement of particles in the nucleus, or else the change of one type of particle into others. These rearrangements and transformations may be hindered energetically so that they do

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Rare events that involve a combination of two beta-decay-type events happening simultaneously are known (see below). Any decay process that does not violate the conservation of energy or momentum laws (and perhaps other particle conservation laws) is permitted to happen, although not all have been

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by some heavy elements. (Later the term was generalized to all elements.) Their research on the penetrating rays in uranium and the discovery of radium launched an era of using radium for the treatment of cancer. Their exploration of radium could be seen as the first peaceful use of nuclear energy

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exhibit small seasonal variations (of the order of 0.1%). However, such measurements are highly susceptible to systematic errors, and a subsequent paper has found no evidence for such correlations in seven other isotopes (Na, Ti, Ag, Sn, Ba, Am, Pu), and sets upper limits on the size of any such

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A number of experiments have found that decay rates of other modes of artificial and naturally occurring radioisotopes are, to a high degree of precision, unaffected by external conditions such as temperature, pressure, the chemical environment, and electric, magnetic, or gravitational fields.

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The Szilard–Chalmers effect is the breaking of a chemical bond as a result of a kinetic energy imparted from radioactive decay. It operates by the absorption of neutrons by an atom and subsequent emission of gamma rays, often with significant amounts of kinetic energy. This kinetic energy, by

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Radioactivity is characteristic of elements with large atomic numbers. Elements with at least one stable isotope are shown in light blue. Green shows elements of which the most stable isotope has a half-life measured in millions of years. Yellow and orange are progressively less stable, with

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emissions, although the internal conversion process involves neither beta nor gamma decay. A neutrino is not emitted, and none of the electron(s) and photon(s) emitted originate in the nucleus, even though the energy to emit all of them does originate there. Internal conversion decay, like

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The relationship between the types of decays also began to be examined: For example, gamma decay was almost always found to be associated with other types of decay, and occurred at about the same time, or afterwards. Gamma decay as a separate phenomenon, with its own half-life (now termed

5057: 3564:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}t_{1/2}&={\frac {\ln(2)}{\lambda }}=\tau \ln(2)\\A&=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} N}{\mathrm {d} t}}=\lambda N={\frac {\ln(2)}{t_{1/2}}}N\\S_{A}a_{0}&=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} N}{\mathrm {d} t}}{\bigg |}_{t=0}=\lambda N_{0}\end{aligned}}} 5637: 3619:

Aggregate processes, like the radioactive decay of a lump of atoms, for which the single-event probability of realization is very small but in which the number of time-slices is so large that there is nevertheless a reasonable rate of events, are modelled by the

6197:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\mathrm {d} N_{A}}{\mathrm {d} t}}&=-\left({\frac {\mathrm {d} N_{B}}{\mathrm {d} t}}+{\frac {\mathrm {d} N_{C}}{\mathrm {d} t}}\right)\\-\lambda N_{A}&=-N_{A}\left(\lambda _{B}+\lambda _{C}\right)\\\end{aligned}}} 7152: 4842: 1636:, which does not change during the decay, even though the energy of decay is distributed among decay particles. The energy of photons, the kinetic energy of emitted particles, and, later, the thermal energy of the surrounding matter, all contribute to the 1167:

Marie and Pierre Curie's study of radioactivity is an important factor in science and medicine. After their research on Becquerel's rays led them to the discovery of both radium and polonium, they coined the term "radioactivity" to define the emission of

1957:. In this process, the beta electron-decay of the parent nuclide is not accompanied by beta electron emission, because the beta particle has been captured into the K-shell of the emitting atom. An antineutrino is emitted, as in all negative beta decays. 2871:

The daughter nuclide of a decay event may also be unstable (radioactive). In this case, it too will decay, producing radiation. The resulting second daughter nuclide may also be radioactive. This can lead to a sequence of several decay events called a

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in 1895 led to widespread experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors. Many people began recounting stories of burns, hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. In February of that year, Professor Daniel and Dr. Dudley of

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stabilize to a less-excited system. The resulting transformation alters the structure of the nucleus and results in the emission of either a photon or a high-velocity particle that has mass (such as an electron, alpha particle, or other type).

5083: 4314: 1129:, and others showed that this form of radioactivity was significantly more complicated. Rutherford was the first to realize that all such elements decay in accordance with the same mathematical exponential formula. Rutherford and his student 4642: 1850:

In electron capture, some proton-rich nuclides were found to capture their own atomic electrons instead of emitting positrons, and subsequently, these nuclides emit only a neutrino and a gamma ray from the excited nucleus (and often also

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applied to the radiations by external magnetic and electric fields that alpha particles carried a positive charge, beta particles carried a negative charge, and gamma rays were neutral. From the magnitude of deflection, it was clear that

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The radioactive decay modes of electron capture and internal conversion are known to be slightly sensitive to chemical and environmental effects that change the electronic structure of the atom, which in turn affects the presence of

6609: 6511: 1281:, likely caused by exposure to ionizing radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death of radium treatment enthusiasts, radium-containing medicinal products had been largely removed from the market ( 1228:

performed an experiment involving X-raying Dudley's head that resulted in his hair loss. A report by Dr. H.D. Hawks, of his suffering severe hand and chest burns in an X-ray demonstration, was the first of many other reports in

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half-lives in thousands or hundreds of years, down toward one day. Red and purple show highly and extremely radioactive elements where the most stable isotopes exhibit half-lives measured on the order of one day and much less.

5877:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}N_{D}&={\frac {N_{1}(0)}{\lambda _{D}}}\sum _{i=1}^{D}\lambda _{i}c_{i}e^{-\lambda _{i}t}\\c_{i}&=\prod _{j=1,i\neq j}^{D}{\frac {\lambda _{j}}{\lambda _{j}-\lambda _{i}}}\end{aligned}}} 8254: 4429: 2878:(see this article for specific details of important natural decay chains). Eventually, a stable nuclide is produced. Any decay daughters that are the result of an alpha decay will also result in helium atoms being created. 7996:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {N}{N_{0}}}&=4/14\approx 0.286,\\\tau &={\frac {T_{1/2}}{\ln 2}}\approx 8267{\text{ years}},\\t&=-\tau \,\ln {\frac {N}{N_{0}}}\approx 10356{\text{ years}}.\end{aligned}}} 1395:, that the new epidemiological studies directly support excess cancer risks from low-dose ionizing radiation. In 2021, Italian researcher Sebastiano Venturi reported the first correlations between radio-caesium and 3009:). A sample of the substance is synthesized with a high concentration of unstable atoms. The presence of the substance in one or another part of the system is determined by detecting the locations of decay events. 1824:, which were in turn created from other types of decay. Although alpha, beta, and gamma radiations were most commonly found, other types of emission were eventually discovered. Shortly after the discovery of the 8101:

activity or the distance from the Sun, but detailed analysis of the experiment's design flaws, along with comparisons to other, much more stringent and systematically controlled, experiments refute this claim.

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In 2020, Hauptmann and another 15 international researchers from eight nations, among them: Institutes of Biostatistics, Registry Research, Centers of Cancer Epidemiology, Radiation Epidemiology, and also the

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of uranium and by metallic uranium. It became clear from these experiments that there was a form of invisible radiation that could pass through paper and was causing the plate to react as if exposed to light.

984:, it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay, regardless of how long the atom has existed. However, for a significant number of identical atoms, the overall decay rate can be expressed as a 3860: 3295: 3781: 10320:

Kienle P, Bosch F, Bühler P, Faestermanna T, Litvinov Yu.A., Winckler N, et al. (2013). "High-resolution measurement of the time-modulated orbital electron capture and of the β decay of hydrogen-like

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could kill a foetus. He also stressed that "animals vary in susceptibility to the external action of X-light" and warned that these differences be considered when patients were treated by means of X-rays.

7728: 7375: 1733:, however, is only very slightly radioactive, with a half-life greater than the age of the universe; radioisotopes with extremely long half-lives are considered effectively stable for practical purposes. 5658: 1269:

However, the biological effects of radiation due to radioactive substances were less easy to gauge. This gave the opportunity for many physicians and corporations to market radioactive substances as

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Jenkins, J.H.; Fischbach, Ephraim; Buncher, John B.; Gruenwald, John T.; Krause, Dennis E.; Mattes, Joshua J. (2009). "Evidence of correlations between nuclear decay rates and Earth–Sun distance".

1625:. The decay energy is initially released as the energy of emitted photons plus the kinetic energy of massive emitted particles (that is, particles that have rest mass). If these particles come to 7046: 4052: 1277:

treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics. Marie Curie protested against this sort of treatment, warning that "radium is dangerous in untrained hands". Curie later died from

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In 1992, Jung et al. of the Darmstadt Heavy-Ion Research group observed an accelerated β decay of Dy. Although neutral Dy is a stable isotope, the fully ionized Dy undergoes β decay

1904:. Neutron emission usually happens from nuclei that are in an excited state, such as the excited O* produced from the beta decay of N. The neutron emission process itself is controlled by the 1960:

If energy circumstances are favorable, a given radionuclide may undergo many competing types of decay, with some atoms decaying by one route, and others decaying by another. An example is

1321:(ICR) was held and considered establishing international protection standards. The effects of radiation on genes, including the effect of cancer risk, were recognized much later. In 1927, 7057: 6987: 3941: 1725:

82, is the heaviest element to have any isotopes stable (to the limit of measurement) to radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is seen in all isotopes of all elements of atomic number 83 (

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A hypothetical process of positron capture, analogous to electron capture, is theoretically possible in antimatter atoms, but has not been observed, as complex antimatter atoms beyond

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The neutrons and protons that constitute nuclei, as well as other particles that approach close enough to them, are governed by several interactions. The nuclear force (also known as

3632:, which describes the statistical behaviour of a large number of nuclei, rather than one individual nucleus. In the following formalism, the number of nuclei or the nuclei population 7161:

Simulation of many identical atoms undergoing radioactive decay, starting with either 4 atoms (left) or 400 (right). The number at the top indicates how many half-lives have elapsed.

7807: 11391: 9191:"Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC" 7158: 5982: 9391: 1152:, besides uranium, have radioactive isotopes. A systematic search for the total radioactivity in uranium ores also guided Pierre and Marie Curie to isolate two new elements: 5892:

In all of the above examples, the initial nuclide decays into just one product. Consider the case of one initial nuclide that can decay into either of two products, that is

5383:{\displaystyle \lim _{\lambda _{B}\rightarrow 0}\left={\frac {N_{A0}\lambda _{A}}{0-\lambda _{A}}}\left(e^{-\lambda _{A}t}-1\right)=N_{A0}\left(1-e^{-\lambda _{A}t}\right),} 11560:"Increased mRNA Expression of CTRP3 and CTRP9 in Adipose Tissue from Obese Women: Is it Linked to Obesity-Related Parameters and mRNA Expression of Inflammatory Cytokines?" 7380:

This relationship between the half-life and the decay constant shows that highly radioactive substances are quickly spent, while those that radiate weakly endure longer.

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Recent results suggest the possibility that decay rates might have a weak dependence on environmental factors. It has been suggested that measurements of decay rates of

4164: 7179:. Given a sample of a particular radionuclide, the half-life is the time taken for half the radionuclide's atoms to decay. For the case of one-decay nuclear reactions: 3037:, pushes back on the decaying atom, which causes it to move with enough speed to break a chemical bond. This effect can be used to separate isotopes by chemical means. 10210:

Sturrock, P.A.; Steinitz, G.; Fischbach, E.; Javorsek, D.; Jenkins, J.H. (2012). "Analysis of gamma radiation from a radon source: Indications of a solar influence".

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salts. The uranium salts caused a blackening of the plate in spite of the plate being wrapped in black paper. These radiations were given the name "Becquerel Rays".

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and Thomas A. Chalmers. They observed that after bombardment by neutrons, the breaking of a bond in liquid ethyl iodide allowed radioactive iodine to be removed.

9073:"Cesium in Biology, Pancreatic Cancer, and Controversy in High and Low Radiation Exposure Damage – Scientific, Environmental, Geopolitical, and Economic Aspects" 8242: 6519: 6421: 5403:. This case is perhaps the most useful since it can derive both the one-decay equation (above) and the equation for multi-decay chains (below) more directly. 1968:

hours. This isotope has one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron, so either the proton or the neutron can decay to the other particle, which has opposite

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mass and system invariant mass (and also the system total energy) is conserved throughout any decay process. This is a restatement of the equivalent laws of

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is another spectacular example. Re normally undergoes beta decay to Os with a half-life of 41.6 × 10 years, but studies using fully ionised

1470:. For radiological protection purposes, although the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission permits the use of the unit curie alongside SI units, the 7748:

If an artifact is found to have radioactivity of 4 dpm per gram of its present C, we can find the approximate age of the object using the above equation:

1360: 1337: 1363:(ICRP) was born. Since then the ICRP has developed the present international system of radiation protection, covering all aspects of radiation hazards. 1203:

screen; this was a common way of setting up the tube. No precautions against radiation exposure are being taken; its hazards were not known at the time.

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It soon became clear that the blackening of the plate had nothing to do with phosphorescence, as the blackening was also produced by non-phosphorescent

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in the above relations results from the fact that the concept of "half-life" is merely a way of selecting a different base other than the natural base

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In principle a half-life, a third-life, or even a (1/√2)-life, can be used in exactly the same way as half-life; but the mean life and half-life

1988:%). The excited energy states resulting from these decays which fail to end in a ground energy state, also produce later internal conversion and 3581:

is the initial amount of active substance — substance that has the same percentage of unstable particles as when the substance was formed.

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gamma decay and neutron emission, involves the release of energy by an excited nuclide, without the transmutation of one element into another.

1920:, specific combinations of neutrons and protons other than alpha particles (helium nuclei) were found to be spontaneously emitted from atoms. 10628: 11086: 1713:, and gamma, in increasing order of their ability to penetrate matter. Alpha decay is observed only in heavier elements of atomic number 52 ( 1388: 1349: 7614:

for marker-times, are only for convenience, and from convention. They reflect a fundamental principle only in so much as they show that the

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Masoodian, Seyed Mohammad; Toolabi, Karamollah; Omidifar, Abolfazl; Zabihi, Hossein; Rahimipour, Ali; Shanaki, Mehrnoosh (1 May 2020).

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for decaying atoms. Each atom "lives" for a finite amount of time before it decays, and it may be shown that this mean lifetime is the

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nuclides decay and reduce the number of nuclides leading to the later sample. In other words, the number of second generation nuclei

1384: 901: 815: 7659: 7309: 3090:, are the daughters of those radioactive primordial nuclides. Another minor source of naturally occurring radioactive nuclides are 1900:

realized that certain rare beta-decay reactions immediately yield neutrons as an additional decay particle, so called beta-delayed

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At first, it seemed as though the new radiation was similar to the then recently discovered X-rays. Further research by Becquerel,

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with their surroundings and photons are absorbed, then the decay energy is transformed to thermal energy, which retains its mass.

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Radionuclide is the more correct term, but radioisotope is also used. The difference between isotope and nuclide is explained at

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not occur immediately. Radioactive decay half-life of nuclides has been measured over timescales of 54 orders of magnitude, from

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was once reported to exhibit large 4% peak-to-peak seasonal variations (see plot), which were proposed to be related to either

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is the initial number of nuclide A. When measuring the production of one nuclide, one can only observe the total decay constant

5052:{\displaystyle N_{B}={\frac {N_{A0}\lambda _{A}}{\lambda _{B}-\lambda _{A}}}\left(e^{-\lambda _{A}t}-e^{-\lambda _{B}t}\right).} 1828:

in cosmic ray products, it was realized that the same process that operates in classical beta decay can also produce positrons (

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Jenkins, Jere H.; Fischbach, Ephraim (2009). "Perturbation of Nuclear Decay Rates During the Solar Flare of 13 December 2006".

1538: 11471: 9635: 9579: 9559: 9374: 8621: 8596: 8559: 8530: 1376: 1326: 10136: 11172: 11066: 11035: 10980: 8159:, some of the proposed explanations for the observed rate oscillation invoke neutrino properties. Initial ideas related to 5632:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} N_{j}}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-\lambda _{j}N_{j}+\lambda _{j-1}N_{(j-1)0}e^{-\lambda _{j-1}t}.} 1094:

might be associated with phosphorescence. He wrapped a photographic plate in black paper and placed various phosphorescent

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Bosch, F.; et al. (1996). "Observation of bound-state beta minus decay of fully ionized Re: Re–Os Cosmochronometry".

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Other types of radioactive decay were found to emit previously seen particles but via different mechanisms. An example is

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A nucleus captures an orbiting electron and emits a neutrino; the daughter nucleus is left in an excited unstable state

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materials. These materials glow in the dark after exposure to light, and Becquerel suspected that the glow produced in

10669: 11386: 11361: 9506: 8780: 8755: 7147:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\tau }}=\lambda =\lambda _{B}+\lambda _{C}={\frac {1}{\tau _{B}}}+{\frac {1}{\tau _{C}}}\,} 3074:. They are the fraction of radionuclides that survived from that time, through the formation of the primordial solar 1585: 10547: 11630: 11081: 9974: 3021: 2799:

A nucleus disintegrates into two or more smaller nuclei and other particles, all of which may vary with each decay

1552: 468: 11281: 8422: 6956: 4837:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} N_{B}}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-\lambda _{B}N_{B}+\lambda _{A}N_{A0}e^{-\lambda _{A}t}} 3885: 2990:

in the early Solar System. The extra presence of these stable radiogenic nuclides (such as xenon-129 from extinct

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of the system. Thus, while the sum of the rest masses of the particles is not conserved in radioactive decay, the

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Bosch, F.; et al. (1996). "Observation of bound-state β– decay of fully ionized Re:Re-Os Cosmochronometry".

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Smoliar, M.I.; Walker, R.J.; Morgan, J.W. (1996). "Re-Os ages of group IIA, IIIA, IVA, and IVB iron meteorites".

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A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine : with emphasis on photographic records of the early years

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years, is constantly produced in Earth's upper atmosphere due to interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen.

9173: 1523: 365: 35: 17: 11376: 9413: 9211: 9016:"Epidemiological Studies of Low-Dose Ionizing Radiation and Cancer: Summary Bias Assessment and Meta-Analysis" 5987:

which is constant, since the total number of nuclides remains constant. Differentiating with respect to time:

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of atoms. In consequence, predictions using these constants are less accurate for minuscule samples of atoms.

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intended for IAEA Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury

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decreases as time increases, as the decay events follow one after another. The solution to this first-order

1721:(which decays to two alpha particles). The other two types of decay are observed in all the elements. Lead, 8288: 2769:

A nucleus in a metastable state drops to a lower energy state by emitting a photon or ejecting an electron

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Decay energy, therefore, remains associated with a certain measure of the mass of the decay system, called

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is the constant number of particles throughout the decay process, which is equal to the initial number of

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apparatus in 1896. The Crookes tube is visible in the centre. The standing man is viewing his hand with a

992:. The half-lives of radioactive atoms have a huge range; from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the 11311: 10903: 8132:

decay of two radioactive species with half lives of about 40 s and 200 s are found to have a significant

5928: 2951:) survive to today, but any radioactive isotopes of the light elements produced in the Big Bang (such as 678: 648: 149: 8061:

atomic orbital), which cannot occur for neutral atoms in which all low-lying bound states are occupied.

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are two examples of such aggregate processes. The mathematics of Poisson processes reduce to the law of

3005:, which is used to track the passage of a chemical substance through a complex system (such as a living 11329: 11135: 10990: 10963: 9735:

Wang, B.; et al. (2006). "Change of the 7Be electron capture half-life in metallic environments".

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electrons that participate in the decay process. A small number of nuclides are affected. For example,

4474:. The previous equation cannot be applied to the decay chain, but can be generalized as follows. Since 3034: 1612: 725: 275: 8053:

atoms (bare nuclei) have found that this can decrease to only 32.9 years. This is attributed to "

2967:), and also during ongoing interactions between stable isotopes and energetic particles. For example, 1972:. This particular nuclide (though not all nuclides in this situation) is more likely to decay through 11264: 11020: 10873: 9493:, Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry, vol. 1, Academic Press, pp. 267–314, 9488: 8857:"Ronald L. Kathern and Paul L. Ziemer, he First Fifty Years of Radiation Protection, physics.isu.edu" 8417: 8383: 3200: 3067: 1870:

are not experimentally available. Such a decay would require antimatter atoms at least as complex as

1809: 1368: 611: 10656:"Henri Becquerel: The Discovery of Radioactivity", Becquerel's 1896 articles online and analyzed on 10135:

Norman, E.B.; Browne, Edgardo; Shugart, Howard A.; Joshi, Tenzing H.; Firestone, Richard B. (2009).

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The above equations can also be written using quantities related to the number of nuclide particles

10958: 10868: 10732: 8551: 8388: 4309:{\displaystyle N_{B}=N_{A0}-N_{A}=N_{A0}-N_{A0}e^{-\lambda t}=N_{A0}\left(1-e^{-\lambda t}\right).} 3604: 3273:, is the number of decays per unit time per amount of substance of the sample at time set to zero ( 3079: 2944: 1317:(1896) gave what is probably the first protection advice, but it was not until 1925 that the first 1034:

There are 28 naturally occurring chemical elements on Earth that are radioactive, consisting of 35

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A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then undergoes spontaneous fission

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A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then undergoes spontaneous fission

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was eventually observed in some elements. It was also found that some heavy elements may undergo

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Frederick Soddy, "The Radio Elements and the Periodic Law", Chem. News, Nr. 107, 1913, pp. 97–99

4637:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} N_{B}}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-\lambda _{B}N_{B}+\lambda _{A}N_{A}.} 1038:(seven elements have two different radionuclides) that date before the time of formation of the 11620: 11139: 11050: 10724: 10608: 9440:"Chemical separation of the radioactive element from its bombarded isotope in the Fermi effect" 9366: 8638: 8363: 8040: 3002: 2764: 1645: 1559: 655: 305: 270: 9591:

Cetnar, Jerzy (May 2006). "General solution of Bateman equations for nuclear transmutations".

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has provoked theoretical activity in an effort to find a convincing explanation. The rates of

1820:), was found in natural radioactivity to be a result of the gamma decay of excited metastable 11625: 11143: 10878: 8403: 8328: 8163:

met with skepticism. A more recent proposal involves mass differences between neutrino mass

7401: 3876: 3872: 3645: 3208: 2314: 1874:, which is the lightest known isotope of normal matter to undergo decay by electron capture. 1776: 1322: 1260: 1225: 1134: 1016: 966: 780: 665: 557: 11299: 8054: 3130:, of a radioactive substance is characterized by the following time-independent parameters: 1950: 720: 11433: 11258: 11000: 10888: 10845: 10795: 10470: 10405: 10344: 10284: 10229: 10161: 10101: 10048: 9983: 9934: 9891: 9846: 9795: 9744: 9694: 9600: 9451: 9145: 8932: 8584: 8293: 7413: 3621: 2987: 1933: 1908:

and therefore is extremely fast, sometimes referred to as "nearly instantaneous". Isolated

1856: 1705:

could split radioactive emissions into three types of beams. The rays were given the names

1649: 1314: 1294: 1282: 1247:

Despite this, there were some early systematic hazard investigations, and as early as 1902

790: 765: 582: 10626:

Annotated bibliography for radioactivity from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues

7745:

years and a decay rate of 14 disintegrations per minute (dpm) per gram of natural carbon.

6604:{\displaystyle N_{C}={\frac {\lambda _{C}}{\lambda }}N_{A0}\left(1-e^{-\lambda t}\right).} 6506:{\displaystyle N_{B}={\frac {\lambda _{B}}{\lambda }}N_{A0}\left(1-e^{-\lambda t}\right),} 5456:), each nuclide population can be found in terms of the previous population. In this case 1477:

required that its use for "public health ... purposes" be phased out by 31 December 1985.

8: 11447: 11212: 11117: 10995: 10908: 9487:

Harbottle, Garman; Sutin, Norman (1 January 1959), Emeléus, H. J.; Sharpe, A. G. (eds.),

8680: 8514: 8343: 8248:

The trefoil symbol used to warn of presence of radioactive material or ionising radiation

6684: 3249: 2854: 2794: 2468:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits three neutrons

1942: 1929: 1913: 1817: 1626: 1443: 1008: 993: 685: 564: 458: 401: 394: 384: 325: 320: 154: 11076: 10474: 10409: 10348: 10297: 10288: 10272: 10241: 10233: 10173: 10165: 10113: 10105: 10060: 10052: 9996: 9987: 9969: 9938: 9895: 9850: 9799: 9748: 9706: 9698: 9604: 9529: 9455: 9149: 8936: 8588: 2859: 2608:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits an a particle

2580:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits an α particle

2552:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits three protons

1775:

In analyzing the nature of the decay products, it was obvious from the direction of the

11592: 11479: 11323: 11112: 10933: 10913: 10893: 10777: 10685: 10496: 10460: 10429: 10395: 10368: 10334: 10253: 10219: 10177: 10151: 10117: 10091: 10064: 10038: 9862: 9768: 9469: 9359: 9324: 9305: 9099: 9072: 9048: 9015: 8989: 8830: 8797: 8721: 8720:

Kasimir Fajans, "Radioactive transformations and the periodic system of the elements".

8393: 8298: 8276:

One of several dangerous goods transport classification signs for radioactive materials

8179: 8160: 8117: 5394: 4320: 3091: 3059: 2979: 2440:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits two neutrons

2239:

A nuclear proton converts to a neutron by emitting a positron and an electron neutrino

1393:

JNCI Monographs: Epidemiological Studies of Low Dose Ionizing Radiation and Cancer Risk

1304: 1208: 1186: 1169: 628: 623: 438: 46: 10417: 10273:"On the claim of modulations in radon decay and their association with solar rotation" 9498: 7618:

of a given radioactive substance will decay, during any time-period that one chooses.

3786:

Particular radionuclides decay at different rates, so each has its own decay constant

2943:) were produced very shortly after the emergence of the universe, in a process called 2524:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits two protons

1310: 1220: 11597: 11579: 11540: 11528: 11366: 11222: 11217: 11005: 10883: 10820: 10488: 10421: 10360: 10302: 10257: 10245: 10121: 10068: 9950: 9907: 9819: 9811: 9772: 9760: 9710: 9631: 9575: 9555: 9502: 9370: 9309: 9297: 9104: 9053: 9035: 9031: 8905: 8835: 8817: 8776: 8751: 8617: 8592: 8555: 8526: 8446: 8378: 8156: 6763: 3679: 3629: 3590: 3263: 2926: 2636:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits a deuteron

2377: 2344: 2267: 2234: 1829: 1793: 1396: 1114: 981: 800: 795: 755: 633: 372: 360: 315: 285: 126: 10667:"Radioactive change", Rutherford & Soddy article (1903), online and analyzed on 10500: 10433: 10372: 9866: 9534:(Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments ed.). Springer-Verlag. 8993: 7458:

remains, about 36.8%, rather than the 50% in the half-life of a radionuclide. Thus,

2913:

are radioactive daughter products of bismuth-212, and both decay directly to stable

2412:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits a neutron

11587: 11571: 11536: 11518: 11227: 11010: 10478: 10413: 10356: 10352: 10292: 10237: 10181: 10169: 10109: 10056: 9991: 9942: 9899: 9854: 9803: 9752: 9702: 9608: 9494: 9473: 9459: 9339: 9287: 9153: 9094: 9084: 9043: 9027: 8981: 8940: 8895: 8825: 8809: 8576: 8518: 8348: 8313: 8195: 8187: 8129: 3625: 3150: 3103: 3041: 2664:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits a triton

2496:

A nucleus decays by β emission to an excited state, which then emits a proton

2204: 2174: 2140: 1981: 1901: 1887: 1883: 1845: 1768: 1439: 1431:. One Bq is defined as one transformation (or decay or disintegration) per second. 1415:

Graphic showing relationships between radioactivity and detected ionizing radiation

1278: 1174: 1149: 1095: 1087: 1028: 820: 810: 740: 493: 411: 379: 199: 131: 10137:"Evidence against correlations between nuclear decay rates and Earth–Sun distance" 9858: 9612: 1788:. Passing alpha particles through a very thin glass window and trapping them in a 11122: 11107: 10923: 10835: 10825: 10677: 10644: 10632: 10595: 10185: 10011: 9756: 8616:(Reprint. with minor corr ed.). Bristol: Inst. of Physics Publ. p. 12. 8373: 8353: 8318: 6941: 4424:{\displaystyle P(N)={\frac {\langle N\rangle ^{N}\exp(-\langle N\rangle )}{N!}}.} 3107: 3099: 3053: 2986:

or not. There exist stable radiogenic nuclides that were formed from short-lived

2956: 2932: 2407: 2110: 2076: 1973: 1909: 1891: 1781: 1689:

can only be reduced by much more substantial mass, such as a very thick layer of

1428: 1333: 1270: 1130: 1083: 1075: 805: 785: 760: 690: 577: 505: 451: 416: 76: 10614: 9946: 9903: 9807: 9651: 8708: 8666: 8073:

Comparison of laboratory experiments over the last century, studies of the Oklo

7627:

life for the above situation would be found in the same way as above—by setting

5411:

For the general case of any number of consecutive decays in a decay chain, i.e.

3280:). "Amount of substance" can be the mass, volume or moles of the initial sample. 45:. For more information on hazards of various kinds of radiation from decay, see 11207: 10970: 10928: 10918: 10840: 10830: 10800: 9343: 9292: 9275: 9133: 9119: 8985: 8427: 8368: 8323: 8029: 8021: 4541:. The sum of these two terms gives the law for a decay chain for two nuclides: 3637: 3231: 3158: 3087: 2995: 2983: 2037: 1937: 1852: 1821: 1785: 1752: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1678: 1637: 1633: 1471: 1383:

the damage resulting from the "low doses" that have afflicted survivors of the

1191: 1160:. Except for the radioactivity of radium, the chemical similarity of radium to 985: 934: 861: 715: 710: 589: 522: 330: 265: 242: 229: 216: 116: 94: 62: 42: 10637: 10572: 8860: 8522: 4535:, and decreases as a result of its own decay into the third generation nuclei 1411: 1332:

The second ICR was held in Stockholm in 1928 and proposed the adoption of the

1054:, but also included are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, such as 11614: 11583: 11532: 11317: 11045: 10805: 10790: 10607: 10492: 10425: 10364: 10306: 10271:

Pommé, S.; Lutter, G.; Marouli, M.; Kossert, K.; Nähle, O. (1 January 2018).

10249: 9815: 9764: 9714: 9301: 9039: 8944: 8882:

Hrabak, M.; Padovan, R.S.; Kralik, M.; Ozretic, D.; Potocki, K. (July 2008).

8821: 8358: 8261: 8223: 6937: 6929: 3185: 2689: 1917: 1905: 1745: 1722: 1710: 1682: 1380: 1345: 1237: 1012: 1004: 970: 840: 835: 830: 825: 775: 433: 406: 250: 189: 142: 121: 8813: 8116:

An unexpected series of experimental results for the rate of decay of heavy

3226:

Those parameters can be related to the following time-dependent parameters:

1674: 965:

that is responsible for beta decay, while the other two are governed by the

11601: 11544: 11396: 11351: 11291: 11192: 11025: 10985: 10850: 9954: 9911: 9823: 9574:

Introductory Nuclear Physics, K.S. Krane, 1988, John Wiley & Sons Inc,

9108: 9089: 9057: 8909: 8839: 8125: 8085: 5905: 3071: 3017: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2890: 2881:

Some radionuclides may have several different paths of decay. For example,

1897: 1607: 1459: 1435: 1356: 1241: 1196: 1122: 1118: 1055: 1039: 1035: 1000: 770: 745: 730: 475: 423: 280: 11559: 11523: 11502: 11305: 10543: 9786:

Jung, M.; et al. (1992). "First observation of bound-state β decay".

8068:

Example of diurnal and seasonal variations in gamma ray detector response.

8064: 8057:" of the fully ionised atom – the electron is emitted into the "K-shell" ( 3589:

For the mathematical details of exponential decay in general context, see

1964:, which has 29 protons, and 35 neutrons, which decays with a half-life of 1800:

nuclei. Other experiments showed beta radiation, resulting from decay and

1796:

of the captured particles, and ultimately proved that alpha particles are

1740:

Transition diagram for decay modes of a radionuclide, with neutron number

1736: 11575: 11188: 11157: 10767: 10569:– Contains tabulated information on radioactive decay types and energies. 9274:

Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (March 2021).

8900: 8883: 8308: 8183: 8164: 8140: 8133: 8111: 8098: 8046: 8036:

atomic orbitals in all atoms) they naturally penetrate into the nucleus.

6783: 2898: 2886: 2874: 2031: 1989: 1954: 1871: 1801: 1730: 1718: 1669: 1661: 1481: 1325:

published research showing genetic effects and, in 1946, was awarded the

1200: 1126: 1079: 1066: 946: 735: 428: 350: 203: 58: 1932:, which results in an initial electron emission, and then often further 11401: 10815: 10762: 10483: 10448: 9188: 8398: 8211: 8191: 8136: 8089: 8081: 6773: 5909: 3707: 3223:

have been adopted as standard times associated with exponential decay.

3095: 3094:, that are formed by cosmic ray bombardment of material in the Earth's 3083: 2991: 2304: 1867: 1665: 1526: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1142: 977: 958: 950: 705: 695: 552: 532: 355: 225: 11501:

Pfeifer, Kent B; Weber, Thomas M; Martin, James E (29 November 2023).

8771:

Petrucci, Ralph H.; Harwood, William S.; Herring, F. Geoffrey (2002).

8139:, with a period of about 7 s. The observed phenomenon is known as the 6998:, inserting the equivalent values of decay constants (as given above) 1027:(or both). When the number of protons changes, an atom of a different 11102: 10975: 10810: 10757: 10747: 10708: 10577: 9464: 9439: 9158: 8511:

Radiation Protection and Dosimetry: An Introduction to Health Physics

8506: 8148: 8094: 7738: 3597: 3136: 2968: 2964: 2948: 2864: 1961: 1805: 1789: 1714: 1686: 1424: 989: 954: 938: 750: 700: 527: 515: 510: 389: 30:"Radioactive" and "Radioactivity" redirect here. For other uses, see 10583: 9237:"CH103 – Chapter 3: Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry – Chemistry" 8681:"Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents" 1808:. Likewise, gamma radiation and X-rays were found to be high-energy 1501: 1133:

were the first to realize that many decay processes resulted in the

11232: 10752: 10737: 10600: 9323:

Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).

7588:{\displaystyle N(t)=N_{0}\,e^{-t/\tau }=N_{0}\,2^{-t/t_{1/2}}.\,\!} 5913: 3703: 3603:

For the analogous mathematics in 1st order chemical reactions, see

3006: 2936: 2914: 2310: 1863:. This consequently produces a more stable (lower energy) nucleus. 1833: 1825: 1756: 1153: 10465: 10400: 10339: 10224: 10156: 10096: 10043: 9389: 7267:{\displaystyle N=N_{0}\,e^{-{\lambda }t}=N_{0}\,e^{-t/\tau },\,\!} 6893:{\displaystyle N=N_{0}\,e^{-{\lambda }t}=N_{0}\,e^{-t/\tau },\,\!} 3082:, and up to the present time. The naturally occurring short-lived 1949:

detected. An interesting example discussed in a final section, is

1403:

in biology, in pancreatitis and in diabetes of pancreatic origin.

84: 11030: 10588: 10386:

Giunti, Carlo (2009). "The GSI Time Anomaly: Facts and Fiction".

10209: 9568: 9077:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

8152: 8050: 3855:{\displaystyle -{\frac {\mathrm {d} N}{N}}=\lambda \mathrm {d} t} 2952: 2940: 2146: 1969: 1860: 1764: 1726: 1485: 1480:

The effects of ionizing radiation are often measured in units of

1400: 1300: 1211:

due to radioactivity and X-rays were not immediately recognized.

1099: 1051: 1047: 1024: 212: 185: 177: 109: 99: 10081: 8186:

scale, is the most powerful force over subatomic distances. The

8032:, which are subject to electron capture in Be because (like all 3776:{\displaystyle -{\frac {\mathrm {d} N}{\mathrm {d} t}}\propto N} 3245:, is the number of decays per unit time of a radioactive sample. 1003:(or parent radioisotope), and the process produces at least one 11356: 11242: 10449:"Neutrino Signals in Electron-Capture Storage-Ring Experiments" 7277:

the half-life is related to the decay constant as follows: set

7157: 6936:

In a radioactive decay process, this time constant is also the

5393:

as shown above for one decay. The solution can be found by the

3169: 3075: 3013: 2082: 1916:

into products that vary in composition. In a phenomenon called

1797: 1760: 1616: 1447: 1438:, Ci, which was originally defined as "the quantity or mass of 1161: 1157: 1020: 104: 66: 11557: 11392:

Maria Skłodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology

10613: 9276:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear physics properties \ast" 6992:

This form is also true for two-decay processes simultaneously

6403:

determine the probability for the decay to result in products

4529:

increases as a result of the first generation nuclei decay of

54: 10855: 10742: 10651:

Stochastic Flash simulation on the decay of radioactive atoms

10319: 9118:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

9114: 8546:

Best, Lara; Rodrigues, George; Velker, Vikram (2013). "1.3".

7723:{\displaystyle t_{1/n}={\frac {\ln n}{\lambda }}=\tau \ln n.} 7370:{\displaystyle t_{1/2}={\frac {\ln 2}{\lambda }}=\tau \ln 2.} 4847:

The subscripts simply refer to the respective nuclides, i.e.

3644:

is so large that it can be treated as a continuous variable.

3063: 1274: 1106: 1091: 1070:

Pierre and Marie Curie in their Paris laboratory, before 1907

9189:

The Council of the European Communities (21 December 1979).

6776:

of the substance in kg/mol, and the amount of the substance

4444:

Now consider the case of a chain of two decays: one nuclide

3149:, is the time taken for the activity of a given amount of a 9584: 8798:"Early victims of X-rays: a tribute and current perception" 6950:, which again is related to the decay constant as follows: 6708: 3207:

Although these are constants, they are associated with the

2978:

Nuclides that are produced by radioactive decay are called

2960: 1690: 1599: 8881: 8498: 6789: 5642:

The general solution to the recursive problem is given by

4319:

The number of decays observed over a given interval obeys

3001:

Radioactive decay has been put to use in the technique of

10270: 8339:

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

8121: 3196: 3102:. The decay of the radionuclides in rocks of the Earth's 1019:

resulting in a daughter containing a different number of

10638:

Stochastic Java applet on the decay of radioactive atoms

10134: 8574: 2276:

rate of electron capture (ε) and positron emission (e):

1598:

Radioactive decay results in a reduction of summed rest

9656:

The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty

8967:"The History of ICRP and the Evolution of its Policies" 8750:. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science. p. 2. 3596:

For related derivations with some further details, see

9120:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

8795: 8770: 8539: 7384:

vary by almost 54 orders of magnitude, from more than

5077:= 0), this equation reduces to the previous solution: 3040:

The Szilard–Chalmers effect was discovered in 1934 by

2708:) which is larger than an alpha particle (e.g. C, Ne) 1148:

The early researchers also discovered that many other

941:. A material containing unstable nuclei is considered 9365:(2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 7821: 7757: 7662: 7482: 7312: 7188: 7060: 7007: 6959: 6814: 6522: 6424: 6308: 6244: 5996: 5931: 5656: 5495: 5086: 4919: 4727: 4550: 4348: 4167: 4090: 3988: 3888: 3817: 3739: 3293: 3070:

explosions that occurred before the formation of the

1141:

was formulated to describe the products of alpha and

11423:

Maria Skłodowska-Curie Monument in Warsaw (Downtown)

10203: 9554:. New Delhi: New Age International. pp. 62–72. 9322: 9273: 8334:

Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

7041:{\displaystyle \lambda =\lambda _{B}+\lambda _{C}\,} 4047:{\displaystyle N_{A}+N_{B}=N_{\text{total}}=N_{A0},} 2694:

A nucleus emits a specific type of smaller nucleus (

2349:

A nucleus emits two electrons and two antineutrinos

1896:

Shortly after the discovery of the neutron in 1932,

9836: 9361:

Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis

8545: 7653:and substituting into the decay solution to obtain 7473:. The following equation can be shown to be valid: 6927:is a characteristic time of the process called the 6280:{\displaystyle \lambda =\lambda _{B}+\lambda _{C}.} 1361:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

1338:

International X-ray and Radium Protection Committee

1074:Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by scientists 980:process at the level of single atoms. According to 11500: 11428:Maria Skłodowska-Curie Monument in Warsaw (Ochota) 10707: 9358: 8851: 8849: 8190:is almost always significant, and, in the case of 7995: 7801: 7722: 7587: 7369: 7266: 7146: 7040: 6981: 6892: 6603: 6505: 6356: 6279: 6196: 5976: 5876: 5631: 5382: 5051: 4836: 4636: 4423: 4308: 4135: 4046: 3935: 3854: 3775: 3563: 3047: 2935:, stable isotopes of the lightest three elements ( 2848: 1391:that have occurred. These scientists reported, in 1377:Radiation Effects Research Foundation of Hiroshima 1164:made these two elements difficult to distinguish. 41:For particle decay in a more general context, see 9531:Statistics and the treatment of experimental data 9325:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" 8964: 8789: 7584: 7263: 6889: 3648:is used to model the behaviour of nuclear decay. 3524: 2971:, a radioactive nuclide with a half-life of only 2179:Two neutrons ejected from nucleus simultaneously 65:of two neutrons and two protons; also known as a 11612: 10028: 8745: 7170:A more commonly used parameter is the half-life 5406: 5088: 2382:A nucleus emits two positrons and two neutrinos 2115:Two protons ejected from nucleus simultaneously 1139:radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy 10601:Health Physics Society Public Education Website 10313: 9437: 9390:Bolt, B.A.; Packard, R.E.; Price, P.B. (2007). 8846: 8796:Sansare, K.; Khanna, V.; Karjodkar, F. (2011). 8678: 8639:"Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence" 8636: 7429:for the lifetime expression. The time constant 6903:the equation indicates that the decay constant 3724:is proportional to the number of atoms present 3012:On the premise that radioactive decay is truly 1836:(classical beta decay produces antineutrinos). 1681:may be completely stopped by a sheet of paper, 1098:on it. All results were negative until he used 9486: 8722:Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 6794: 5486:. Using the above result in a recursive form: 4670:, is related to the changes in the amounts of 4333:, the probability of a given number of decays 4072:nuclides since this is the initial substance. 3717:expected to occur in a small interval of time 2920: 1655: 1313:'s discovery of X-rays, the American engineer 945:. Three of the most common types of decay are 11564:Reports of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 11173: 10693: 9779: 9269: 9267: 9265: 9263: 9261: 9259: 9257: 9255: 9253: 8775:(8th ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 1025. 3203:life) of a radioactive particle before decay. 1923: 1352:. The committee met in 1931, 1934, and 1937. 1137:of one element to another. Subsequently, the 895: 10513:Noboru Takigawa and Kouhei Washiyama (2017) 9644: 9414:"Szilard-Chalmers effect - Oxford Reference" 6982:{\displaystyle \tau ={\frac {1}{\lambda }}.} 6944:of all the atoms' lifetimes, and that it is 4401: 4395: 4374: 4367: 3936:{\displaystyle N(t)=N_{0}\,e^{-{\lambda }t}} 2947:. These lightest stable nuclides (including 1344:was named chairman, but a driving force was 9728: 8145:GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research 8143:, as the storage ring is a facility at the 6357:{\displaystyle N_{A}=N_{A0}e^{-\lambda t}.} 3624:, which is discrete. Radioactive decay and 3172:", the reciprocal of the mean lifetime (in 1458:disintegrations per second, so that 1 1450:(element)". Today, the curie is defined as 1373:International Agency for Research on Cancer 11187: 11180: 11166: 10700: 10686: 10388:Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings Supplements 10379: 9630:. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 164. 9625: 9438:Szilard, Leó; Chalmers, Thomas A. (1934). 9250: 9131: 8884:"Nikola Tesla and the Discovery of X-rays" 8025:small atom whose valence electrons are in 4874:is the initial number of nuclides of type 4136:{\displaystyle N_{A}=N_{A0}e^{-\lambda t}} 3967:= 0, with the decay constant expressed as 3027: 999:The decaying nucleus is called the parent 902: 888: 11591: 11522: 11507:-particle detection using optical fibers" 11503:"Development of local-power-free, remote 11418:Maria Skłodowska-Curie Monument in Lublin 10553:Radio-activity by Ernest Rutherford Phd, 10482: 10464: 10399: 10338: 10296: 10223: 10155: 10095: 10042: 9995: 9918: 9463: 9291: 9178:. US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2009. 9157: 9098: 9088: 9047: 8899: 8829: 7951: 7774: 7583: 7543: 7508: 7262: 7237: 7205: 7143: 7037: 6888: 6863: 6831: 5904:in parallel. For example, in a sample of 3914: 3801:is proportional to an increment of time, 1586:Learn how and when to remove this message 1423:(SI) unit of radioactive activity is the 1385:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1255: 10555:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 9545: 9543: 9541: 9394:. The University of California, Berkeley 8922: 8063: 8043:to Ho with a half-life of 47 days. 7733: 7412:seconds for the highly unstable nuclide 7400:sec) for the very nearly stable nuclide 7156: 6915:, and can thus also be represented as 1/ 5397:method, where the integrating factor is 4434: 2858: 1735: 1673: 1475:European units of measurement directives 1410: 1259: 1190: 1065: 53: 10440: 9521: 9490:The Szilard-Chalmers Reaction in Solids 9356: 9070: 9013: 8748:Radioactivity: Introduction and History 8304:Crimes involving radioactive substances 8234: 6790:Decay timing: definitions and relations 4718:Re-writing using the previous results: 2994:) against the background of primordial 1611:mass with it, wherever it appears (see 1288: 1180: 1061: 14: 11613: 11041:Wireless electronic devices and health 10385: 10012:"The mystery of varying nuclear decay" 9652:"2022 CODATA Value: Avogadro constant" 9590: 8925:"Marie Curie and the perils in radium" 8504: 7802:{\displaystyle N=N_{0}\,e^{-t/\tau },} 6655: 4439: 3636:, is of course a discrete variable (a 3153:to decay to half of its initial value. 1995: 1434:An older unit of radioactivity is the 1427:(Bq), named in honor of the scientist 933:) is the process by which an unstable 11472:Marie Curie: The Courage of Knowledge 11161: 10681: 10605: 9970:"Perturbation of Nuclear Decay Rates" 9967: 9924: 9879: 9683:"Perturbation of Nuclear Decay Rates" 9680: 9549: 9538: 9392:"John H. Reynolds, Physics: Berkeley" 9132:Rutherford, Ernest (6 October 1910). 8741: 8739: 8611: 4323:. If the average number of decays is 1717:) and greater, with the exception of 1327:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 27:Emissions from unstable atomic nuclei 11067:List of civilian radiation accidents 11036:Wireless device radiation and health 11031:Biological dose units and quantities 10981:Electromagnetic radiation and health 10578:Specific activity and related topics 9785: 9734: 9071:Venturi, Sebastiano (January 2021). 8548:Radiation Oncology Primer and Review 8170: 8155:. As the decay process produces an 5887: 3651: 1606:) has escaped in some way. Although 1524:adding citations to reliable sources 1495: 11464:Marie Curie, une femme sur le front 10446: 10298:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2017.10.011 10242:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2012.04.009 10174:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2008.12.004 10114:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2009.05.004 10061:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2009.04.005 9997:10.1146/annurev.ns.22.120172.001121 9707:10.1146/annurev.ns.22.120172.001121 9527: 9134:"Radium Standards and Nomenclature" 8923:Rentetzi, Maria (7 November 2017). 5977:{\displaystyle N=N_{A}+N_{B}+N_{C}} 3678:(emission of other particles, like 3209:statistical behavior of populations 3176:), sometimes referred to as simply 2889:decays, through alpha-emission, to 2826: 2806: 2784: 2754: 2679: 2651: 2623: 2595: 2567: 2539: 2511: 2483: 2455: 2427: 2397: 2364: 2331: 1877: 1839: 1319:International Congress of Radiology 24: 11016:Radioactivity in the life sciences 8965:Clarke, R.H.; J. Valentin (2009). 8736: 8583:. Wiley-Interscience. p. 57. 8468: 8447:Isotope § Isotope vs. nuclide 7051:into the decay solution leads to: 6102: 6085: 6068: 6051: 6022: 6005: 5517: 5500: 4856:is the number of nuclides of type 4749: 4732: 4572: 4555: 3845: 3825: 3757: 3747: 3511: 3501: 3399: 3389: 2998:can be inferred by various means. 2901:decays, through beta-emission, to 2294: 2254: 2224: 2194: 2164: 2130: 2100: 2066: 2021: 25: 11642: 11387:Pierre and Marie Curie University 11382:Maria Curie-Skłodowska University 11362:IEEE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Award 10584:The Live Chart of Nuclides – IAEA 10573:Nomenclature of nuclear chemistry 10567:The Lund/LBNL Nuclear Data Search 10560: 10546:, Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. 10418:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2009.02.009 9528:Leo, William R. (1992). "Ch. 4". 9014:Daniels, M.; et al. (2020). 8746:L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2007). 8006: 7382:Half-lives of known radionuclides 3865:The negative sign indicates that 3022:hardware random-number generators 1792:allowed researchers to study the 1195:Taking an X-ray image with early 11441:Maria Skłodowska-Curie Medallion 10621:. Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co. 10616:The New Student's Reference Work 10606:Beach, Chandler B., ed. (1914). 9975:Annual Review of Nuclear Science 9687:Annual Review of Nuclear Science 9552:Nuclear physics: an introduction 9113: 8421: 8411: 8269: 8253: 8241: 8182:), not observed at the familiar 4513:nuclides in the present sample, 3610: 1697:Early researchers found that an 1602:, once the released energy (the 1500: 869: 868: 855: 83: 11551: 11494: 10520: 10515:Fundamentals of Nuclear Physics 10507: 10264: 10128: 10075: 10022: 10004: 9961: 9873: 9830: 9737:The European Physical Journal A 9674: 9619: 9480: 9431: 9406: 9383: 9350: 9316: 9229: 9204: 9182: 9166: 9125: 9064: 9007: 8958: 8916: 8875: 8764: 8727: 8714: 8695: 5908:, 89.3% of the nuclei decay to 3656:Consider the case of a nuclide 3086:radionuclides found in today's 3048:Origins of radioactive nuclides 2849:Decay chains and multiple modes 2272:In NUBASE2020, ß refers to the 1511:needs additional citations for 1236:Other experimenters, including 10548:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 10357:10.1016/j.physletb.2013.09.033 9032:10.1093/jncimonographs/lgaa010 8672: 8653: 8630: 8605: 8568: 8509:. In Stabin, Michael G (ed.). 8482:. EDP Sciences. Archived from 8439: 8105: 7492: 7486: 5697: 5691: 5589: 5577: 5102: 4404: 4389: 4358: 4352: 3898: 3892: 3640:)—but for any physical sample 3584: 3436: 3430: 3365: 3359: 3338: 3332: 3284:These are related as follows: 2982:, whether they themselves are 2765:internal (isomeric) transition 1369:U.S. National Cancer Institute 36:Radioactivity (disambiguation) 13: 1: 11511:Journal of Radiation Research 11372:Maria Skłodowska-Curie Bridge 11282:Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum 10589:Interactive Chart of Nuclides 9859:10.1126/science.271.5252.1099 9613:10.1016/j.anucene.2006.02.004 9499:10.1016/S0065-2792(08)60256-3 8575:Loveland, W.; Morrissey, D.; 8456: 8418:Nuclear technology portal 7454:-life, the time until only 1/ 5407:Chain of any number of decays 4146:then the number of nuclei of 4075:If the number of non-decayed 2465:β-delayed 3-neutron emission 2437:β-delayed 2-neutron emission 1421:International System of Units 1379:studied definitively through 9681:Emery, G T (December 1972). 9628:Introductory Nuclear Physics 8802:Dentomaxillofacial Radiology 8476:"Radioactivity: Weak Forces" 8289:Actinides in the environment 7165: 5440:is the number of decays and 4901:. Solving this equation for 4895:– and similarly for nuclide 4507:adds to the total number of 4152:(i.e. the number of decayed 3112:Earth's internal heat budget 3110:contribute significantly to 2633:β-delayed deuteron emission 2549:β-delayed 3-proton emission 2521:β-delayed 2-proton emission 1992:in almost 0.5% of the time. 1784:were much more massive than 1350:National Physical Laboratory 1007:. Except for gamma decay or 32:Radioactive (disambiguation) 7: 11377:Maria Skłodowska-Curie Park 10904:Cosmic background radiation 9947:10.1103/PhysRevLett.77.5190 9904:10.1103/PhysRevLett.77.5190 9808:10.1103/PhysRevLett.69.2164 9357:Clayton, Donald D. (1983). 8724:, Nr. 46, 1913, pp. 422–439 8709:translated by Carmen Giunta 8667:translated by Carmen Giunta 8505:Stabin, Michael G. (2007). 8281: 6799:For the one-decay solution 6795:Time constant and mean-life 3199:", the average lifetime (1/ 2921:Occurrence and applications 1656:Alpha, beta and gamma decay 1615:) according to the formula 1389:accidents at nuclear plants 1219:The discovery of X‑rays by 649:High-energy nuclear physics 10: 11647: 11133: 10991:Lasers and aviation safety 10537: 10527:IAEA news release Feb 2007 9757:10.1140/epja/i2006-10068-x 8986:10.1016/j.icrp.2009.07.009 8711:. Retrieved 12 April 2021. 8669:. Retrieved 12 April 2021. 8612:Mould, Richard F. (1995). 8109: 6290:Solving this equation for 4889:is the decay constant for 4468:by a second process, i.e. 3626:nuclear particle reactions 3602: 3595: 3588: 3066:are residues from ancient 3051: 2924: 2852: 2661:β-delayed triton emission 2493:β-delayed proton emission 2408:β-delayed neutron emission 2003:Decay modes in NUBASE2020 1924:More exotic types of decay 1881: 1843: 1659: 1613:mass in special relativity 1298: 1292: 1184: 1046:. Well-known examples are 927:radioactive disintegration 40: 29: 11410: 11339: 11290: 11274: 11265:Treatise on Radioactivity 11251: 11200: 11131: 11095: 11059: 11021:Radioactive contamination 10946: 10874:Electromagnetic radiation 10864: 10776: 10723: 10716: 9020:J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 8523:10.1007/978-0-387-49983-3 8461: 8384:Radioactive contamination 3662:that decays into another 2605:β-delayed alpha emission 2577:β-delayed alpha emission 1810:electromagnetic radiation 1214: 11134:See also the categories 11072:1996 Costa Rica accident 10733:Acoustic radiation force 9593:Annals of Nuclear Energy 9344:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae 9293:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae 8976:. ICRP Publication 109. 8945:10.1063/PT.6.4.20171107a 8679:Henri Becquerel (1896). 8637:Henri Becquerel (1896). 8581:Modern Nuclear Chemistry 8552:Demos Medical Publishing 8432: 8389:Radioactivity in biology 3117: 2945:Big Bang nucleosynthesis 1685:by aluminium shielding. 1491: 1406: 1173:and the start of modern 1044:primordial radionuclides 1042:. These 35 are known as 11631:Poisson point processes 11456:Les Palmes de M. Schutz 11046:Radiation heat-transfer 10899:Gravitational radiation 10594:10 October 2018 at the 9927:Physical Review Letters 9883:Physical Review Letters 9788:Physical Review Letters 8260:2007 ISO radioactivity 8075:natural nuclear reactor 8041:into the K and L shells 6216:partial decay constants 6214:in terms of the sum of 5916:. We have for all time 3028:Szilard–Chalmers effect 3020:), it has been used in 1273:. Examples were radium 1249:William Herbert Rollins 976:Radioactive decay is a 160:Interacting boson model 11312:Hélène Langevin-Joliot 11087:1990 Zaragoza accident 11082:1984 Moroccan accident 11051:Linear energy transfer 10725:Non-ionizing radiation 10643:13 August 2011 at the 10631:7 October 2010 at the 10609:"Becquerel Rays" 9216:chemed.chem.purdue.edu 9090:10.3390/ijerph18178934 8364:Nuclear chain reaction 8093:effects. The decay of 8069: 7997: 7803: 7724: 7589: 7371: 7268: 7162: 7148: 7042: 6983: 6894: 6605: 6507: 6385:. The decay constants 6358: 6281: 6198: 5978: 5878: 5830: 5733: 5649:'Bateman's equations' 5633: 5384: 5053: 4838: 4647:The rate of change of 4638: 4462:decaying into another 4450:decaying into another 4425: 4310: 4137: 4048: 3937: 3856: 3777: 3565: 3003:radioisotopic labeling 2868: 1951:bound state beta decay 1777:electromagnetic forces 1772: 1767:emissions, EC denotes 1694: 1646:conservation of energy 1488:for damage to tissue. 1416: 1266: 1256:Radioactive substances 1204: 1071: 931:nuclear disintegration 70: 61:by a nucleus emits an 11330:Frédéric Joliot-Curie 11077:1987 Goiânia accident 10879:Synchrotron radiation 10869:Earth's energy budget 10851:Radioactive materials 10846:Particle accelerators 10447:Gal, Avraham (2016). 10277:Astroparticle Physics 10212:Astroparticle Physics 10144:Astroparticle Physics 10084:Astroparticle Physics 10031:Astroparticle Physics 8814:10.1259/dmfr/73488299 8404:Transient equilibrium 8329:Induced radioactivity 8067: 7998: 7804: 7734:Example for carbon-14 7725: 7590: 7372: 7269: 7160: 7149: 7043: 6984: 6895: 6646:of nuclei decay into 6627:of nuclei decay into 6614:because the fraction 6606: 6508: 6359: 6282: 6199: 5979: 5879: 5798: 5713: 5634: 5385: 5068:is a stable nuclide ( 5054: 4839: 4639: 4456:by one process, then 4435:Chain-decay processes 4426: 4311: 4138: 4049: 3973:We have for all time 3938: 3873:differential equation 3857: 3790:. The expected decay 3778: 3646:Differential calculus 3605:consecutive reactions 3566: 3151:radioactive substance 2988:extinct radionuclides 2862: 2315:electron antineutrino 2149:ejected from nucleus 2085:ejected from nucleus 2051:emitted from nucleus 1934:characteristic X-rays 1857:characteristic X-rays 1739: 1677: 1604:disintegration energy 1414: 1387:and also in numerous 1323:Hermann Joseph Muller 1263: 1226:Vanderbilt University 1194: 1082:, while working with 1069: 1017:nuclear transmutation 547:High-energy processes 245:– equal all the above 143:Models of the nucleus 57: 11576:10.29252/rbmb.9.1.71 11434:Marie Curie Gargoyle 11148:Radiation protection 11001:Radiation protection 10889:Black-body radiation 10796:Background radiation 10711:(physics and health) 10653:by David M. Harrison 9968:Emery, G.T. (1972). 9550:Patel, S.B. (2000). 8901:10.1148/rg.284075206 8863:on 12 September 2017 8294:Background radiation 8235:Hazard warning signs 7819: 7755: 7660: 7621:Mathematically, the 7480: 7310: 7186: 7058: 7005: 6957: 6812: 6520: 6422: 6306: 6242: 6209:total decay constant 5994: 5929: 5654: 5493: 5084: 4917: 4725: 4548: 4346: 4165: 4088: 3986: 3886: 3815: 3737: 3622:Poisson distribution 3291: 3016:(rather than merely 2939:, He, and traces of 1996:List of decay modes 1650:conservation of mass 1520:improve this article 1340:(IXRPC) was formed. 1295:Radiation protection 1289:Radiation protection 1283:radioactive quackery 1181:Early health dangers 1062:History of discovery 583:nuclear astrophysics 11524:10.1093/jrr/rrad092 11118:Radiation hardening 11060:Radiation incidents 10996:Medical radiography 10955:Radiation syndrome 10909:Cherenkov radiation 10550:. December 18, 2006 10475:2016Symm....8...49G 10410:2009NuPhS.188...43G 10349:2013PhLB..726..638K 10289:2018APh....97...38P 10234:2012APh....36...18S 10166:2009APh....31..135N 10106:2009APh....32...42J 10053:2009APh....31..407J 9988:1972ARNPS..22..165E 9939:1996PhRvL..77.5190B 9896:1996PhRvL..77.5190B 9851:1996Sci...271.1099S 9845:(5252): 1099–1102. 9800:1992PhRvL..69.2164J 9749:2006EPJA...28..375W 9699:1972ARNPS..22..165E 9626:K.S. Krane (1988). 9605:2006AnNuE..33..640C 9456:1934Natur.134..462S 9418:oxfordreference.com 9212:"Radioactive Decay" 9150:1910Natur..84..430R 9026:(July 1): 188–200. 8937:2017PhT..2017k0676R 8589:2005mnc..book.....L 8344:Nuclear engineering 8188:electrostatic force 8161:flavour oscillation 8055:bound-state β decay 7741:has a half-life of 6685:amount of substance 6656:Corollaries of laws 6633:while the fraction 5644:Bateman's equations 4440:Chain of two decays 3250:Number of particles 3092:cosmogenic nuclides 3060:primordial nuclides 2980:radiogenic nuclides 2863:The decay chain of 2855:Valley of stability 2795:spontaneous fission 2309:A nucleus emits an 2004: 1943:isomeric transition 1930:internal conversion 1914:spontaneous fission 1818:isomeric transition 1627:thermal equilibrium 1535:"Radioactive decay" 1009:internal conversion 994:age of the universe 565:Photodisintegration 488:Capturing processes 402:Spontaneous fission 395:Internal conversion 326:Valley of stability 321:Island of stability 155:Nuclear shell model 11326:(Pierre's brother) 11324:Paul-Jacques Curie 11300:Irène Joliot-Curie 11113:Radioactive source 10934:Radiation exposure 10914:Askaryan radiation 10894:Particle radiation 10778:Ionizing radiation 10484:10.3390/sym8060049 8974:Annals of the ICRP 8707:: 501–503 (1896), 8428:Physics portal 8394:Radiometric dating 8299:Chernobyl disaster 8198:is also involved. 8196:weak nuclear force 8070: 7993: 7991: 7799: 7720: 7585: 7367: 7264: 7163: 7144: 7038: 6979: 6890: 6601: 6503: 6354: 6277: 6194: 6192: 5974: 5874: 5872: 5629: 5446:is a dummy index ( 5395:integration factor 5380: 5109: 5062:In the case where 5049: 4834: 4634: 4501:, the activity of 4421: 4321:Poisson statistics 4306: 4133: 4044: 3933: 3852: 3773: 3680:electron neutrinos 3561: 3559: 3035:Newton's third law 2869: 2836:β-delayed fission 2822:β+ & variable 2816:β-delayed fission 2175:2-neutron emission 2002: 1804:, were high-speed 1773: 1695: 1484:for mechanical or 1417: 1329:for his findings. 1309:Only a year after 1305:Ionizing radiation 1267: 1209:ionizing radiation 1205: 1187:Ionizing radiation 1170:ionizing radiation 1072: 862:Physics portal 656:Quark–gluon plasma 439:Radiogenic nuclide 71: 47:Ionizing radiation 11490: 11489: 11367:Marie Curie Medal 11259:Curie's principle 11223:Mean-field theory 11218:Curie temperature 11155: 11154: 11136:Radiation effects 11006:Radiation therapy 10942: 10941: 10884:Thermal radiation 10821:Neutron radiation 10786:Radioactive decay 10674: 10663: 10647:by Wolfgang Bauer 10327:Physics Letters B 10018:. 2 October 2008. 9933:(26): 5190–5193. 9890:(26): 5190–5193. 9794:(15): 2164–2167. 9637:978-0-471-80553-3 9580:978-0-471-80553-3 9561:978-81-224-0125-7 9376:978-0-226-10953-4 9332:Chinese Physics C 9280:Chinese Physics C 9144:(2136): 430–431. 8773:General chemistry 8623:978-0-7503-0224-1 8598:978-0-471-11532-8 8561:978-1-62070-004-4 8532:978-0-387-49982-6 8486:on 12 August 2021 8379:Radiation therapy 8171:Theoretical basis 8157:electron neutrino 8124:circulating in a 7984: 7973: 7926: 7915: 7841: 7700: 7350: 7141: 7121: 7069: 6974: 6764:Avogadro constant 6551: 6453: 6110: 6076: 6030: 5888:Alternative modes 5868: 5711: 5525: 5281: 5167: 5087: 4985: 4757: 4697:is produced from 4580: 4416: 4022: 3836: 3765: 3652:One-decay process 3630:exponential decay 3591:exponential decay 3519: 3458: 3407: 3345: 3264:Specific activity 3078:, through planet 2931:According to the 2927:Nuclear drip line 2846: 2845: 2842:β & variable 2268:positron emission 2235:positron emission 2111:2-proton emission 1830:positron emission 1794:emission spectrum 1596: 1595: 1588: 1570: 1446:with one gram of 1399:with the role of 1397:pancreatic cancer 1231:Electrical Review 1150:chemical elements 1115:Ernest Rutherford 1088:cathode ray tubes 1015:, the decay is a 915:Radioactive decay 912: 911: 598: 344:Radioactive decay 300:Nuclear stability 127:Nuclear structure 16:(Redirected from 11638: 11606: 11605: 11595: 11555: 11549: 11548: 11539: 10803159. 11526: 11498: 11228:Piezoelectricity 11182: 11175: 11168: 11159: 11158: 11096:Related articles 11011:Radiation damage 10836:Nuclear reactors 10721: 10720: 10702: 10695: 10688: 10679: 10678: 10673: 10662: 10622: 10620: 10611: 10529: 10524: 10518: 10511: 10505: 10504: 10486: 10468: 10444: 10438: 10437: 10403: 10383: 10377: 10376: 10342: 10333:(4–5): 638–645. 10317: 10311: 10310: 10300: 10268: 10262: 10261: 10227: 10207: 10201: 10200: 10198: 10196: 10190: 10184:. Archived from 10159: 10141: 10132: 10126: 10125: 10099: 10079: 10073: 10072: 10046: 10026: 10020: 10019: 10008: 10002: 10001: 9999: 9965: 9959: 9958: 9922: 9916: 9915: 9877: 9871: 9870: 9834: 9828: 9827: 9783: 9777: 9776: 9732: 9726: 9725: 9723: 9721: 9678: 9672: 9671: 9669: 9667: 9648: 9642: 9641: 9623: 9617: 9616: 9588: 9582: 9572: 9566: 9565: 9547: 9536: 9535: 9525: 9519: 9518: 9517: 9515: 9484: 9478: 9477: 9467: 9465:10.1038/134462b0 9435: 9429: 9428: 9426: 9424: 9410: 9404: 9403: 9401: 9399: 9387: 9381: 9380: 9364: 9354: 9348: 9347: 9329: 9320: 9314: 9313: 9295: 9271: 9248: 9247: 9245: 9243: 9233: 9227: 9226: 9224: 9222: 9208: 9202: 9201: 9199: 9197: 9186: 9180: 9179: 9170: 9164: 9163: 9161: 9159:10.1038/084430a0 9129: 9123: 9117: 9112: 9102: 9092: 9068: 9062: 9061: 9051: 9011: 9005: 9004: 9002: 9000: 8971: 8962: 8956: 8955: 8953: 8951: 8920: 8914: 8913: 8903: 8879: 8873: 8872: 8870: 8868: 8859:. Archived from 8853: 8844: 8843: 8833: 8793: 8787: 8786: 8768: 8762: 8761: 8743: 8734: 8731: 8725: 8718: 8712: 8699: 8693: 8692: 8676: 8670: 8657: 8651: 8650: 8634: 8628: 8627: 8609: 8603: 8602: 8572: 8566: 8565: 8543: 8537: 8536: 8502: 8496: 8495: 8493: 8491: 8472: 8450: 8443: 8426: 8425: 8416: 8415: 8414: 8349:Nuclear pharmacy 8314:Decay correction 8273: 8257: 8245: 8221: 8219: 8209: 8207: 8002: 8000: 7999: 7994: 7992: 7985: 7982: 7974: 7972: 7971: 7959: 7927: 7924: 7916: 7914: 7903: 7902: 7898: 7885: 7857: 7842: 7840: 7839: 7827: 7808: 7806: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7794: 7790: 7773: 7772: 7744: 7729: 7727: 7726: 7721: 7701: 7696: 7685: 7680: 7679: 7675: 7652: 7635: 7626: 7613: 7604: 7594: 7592: 7591: 7586: 7579: 7578: 7577: 7576: 7572: 7559: 7542: 7541: 7529: 7528: 7524: 7507: 7506: 7472: 7463: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7448: 7444: 7441: 7434: 7428: 7422: 7411: 7409: 7399: 7397: 7391: 7389: 7376: 7374: 7373: 7368: 7351: 7346: 7335: 7330: 7329: 7325: 7302: 7293: 7287: 7273: 7271: 7270: 7265: 7258: 7257: 7253: 7236: 7235: 7223: 7222: 7218: 7204: 7203: 7178: 7153: 7151: 7150: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7139: 7127: 7122: 7120: 7119: 7107: 7102: 7101: 7089: 7088: 7070: 7062: 7047: 7045: 7044: 7039: 7036: 7035: 7023: 7022: 6996: 6988: 6986: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6967: 6949: 6926: 6920: 6914: 6908: 6899: 6897: 6896: 6891: 6884: 6883: 6879: 6862: 6861: 6849: 6848: 6844: 6830: 6829: 6803: 6781: 6771: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6750: 6744: 6731: 6703: 6679: 6665: 6651: 6645: 6632: 6626: 6610: 6608: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6593: 6592: 6591: 6565: 6564: 6552: 6547: 6546: 6537: 6532: 6531: 6512: 6510: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6495: 6494: 6493: 6467: 6466: 6454: 6449: 6448: 6439: 6434: 6433: 6414: 6408: 6402: 6393: 6384: 6378: 6363: 6361: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6349: 6334: 6333: 6318: 6317: 6298: 6286: 6284: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6272: 6260: 6259: 6234: 6225: 6213: 6203: 6201: 6200: 6195: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6184: 6183: 6171: 6170: 6156: 6155: 6136: 6135: 6116: 6112: 6111: 6109: 6105: 6099: 6098: 6097: 6088: 6082: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6065: 6064: 6063: 6054: 6048: 6031: 6029: 6025: 6019: 6018: 6017: 6008: 6002: 5983: 5981: 5980: 5975: 5973: 5972: 5960: 5959: 5947: 5946: 5921: 5902: 5896: 5883: 5881: 5880: 5875: 5873: 5869: 5867: 5866: 5865: 5853: 5852: 5842: 5841: 5832: 5829: 5824: 5790: 5789: 5776: 5775: 5771: 5770: 5753: 5752: 5743: 5742: 5732: 5727: 5712: 5710: 5709: 5700: 5690: 5689: 5679: 5670: 5669: 5638: 5636: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5624: 5620: 5619: 5596: 5595: 5571: 5570: 5552: 5551: 5542: 5541: 5526: 5524: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5512: 5503: 5497: 5485: 5475: 5465: 5455: 5451:= 1, 2, 3, ..., 5445: 5439: 5433: 5402: 5389: 5387: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5372: 5371: 5370: 5366: 5365: 5337: 5336: 5321: 5317: 5310: 5309: 5305: 5304: 5282: 5280: 5279: 5278: 5262: 5261: 5260: 5251: 5250: 5237: 5232: 5228: 5227: 5223: 5222: 5221: 5217: 5216: 5196: 5195: 5191: 5190: 5168: 5166: 5165: 5164: 5152: 5151: 5141: 5140: 5139: 5130: 5129: 5116: 5108: 5101: 5100: 5076: 5067: 5058: 5056: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5035: 5034: 5014: 5013: 5009: 5008: 4986: 4984: 4983: 4982: 4970: 4969: 4959: 4958: 4957: 4948: 4947: 4934: 4929: 4928: 4909: 4900: 4894: 4888: 4879: 4873: 4861: 4855: 4843: 4841: 4840: 4835: 4833: 4832: 4828: 4827: 4810: 4809: 4797: 4796: 4784: 4783: 4774: 4773: 4758: 4756: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4744: 4735: 4729: 4714: 4708: 4703:and decrease as 4702: 4696: 4691:can increase as 4690: 4681: 4675: 4669: 4655: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4629: 4620: 4619: 4607: 4606: 4597: 4596: 4581: 4579: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4567: 4558: 4552: 4540: 4534: 4528: 4522: 4512: 4506: 4500: 4494: 4485: 4479: 4472: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4449: 4430: 4428: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4415: 4407: 4382: 4381: 4365: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4315: 4313: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4298: 4297: 4296: 4270: 4269: 4254: 4253: 4238: 4237: 4222: 4221: 4206: 4205: 4193: 4192: 4177: 4176: 4157: 4151: 4142: 4140: 4139: 4134: 4132: 4131: 4116: 4115: 4100: 4099: 4080: 4071: 4065: 4053: 4051: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4039: 4024: 4023: 4020: 4011: 4010: 3998: 3997: 3978: 3970: 3966: 3960: 3955:is the value of 3954: 3942: 3940: 3939: 3934: 3932: 3931: 3927: 3913: 3912: 3870: 3861: 3859: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3837: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3807: 3800: 3789: 3782: 3780: 3779: 3774: 3766: 3764: 3760: 3754: 3750: 3744: 3729: 3723: 3716: 3701: 3700: 3699: 3692: 3689: 3688: 3677: 3668:by some process 3667: 3661: 3570: 3568: 3567: 3562: 3560: 3556: 3555: 3540: 3539: 3528: 3527: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3508: 3504: 3498: 3486: 3485: 3476: 3475: 3459: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3439: 3422: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3396: 3392: 3386: 3346: 3341: 3324: 3315: 3314: 3310: 3279: 3272: 3259:, in the sample. 3258: 3244: 3222: 3194: 3175: 3167: 3148: 2974: 2963:(in particular, 2896: 2884: 2750: 2279: 2205:electron capture 2141:neutron emission 2050: 2017:Nucleus changes 2005: 2001: 1987: 1982:electron capture 1980:%) than through 1979: 1967: 1902:neutron emission 1888:Cluster emission 1884:Neutron emission 1878:Nucleon emission 1846:Electron capture 1840:Electron capture 1769:electron capture 1591: 1584: 1580: 1577: 1571: 1569: 1528: 1504: 1496: 1469: 1467: 1457: 1455: 1440:radium emanation 1279:aplastic anaemia 1271:patent medicines 1175:nuclear medicine 1029:chemical element 1005:daughter nuclide 967:electromagnetism 937:loses energy by 904: 897: 890: 877: 872: 871: 864: 860: 859: 736:Skłodowska-Curie 596: 412:Neutron emission 180:' classification 132:Nuclear reaction 87: 73: 72: 21: 11646: 11645: 11641: 11640: 11639: 11637: 11636: 11635: 11611: 11610: 11609: 11556: 11552: 11499: 11495: 11491: 11486: 11406: 11347:Curie Institute 11335: 11314:(granddaughter) 11286: 11270: 11247: 11213:Curie–Weiss law 11196: 11186: 11156: 11151: 11150: 11127: 11123:Havana syndrome 11108:Nuclear physics 11091: 11055: 10948: 10938: 10924:Unruh radiation 10860: 10841:Nuclear weapons 10826:Nuclear fission 10772: 10712: 10706: 10645:Wayback Machine 10633:Wayback Machine 10596:Wayback Machine 10563: 10544:"Radioactivity" 10540: 10533: 10532: 10525: 10521: 10512: 10508: 10445: 10441: 10384: 10380: 10324: 10318: 10314: 10269: 10265: 10208: 10204: 10194: 10192: 10191:on 29 June 2010 10188: 10139: 10133: 10129: 10080: 10076: 10027: 10023: 10010: 10009: 10005: 9966: 9962: 9923: 9919: 9878: 9874: 9835: 9831: 9784: 9780: 9733: 9729: 9719: 9717: 9679: 9675: 9665: 9663: 9650: 9649: 9645: 9638: 9624: 9620: 9589: 9585: 9573: 9569: 9562: 9548: 9539: 9526: 9522: 9513: 9511: 9509: 9485: 9481: 9436: 9432: 9422: 9420: 9412: 9411: 9407: 9397: 9395: 9388: 9384: 9377: 9355: 9351: 9327: 9321: 9317: 9272: 9251: 9241: 9239: 9235: 9234: 9230: 9220: 9218: 9210: 9209: 9205: 9195: 9193: 9187: 9183: 9172: 9171: 9167: 9130: 9126: 9069: 9065: 9012: 9008: 8998: 8996: 8969: 8963: 8959: 8949: 8947: 8921: 8917: 8880: 8876: 8866: 8864: 8855: 8854: 8847: 8794: 8790: 8783: 8769: 8765: 8758: 8744: 8737: 8732: 8728: 8719: 8715: 8700: 8696: 8677: 8673: 8658: 8654: 8635: 8631: 8624: 8610: 8606: 8599: 8573: 8569: 8562: 8544: 8540: 8533: 8503: 8499: 8489: 8487: 8474: 8473: 8469: 8464: 8459: 8454: 8453: 8444: 8440: 8435: 8420: 8412: 8410: 8408: 8374:Poisson process 8354:Nuclear physics 8319:Fallout shelter 8284: 8277: 8274: 8265: 8258: 8249: 8246: 8237: 8217: 8215: 8205: 8203: 8173: 8114: 8108: 8030:atomic orbitals 8009: 7990: 7989: 7981: 7967: 7963: 7958: 7938: 7932: 7931: 7923: 7904: 7894: 7890: 7886: 7884: 7877: 7871: 7870: 7853: 7843: 7835: 7831: 7826: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7816: 7786: 7779: 7775: 7768: 7764: 7756: 7753: 7752: 7742: 7736: 7686: 7684: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7657: 7651: 7638: 7633: 7629: 7622: 7616:same proportion 7612: 7606: 7600: 7568: 7564: 7560: 7555: 7548: 7544: 7537: 7533: 7520: 7513: 7509: 7502: 7498: 7481: 7478: 7477: 7471: 7465: 7464:is longer than 7459: 7449: 7446: 7445: 7442: 7437: 7436: 7430: 7424: 7420: 7407: 7405: 7395: 7393: 7387: 7385: 7336: 7334: 7321: 7317: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7307: 7301: 7295: 7289: 7285: 7278: 7249: 7242: 7238: 7231: 7227: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7199: 7195: 7187: 7184: 7183: 7177: 7171: 7168: 7135: 7131: 7126: 7115: 7111: 7106: 7097: 7093: 7084: 7080: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7055: 7031: 7027: 7018: 7014: 7006: 7003: 7002: 6994: 6966: 6958: 6955: 6954: 6945: 6942:arithmetic mean 6922: 6916: 6910: 6904: 6875: 6868: 6864: 6857: 6853: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6825: 6821: 6813: 6810: 6809: 6801: 6797: 6792: 6777: 6767: 6759: 6754: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6737: 6730: 6712: 6702: 6688: 6671: 6661: 6658: 6647: 6639: 6634: 6628: 6620: 6615: 6581: 6577: 6570: 6566: 6557: 6553: 6542: 6538: 6536: 6527: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6517: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6468: 6459: 6455: 6444: 6440: 6438: 6429: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6419: 6410: 6404: 6400: 6395: 6391: 6386: 6380: 6377: 6368: 6339: 6335: 6326: 6322: 6313: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6303: 6296: 6291: 6268: 6264: 6255: 6251: 6243: 6240: 6239: 6233: 6227: 6224: 6218: 6211: 6191: 6190: 6179: 6175: 6166: 6162: 6161: 6157: 6151: 6147: 6137: 6131: 6127: 6118: 6117: 6101: 6100: 6093: 6089: 6084: 6083: 6081: 6067: 6066: 6059: 6055: 6050: 6049: 6047: 6046: 6042: 6032: 6021: 6020: 6013: 6009: 6004: 6003: 6001: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5991: 5968: 5964: 5955: 5951: 5942: 5938: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5917: 5900: 5894: 5890: 5885: 5871: 5870: 5861: 5857: 5848: 5844: 5843: 5837: 5833: 5831: 5825: 5802: 5791: 5785: 5781: 5778: 5777: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5748: 5744: 5738: 5734: 5728: 5717: 5705: 5701: 5685: 5681: 5680: 5678: 5671: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5576: 5572: 5560: 5556: 5547: 5543: 5537: 5533: 5516: 5515: 5508: 5504: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5490: 5482: 5477: 5473: 5467: 5463: 5457: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5409: 5398: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5342: 5338: 5329: 5325: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5287: 5283: 5274: 5270: 5263: 5256: 5252: 5243: 5239: 5238: 5236: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5173: 5169: 5160: 5156: 5147: 5143: 5142: 5135: 5131: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5110: 5096: 5092: 5091: 5085: 5082: 5081: 5074: 5069: 5063: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4991: 4987: 4978: 4974: 4965: 4961: 4960: 4953: 4949: 4940: 4936: 4935: 4933: 4924: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4907: 4902: 4896: 4890: 4886: 4881: 4875: 4872: 4863: 4857: 4853: 4848: 4845: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4802: 4798: 4792: 4788: 4779: 4775: 4769: 4765: 4748: 4747: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4722: 4710: 4704: 4698: 4692: 4688: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4663: 4657: 4653: 4648: 4625: 4621: 4615: 4611: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4588: 4571: 4570: 4563: 4559: 4554: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4545: 4536: 4530: 4524: 4518: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4481: 4475: 4470: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4442: 4437: 4408: 4377: 4373: 4366: 4364: 4347: 4344: 4343: 4334: 4325: 4324: 4286: 4282: 4275: 4271: 4262: 4258: 4243: 4239: 4230: 4226: 4214: 4210: 4201: 4197: 4185: 4181: 4172: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4162: 4153: 4147: 4121: 4117: 4108: 4104: 4095: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4085: 4076: 4067: 4064: 4058: 4032: 4028: 4019: 4015: 4006: 4002: 3993: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3983: 3974: 3968: 3962: 3956: 3953: 3947: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3908: 3904: 3887: 3884: 3883: 3866: 3863: 3844: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3816: 3813: 3812: 3802: 3791: 3787: 3756: 3755: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3738: 3735: 3734: 3725: 3718: 3711: 3698: 3695: 3694: 3693: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3684: 3683: 3682: 3669: 3663: 3657: 3654: 3613: 3608: 3601: 3594: 3587: 3580: 3558: 3557: 3551: 3547: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3521: 3510: 3509: 3500: 3499: 3497: 3487: 3481: 3477: 3471: 3467: 3464: 3463: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3423: 3421: 3398: 3397: 3388: 3387: 3385: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3325: 3323: 3316: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3288: 3274: 3268: 3254: 3240: 3221: 3215: 3190: 3173: 3163: 3147: 3141: 3120: 3056: 3054:Nucleosynthesis 3050: 3030: 2996:stable nuclides 2972: 2957:nucleosynthesis 2933:Big Bang theory 2929: 2923: 2894: 2882: 2857: 2851: 2833: 2813: 2791: 2761: 2748: 2741: 2734: 2732: 2721: 2707: 2700: 2686: 2658: 2630: 2602: 2574: 2546: 2518: 2490: 2462: 2434: 2404: 2374: 2341: 2301: 2277: 2264: 2261:ε + e 2231: 2201: 2171: 2137: 2107: 2077:proton emission 2073: 2040: 2028: 1998: 1985: 1977: 1974:beta plus decay 1965: 1938:Auger electrons 1926: 1910:proton emission 1894: 1892:Nuclear fission 1882:Main articles: 1880: 1853:Auger electrons 1848: 1842: 1822:nuclear isomers 1782:alpha particles 1679:Alpha particles 1672: 1660:Main articles: 1658: 1592: 1581: 1575: 1572: 1529: 1527: 1517: 1505: 1494: 1465: 1463: 1453: 1451: 1429:Henri Becquerel 1409: 1375:(IARC) and the 1348:of the British 1307: 1297: 1291: 1258: 1221:Wilhelm Röntgen 1217: 1207:The dangers of 1189: 1183: 1131:Frederick Soddy 1076:Henri Becquerel 1064: 1011:from a nuclear 917:(also known as 908: 867: 854: 853: 846: 845: 681: 671: 670: 651: 641: 640: 585: 581: 578:Nucleosynthesis 570: 569: 548: 540: 539: 489: 481: 480: 454: 452:Nuclear fission 444: 443: 417:Proton emission 346: 336: 335: 301: 293: 292: 194: 181: 170: 169: 145: 77:Nuclear physics 50: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11644: 11634: 11633: 11628: 11623: 11608: 11607: 11550: 11517:(1): 136–143. 11492: 11488: 11487: 11485: 11484: 11476: 11468: 11460: 11452: 11444: 11437: 11430: 11425: 11420: 11414: 11412: 11408: 11407: 11405: 11404: 11399: 11394: 11389: 11384: 11379: 11374: 11369: 11364: 11359: 11354: 11349: 11343: 11341: 11337: 11336: 11334: 11333: 11327: 11321: 11315: 11309: 11303: 11296: 11294: 11288: 11287: 11285: 11284: 11278: 11276: 11272: 11271: 11269: 11268: 11261: 11255: 11253: 11249: 11248: 11246: 11245: 11240: 11235: 11230: 11225: 11220: 11215: 11210: 11204: 11202: 11198: 11197: 11185: 11184: 11177: 11170: 11162: 11153: 11152: 11132: 11129: 11128: 11126: 11125: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11099: 11097: 11093: 11092: 11090: 11089: 11084: 11079: 11074: 11069: 11063: 11061: 11057: 11056: 11054: 11053: 11048: 11043: 11038: 11033: 11028: 11023: 11018: 11013: 11008: 11003: 10998: 10993: 10988: 10983: 10978: 10973: 10971:Health physics 10968: 10967: 10966: 10961: 10952: 10950: 10944: 10943: 10940: 10939: 10937: 10936: 10931: 10929:Dark radiation 10926: 10921: 10919:Bremsstrahlung 10916: 10911: 10906: 10901: 10896: 10891: 10886: 10881: 10876: 10871: 10865: 10862: 10861: 10859: 10858: 10853: 10848: 10843: 10838: 10833: 10831:Nuclear fusion 10828: 10823: 10818: 10813: 10808: 10803: 10801:Alpha particle 10798: 10793: 10788: 10782: 10780: 10774: 10773: 10771: 10770: 10765: 10760: 10755: 10750: 10745: 10740: 10735: 10729: 10727: 10718: 10714: 10713: 10705: 10704: 10697: 10690: 10682: 10676: 10675: 10665: 10654: 10648: 10635: 10623: 10603: 10598: 10586: 10581: 10575: 10570: 10562: 10561:External links 10559: 10558: 10557: 10551: 10539: 10536: 10531: 10530: 10519: 10506: 10439: 10378: 10322: 10312: 10263: 10202: 10150:(2): 135–137. 10127: 10074: 10037:(6): 407–411. 10021: 10003: 9982:(1): 165–202. 9960: 9917: 9872: 9829: 9778: 9743:(3): 375–377. 9727: 9693:(1): 165–202. 9673: 9643: 9636: 9618: 9599:(7): 640–645. 9583: 9567: 9560: 9537: 9520: 9507: 9479: 9430: 9405: 9382: 9375: 9349: 9315: 9249: 9228: 9203: 9181: 9175:10 CFR 20.1005 9165: 9124: 9063: 9006: 8957: 8915: 8894:(4): 1189–92. 8874: 8845: 8808:(2): 123–125. 8788: 8781: 8763: 8756: 8735: 8726: 8713: 8702:Comptes Rendus 8694: 8685:Comptes Rendus 8671: 8665:: 420 (1896), 8660:Comptes Rendus 8652: 8643:Comptes Rendus 8629: 8622: 8604: 8597: 8567: 8560: 8538: 8531: 8497: 8466: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8452: 8451: 8437: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8407: 8406: 8401: 8396: 8391: 8386: 8381: 8376: 8371: 8369:Particle decay 8366: 8361: 8356: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8336: 8331: 8326: 8324:Geiger counter 8321: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8279: 8278: 8275: 8268: 8266: 8259: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8240: 8236: 8233: 8172: 8169: 8118:highly charged 8110:Main article: 8107: 8104: 8022:chemical bonds 8008: 8007:Changing rates 8005: 8004: 8003: 7988: 7980: 7977: 7970: 7966: 7962: 7957: 7954: 7950: 7947: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7933: 7930: 7922: 7919: 7913: 7910: 7907: 7901: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7872: 7869: 7866: 7863: 7860: 7856: 7852: 7849: 7846: 7844: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7825: 7824: 7810: 7809: 7798: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7782: 7778: 7771: 7767: 7763: 7760: 7735: 7732: 7731: 7730: 7719: 7716: 7713: 7710: 7707: 7704: 7699: 7695: 7692: 7689: 7683: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7646: 7631: 7610: 7596: 7595: 7582: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7563: 7558: 7554: 7551: 7547: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7527: 7523: 7519: 7516: 7512: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7494: 7491: 7488: 7485: 7469: 7419:The factor of 7378: 7377: 7366: 7363: 7360: 7357: 7354: 7349: 7345: 7342: 7339: 7333: 7328: 7324: 7320: 7316: 7299: 7283: 7275: 7274: 7261: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7245: 7241: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7191: 7175: 7167: 7164: 7155: 7154: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7125: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7087: 7083: 7079: 7076: 7073: 7068: 7065: 7049: 7048: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7021: 7017: 7013: 7010: 6990: 6989: 6978: 6973: 6970: 6965: 6962: 6901: 6900: 6887: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6871: 6867: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6817: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6741: 6734: 6733: 6728: 6705: 6700: 6681: 6670:The activity: 6657: 6654: 6637: 6618: 6612: 6611: 6600: 6596: 6590: 6587: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6573: 6569: 6563: 6560: 6556: 6550: 6545: 6541: 6535: 6530: 6526: 6514: 6513: 6502: 6498: 6492: 6489: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6475: 6471: 6465: 6462: 6458: 6452: 6447: 6443: 6437: 6432: 6428: 6398: 6389: 6372: 6365: 6364: 6353: 6348: 6345: 6342: 6338: 6332: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6316: 6312: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6276: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6247: 6229: 6220: 6205: 6204: 6188: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6169: 6165: 6160: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6123: 6120: 6119: 6115: 6108: 6104: 6096: 6092: 6087: 6080: 6074: 6070: 6062: 6058: 6053: 6045: 6041: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6028: 6024: 6016: 6012: 6007: 6000: 5999: 5985: 5984: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5934: 5889: 5886: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5851: 5847: 5840: 5836: 5828: 5823: 5820: 5817: 5814: 5811: 5808: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5751: 5747: 5741: 5737: 5731: 5726: 5723: 5720: 5716: 5708: 5704: 5699: 5696: 5693: 5688: 5684: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5659: 5648: 5640: 5639: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5615: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5594: 5591: 5588: 5585: 5582: 5579: 5575: 5569: 5566: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5550: 5546: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5529: 5523: 5519: 5511: 5507: 5502: 5480: 5471: 5461: 5428: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5405: 5391: 5390: 5379: 5375: 5369: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5345: 5341: 5335: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5286: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5266: 5259: 5255: 5249: 5246: 5242: 5235: 5231: 5226: 5220: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5172: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5150: 5146: 5138: 5134: 5128: 5125: 5121: 5113: 5107: 5104: 5099: 5095: 5090: 5072: 5060: 5059: 5048: 5044: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4990: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4968: 4964: 4956: 4952: 4946: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4927: 4923: 4905: 4884: 4867: 4851: 4831: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4808: 4805: 4801: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4782: 4778: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4761: 4755: 4751: 4743: 4739: 4734: 4720: 4686: 4661: 4651: 4645: 4644: 4633: 4628: 4624: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4605: 4601: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4584: 4578: 4574: 4566: 4562: 4557: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4432: 4431: 4420: 4414: 4411: 4406: 4403: 4400: 4397: 4394: 4391: 4388: 4385: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4369: 4363: 4360: 4357: 4354: 4351: 4317: 4316: 4305: 4301: 4295: 4292: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4278: 4274: 4268: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4252: 4249: 4246: 4242: 4236: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4220: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4191: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4144: 4143: 4130: 4127: 4124: 4120: 4114: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4098: 4094: 4062: 4055: 4054: 4043: 4038: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4018: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3951: 3944: 3943: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3900: 3897: 3894: 3891: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3840: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3820: 3810: 3784: 3783: 3772: 3769: 3763: 3759: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3696: 3686: 3653: 3650: 3638:natural number 3612: 3609: 3586: 3583: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3543: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3526: 3517: 3513: 3507: 3503: 3496: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3465: 3462: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3438: 3435: 3432: 3429: 3426: 3420: 3417: 3414: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3391: 3384: 3381: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3370: 3367: 3364: 3361: 3358: 3355: 3352: 3349: 3344: 3340: 3337: 3334: 3331: 3328: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3296: 3282: 3281: 3260: 3246: 3232:Total activity 3219: 3205: 3204: 3181: 3159:decay constant 3154: 3145: 3119: 3116: 3052:Main article: 3049: 3046: 3029: 3026: 2922: 2919: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2831: 2827: 2824: 2823: 2820: 2817: 2814: 2812: 2811: 2807: 2804: 2803: 2800: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2789: 2785: 2782: 2781: 2770: 2767: 2762: 2760: 2759: 2755: 2752: 2751: 2746: 2739: 2730: 2719: 2709: 2705: 2698: 2692: 2687: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2677: 2676: 2665: 2662: 2659: 2657: 2656: 2652: 2649: 2648: 2637: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2628: 2624: 2621: 2620: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2600: 2596: 2593: 2592: 2581: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2565: 2564: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2537: 2536: 2525: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2516: 2512: 2509: 2508: 2497: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2488: 2484: 2481: 2480: 2469: 2466: 2463: 2461: 2460: 2456: 2453: 2452: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2433: 2432: 2428: 2425: 2424: 2413: 2410: 2405: 2403: 2402: 2398: 2395: 2394: 2383: 2380: 2378:double β decay 2375: 2373: 2372: 2369: 2365: 2362: 2361: 2350: 2347: 2345:double β decay 2342: 2340: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2329: 2328: 2317: 2307: 2302: 2300: 2299: 2295: 2292: 2291: 2280: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2262: 2259: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2240: 2237: 2232: 2230: 2229: 2225: 2222: 2221: 2210: 2207: 2202: 2200: 2199: 2195: 2192: 2191: 2180: 2177: 2172: 2170: 2169: 2165: 2162: 2161: 2150: 2143: 2138: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2127: 2116: 2113: 2108: 2106: 2105: 2101: 2098: 2097: 2086: 2079: 2074: 2072: 2071: 2067: 2064: 2063: 2052: 2038:alpha particle 2034: 2032:alpha emission 2029: 2027: 2026: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2015: 2012: 2009: 1997: 1994: 1925: 1922: 1879: 1876: 1844:Main article: 1841: 1838: 1832:), along with 1790:discharge tube 1786:beta particles 1729:) or greater. 1703:magnetic field 1683:beta particles 1657: 1654: 1638:invariant mass 1634:invariant mass 1594: 1593: 1508: 1506: 1499: 1493: 1490: 1472:European Union 1408: 1405: 1336:unit, and the 1293:Main article: 1290: 1287: 1257: 1254: 1216: 1213: 1185:Main article: 1182: 1179: 1084:phosphorescent 1063: 1060: 986:decay constant 982:quantum theory 935:atomic nucleus 910: 909: 907: 906: 899: 892: 884: 881: 880: 879: 878: 865: 848: 847: 844: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 703: 698: 693: 688: 682: 677: 676: 673: 672: 669: 668: 663: 658: 652: 647: 646: 643: 642: 639: 638: 637: 636: 631: 626: 617: 616: 615: 614: 609: 604: 593: 592: 590:Nuclear fusion 586: 576: 575: 572: 571: 568: 567: 562: 561: 560: 549: 546: 545: 542: 541: 538: 537: 536: 535: 530: 520: 519: 518: 513: 503: 502: 501: 490: 487: 486: 483: 482: 479: 478: 473: 472: 471: 461: 455: 450: 449: 446: 445: 442: 441: 436: 431: 426: 420: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 398: 397: 392: 382: 377: 376: 375: 370: 369: 368: 353: 347: 342: 341: 338: 337: 334: 333: 331:Stable nuclide 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 306:Binding energy 302: 299: 298: 295: 294: 291: 290: 289: 288: 278: 273: 268: 262: 261: 247: 246: 239: 238: 222: 221: 209: 208: 196: 195: 182: 176: 175: 172: 171: 168: 167: 162: 157: 152: 146: 141: 140: 137: 136: 135: 134: 129: 124: 119: 117:Nuclear matter 114: 113: 112: 107: 97: 89: 88: 80: 79: 63:alpha particle 43:Particle decay 26: 18:Becquerel Rays 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11643: 11632: 11629: 11627: 11624: 11622: 11621:Radioactivity 11619: 11618: 11616: 11603: 11599: 11594: 11589: 11585: 11581: 11577: 11573: 11569: 11565: 11561: 11554: 11546: 11542: 11538: 11534: 11530: 11525: 11520: 11516: 11512: 11508: 11506: 11497: 11493: 11482: 11481: 11477: 11474: 11473: 11469: 11466: 11465: 11461: 11458: 11457: 11453: 11450: 11449: 11445: 11443: 11442: 11438: 11436: 11435: 11431: 11429: 11426: 11424: 11421: 11419: 11416: 11415: 11413: 11409: 11403: 11400: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11390: 11388: 11385: 11383: 11380: 11378: 11375: 11373: 11370: 11368: 11365: 11363: 11360: 11358: 11355: 11353: 11350: 11348: 11345: 11344: 11342: 11338: 11331: 11328: 11325: 11322: 11319: 11318:Pierre Joliot 11316: 11313: 11310: 11307: 11304: 11301: 11298: 11297: 11295: 11293: 11289: 11283: 11280: 11279: 11277: 11273: 11267: 11266: 11262: 11260: 11257: 11256: 11254: 11250: 11244: 11241: 11239: 11238:Radioactivity 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11226: 11224: 11221: 11219: 11216: 11214: 11211: 11209: 11206: 11205: 11203: 11199: 11194: 11190: 11183: 11178: 11176: 11171: 11169: 11164: 11163: 11160: 11149: 11145: 11141: 11140:Radioactivity 11137: 11130: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11100: 11098: 11094: 11088: 11085: 11083: 11080: 11078: 11075: 11073: 11070: 11068: 11065: 11064: 11062: 11058: 11052: 11049: 11047: 11044: 11042: 11039: 11037: 11034: 11032: 11029: 11027: 11024: 11022: 11019: 11017: 11014: 11012: 11009: 11007: 11004: 11002: 10999: 10997: 10994: 10992: 10989: 10987: 10984: 10982: 10979: 10977: 10974: 10972: 10969: 10965: 10962: 10960: 10957: 10956: 10954: 10953: 10951: 10945: 10935: 10932: 10930: 10927: 10925: 10922: 10920: 10917: 10915: 10912: 10910: 10907: 10905: 10902: 10900: 10897: 10895: 10892: 10890: 10887: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10877: 10875: 10872: 10870: 10867: 10866: 10863: 10857: 10854: 10852: 10849: 10847: 10844: 10842: 10839: 10837: 10834: 10832: 10829: 10827: 10824: 10822: 10819: 10817: 10814: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10806:Beta particle 10804: 10802: 10799: 10797: 10794: 10792: 10791:Cluster decay 10789: 10787: 10784: 10783: 10781: 10779: 10775: 10769: 10766: 10764: 10761: 10759: 10756: 10754: 10751: 10749: 10746: 10744: 10741: 10739: 10736: 10734: 10731: 10730: 10728: 10726: 10722: 10719: 10717:Main articles 10715: 10710: 10703: 10698: 10696: 10691: 10689: 10684: 10683: 10680: 10672: 10671: 10666: 10661: 10660: 10655: 10652: 10649: 10646: 10642: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10630: 10627: 10624: 10619: 10617: 10610: 10604: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10593: 10590: 10587: 10585: 10582: 10579: 10576: 10574: 10571: 10568: 10565: 10564: 10556: 10552: 10549: 10545: 10542: 10541: 10535: 10528: 10523: 10516: 10510: 10502: 10498: 10494: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10476: 10472: 10467: 10462: 10458: 10454: 10450: 10443: 10435: 10431: 10427: 10423: 10419: 10415: 10411: 10407: 10402: 10397: 10393: 10389: 10382: 10374: 10370: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10350: 10346: 10341: 10336: 10332: 10328: 10316: 10308: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10290: 10286: 10282: 10278: 10274: 10267: 10259: 10255: 10251: 10247: 10243: 10239: 10235: 10231: 10226: 10221: 10217: 10213: 10206: 10187: 10183: 10179: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10158: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10138: 10131: 10123: 10119: 10115: 10111: 10107: 10103: 10098: 10093: 10089: 10085: 10078: 10070: 10066: 10062: 10058: 10054: 10050: 10045: 10040: 10036: 10032: 10025: 10017: 10016:Physics World 10013: 10007: 9998: 9993: 9989: 9985: 9981: 9977: 9976: 9971: 9964: 9956: 9952: 9948: 9944: 9940: 9936: 9932: 9928: 9921: 9913: 9909: 9905: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9889: 9885: 9884: 9876: 9868: 9864: 9860: 9856: 9852: 9848: 9844: 9840: 9833: 9825: 9821: 9817: 9813: 9809: 9805: 9801: 9797: 9793: 9789: 9782: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9758: 9754: 9750: 9746: 9742: 9738: 9731: 9716: 9712: 9708: 9704: 9700: 9696: 9692: 9688: 9684: 9677: 9661: 9657: 9653: 9647: 9639: 9633: 9629: 9622: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9587: 9581: 9577: 9571: 9563: 9557: 9553: 9546: 9544: 9542: 9533: 9532: 9524: 9510: 9508:9780120236015 9504: 9500: 9496: 9492: 9491: 9483: 9475: 9471: 9466: 9461: 9457: 9453: 9450:(3386): 462. 9449: 9445: 9441: 9434: 9419: 9415: 9409: 9393: 9386: 9378: 9372: 9368: 9363: 9362: 9353: 9345: 9341: 9338:(3): 030001. 9337: 9333: 9326: 9319: 9311: 9307: 9303: 9299: 9294: 9289: 9286:(3): 030001. 9285: 9281: 9277: 9270: 9268: 9266: 9264: 9262: 9260: 9258: 9256: 9254: 9238: 9232: 9217: 9213: 9207: 9192: 9185: 9177: 9176: 9169: 9160: 9155: 9151: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9128: 9121: 9116: 9110: 9106: 9101: 9096: 9091: 9086: 9082: 9078: 9074: 9067: 9059: 9055: 9050: 9045: 9041: 9037: 9033: 9029: 9025: 9021: 9017: 9010: 8995: 8991: 8987: 8983: 8980:(1): 75–110. 8979: 8975: 8968: 8961: 8946: 8942: 8938: 8934: 8931:(11): 30676. 8930: 8929:Physics Today 8926: 8919: 8911: 8907: 8902: 8897: 8893: 8889: 8888:RadioGraphics 8885: 8878: 8862: 8858: 8852: 8850: 8841: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8815: 8811: 8807: 8803: 8799: 8792: 8784: 8782:0-13-014329-4 8778: 8774: 8767: 8759: 8757:9780080548883 8753: 8749: 8742: 8740: 8730: 8723: 8717: 8710: 8706: 8703: 8698: 8690: 8686: 8682: 8675: 8668: 8664: 8661: 8656: 8648: 8644: 8640: 8633: 8625: 8619: 8615: 8608: 8600: 8594: 8590: 8586: 8582: 8578: 8577:Seaborg, G.T. 8571: 8563: 8557: 8553: 8549: 8542: 8534: 8528: 8524: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8508: 8501: 8485: 8481: 8480:Radioactivity 8477: 8471: 8467: 8448: 8442: 8438: 8430: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8390: 8387: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8359:Nuclear power 8357: 8355: 8352: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8286: 8272: 8267: 8263: 8262:hazard symbol 8256: 8251: 8244: 8239: 8238: 8232: 8229: 8228:spontaneously 8225: 8224:tellurium-128 8222:seconds (for 8213: 8210:seconds (for 8199: 8197: 8193: 8189: 8185: 8181: 8178: 8168: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8123: 8119: 8113: 8103: 8100: 8096: 8091: 8087: 8083: 8078: 8076: 8066: 8062: 8060: 8056: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8042: 8037: 8035: 8031: 8028: 8023: 8019: 8015: 7986: 7978: 7975: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7955: 7952: 7948: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7935: 7928: 7920: 7917: 7911: 7908: 7905: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7881: 7879: 7874: 7867: 7864: 7861: 7858: 7854: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7836: 7832: 7828: 7815: 7814: 7813: 7796: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7780: 7776: 7769: 7765: 7761: 7758: 7751: 7750: 7749: 7746: 7740: 7717: 7714: 7711: 7708: 7705: 7702: 7697: 7693: 7690: 7687: 7681: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7664: 7656: 7655: 7654: 7650: 7645: 7641: 7636: 7625: 7619: 7617: 7609: 7603: 7580: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7556: 7552: 7549: 7545: 7538: 7534: 7530: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7514: 7510: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7489: 7483: 7476: 7475: 7474: 7468: 7462: 7457: 7440: 7433: 7427: 7417: 7415: 7403: 7383: 7364: 7361: 7358: 7355: 7352: 7347: 7343: 7340: 7337: 7331: 7326: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7306: 7305: 7304: 7298: 7292: 7282: 7259: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7243: 7239: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7219: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7189: 7182: 7181: 7180: 7174: 7159: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7123: 7116: 7112: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7094: 7090: 7085: 7081: 7077: 7074: 7071: 7066: 7063: 7054: 7053: 7052: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7001: 7000: 6999: 6997: 6976: 6971: 6968: 6963: 6960: 6953: 6952: 6951: 6948: 6943: 6939: 6938:mean lifetime 6934: 6932: 6931: 6930:time constant 6925: 6919: 6913: 6909:has units of 6907: 6885: 6880: 6876: 6872: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6815: 6808: 6807: 6806: 6804: 6787: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6740: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6710: 6706: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6669: 6668: 6667: 6666:in a sample; 6664: 6653: 6650: 6644: 6640: 6631: 6625: 6621: 6598: 6594: 6588: 6585: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6571: 6567: 6561: 6558: 6554: 6548: 6543: 6539: 6533: 6528: 6524: 6516: 6515: 6500: 6496: 6490: 6487: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6473: 6469: 6463: 6460: 6456: 6450: 6445: 6441: 6435: 6430: 6426: 6418: 6417: 6416: 6413: 6407: 6401: 6392: 6383: 6375: 6371: 6351: 6346: 6343: 6340: 6336: 6330: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6314: 6310: 6302: 6301: 6300: 6297: 6274: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6245: 6238: 6237: 6236: 6232: 6223: 6217: 6210: 6207:defining the 6186: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6167: 6163: 6158: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6121: 6113: 6106: 6094: 6090: 6078: 6072: 6060: 6056: 6043: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6026: 6014: 6010: 5990: 5989: 5988: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5932: 5925: 5924: 5923: 5920: 5915: 5912:and 10.7% to 5911: 5907: 5903: 5897: 5884: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5849: 5845: 5838: 5834: 5826: 5821: 5818: 5815: 5812: 5809: 5806: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5793: 5786: 5782: 5772: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5749: 5745: 5739: 5735: 5729: 5724: 5721: 5718: 5714: 5706: 5702: 5694: 5686: 5682: 5675: 5673: 5666: 5662: 5647: 5645: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5613: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5583: 5580: 5573: 5567: 5564: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5548: 5544: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5527: 5521: 5509: 5505: 5489: 5488: 5487: 5483: 5470: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5431: 5425: 5404: 5401: 5396: 5377: 5373: 5367: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5343: 5339: 5333: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5284: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5257: 5253: 5247: 5244: 5240: 5233: 5229: 5224: 5218: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5170: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5148: 5144: 5136: 5132: 5126: 5123: 5119: 5111: 5105: 5097: 5093: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5075: 5066: 5046: 5042: 5036: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4988: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4954: 4950: 4944: 4941: 4937: 4930: 4925: 4921: 4913: 4912: 4911: 4908: 4899: 4893: 4887: 4878: 4870: 4866: 4860: 4854: 4844: 4829: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4780: 4776: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4753: 4741: 4737: 4719: 4716: 4713: 4707: 4701: 4695: 4689: 4680: 4674: 4668: 4664: 4654: 4631: 4626: 4622: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4603: 4599: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4582: 4576: 4564: 4560: 4544: 4543: 4542: 4539: 4533: 4527: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4505: 4499: 4493: 4489: 4484: 4478: 4473: 4466: 4460: 4454: 4448: 4418: 4412: 4409: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4383: 4378: 4370: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4342: 4341: 4340: 4337: 4329: 4322: 4303: 4299: 4293: 4290: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4276: 4272: 4266: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4247: 4244: 4240: 4234: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4218: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4189: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4169: 4161: 4160: 4159: 4156: 4150: 4128: 4125: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4084: 4083: 4082: 4079: 4073: 4070: 4061: 4041: 4036: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4016: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3982: 3981: 3980: 3977: 3971: 3965: 3959: 3950: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3889: 3882: 3881: 3880: 3878: 3874: 3869: 3862: 3849: 3841: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3818: 3809: 3806: 3799: 3795: 3770: 3767: 3761: 3751: 3740: 3733: 3732: 3731: 3728: 3722: 3715: 3709: 3705: 3681: 3676: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3649: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3617: 3611:Universal law 3606: 3599: 3592: 3582: 3577: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3541: 3536: 3533: 3530: 3515: 3505: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3482: 3478: 3472: 3468: 3460: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3433: 3427: 3424: 3418: 3415: 3412: 3409: 3403: 3393: 3382: 3379: 3377: 3372: 3362: 3356: 3353: 3350: 3347: 3342: 3335: 3329: 3326: 3320: 3318: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3287: 3286: 3285: 3277: 3271: 3266: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3238: 3234: 3233: 3229: 3228: 3227: 3224: 3218: 3212: 3210: 3202: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3187: 3186:mean lifetime 3182: 3179: 3171: 3166: 3161: 3160: 3155: 3152: 3144: 3139: 3138: 3133: 3132: 3131: 3129: 3125: 3115: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3062:found in the 3061: 3055: 3045: 3043: 3038: 3036: 3025: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3008: 3004: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2976: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2928: 2918: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2892: 2888: 2879: 2877: 2876: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2841: 2838: 2835: 2829: 2828: 2825: 2821: 2818: 2815: 2809: 2808: 2805: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2787: 2786: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2768: 2766: 2763: 2757: 2756: 2753: 2745: 2738: 2733:) & 2729: 2725: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2704: 2697: 2693: 2691: 2690:cluster decay 2688: 2682: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2663: 2660: 2654: 2653: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2635: 2632: 2626: 2625: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2607: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2570: 2569: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2551: 2548: 2542: 2541: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2514: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2495: 2492: 2486: 2485: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2458: 2457: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2439: 2436: 2430: 2429: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2400: 2399: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2337: 2334: 2333: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2306: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2275: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2260: 2257: 2256: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2238: 2236: 2233: 2227: 2226: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2208: 2206: 2203: 2197: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2173: 2167: 2166: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2148: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2133: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2084: 2080: 2078: 2075: 2069: 2068: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2024: 2023: 2020: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2000: 1993: 1991: 1983: 1975: 1971: 1963: 1958: 1956: 1952: 1946: 1944: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1921: 1919: 1918:cluster decay 1915: 1911: 1907: 1906:nuclear force 1903: 1899: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1847: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1813: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1747: 1746:atomic number 1743: 1738: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1723:atomic number 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1623: 1620: = 1619: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1590: 1587: 1579: 1568: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1551: 1547: 1544: 1540: 1537: – 1536: 1532: 1531:Find sources: 1525: 1521: 1515: 1514: 1509:This section 1507: 1503: 1498: 1497: 1489: 1487: 1483: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1461: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1413: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1381:meta-analysis 1378: 1374: 1370: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1315:Wolfram Fuchs 1312: 1306: 1302: 1296: 1286: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1262: 1253: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1238:Elihu Thomson 1234: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1212: 1210: 1202: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1178: 1176: 1171: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1135:transmutation 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1108: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1068: 1059: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1036:radionuclides 1032: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1013:excited state 1010: 1006: 1002: 997: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 974: 972: 971:nuclear force 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 923:radioactivity 920: 919:nuclear decay 916: 905: 900: 898: 893: 891: 886: 885: 883: 882: 876: 866: 863: 858: 852: 851: 850: 849: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 697: 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 683: 680: 675: 674: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 653: 650: 645: 644: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 621: 619: 618: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 599: 595: 594: 591: 588: 587: 584: 579: 574: 573: 566: 563: 559: 558:by cosmic ray 556: 555: 554: 551: 550: 544: 543: 534: 531: 529: 526: 525: 524: 521: 517: 514: 512: 509: 508: 507: 504: 500: 497: 496: 495: 492: 491: 485: 484: 477: 474: 470: 469:pair breaking 467: 466: 465: 462: 460: 457: 456: 453: 448: 447: 440: 437: 435: 434:Decay product 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 421: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 407:Cluster decay 405: 403: 400: 396: 393: 391: 388: 387: 386: 383: 381: 378: 374: 371: 367: 364: 363: 362: 359: 358: 357: 354: 352: 349: 348: 345: 340: 339: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 303: 297: 296: 287: 284: 283: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 263: 260: 256: 252: 251:Mirror nuclei 249: 248: 244: 241: 240: 237: 236: 233: − 232: 227: 224: 223: 220: 219: 214: 211: 210: 207: 206: 201: 198: 197: 193: 192: 187: 184: 183: 179: 174: 173: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 147: 144: 139: 138: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 122:Nuclear force 120: 118: 115: 111: 108: 106: 103: 102: 101: 98: 96: 93: 92: 91: 90: 86: 82: 81: 78: 75: 74: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 37: 33: 19: 11626:Exponentials 11570:(1): 71–81. 11567: 11563: 11553: 11514: 11510: 11504: 11496: 11478: 11470: 11462: 11454: 11448:Madame Curie 11446: 11439: 11432: 11397:Curie Island 11332:(son-in-law) 11263: 11252:Publications 11237: 11144:Radiobiology 11026:Radiobiology 10986:Laser safety 10785: 10668: 10657: 10615: 10534: 10522: 10514: 10509: 10456: 10452: 10442: 10391: 10387: 10381: 10330: 10326: 10315: 10280: 10276: 10266: 10218:(1): 18–25. 10215: 10211: 10205: 10195:23 September 10193:. Retrieved 10186:the original 10147: 10143: 10130: 10090:(1): 42–46. 10087: 10083: 10077: 10034: 10030: 10024: 10015: 10006: 9979: 9973: 9963: 9930: 9926: 9920: 9887: 9881: 9875: 9842: 9838: 9832: 9791: 9787: 9781: 9740: 9736: 9730: 9718:. Retrieved 9690: 9686: 9676: 9664:. Retrieved 9655: 9646: 9627: 9621: 9596: 9592: 9586: 9570: 9551: 9530: 9523: 9512:, retrieved 9489: 9482: 9447: 9443: 9433: 9421:. Retrieved 9417: 9408: 9396:. Retrieved 9385: 9360: 9352: 9335: 9331: 9318: 9283: 9279: 9240:. Retrieved 9231: 9219:. Retrieved 9215: 9206: 9194:. Retrieved 9184: 9174: 9168: 9141: 9137: 9127: 9083:(17): 8934. 9080: 9076: 9066: 9023: 9019: 9009: 8997:. Retrieved 8977: 8973: 8960: 8948:. Retrieved 8928: 8918: 8891: 8887: 8877: 8865:. Retrieved 8861:the original 8805: 8801: 8791: 8772: 8766: 8747: 8729: 8716: 8704: 8701: 8697: 8688: 8684: 8674: 8662: 8659: 8655: 8646: 8642: 8632: 8613: 8607: 8580: 8570: 8547: 8541: 8510: 8500: 8488:. Retrieved 8484:the original 8479: 8470: 8441: 8409: 8227: 8200: 8180:strong force 8176: 8174: 8126:storage ring 8120:radioactive 8115: 8086:manganese-54 8079: 8071: 8058: 8045: 8038: 8033: 8026: 8017: 8013: 8010: 7811: 7747: 7737: 7648: 7643: 7639: 7628: 7623: 7620: 7615: 7607: 7601: 7597: 7466: 7460: 7455: 7438: 7431: 7425: 7418: 7379: 7296: 7290: 7280: 7276: 7172: 7169: 7050: 6993: 6991: 6946: 6935: 6928: 6923: 6917: 6911: 6905: 6902: 6800: 6798: 6778: 6768: 6738: 6735: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6676: 6672: 6662: 6659: 6648: 6642: 6635: 6629: 6623: 6616: 6613: 6415:as follows: 6411: 6405: 6396: 6387: 6381: 6373: 6369: 6366: 6292: 6289: 6230: 6221: 6215: 6208: 6206: 5986: 5918: 5906:potassium-40 5899: 5893: 5891: 5650: 5643: 5641: 5478: 5468: 5458: 5452: 5448: 5442: 5436: 5429: 5423: 5410: 5399: 5392: 5070: 5064: 5061: 4903: 4897: 4891: 4882: 4876: 4868: 4864: 4858: 4849: 4846: 4721: 4717: 4711: 4705: 4699: 4693: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4659: 4649: 4646: 4537: 4531: 4525: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4495:decays into 4491: 4487: 4482: 4480:decays into 4476: 4469: 4464: 4458: 4452: 4446: 4443: 4335: 4327: 4318: 4154: 4148: 4145: 4077: 4074: 4068: 4059: 4056: 3975: 3972: 3963: 3957: 3948: 3945: 3867: 3864: 3811: 3804: 3797: 3793: 3785: 3726: 3720: 3713: 3674: 3670: 3664: 3658: 3655: 3641: 3633: 3618: 3614: 3575: 3573: 3283: 3275: 3269: 3262: 3255: 3248: 3241: 3236: 3230: 3225: 3216: 3213: 3206: 3191: 3184: 3177: 3164: 3157: 3142: 3135: 3127: 3123: 3121: 3072:Solar System 3058:Radioactive 3057: 3039: 3031: 3011: 3000: 2977: 2930: 2911:polonium-212 2907:thallium-208 2903:polonium-212 2891:thallium-208 2880: 2873: 2870: 2777: 2773: 2743: 2736: 2727: 2723: 2716: 2712: 2702: 2695: 2672: 2668: 2644: 2640: 2616: 2612: 2588: 2584: 2560: 2556: 2532: 2528: 2504: 2500: 2476: 2472: 2448: 2444: 2420: 2416: 2390: 2386: 2357: 2353: 2324: 2320: 2287: 2283: 2273: 2247: 2243: 2217: 2213: 2187: 2183: 2157: 2153: 2123: 2119: 2093: 2089: 2059: 2055: 2046: 2042: 1999: 1959: 1947: 1927: 1898:Enrico Fermi 1895: 1865: 1849: 1814: 1802:cathode rays 1774: 1748: 1741: 1696: 1641: 1631: 1621: 1617: 1608:decay energy 1603: 1597: 1582: 1573: 1563: 1556: 1549: 1542: 1530: 1518:Please help 1513:verification 1510: 1479: 1433: 1418: 1392: 1365: 1357:World War II 1354: 1342:Rolf Sievert 1331: 1308: 1268: 1246: 1242:Nikola Tesla 1235: 1230: 1218: 1206: 1197:Crookes tube 1166: 1147: 1123:Pierre Curie 1119:Paul Villard 1112: 1104: 1073: 1056:potassium-40 1040:Solar System 1033: 1031:is created. 1001:radionuclide 998: 975: 942: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 913: 476:Photofission 424:Decay energy 351:Alpha α 343: 258: 254: 234: 230: 217: 204: 190: 51: 11483:(2019 film) 11480:Radioactive 11475:(2016 film) 11467:(2014 film) 11459:(1997 film) 11451:(1943 film) 11208:Curie's law 11201:Discoveries 10768:Ultraviolet 10763:Radio waves 9720:23 February 9423:27 December 8867:25 November 8309:Decay chain 8184:macroscopic 8165:eigenstates 8141:GSI anomaly 8134:oscillatory 8112:GSI anomaly 8106:GSI anomaly 8099:solar flare 8047:Rhenium-187 7983: years 7925: years 6757:10 mol 4158:nuclei) is 4081:nuclei is: 3585:Mathematics 3042:Leó Szilárd 2899:bismuth-212 2887:bismuth-212 2875:decay chain 1990:gamma decay 1966:12.7004(13) 1955:rhenium-187 1872:beryllium-7 1751:(shown are 1731:Bismuth-209 1719:beryllium-8 1670:Gamma decay 1662:Alpha decay 1444:equilibrium 1346:George Kaye 1201:fluoroscope 1127:Marie Curie 1080:Marie Curie 955:gamma decay 943:radioactive 781:Oppenheimer 459:Spontaneous 429:Decay chain 380:K/L capture 356:Beta β 226:Isodiaphers 150:Liquid drop 59:Alpha decay 11615:Categories 11411:Depictions 11402:7000 Curie 11320:(grandson) 11308:(daughter) 11302:(daughter) 10949:and health 10947:Radiation 10816:Cosmic ray 9662:. May 2024 8691:: 501–503. 8649:: 420–421. 8457:References 8399:Stochastic 8212:hydrogen-5 8192:beta decay 8137:modulation 8090:radium-226 8082:silicon-32 7599:choice of 7303:to obtain 6774:molar mass 5910:calcium-40 4656:, that is 3730:, that is 3708:beta decay 3178:decay rate 3124:decay rate 3096:atmosphere 3084:radiogenic 2992:iodine-129 2965:supernovae 2925:See also: 2853:See also: 1868:antihelium 1687:Gamma rays 1666:Beta decay 1546:newspapers 1468:10 Bq 1299:See also: 1143:beta decay 959:weak force 811:Strassmann 801:Rutherford 679:Scientists 634:Artificial 629:Cosmogenic 624:Primordial 620:Nuclides: 597:Processes: 553:Spallation 11584:2322-3480 11533:0449-3060 11340:Namesakes 11306:Ève Curie 11103:Half-life 10976:Dosimetry 10811:Gamma ray 10758:Microwave 10748:Starlight 10709:Radiation 10493:2073-8994 10466:1407.1789 10459:(6): 49. 10426:0920-5632 10401:0812.1887 10394:: 43–45. 10365:0370-2693 10340:1309.7294 10307:0927-6505 10283:: 38–45. 10258:119163371 10250:0927-6505 10225:1205.0205 10157:0810.3265 10122:119113836 10097:0808.3283 10069:118863334 10044:0808.3156 9816:0031-9007 9773:121883028 9765:1434-6001 9715:0066-4243 9398:1 October 9310:233794940 9302:1674-1137 9040:1434-6001 8822:0250-832X 8149:Darmstadt 8095:radon-222 7976:≈ 7956:⁡ 7949:τ 7946:− 7918:≈ 7909:⁡ 7875:τ 7862:≈ 7792:τ 7781:− 7739:Carbon-14 7712:⁡ 7706:τ 7698:λ 7691:⁡ 7550:− 7526:τ 7515:− 7362:⁡ 7356:τ 7348:λ 7341:⁡ 7255:τ 7244:− 7216:λ 7212:− 7166:Half-life 7133:τ 7113:τ 7095:λ 7082:λ 7075:λ 7067:τ 7029:λ 7016:λ 7009:λ 6995:A → B + C 6972:λ 6961:τ 6881:τ 6870:− 6842:λ 6838:− 6586:λ 6583:− 6575:− 6549:λ 6540:λ 6488:λ 6485:− 6477:− 6451:λ 6442:λ 6344:λ 6341:− 6266:λ 6253:λ 6246:λ 6177:λ 6164:λ 6145:− 6125:λ 6122:− 6040:− 5859:λ 5855:− 5846:λ 5835:λ 5819:≠ 5800:∏ 5764:λ 5760:− 5736:λ 5715:∑ 5703:λ 5614:− 5607:λ 5603:− 5584:− 5565:− 5558:λ 5535:λ 5531:− 5359:λ 5355:− 5347:− 5312:− 5298:λ 5294:− 5272:λ 5268:− 5254:λ 5210:λ 5206:− 5198:− 5184:λ 5180:− 5158:λ 5154:− 5145:λ 5133:λ 5103:→ 5094:λ 5028:λ 5024:− 5016:− 5002:λ 4998:− 4976:λ 4972:− 4963:λ 4951:λ 4821:λ 4817:− 4790:λ 4767:λ 4763:− 4709:produces 4613:λ 4590:λ 4586:− 4471:A → B → C 4402:⟩ 4396:⟨ 4393:− 4387:⁡ 4375:⟩ 4368:⟨ 4291:λ 4288:− 4280:− 4248:λ 4245:− 4224:− 4195:− 4126:λ 4123:− 3925:λ 3921:− 3842:λ 3819:− 3768:∝ 3741:− 3704:electrons 3598:half-life 3545:λ 3495:− 3428:⁡ 3413:λ 3383:− 3357:⁡ 3351:τ 3343:λ 3330:⁡ 3235:(or just 3137:half-life 3080:accretion 3068:supernova 2969:carbon-14 2949:deuterium 2865:neptunium 2802:variable 2278:ß = ε + e 1986:38.48(26) 1978:61.52(26) 1962:copper-64 1834:neutrinos 1806:electrons 1715:tellurium 1425:becquerel 990:half-life 963:mechanism 939:radiation 816:Świątecki 731:Pi. Curie 726:Fr. Curie 721:Ir. Curie 716:Cockcroft 691:Becquerel 612:Supernova 316:Drip line 311:p–n ratio 286:Borromean 165:Ab initio 11602:32821754 11545:38037422 11233:Polonium 10753:Sunlight 10738:Infrared 10641:Archived 10629:Archived 10592:Archived 10517:Springer 10501:14287612 10453:Symmetry 10434:10196271 10373:55085840 9955:10062738 9912:10062738 9867:96376008 9824:10046415 9514:19 March 9109:34501532 9058:32657347 8994:71278114 8910:18635636 8840:21239576 8579:(2006). 8515:Springer 8282:See also 8216:7.10(28) 8177:residual 7812:where: 7743:5700(30) 6921:, where 5914:argon-40 5434:, where 4330:⟩ 4326:⟨ 3961:at time 3877:function 3706:e as in 3237:activity 3128:activity 3007:organism 2973:5700(30) 2915:lead-208 2895:64.06(6) 2883:35.94(6) 2311:electron 2274:combined 1861:nucleons 1826:positron 1699:electric 1576:May 2023 1154:polonium 1025:neutrons 875:Category 776:Oliphant 761:Lawrence 741:Davisson 711:Chadwick 607:Big Bang 494:electron 464:Products 385:Isomeric 276:Even/odd 253: – 228:– equal 215:– equal 213:Isotones 202:– equal 188:– equal 186:Isotopes 178:Nuclides 100:Nucleons 69:nucleus. 67:helium-4 11593:7424416 11275:Museums 10964:chronic 10538:General 10471:Bibcode 10406:Bibcode 10345:Bibcode 10325:ions". 10285:Bibcode 10230:Bibcode 10182:7051382 10162:Bibcode 10102:Bibcode 10049:Bibcode 9984:Bibcode 9935:Bibcode 9892:Bibcode 9847:Bibcode 9839:Science 9796:Bibcode 9745:Bibcode 9695:Bibcode 9601:Bibcode 9474:4129460 9452:Bibcode 9146:Bibcode 9100:8431133 9049:8454205 8933:Bibcode 8831:3520298 8585:Bibcode 8490:4 March 8153:Germany 7435:is the 7392:years ( 7386:2.25(9) 6772:is the 6762:is the 6760:‍ 5476:, ..., 5427:··· → A 5421:··· → A 4910:gives: 3875:is the 3018:chaotic 2953:tritium 2905:. Both 2742:, 2726:− 2313:and an 2305:β decay 2147:neutron 2014:Action 1970:isospin 1727:bismuth 1560:scholar 1486:sievert 1462:(Ci) = 1401:caesium 1371:(NCI), 1334:röntgen 1311:Röntgen 1301:Sievert 1100:uranium 1052:thorium 1048:uranium 1021:protons 961:is the 831:Thomson 821:Szilárd 791:Purcell 771:Meitner 706:N. Bohr 701:A. Bohr 686:Alvarez 602:Stellar 506:neutron 390:Gamma γ 243:Isomers 200:Isobars 95:Nucleus 11600: 11590: 11582: 11543: 11531: 11357:Curium 11292:Family 11243:Radium 11193:Pierre 11146:, and 10670:Bibnum 10659:BibNum 10618: 10499: 10491: 10432: 10424: 10371: 10363: 10305: 10256: 10248: 10180: 10120: 10067: 9953: 9910: 9865: 9822: 9814: 9771: 9763: 9713: 9666:18 May 9634: 9578: 9558: 9505: 9472: 9444:Nature 9373: 9308: 9300: 9242:5 July 9196:19 May 9138:Nature 9107: 9097: 9056: 9046: 9038: 8999:12 May 8992: 8908: 8838: 8828: 8820: 8779: 8754: 8620: 8595: 8558: 8529: 8462:Inline 8204:8.6(6) 8194:, the 8088:, and 7450: 7443: 7406:8.6(6) 6782:is in 6736:where 6367:where 4517:those 4515:before 4057:where 3946:where 3691:ν 3574:where 3170:lambda 3104:mantle 3076:nebula 3014:random 2984:stable 2893:while 2083:proton 1890:, and 1798:helium 1763:, and 1668:, and 1642:system 1562: 1555: 1548: 1541: 1533: 1448:radium 1355:After 1215:X-rays 1162:barium 1158:radium 1092:X-rays 988:or as 978:random 957:. The 953:, and 873: 841:Wigner 836:Walton 826:Teller 756:Jensen 523:proton 266:Stable 11352:Curie 11195:Curie 11189:Marie 10959:acute 10856:X-ray 10743:Light 10497:S2CID 10461:arXiv 10430:S2CID 10396:arXiv 10369:S2CID 10335:arXiv 10254:S2CID 10220:arXiv 10189:(PDF) 10178:S2CID 10152:arXiv 10140:(PDF) 10118:S2CID 10092:arXiv 10065:S2CID 10039:arXiv 9863:S2CID 9769:S2CID 9470:S2CID 9328:(PDF) 9306:S2CID 9221:5 May 8990:S2CID 8970:(PDF) 8950:3 May 8433:Notes 8214:) to 7979:10356 7865:0.286 7630:N = N 7421:ln(2) 7404:, to 6802:A → B 6784:moles 6747:6.022 5901:A → C 5895:A → B 4063:total 4021:total 3126:, or 3118:Rates 3108:crust 3100:crust 3088:rocks 3064:Earth 2961:stars 2897:% of 2885:% of 2671:− 3, 2643:− 2, 2619:− 3) 2615:− 4, 2591:− 1) 2587:− 4, 2563:− 4) 2559:− 3, 2535:− 3) 2531:− 2, 2507:− 2) 2503:− 1, 2479:+ 1) 2475:− 3, 2451:+ 1) 2447:− 2, 2423:+ 1) 2419:− 1, 2393:− 2) 2360:+ 2) 2327:+ 1) 2290:− 1) 2250:− 1) 2220:− 1) 2186:− 2, 2156:− 1, 2126:− 2) 2122:− 2, 2096:− 1) 2092:− 1, 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