810:
868:
2023:. Because protons are positively charged, they repel each other. Neutrons, which are electrically neutral, stabilize the nucleus in two ways. Their copresence pushes protons slightly apart, reducing the electrostatic repulsion between the protons, and they exert the attractive nuclear force on each other and on protons. For this reason, one or more neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to bind into a nucleus. As the number of protons increases, so does the ratio of neutrons to protons necessary to ensure a stable nucleus (see graph at right). For example, although the neutron:proton ratio of
1806:
struck. Thomson observed two separate parabolic patches of light on the photographic plate (see image), which suggested two species of nuclei with different mass to charge ratios. He wrote "There can, therefore, I think, be little doubt that what has been called neon is not a simple gas but a mixture of two gases, one of which has an atomic weight about 20 and the other about 22. The parabola due to the heavier gas is always much fainter than that due to the lighter, so that probably the heavier gas forms only a small percentage of the mixture."
7914:
7200:
1766:
1945:
823:
1675:, which would make all nuclides ultimately unstable). Some stable nuclides are in theory energetically susceptible to other known forms of decay, such as alpha decay or double beta decay, but no decay products have yet been observed, and so these isotopes are said to be "observationally stable". The predicted half-lives for these nuclides often greatly exceed the estimated age of the universe, and in fact, there are also 31 known radionuclides (see
38:
7606:
6806:
2127:, having a single primordial stable isotope that dominates and fixes the atomic weight of the natural element to high precision; 3 radioactive mononuclidic elements occur as well). In total, there are 251 nuclides that have not been observed to decay. For the 80 elements that have one or more stable isotopes, the average number of stable isotopes is 251/80 ≈ 3.14 isotopes per element.
4817:(Berlin, Germany: R. Friedländer & Sohn, 1893): "Die ersteren habe ich der Kürze wegen isotope Elemente genannt, weil sie in jedem der sieben Stämmme der gleichen Ort, nämlich dieselbe Stuffe, einnehmen." (For the sake of brevity, I have named the former "isotopic" elements, because they occupy the same place in each of the seven families , namely the same step .)
1937:) of the atomic systems. However, for heavier elements, the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less so that the mass-difference effects on chemistry are usually negligible. (Heavy elements also have relatively more neutrons than lighter elements, so the ratio of the nuclear mass to the collective electronic mass is slightly greater.) There is also an
1859:
A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as protons. Thus different isotopes of a given element all have the same number of electrons and share a similar electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, different isotopes exhibit
3610:
for details of the various processes thought responsible for isotope production.) The respective abundances of isotopes on Earth result from the quantities formed by these processes, their spread through the galaxy, and the rates of decay for isotopes that are unstable. After the initial coalescence
2774:
elements that have a stable nuclide, only two elements (argon and cerium) have no even-odd stable nuclides. One element (tin) has three. There are 24 elements that have one even-odd nuclide and 13 that have two odd-even nuclides. Of 35 primordial radionuclides there exist four even-odd nuclides (see
1034:
over nuclear. The neutron number greatly affects nuclear properties, but its effect on chemical properties is negligible for most elements. Even for the lightest elements, whose ratio of neutron number to atomic number varies the most between isotopes, it usually has only a small effect although it
1753:
Soddy proposed that several types of atoms (differing in radioactive properties) could occupy the same place in the table. For example, the alpha-decay of uranium-235 forms thorium-231, whereas the beta decay of actinium-230 forms thorium-230. The term "isotope", Greek for "at the same place", was
3895:
is a significant technological challenge, particularly with heavy elements such as uranium or plutonium. Lighter elements such as lithium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are commonly separated by gas diffusion of their compounds such as CO and NO. The separation of hydrogen and deuterium is unusual
2803:
cross-sections, due to the energy that results from neutron-pairing effects. These stable even-proton odd-neutron nuclides tend to be uncommon by abundance in nature, generally because, to form and enter into primordial abundance, they must have escaped capturing neutrons to form yet other stable
1805:
ions through parallel magnetic and electric fields, measured their deflection by placing a photographic plate in their path, and computed their mass to charge ratio using a method that became known as the
Thomson's parabola method. Each stream created a glowing patch on the plate at the point it
1749:
emission produced an element one place to the right. Soddy recognized that emission of an alpha particle followed by two beta particles led to the formation of an element chemically identical to the initial element but with a mass four units lighter and with different radioactive properties.
4551:
Kasimir Fajans (1913) "Über eine
Beziehung zwischen der Art einer radioaktiven Umwandlung und dem elektrochemischen Verhalten der betreffenden Radioelemente" (On a relation between the type of radioactive transformation and the electrochemical behavior of the relevant radioactive elements),
3491:
As discussed above, only 80 elements have any stable isotopes, and 26 of these have only one stable isotope. Thus, about two-thirds of stable elements occur naturally on Earth in multiple stable isotopes, with the largest number of stable isotopes for an element being ten, for
3566:
An additional ~3000 radioactive nuclides not found in nature have been created in nuclear reactors and in particle accelerators. Many short-lived nuclides not found naturally on Earth have also been observed by spectroscopic analysis, being naturally created in stars or
3578:
The tabulated atomic masses of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with different masses. Before the discovery of isotopes, empirically determined noninteger values of atomic mass confounded scientists. For example, a sample of
2102:). No element has nine or eight stable isotopes. Five elements have seven stable isotopes, eight have six stable isotopes, ten have five stable isotopes, nine have four stable isotopes, five have three stable isotopes, 16 have two stable isotopes (counting
5343:
1656:", because they have not been observed to decay. In most cases, for obvious reasons, if an element has stable isotopes, those isotopes predominate in the elemental abundance found on Earth and in the Solar System. However, in the cases of three elements (
5090:
Jamin, Eric; Guérin, Régis; Rétif, Mélinda; Lees, Michèle; Martin, Gérard J. (2003). "Improved
Detection of Added Water in Orange Juice by Simultaneous Determination of the Oxygen-18/Oxygen-16 Isotope Ratios of Water and Ethanol Derived from Sugars".
2861:
48 stable odd-proton-even-neutron nuclides, stabilized by their paired neutrons, form most of the stable isotopes of the odd-numbered elements; the very few odd-proton-odd-neutron nuclides comprise the others. There are 41 odd-numbered elements with
3946:
in particular, significant variations of isotopes of C, N, and O can occur. Analysis of such variations has a wide range of applications, such as the detection of adulteration in food products or the geographic origins of products using
3542:
occur naturally on Earth; the other naturally occurring nuclides are radioactive but occur on Earth due to their relatively long half-lives, or else due to other means of ongoing natural production. These include the afore-mentioned
3977:, the use of unusual isotopes as tracers or markers in chemical reactions. Normally, atoms of a given element are indistinguishable from each other. However, by using isotopes of different masses, even different nonradioactive
4725:
p. 208: Up to 1913 we used the phrase 'radio elements chemically non-separable' and at that time the word isotope was suggested in a drawing-room discussion with Dr. Margaret Todd in the home of Soddy's father-in-law, Sir
1824:
for isotopic masses, which states that large deviations of elemental molar masses from integers are primarily due to the fact that the element is a mixture of isotopes. Aston similarly showed in 1920 that the molar mass of
1933:), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium and tritium has three times the mass of protium. These mass differences also affect the behavior of their respective chemical bonds, by changing the center of gravity (
1845:
in 1932, the ultimate root cause for the existence of isotopes was clarified, that is, the nuclei of different isotopes for a given element have different numbers of neutrons, albeit having the same number of protons.
3829:
1984:
of a molecule are determined by its shape and by the masses of its constituent atoms; so different isotopologues have different sets of vibrational modes. Because vibrational modes allow a molecule to absorb
1009:
with mass numbers 12, 13, and 14, respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6, which means that every carbon atom has 6 protons so that the neutron numbers of these isotopes are 6, 7, and 8 respectively.
3531:(to a total of 286 primordial nuclides), are radioactive with known half-lives, but have half-lives longer than 100 million years, allowing them to exist from the beginning of the Solar System. See
2762:
are minority isotopes of elements that are themselves rare compared to other light elements, whereas the other six isotopes make up only a tiny percentage of the natural abundance of their elements.
2770:
53 stable nuclides have an even number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. They are a minority in comparison to the even-even isotopes, which are about 3 times as numerous. Among the 41 even-
5035:
Hult, Mikael; Wieslander, J. S.; Marissens, Gerd; Gasparro, Joël; Wätjen, Uwe; Misiaszek, Marcin (2009). "Search for the radioactivity of 180mTa using an underground HPGe sandwich spectrometer".
3654:), the slight difference in mass between proton and neutron, and the mass of the electrons associated with the atom, the latter because the electron:nucleon ratio differs among isotopes.
4438:
Strömholm, Daniel and
Svedberg, Theodor (1909) "Untersuchungen über die Chemie der radioactiven Grundstoffe II." (Investigations into the chemistry of the radioactive elements, part 2),
2090:(calcium-40) is observationally the heaviest stable nuclide with the same number of neutrons and protons. All stable nuclides heavier than calcium-40 contain more neutrons than protons.
3615:, isotopes were redistributed according to mass, and the isotopic composition of elements varies slightly from planet to planet. This sometimes makes it possible to trace the origin of
3606:, while all other nuclides were synthesized later, in stars and supernovae, and in interactions between energetic particles such as cosmic rays, and previously produced nuclides. (See
1980:) have identical electronic structures, and therefore almost indistinguishable physical and chemical properties (again with deuterium and tritium being the primary exceptions). The
1668:) the most abundant isotope found in nature is actually one (or two) extremely long-lived radioisotope(s) of the element, despite these elements having one or more stable isotopes.
3712:
1820:
to show that the two isotopic masses are very close to the integers 20 and 22 and that neither is equal to the known molar mass (20.2) of neon gas. This is an example of Aston's
4179:
Thus the chemically identical elements - or isotopes, as I called them for the first time in this letter to Nature, because they occupy the same place in the
Periodic Table ...
2575:
an odd number of neutrons. The first four "odd-odd" nuclides occur in low mass nuclides, for which changing a proton to a neutron or vice versa would lead to a very lopsided
2327:
stable nuclides are divided (roughly evenly) into odd-proton-even-neutron, and even-proton-odd-neutron nuclides. Stable odd-proton-odd-neutron nuclides are the least common.
1785:
found variations between the atomic weight of lead from different mineral sources, attributable to variations in isotopic composition due to different radioactive origins.
978:
in the neutral (non-ionized) atom. Each atomic number identifies a specific element, but not the isotope; an atom of a given element may have a wide range in its number of
1375:). Because the atomic number is given by the element symbol, it is common to state only the mass number in the superscript and leave out the atomic number subscript (e.g.
4008:
method, whereby known amounts of isotopically substituted compounds are mixed with the samples and the isotopic signatures of the resulting mixtures are determined with
2691:
Many odd-odd radionuclides (such as the ground state of tantalum-180) with comparatively short half-lives are known. Usually, they beta-decay to their nearby even-even
3527:) in total. Only 251 of these naturally occurring nuclides are stable, in the sense of never having been observed to decay as of the present time. An additional 35
5353:
1867:: due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. This is most pronounced by far for
4030:
of an unstable element, one can calculate the amount of time that has elapsed since a known concentration of isotope existed. The most widely known example is
1205:
An isotope and/or nuclide is specified by the name of the particular element (this indicates the atomic number) followed by a hyphen and the mass number (e.g.
4041:(NMR) spectroscopy can be used only for isotopes with a nonzero nuclear spin. The most common nuclides used with NMR spectroscopy are H, D, N, C, and P.
3342:. All observationally stable odd-odd nuclides have nonzero integer spin. This is because the single unpaired neutron and unpaired proton have a larger
2339:
0 because of pairing. There are also 24 primordial long-lived even-even nuclides. As a result, each of the 41 even-numbered elements from 2 to 82 has
5381:
951:"place"), meaning "the same place"; thus, the meaning behind the name is that different isotopes of a single element occupy the same position on the
2695:
that have paired protons and paired neutrons. Of the nine primordial odd-odd nuclides (five stable and four radioactive with long half-lives), only
1738:
1718:(i.e. radioactive elements) between uranium and lead, although the periodic table only allowed for 11 elements between lead and uranium inclusive.
4635:
Alexander Smith
Russell (1888–1972) also published a displacement law: Russell, Alexander S. (1913) "The periodic system and the radio-elements,"
4119:
2281:, making odd nuclei, generally, less stable. This remarkable difference of nuclear binding energy between neighbouring nuclei, especially of odd-
1022:
is a species of an atom with a specific number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, for example, carbon-13 with 6 protons and 7 neutrons. The
5276:
5249:
Coordination and management of the production, availability, and distribution of isotopes, and reference information for the isotope community
4338:
3719:
1035:
matters in some circumstances (for hydrogen, the lightest element, the isotope effect is large enough to affect biology strongly). The term
2257:
The proton:neutron ratio is not the only factor affecting nuclear stability. It depends also on evenness or oddness of its atomic number
5306:
1671:
Theory predicts that many apparently "stable" nuclides are radioactive, with extremely long half-lives (discounting the possibility of
3602:, only isotopes of hydrogen and helium, traces of some isotopes of lithium and beryllium, and perhaps some boron, were created at the
2340:
2014:
854:
768:
4037:
Several forms of spectroscopy rely on the unique nuclear properties of specific isotopes, both radioactive and stable. For example,
5272:
2098:
Of the 80 elements with a stable isotope, the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten (for the element
4263:
4354:
This notation seems to have been introduced in the second half of the 1930s. Before that, various notations were used, such as
3900:. Uranium isotopes have been separated in bulk by gas diffusion, gas centrifugation, laser ionization separation, and (in the
3346:
attraction to each other if their spins are aligned (producing a total spin of at least 1 unit), instead of anti-aligned. See
8244:
5374:
4993:
1758:, a Scottish physician and family friend, during a conversation in which he explained his ideas to her. He received the 1921
4397:
1938:
3523:. Scientists estimate that the elements that occur naturally on Earth (some only as radioisotopes) occur as 339 isotopes (
117:
3938:, the relative abundances of isotopes of a given element in a particular sample. Isotope analysis is frequently done by
5302:
5262:
4947:
4079:
3419:
7232:
5287:
4928:
4829:
2352:
1721:
Several attempts to separate these new radioelements chemically had failed. For example, Soddy had shown in 1910 that
1026:
concept (referring to individual nuclear species) emphasizes nuclear properties over chemical properties, whereas the
4793:
4502:
2347:
primordial isotopes. Half of these even-numbered elements have six or more stable isotopes. The extreme stability of
7967:
7659:
7358:
3665:
based on the mass of the carbon-12 atom. It is denoted with symbols "u" (for unified atomic mass unit) or "Da" (for
5367:
879:: the identity of the isotope is given by the number of protons and neutrons. From left to right, the isotopes are
421:
8177:
8135:
8114:
7484:
7400:
7379:
809:
3939:
613:
7806:
7764:
7701:
7577:
7556:
7505:
7337:
7274:
7211:
6507:
6486:
5897:
5328:
1817:
318:
8093:
8051:
8030:
8009:
7890:
7680:
7617:
7526:
7463:
7442:
6696:
6570:
6528:
6444:
6400:
6265:
6118:
5990:
5855:
5832:
5653:
5163:
Deegan, Frances M.; Troll, Valentin R.; Whitehouse, Martin J.; Jolis, Ester M.; Freda, Carmela (2016-08-04).
4809:
In his 1893 book, William T. Preyer also used the word "isotope" to denote similarities among elements. From
1563:
as uranium two-thirty-five (American
English) or uranium-two-three-five (British) instead of 235-92-uranium.
936:
in their nuclei. While all isotopes of a given element have similar chemical properties, they have different
847:
8198:
7925:
7743:
7722:
7421:
7162:
7111:
7090:
7027:
6964:
6880:
6859:
6817:
6675:
6379:
6307:
6097:
6076:
6055:
6034:
5939:
5760:
5718:
5579:
5315:
5010:
8239:
4742:
Budzikiewicz H, Grigsby RD (2006). "Mass spectrometry and isotopes: a century of research and discussion".
4084:
1579:, whereas others have never been observed to decay radioactively and are referred to as stable isotopes or
8156:
7988:
7946:
7869:
7827:
7785:
7316:
7295:
7253:
7069:
7006:
6943:
6901:
6838:
6768:
6612:
6549:
6465:
6423:
6349:
6328:
6286:
6244:
6011:
5876:
5632:
8234:
3891:
Several applications exist that capitalize on the properties of the various isotopes of a given element.
3683:
2288:, has important consequences: unstable isotopes with a nonoptimal number of neutrons or protons decay by
1733:(Ra) are impossible to separate. Attempts to place the radioelements in the periodic table led Soddy and
631:
601:
102:
8072:
7848:
7638:
7183:
6922:
6789:
6717:
6633:
6591:
6202:
6181:
6160:
5918:
5811:
5739:
5697:
5602:
4453:(London, England: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1910), p. 141. (Cameron also anticipated the displacement law.)
4038:
2136:
678:
228:
7132:
6738:
5960:
5676:
5282:
4471:
4004:
Isotopes are commonly used to determine the concentration of various elements or substances using the
7228:
1782:
564:
7048:
6985:
6223:
6139:
5781:
4359:
4044:
3997:. If radioactive isotopes are used, they can be detected by the radiation they emit (this is called
3428:), or of more than one naturally occurring isotopes. The unstable (radioactive) isotopes are either
8270:
7963:
7655:
7354:
4333:
2422:) nucleons from existing long enough to serve as platforms for the buildup of heavier elements via
1838:
1759:
1686:. These include 905 nuclides that are either stable or have half-lives longer than 60 minutes. See
840:
827:
559:
263:
20:
6654:
5296:
4319:
2335:
The 146 even-proton, even-neutron (EE) nuclides comprise ~58% of all stable nuclides and all have
8173:
8131:
8110:
7480:
7396:
7375:
5510:
3897:
3433:
2813:
1637:
are stable isotopes. There are about 339 naturally occurring nuclides on Earth, of which 286 are
554:
451:
416:
112:
5255:
U.S. Department of Energy program for isotope production and production research and development
5070:
4383:
867:
7802:
7760:
7697:
7573:
7552:
7501:
7333:
7270:
7207:
6503:
6482:
5893:
5408:
4363:
4355:
4159:
3967:
3673:
3658:
2278:
1864:
1755:
956:
948:
608:
258:
223:
4655:
4217:
8089:
8047:
8026:
8005:
7886:
7676:
7613:
7522:
7459:
7438:
6692:
6566:
6524:
6440:
6396:
6261:
6114:
5986:
5851:
5828:
5649:
3986:
3437:
2716:
is the most common isotope of a common element. This is the case because it is a part of the
2684:(spin 9), is thought to be the rarest of the 251 stable nuclides, and is the only primordial
2020:
1809:
733:
618:
510:
5141:
4810:
3575:, which is not naturally found on Earth but is found in abundance on an astronomical scale.
1829:(35.45) is a weighted average of the almost integral masses for the two isotopes Cl and Cl.
1793:
The first evidence for multiple isotopes of a stable (non-radioactive) element was found by
673:
8194:
7921:
7739:
7718:
7417:
7158:
7107:
7086:
7023:
6960:
6876:
6855:
6813:
6671:
6375:
6303:
6093:
6072:
6051:
6030:
5935:
5756:
5714:
5575:
5419:
5235:
5176:
5137:
5093:
4956:
4751:
4667:
4584:
4526:
4229:
3917:
3425:
3249:
2576:
2427:
2124:
2063:
is greater than 3:2. A number of lighter elements have stable nuclides with the ratio 1:1 (
2006:
944:
872:
743:
718:
535:
5127:
Treiman, A. H.; Gleason, J. D.; Bogard, D. D. (2000). "The SNC meteorites are from Mars".
2123:
as stable), and 26 elements have only a single stable isotope (of these, 19 are so-called
8:
8152:
7984:
7942:
7865:
7823:
7781:
7312:
7291:
7249:
7065:
7002:
6939:
6897:
6834:
6764:
6608:
6545:
6461:
6419:
6345:
6324:
6282:
6240:
6007:
5872:
5628:
3239:. The last two were only recently found to decay, with half-lives greater than 10 years.
2301:
638:
517:
411:
354:
347:
337:
278:
273:
107:
5349:
5180:
4960:
4755:
4671:
4588:
4530:
4324:, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2005; IUPAC (McCleverty, J. A.; and Connelly, N. G.),
4233:
8068:
7844:
7634:
7179:
6918:
6785:
6713:
6629:
6587:
6198:
6177:
6156:
5914:
5807:
5735:
5693:
5598:
5205:
5164:
5129:
4911:
4683:
4600:
4245:
4066:
4031:
4023:
3943:
3935:
3892:
3886:
3599:
3544:
3528:
3465:
3453:
3429:
1730:
1676:
1638:
1190:
581:
576:
391:
5149:
3440:, and have persisted down to the present because their rate of decay is so slow (e.g.
3410:
have odd neutron number and are the most naturally abundant isotope of their element.
8265:
8229:
8223:
7128:
7013:
6734:
5956:
5672:
5210:
5192:
5109:
5052:
4989:
4789:
4767:
4498:
4270:
4124:
4114:
4109:
4094:
4009:
3982:
3974:
3963:
3905:
3901:
2293:
1821:
1813:
1233:
is used, e.g. "C" for carbon, standard notation (now known as "AZE notation" because
753:
748:
708:
586:
325:
313:
296:
268:
238:
79:
5359:
3896:
because it is based on chemical rather than physical properties, for example in the
1116:
are isotopes (nuclides with the same atomic number but different mass numbers), but
19:
This article is about the atomic variants of chemical elements. For other uses, see
7544:
7150:
7044:
6981:
6756:
6367:
6219:
6135:
5978:
5799:
5777:
5620:
5567:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5394:
5200:
5184:
5145:
5101:
5048:
5044:
4964:
4915:
4903:
4855:
4759:
4714:
4687:
4675:
4618:
Soddy elaborated his displacement law in: Soddy, Frederick (1913) "Radioactivity,"
4604:
4592:
4534:
4249:
4237:
4104:
4062:
4005:
3931:
3925:
3662:
3592:
3532:
3481:
2692:
2297:
2285:
2010:
1734:
1687:
1683:
1250:
1194:
1174:
905:
773:
763:
693:
446:
364:
332:
152:
84:
1989:
of corresponding energies, isotopologues have different optical properties in the
1682:
Adding in the radioactive nuclides that have been created artificially, there are
1525:
The common pronunciation of the AZE notation is different from how it is written:
1257:
at the upper left of the chemical symbol and to indicate the atomic number with a
6650:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5332:
5319:
4797:
4342:
3607:
3485:
3331:
2800:
2799:. Because of their odd neutron numbers, the even-odd nuclides tend to have large
1707:
1230:
960:
758:
738:
713:
643:
530:
458:
404:
369:
29:
4401:
5266:
5252:
4304:
4293:
4058:
3978:
3952:
3921:
3647:
3539:
3253:
2917:
2685:
2423:
2336:
2151:
2002:
1842:
1812:
subsequently discovered multiple stable isotopes for numerous elements using a
1704:
1653:
1580:
1488:
967:
952:
921:
917:
814:
668:
663:
542:
475:
283:
218:
195:
182:
169:
69:
47:
5013:. National Nuclear Data Center: Brookhaven National Laboratory. Archived from
4859:
3959:
is based in part upon the isotopic signature of trace gases contained in them.
3672:
The atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes of an element determine the
3555:
nuclides formed by ongoing decay of a primordial radioactive nuclide, such as
8259:
7239:
5196:
4727:
4144:
4054:
3989:. For example, in 'stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (
3520:
3343:
3334:), whereas those with even neutron number are generally not, though they are
2665:
2305:
1794:
1770:
1765:
1519:
1246:
971:
909:
793:
788:
783:
778:
728:
386:
359:
203:
142:
95:
74:
1773:'s photographic plate are the separate impact marks for the two isotopes of
7974:
7666:
7365:
5482:
5414:
5214:
5113:
5056:
4969:
4942:
4771:
4719:
4702:
4050:
3612:
3572:
3445:
3339:
3199:
2818:
2493:
1977:
1956:= number of neutrons. The plot for stable isotopes diverges from the line
1934:
1672:
1642:
1576:
1496:
1487:(for metastable) is sometimes appended after the mass number to indicate a
723:
698:
683:
428:
376:
233:
5253:
Isotope
Development & Production for Research and Applications (IDPRA)
4191:
2688:, which has not yet been observed to decay despite experimental attempts.
1745:
produced an element two places to the left in the periodic table, whereas
8184:
8142:
8121:
7491:
7407:
7386:
5477:
5126:
3666:
3651:
3639:
3628:
3588:
3584:
3548:
3477:
3441:
3335:
3220:
3178:
3136:
3134:
There are also five primordial long-lived radioactive odd-even isotopes,
2839:
2780:
2697:
2644:
2553:
2532:
2514:
2454:
2403:
1944:
1742:
1722:
1711:
1572:
1254:
1238:
1226:
1222:
987:
937:
929:
688:
381:
303:
156:
5352:– a virtual "flight" through 3D representation of the nuclide chart, by
5165:"Boron isotope fractionation in magma via crustal carbonate dissolution"
4047:
also relies on the nuclear transitions of specific isotopes, such as Fe.
3824:{\displaystyle {\overline {m}}_{a}=m_{1}x_{1}+m_{2}x_{2}+...+m_{N}x_{N}}
3519:
inclusive), though some are detected only in very tiny amounts, such as
3464:), or by the decay of a radioactive primordial isotope to a radioactive
1495:
or energetically excited nuclear state (as opposed to the lowest-energy
7813:
7771:
7708:
7584:
7563:
7512:
7344:
7281:
7218:
6514:
6493:
5904:
5243:
Portal to large repository of free data and analysis programs from NNDC
4099:
4069:
utilize radioisotopes respectively for medical diagnosis and treatment.
3552:
3449:
3157:
2890:
2867:
2663:; spins 1, 1, 3, 1). The only other entirely "stable" odd-odd nuclide,
2581:
2475:
2441:
2289:
1868:
1798:
1746:
1652:(over 100 million years) and 251 that are formally considered as "
1492:
875:. The fact that each isotope has one proton makes them all variants of
658:
648:
505:
485:
308:
178:
5188:
5105:
4763:
4538:
4517:
Nagel, Miriam C. (1982). "Frederick Soddy: From
Alchemy to Isotopes".
4061:
development require relatively large quantities of specific isotopes.
3680:
isotopes, the expression below is applied for the average atomic mass
1544:
is commonly pronounced as helium-four instead of four-two-helium, and
8100:
8058:
8037:
8016:
7897:
7687:
7624:
7533:
7470:
7449:
6703:
6577:
6535:
6451:
6407:
6272:
6125:
5997:
5862:
5839:
5660:
5502:
5492:
5487:
4907:
4679:
4596:
4241:
4089:
4027:
3948:
3616:
3568:
3516:
3461:
3347:
2944:
2809:
2805:
2722:
2717:
2602:
2446:
2382:
2311:
Most stable nuclides are even-proton-even-neutron, where all numbers
1973:
1890:
1657:
1649:
1258:
1218:
1214:
1031:
1002:
998:
994:
884:
703:
653:
480:
468:
463:
342:
5337:
5325:
4891:
4843:
4572:
4435:
Others had also suggested the possibility of isotopes; for example:
4318:(Connelly, N. G.; Damhus, T.; Hartshorn, R. M.; and Hutton, A. T.),
2019:
Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together by the
8205:
7932:
7750:
7729:
7428:
7169:
7118:
7097:
7034:
6971:
6887:
6866:
6824:
6682:
6386:
6314:
6104:
6083:
6062:
6041:
5946:
5767:
5725:
5586:
3603:
3580:
3323:
3105:
3059:
2921:
2743:
2623:
2361:
2348:
1990:
1826:
1210:
1206:
990:, and each isotope of a given element has a different mass number.
975:
880:
876:
3962:
Isotopic substitution can be used to determine the mechanism of a
37:
8163:
7995:
7953:
7876:
7834:
7792:
7323:
7302:
7260:
7076:
6950:
6908:
6845:
6775:
6619:
6556:
6472:
6430:
6356:
6335:
6293:
6251:
6018:
5883:
5639:
5497:
5312:
5014:
3994:
3643:
3524:
3469:
3457:
3327:
3082:
3013:
2990:
2776:
2104:
1912:
1665:
1049:
1019:
983:
979:
933:
925:
913:
900:
888:
165:
130:
62:
52:
5283:
4321:
Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry – IUPAC Recommendations 2005
2916:
elements, 30 elements (including hydrogen-1 where 0 neutrons is
2571:
Only five stable nuclides contain both an odd number of protons
8079:
7855:
7645:
7190:
6929:
6796:
6724:
6640:
6598:
6209:
6188:
6167:
5925:
5818:
5746:
5704:
5609:
5034:
3560:
3515:). There are about 94 elements found naturally on Earth (up to
3473:
3036:
2967:
1986:
1726:
1661:
1566:
1055:
1006:
924:(and hence belong to the same chemical element), but different
57:
5326:
Interactive Chart of the nuclides, isotopes and Periodic Table
4328:, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001; IUPAC (Leigh, G. J.),
3127:), have two odd-even stable isotopes each. This makes a total
7139:
6745:
5967:
5683:
5230:
4315:
3990:
3556:
2563:
2524:
2485:
1703:
The existence of isotopes was first suggested in 1913 by the
1253:) is to indicate the mass number (number of nucleons) with a
5322:
Interactive Chart of Nuclides (National Nuclear Data Center)
4326:
Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry II. Recommendations 2000
3911:
3661:. The atomic mass, on the other hand, is measured using the
7055:
6992:
6230:
6146:
5788:
5291:
5240:
3956:
2858:
are the most naturally abundant isotopes of their element.
2025:
1849:
1802:
1797:
in 1912 as part of his exploration into the composition of
1774:
5162:
4330:
Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (recommendations 1990)
6661:
5303:
Emergency Preparedness and Response: Radioactive Isotopes
5273:
Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements
3493:
3432:
or postprimordial. Primordial isotopes were a product of
2099:
1714:
that indicated about 40 different species referred to as
986:(both protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is the atom's
1030:
concept (grouping all atoms of each element) emphasizes
5258:
5246:
4988:(3rd ed.). India: Pearson Education. p. 427.
2920:) have one stable odd-even isotope, and nine elements:
1679:) with half-lives longer than the age of the universe.
1648:
Primordial nuclides include 35 nuclides with very long
943:
The term isotope is derived from the Greek roots isos (
3856:
are the atomic masses of each individual isotope, and
3638:) of an isotope (nuclide) is determined mainly by its
5389:
4872:
J. J. Thomson (1913) "Rays of positive electricity",
4422:
Choppin, G.; Liljenzin, J. O. and Rydberg, J. （1995）
3722:
3686:
5089:
4707:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
4034:
used to determine the age of carbonaceous materials.
1854:
1575:, and are therefore referred to as radioisotopes or
5008:
4741:
4335:
Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Second Edition
1996:
4345:, 1970; probably in the 1958 first edition as well
3823:
3706:
3646:in its nucleus). Small corrections are due to the
2866:= 1 through 81, of which 39 have stable isotopes (
2093:
5346:from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
4022:A technique similar to radioisotopic labeling is
2265:and, consequently, of their sum, the mass number
1976:that differ only in the isotopes of their atoms (
1185:and is still sometimes used in contexts in which
8257:
4700:
4653:
4516:
4215:
3350:for the simplest case of this nuclear behavior.
4637:Chemical News and Journal of Industrial Science
4120:Reference materials for stable isotope analysis
3872:are the relative abundances of these isotopes.
3476:). A few isotopes are naturally synthesized as
2130:
1801:(positive ions). Thomson channelled streams of
1177:(nuclides with the same mass number). However,
5277:National Institute of Standards and Technology
1181:is the older term and so is better known than
955:. It was coined by Scottish doctor and writer
5375:
4825:
4823:
4815:Das genetische System der chemischen Elemente
3424:Elements are composed either of one nuclide (
1816:. In 1919 Aston studied neon with sufficient
848:
5002:
4735:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4160:"The origins of the conceptions of isotopes"
4016:
3448:). Post-primordial isotopes were created by
2912:) have no stable isotopes). Of these 39 odd
1567:Radioactive, primordial, and stable isotopes
959:in a 1913 suggestion to the British chemist
4844:"XIX. Further experiments on positive rays"
4800:, described as a former student of Soddy's.
4569:Soddy announced his "displacement law" in:
3880:
3875:
3436:or another type of nucleosynthesis such as
2300:, or other less common decay modes such as
1641:, meaning that they have existed since the
5382:
5368:
5307:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
4931:Francis W. Aston, Nobel prize lecture 1922
4830:The origins of the conceptions of isotopes
4820:
4378:
4376:
3676:of the element. When the element contains
3622:
855:
841:
5231:The Nuclear Science web portal Nucleonica
5204:
4968:
4718:
4573:"The Radio-Elements and the Periodic Law"
4489:
4487:
4485:
4458:
3912:Use of chemical and biological properties
2015:List of elements by stability of isotopes
1601:is a radioactive form of carbon, whereas
5297:Current isotope research and information
4940:
4652:Soddy first used the word "isotope" in:
4512:
4510:
4426:(2nd ed.) Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 3–5
3993:)' stable isotopes are used to quantify
3591:, giving an average atomic mass of 35.5
1943:
1850:Variation in properties between isotopes
1764:
1047:) is intended to imply comparison (like
866:
5120:
4983:
4934:
4841:
4373:
3413:
1698:
8258:
4482:
4142:
3326:with odd neutron number are generally
1013:
5363:
5083:
5071:"Radioactives Missing From The Earth"
4889:
4570:
4507:
4497:Oxford University Press, pp. 176–179
4384:"Radioactives Missing From The Earth"
4158:Soddy, Frederick (12 December 1922).
4157:
3484:, such as when neutrons from natural
3242:
2355:of 2 protons and 2 neutrons prevents
2330:
1729:(Ra, the longest-lived isotope), and
4832:Frederick Soddy, Nobel prize lecture
4440:Zeitschrift für anorganischen Chemie
4424:Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry
2804:even-even isotopes, during both the
2765:
2044:is 1:2, the neutron:proton ratio of
1860:nearly identical chemical behavior.
5344:Annotated bibliography for isotopes
5288:Exploring the Table of the Isotopes
5247:National Isotope Development Center
4469:
4446:: 197–206; see especially page 206.
3707:{\displaystyle {\overline {m}}_{a}}
1189:might be more appropriate, such as
16:Different atoms of the same element
13:
5263:International Atomic Energy Agency
5259:International Atomic Energy Agency
4948:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
4332:, Blackwell Science, 1990; IUPAC,
4143:Herzog, Gregory F. (2 June 2020).
4080:Abundance of the chemical elements
3420:Abundance of the chemical elements
2343:, and most of these elements have
1863:The main exception to this is the
1788:
1762:in part for his work on isotopes.
1710:, based on studies of radioactive
1005:are three isotopes of the element
14:
8282:
5224:
4796:, Ch. 6, note 44 (p. 312) citing
1855:Chemical and molecular properties
966:The number of protons within the
898:are distinct nuclear species (or
7912:
7604:
7543:
7198:
7149:
6804:
6755:
6366:
5977:
5798:
5619:
5566:
5338:The LIVEChart of Nuclides – IAEA
4874:Proceedings of the Royal Society
3598:According to generally accepted
3480:nuclides, by some other natural
1997:Nuclear properties and stability
822:
821:
808:
36:
5350:The Valley of Stability (video)
5156:
5063:
5028:
5011:"Interactive Chart of Nuclides"
4977:
4922:
4883:
4866:
4835:
4803:
4778:
4694:
4646:
4629:
4612:
4563:
4545:
4429:
4416:
4390:
3940:isotope ratio mass spectrometry
2775:table at right), including the
2094:Numbers of isotopes per element
1737:independently to propose their
5049:10.1016/j.apradiso.2009.01.057
5037:Applied Radiation and Isotopes
4620:Chemical Society Annual Report
4348:
4309:
4298:
4287:
4256:
4209:
4184:
4151:
4136:
3973:Another common application is
3488:are absorbed by another atom.
1769:In the bottom right corner of
1684:3,339 currently known nuclides
974:and is equal to the number of
932:) due to different numbers of
871:The three naturally occurring
1:
5150:10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00105-7
4892:"Isotopes and Atomic Weights"
4519:Journal of Chemical Education
4130:
1059:). For example, the nuclides
5241:National Nuclear Data Center
5009:Sonzogni, Alejandro (2008).
4192:"isotope—Origin and meaning"
4085:Bainbridge mass spectrometer
3729:
3693:
2131:Even and odd nucleon numbers
1741:in 1913, to the effect that
1739:radioactive displacement law
963:, who popularized the term.
7:
5236:The Karlsruhe Nuclide Chart
4788:, Oxford University Press,
4470:Ley, Willy (October 1966).
4073:
2812:of neutron capture, during
2341:at least one stable isotope
1832:
1571:Some isotopes/nuclides are
1200:
602:High-energy nuclear physics
10:
8287:
7593:
5846:
5667:
5593:
4449:Alexander Thomas Cameron,
4147:. Encyclopedia Britannica.
4053:also have important uses.
4039:nuclear magnetic resonance
3915:
3904:) by a type of production
3884:
3417:
3131:stable odd-even isotopes.
2359:nuclides containing five (
2137:Even and odd atomic nuclei
2134:
2000:
1939:equilibrium isotope effect
1693:
887:(H) with one neutron, and
18:
8219:
7909:
5401:
5275:Static table, from NIST (
5265:(IAEA), an Agency of the
4929:Mass spectra and isotopes
4860:10.1080/14786440808637325
4744:Mass Spectrometry Reviews
4701:Fleck, Alexander (1957).
4654:Soddy, Frederick (1913).
4571:Soddy, Frederick (1913).
4554:Physikalische Zeitschrift
4356:Ne(22) for neon-22 (1934)
4216:Soddy, Frederick (1913).
4017:Use of nuclear properties
940:and physical properties.
4943:"Existence of a Neutron"
4941:Chadwick, James (1932).
4474:. For Your Information.
3981:can be distinguished by
3955:as having originated on
3951:. The identification of
3934:is the determination of
3881:Purification of isotopes
3876:Applications of isotopes
2816:. For this reason, only
2814:nucleosynthesis in stars
1839:discovery of the neutron
1760:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1725:(later shown to be Ra),
1261:at the lower left (e.g.
883:(H) with zero neutrons,
21:Isotope (disambiguation)
5555:Chalcogens
5142:2000P&SS...48.1213T
4984:Laidler, Keith (1987).
4842:Thomson, J. J. (1912).
4784:Scerri, Eric R. (2007)
4493:Scerri, Eric R. (2007)
4472:"The Delayed Discovery"
3898:Girdler sulfide process
3623:Atomic mass of isotopes
3434:stellar nucleosynthesis
113:Interacting boson model
4970:10.1098/rspa.1932.0112
4848:Philosophical Magazine
4813:of William T. Preyer,
4720:10.1098/rsbm.1957.0014
4476:Galaxy Science Fiction
4045:Mössbauer spectroscopy
3999:radioisotopic labeling
3968:kinetic isotope effect
3825:
3708:
3674:standard atomic weight
3659:dimensionless quantity
2279:nuclear binding energy
1969:
1964:as the element number
1952:= number of protons.
1865:kinetic isotope effect
1778:
1777:: neon-20 and neon-22.
1754:suggested to Soddy by
920:) and position in the
892:
891:(H) with two neutrons.
4890:Aston, F. W. (1920).
4656:"Intra-atomic charge"
4398:"NuDat 2 Description"
4360:Ne for neon-22 (1935)
4218:"Intra-atomic charge"
3987:infrared spectroscopy
3826:
3709:
3657:The mass number is a
3438:cosmic ray spallation
3426:mononuclidic elements
2125:mononuclidic elements
2021:residual strong force
1947:
1768:
908:. They have the same
870:
500:High-energy processes
198:– equal all the above
96:Models of the nucleus
5094:J. Agric. Food Chem.
3918:isotope geochemistry
3720:
3684:
3650:of the nucleus (see
3414:Occurrence in nature
2577:proton-neutron ratio
2434:Even-odd long-lived
2428:triple alpha process
2007:Stable isotope ratio
1948:Isotope half-lives.
1699:Radioactive isotopes
947:"equal") and topos (
873:isotopes of hydrogen
536:nuclear astrophysics
8245:Isotopes by element
8240:Metastable isotopes
5181:2016NatSR...630774D
4961:1932RSPSA.136..692C
4756:2006MSRv...25..146B
4672:1913Natur..92..399S
4589:1913Natur..91...57S
4531:1982JChEd..59..739N
4478:. pp. 116–127.
4404:on 23 December 2016
4368:for lead-210 (1933)
4234:1913Natur..92..399S
3944:biogenic substances
3545:cosmogenic nuclides
3529:primordial nuclides
3454:cosmogenic nuclides
3274:
2435:
2302:spontaneous fission
2277:tends to lower the
2172:
1639:primordial nuclides
1014:Isotope vs. nuclide
518:Photodisintegration
441:Capturing processes
355:Spontaneous fission
348:Internal conversion
279:Valley of stability
274:Island of stability
108:Nuclear shell model
8235:Tables of nuclides
5340:with isotope data.
5331:2008-09-30 at the
5318:2018-10-10 at the
5169:Scientific Reports
5130:Planet. Space Sci.
4786:The Periodic Table
4495:The Periodic Table
4341:2016-03-03 at the
4196:www.etymonline.com
4067:radiation oncology
4032:radiocarbon dating
4026:: using the known
4024:radiometric dating
3953:certain meteorites
3936:isotopic signature
3893:Isotope separation
3887:isotope separation
3821:
3704:
3551:nuclides, and any
3466:radiogenic nuclide
3247:
3243:Odd neutron number
2433:
2331:Even atomic number
2323:are even. The odd-
2269:. Oddness of both
2141:
1970:
1779:
1677:primordial nuclide
1191:nuclear technology
893:
815:Physics portal
609:Quark–gluon plasma
392:Radiogenic nuclide
8253:
8252:
8224:Table of nuclides
8214:
8213:
8201:
8180:
8159:
8138:
8117:
8096:
8075:
8054:
8033:
8012:
7991:
7970:
7949:
7928:
7893:
7872:
7851:
7830:
7809:
7788:
7767:
7746:
7725:
7704:
7683:
7662:
7641:
7620:
7580:
7559:
7529:
7508:
7487:
7466:
7445:
7424:
7403:
7382:
7361:
7340:
7319:
7298:
7277:
7256:
7235:
7214:
7186:
7165:
7135:
7114:
7093:
7072:
7051:
7030:
7009:
6988:
6967:
6946:
6925:
6904:
6883:
6862:
6841:
6820:
6792:
6771:
6741:
6720:
6699:
6678:
6657:
6636:
6615:
6594:
6573:
6552:
6531:
6510:
6489:
6468:
6447:
6426:
6403:
6382:
6352:
6331:
6310:
6289:
6268:
6247:
6226:
6205:
6184:
6163:
6142:
6121:
6100:
6079:
6058:
6037:
6014:
5993:
5963:
5942:
5921:
5900:
5879:
5858:
5835:
5814:
5784:
5763:
5742:
5721:
5700:
5679:
5656:
5635:
5605:
5582:
5552:Pnictogens
5513:
5411:
5395:chemical elements
5313:Chart of Nuclides
5189:10.1038/srep30774
5106:10.1021/jf030167m
4995:978-81-317-0972-6
4986:Chemical Kinetics
4902:(2646): 617–619.
4764:10.1002/mas.20061
4703:"Frederick Soddy"
4666:(2301): 399–400.
4539:10.1021/ed059p739
4228:(2301): 399–400.
4125:Table of nuclides
4115:Mass spectrometry
4110:List of particles
4095:Isotope hydrology
4010:mass spectrometry
3983:mass spectrometry
3975:isotopic labeling
3964:chemical reaction
3906:mass spectrometry
3902:Manhattan Project
3732:
3696:
3593:atomic mass units
3321:
3320:
2766:Odd atomic number
2569:
2568:
2294:positron emission
2261:, neutron number
2255:
2254:
1982:vibrational modes
1822:whole number rule
1814:mass spectrograph
1045:isotopic nuclides
1041:isotopic elements
1039:(originally also
865:
864:
551:
297:Radioactive decay
253:Nuclear stability
80:Nuclear structure
8278:
8199:§ List
8193:
8178:§ List
8172:
8157:§ List
8151:
8136:§ List
8130:
8115:§ List
8109:
8094:§ List
8088:
8073:§ List
8067:
8052:§ List
8046:
8031:§ List
8025:
8010:§ List
8004:
7989:§ List
7983:
7968:§ List
7962:
7947:§ List
7941:
7926:§ List
7920:
7916:
7915:
7891:§ List
7885:
7870:§ List
7864:
7849:§ List
7843:
7828:§ List
7822:
7807:§ List
7801:
7786:§ List
7780:
7765:§ List
7759:
7744:§ List
7738:
7723:§ List
7717:
7702:§ List
7696:
7681:§ List
7675:
7660:§ List
7654:
7639:§ List
7633:
7618:§ List
7612:
7608:
7607:
7578:§ List
7572:
7557:§ List
7551:
7547:
7527:§ List
7521:
7506:§ List
7500:
7485:§ List
7479:
7464:§ List
7458:
7443:§ List
7437:
7422:§ List
7416:
7401:§ List
7395:
7380:§ List
7374:
7359:§ List
7353:
7338:§ List
7332:
7317:§ List
7311:
7296:§ List
7290:
7275:§ List
7269:
7254:§ List
7248:
7233:§ List
7227:
7212:§ List
7206:
7202:
7201:
7184:§ List
7178:
7163:§ List
7157:
7153:
7133:§ List
7127:
7112:§ List
7106:
7091:§ List
7085:
7070:§ List
7064:
7049:§ List
7043:
7028:§ List
7022:
7007:§ List
7001:
6986:§ List
6980:
6965:§ List
6959:
6944:§ List
6938:
6923:§ List
6917:
6902:§ List
6896:
6881:§ List
6875:
6860:§ List
6854:
6839:§ List
6833:
6818:§ List
6812:
6808:
6807:
6790:§ List
6784:
6769:§ List
6763:
6759:
6739:§ List
6733:
6718:§ List
6712:
6697:§ List
6691:
6676:§ List
6670:
6655:§ List
6649:
6634:§ List
6628:
6613:§ List
6607:
6592:§ List
6586:
6571:§ List
6565:
6550:§ List
6544:
6529:§ List
6523:
6508:§ List
6502:
6487:§ List
6481:
6466:§ List
6460:
6445:§ List
6439:
6424:§ List
6418:
6401:§ List
6395:
6380:§ List
6374:
6370:
6350:§ List
6344:
6329:§ List
6323:
6308:§ List
6302:
6287:§ List
6281:
6266:§ List
6260:
6245:§ List
6239:
6224:§ List
6218:
6203:§ List
6197:
6182:§ List
6176:
6161:§ List
6155:
6140:§ List
6134:
6119:§ List
6113:
6098:§ List
6092:
6077:§ List
6071:
6056:§ List
6050:
6035:§ List
6029:
6012:§ List
6006:
5991:§ List
5985:
5981:
5961:§ List
5955:
5940:§ List
5934:
5919:§ List
5913:
5898:§ List
5892:
5877:§ List
5871:
5856:§ List
5850:
5833:§ List
5827:
5812:§ List
5806:
5802:
5782:§ List
5776:
5761:§ List
5755:
5740:§ List
5734:
5719:§ List
5713:
5698:§ List
5692:
5677:§ List
5671:
5654:§ List
5648:
5633:§ List
5627:
5623:
5603:§ List
5597:
5580:§ List
5574:
5570:
5509:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5384:
5377:
5370:
5361:
5360:
5219:
5218:
5208:
5160:
5154:
5153:
5124:
5118:
5117:
5087:
5081:
5080:
5078:
5077:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5032:
5026:
5025:
5023:
5022:
5006:
5000:
4999:
4981:
4975:
4974:
4972:
4955:(830): 692–708.
4938:
4932:
4926:
4920:
4919:
4908:10.1038/105617a0
4887:
4881:
4870:
4864:
4863:
4854:(140): 209–253.
4839:
4833:
4827:
4818:
4807:
4801:
4782:
4776:
4775:
4739:
4733:
4732:
4722:
4698:
4692:
4691:
4680:10.1038/092399c0
4650:
4644:
4633:
4627:
4616:
4610:
4608:
4597:10.1038/091057a0
4567:
4561:
4549:
4543:
4542:
4514:
4505:
4491:
4480:
4479:
4467:
4456:
4433:
4427:
4420:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4409:
4400:. Archived from
4394:
4388:
4387:
4380:
4371:
4352:
4346:
4313:
4307:
4302:
4296:
4291:
4285:
4284:
4282:
4281:
4275:
4269:. Archived from
4268:
4264:"IUPAP Red Book"
4260:
4254:
4253:
4242:10.1038/092399c0
4213:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4188:
4182:
4181:
4176:
4174:
4164:
4155:
4149:
4148:
4140:
4105:List of nuclides
4063:Nuclear medicine
4006:isotope dilution
3932:Isotope analysis
3926:paleoclimatology
3830:
3828:
3827:
3822:
3820:
3819:
3810:
3809:
3785:
3784:
3775:
3774:
3762:
3761:
3752:
3751:
3739:
3738:
3733:
3725:
3713:
3711:
3710:
3705:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3689:
3663:atomic mass unit
3642:(i.e. number of
3600:cosmology theory
3571:. An example is
3533:list of nuclides
3514:
3513:
3512:
3505:
3504:
3482:nuclear reaction
3409:
3408:
3407:
3400:
3399:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3381:
3380:
3371:
3370:
3369:
3362:
3361:
3332:thermal neutrons
3275:
3270:
3269:
3268:
3261:
3260:
3246:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3228:
3227:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3207:
3206:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3186:
3185:
3175:
3173:
3172:
3165:
3164:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3144:
3143:
3130:
3126:
3125:
3124:
3117:
3116:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3094:
3093:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3071:
3070:
3057:
3056:
3055:
3048:
3047:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3025:
3024:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3002:
3001:
2988:
2987:
2986:
2979:
2978:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2956:
2955:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2933:
2932:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2902:
2901:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2879:
2878:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2847:
2846:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2826:
2825:
2798:
2796:
2795:
2788:
2787:
2761:
2759:
2758:
2751:
2750:
2740:
2738:
2737:
2730:
2729:
2715:
2713:
2712:
2705:
2704:
2683:
2681:
2680:
2673:
2672:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2652:
2651:
2641:
2639:
2638:
2631:
2630:
2620:
2618:
2617:
2610:
2609:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2589:
2588:
2561:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2540:
2539:
2522:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2501:
2500:
2483:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2462:
2461:
2436:
2432:
2421:
2419:
2418:
2411:
2410:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2390:
2389:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2369:
2368:
2351:due to a double
2298:electron capture
2173:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2159:
2158:
2140:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2112:
2111:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2080:
2079:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2053:
2052:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2033:
2032:
2011:List of nuclides
1932:
1931:
1930:
1923:
1922:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1901:
1900:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1879:
1878:
1735:Kazimierz Fajans
1688:list of nuclides
1636:
1635:
1634:
1627:
1626:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1609:
1608:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1591:
1590:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1553:
1552:
1543:
1542:
1541:
1534:
1533:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1508:
1507:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1473:
1472:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1455:
1454:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1437:
1436:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1419:
1418:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1401:
1400:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1383:
1382:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1365:
1364:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1346:
1345:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1327:
1326:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1308:
1307:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1289:
1288:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1270:
1269:
1195:nuclear medicine
1172:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1162:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1144:
1143:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1124:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1106:
1105:
1096:
1095:
1094:
1087:
1086:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1068:
1067:
1043:, now sometimes
982:. The number of
906:chemical element
857:
850:
843:
830:
825:
824:
817:
813:
812:
689:Skłodowska-Curie
549:
365:Neutron emission
133:' classification
85:Nuclear reaction
40:
26:
25:
8286:
8285:
8281:
8280:
8279:
8277:
8276:
8275:
8271:Nuclear physics
8256:
8255:
8254:
8249:
8215:
8209:
8202:
8188:
8181:
8167:
8160:
8146:
8139:
8125:
8118:
8104:
8097:
8083:
8076:
8062:
8055:
8041:
8034:
8020:
8013:
7999:
7992:
7978:
7971:
7957:
7950:
7936:
7929:
7913:
7901:
7894:
7880:
7873:
7859:
7852:
7838:
7831:
7817:
7810:
7796:
7789:
7775:
7768:
7754:
7747:
7733:
7726:
7712:
7705:
7691:
7684:
7670:
7663:
7649:
7642:
7628:
7621:
7605:
7588:
7581:
7567:
7560:
7537:
7530:
7516:
7509:
7495:
7488:
7474:
7467:
7453:
7446:
7432:
7425:
7411:
7404:
7390:
7383:
7369:
7362:
7348:
7341:
7327:
7320:
7306:
7299:
7285:
7278:
7264:
7257:
7243:
7236:
7222:
7215:
7199:
7194:
7187:
7173:
7166:
7143:
7136:
7122:
7115:
7101:
7094:
7080:
7073:
7059:
7052:
7038:
7031:
7017:
7010:
6996:
6989:
6975:
6968:
6954:
6947:
6933:
6926:
6912:
6905:
6891:
6884:
6870:
6863:
6849:
6842:
6828:
6821:
6805:
6800:
6793:
6779:
6772:
6749:
6742:
6728:
6721:
6707:
6700:
6686:
6679:
6665:
6658:
6644:
6637:
6623:
6616:
6602:
6595:
6581:
6574:
6560:
6553:
6539:
6532:
6518:
6511:
6497:
6490:
6476:
6469:
6455:
6448:
6434:
6427:
6411:
6404:
6390:
6383:
6360:
6353:
6339:
6332:
6318:
6311:
6297:
6290:
6276:
6269:
6255:
6248:
6234:
6227:
6213:
6206:
6192:
6185:
6171:
6164:
6150:
6143:
6129:
6122:
6108:
6101:
6087:
6080:
6066:
6059:
6045:
6038:
6022:
6015:
6001:
5994:
5971:
5964:
5950:
5943:
5929:
5922:
5908:
5901:
5887:
5880:
5866:
5859:
5843:
5836:
5822:
5815:
5792:
5785:
5771:
5764:
5750:
5743:
5729:
5722:
5708:
5701:
5687:
5680:
5664:
5657:
5643:
5636:
5613:
5606:
5590:
5583:
5558:Halogens
5522:
5517:
5397:
5388:
5333:Wayback Machine
5320:Wayback Machine
5227:
5222:
5161:
5157:
5136:(12–14): 1213.
5125:
5121:
5088:
5084:
5075:
5073:
5069:
5068:
5064:
5033:
5029:
5020:
5018:
5007:
5003:
4996:
4982:
4978:
4939:
4935:
4927:
4923:
4888:
4884:
4871:
4867:
4840:
4836:
4828:
4821:
4808:
4804:
4798:Alexander Fleck
4783:
4779:
4740:
4736:
4699:
4695:
4651:
4647:
4634:
4630:
4617:
4613:
4583:(2264): 57–58.
4568:
4564:
4550:
4546:
4515:
4508:
4492:
4483:
4468:
4459:
4434:
4430:
4421:
4417:
4407:
4405:
4396:
4395:
4391:
4382:
4381:
4374:
4367:
4353:
4349:
4343:Wayback Machine
4314:
4310:
4305:IUPAC Gold Book
4303:
4299:
4294:IUPAC Gold Book
4292:
4288:
4279:
4277:
4273:
4266:
4262:
4261:
4257:
4214:
4210:
4200:
4198:
4190:
4189:
4185:
4172:
4170:
4162:
4156:
4152:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4076:
4059:nuclear weapons
4019:
3979:stable isotopes
3928:
3916:Main articles:
3914:
3889:
3883:
3878:
3871:
3862:
3855:
3846:
3839:
3815:
3811:
3805:
3801:
3780:
3776:
3770:
3766:
3757:
3753:
3747:
3743:
3734:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3717:
3698:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3681:
3637:
3625:
3608:nucleosynthesis
3583:contains 75.8%
3540:stable nuclides
3511:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3503:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3486:nuclear fission
3468:daughter (e.g.
3452:bombardment as
3422:
3416:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3398:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3267:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3248:Neutron number
3245:
3234:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3192:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3177:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3150:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3128:
3123:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3077:
3075:
3074:
3073:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3031:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3008:
3006:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2972:
2971:
2962:
2960:
2959:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2925:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2885:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2853:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2801:neutron capture
2794:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2768:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2736:
2734:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2720:. The nuclides
2711:
2709:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2616:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2595:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2559:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2520:
2507:
2505:
2504:
2503:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2481:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2375:
2373:
2372:
2371:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2333:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2139:
2133:
2118:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2096:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2071:). The nuclide
2059:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2039:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2017:
1999:
1972:Similarly, two
1929:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1907:
1905:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1857:
1852:
1835:
1791:
1789:Stable isotopes
1708:Frederick Soddy
1701:
1696:
1654:stable nuclides
1633:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1620:
1615:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1584:
1583:. For example,
1581:stable nuclides
1569:
1559:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1540:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1514:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1499:), for example
1479:
1477:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1459:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1451:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1397:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1381:
1379:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1371:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1341:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1314:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1276:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1231:chemical symbol
1203:
1169:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1131:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1074:
1072:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1016:
961:Frederick Soddy
861:
820:
807:
806:
799:
798:
634:
624:
623:
604:
594:
593:
538:
534:
531:Nucleosynthesis
523:
522:
501:
493:
492:
442:
434:
433:
407:
405:Nuclear fission
397:
396:
370:Proton emission
299:
289:
288:
254:
246:
245:
147:
134:
123:
122:
98:
30:Nuclear physics
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8284:
8274:
8273:
8268:
8251:
8250:
8248:
8247:
8242:
8237:
8232:
8226:
8220:
8217:
8216:
8212:
8211:
8203:
8192:
8190:
8182:
8171:
8169:
8161:
8150:
8148:
8140:
8129:
8127:
8119:
8108:
8106:
8098:
8087:
8085:
8077:
8066:
8064:
8056:
8045:
8043:
8035:
8024:
8022:
8014:
8003:
8001:
7993:
7982:
7980:
7972:
7961:
7959:
7951:
7940:
7938:
7930:
7919:
7917:
7910:
7907:
7906:
7903:
7895:
7884:
7882:
7874:
7863:
7861:
7853:
7842:
7840:
7832:
7821:
7819:
7811:
7800:
7798:
7790:
7779:
7777:
7769:
7758:
7756:
7748:
7737:
7735:
7727:
7716:
7714:
7706:
7695:
7693:
7685:
7674:
7672:
7664:
7653:
7651:
7643:
7632:
7630:
7622:
7611:
7609:
7602:
7600:
7598:
7595:
7594:
7591:
7590:
7582:
7571:
7569:
7561:
7550:
7548:
7540:
7539:
7531:
7520:
7518:
7510:
7499:
7497:
7489:
7478:
7476:
7468:
7457:
7455:
7447:
7436:
7434:
7426:
7415:
7413:
7405:
7394:
7392:
7384:
7373:
7371:
7363:
7352:
7350:
7342:
7331:
7329:
7321:
7310:
7308:
7300:
7289:
7287:
7279:
7268:
7266:
7258:
7247:
7245:
7237:
7226:
7224:
7216:
7205:
7203:
7196:
7188:
7177:
7175:
7167:
7156:
7154:
7146:
7145:
7137:
7126:
7124:
7116:
7105:
7103:
7095:
7084:
7082:
7074:
7063:
7061:
7053:
7042:
7040:
7032:
7021:
7019:
7011:
7000:
6998:
6990:
6979:
6977:
6969:
6958:
6956:
6948:
6937:
6935:
6927:
6916:
6914:
6906:
6895:
6893:
6885:
6874:
6872:
6864:
6853:
6851:
6843:
6832:
6830:
6822:
6811:
6809:
6802:
6794:
6783:
6781:
6773:
6762:
6760:
6752:
6751:
6743:
6732:
6730:
6722:
6711:
6709:
6701:
6690:
6688:
6680:
6669:
6667:
6659:
6648:
6646:
6638:
6627:
6625:
6617:
6606:
6604:
6596:
6585:
6583:
6575:
6564:
6562:
6554:
6543:
6541:
6533:
6522:
6520:
6512:
6501:
6499:
6491:
6480:
6478:
6470:
6459:
6457:
6449:
6438:
6436:
6428:
6417:
6415:
6413:
6405:
6394:
6392:
6384:
6373:
6371:
6363:
6362:
6354:
6343:
6341:
6333:
6322:
6320:
6312:
6301:
6299:
6291:
6280:
6278:
6270:
6259:
6257:
6249:
6238:
6236:
6228:
6217:
6215:
6207:
6196:
6194:
6186:
6175:
6173:
6165:
6154:
6152:
6144:
6133:
6131:
6123:
6112:
6110:
6102:
6091:
6089:
6081:
6070:
6068:
6060:
6049:
6047:
6039:
6028:
6026:
6024:
6016:
6005:
6003:
5995:
5984:
5982:
5974:
5973:
5965:
5954:
5952:
5944:
5933:
5931:
5923:
5912:
5910:
5902:
5891:
5889:
5881:
5870:
5868:
5860:
5849:
5847:
5845:
5837:
5826:
5824:
5816:
5805:
5803:
5795:
5794:
5786:
5775:
5773:
5765:
5754:
5752:
5744:
5733:
5731:
5723:
5712:
5710:
5702:
5691:
5689:
5681:
5670:
5668:
5666:
5658:
5647:
5645:
5637:
5626:
5624:
5616:
5615:
5607:
5596:
5594:
5592:
5584:
5573:
5571:
5563:
5562:
5559:
5556:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5546:
5544:
5542:
5540:
5538:
5536:
5534:
5532:
5530:
5528:
5526:
5524:
5519:
5518:alkali metals
5514:
5506:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5425:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5402:
5399:
5398:
5387:
5386:
5379:
5372:
5364:
5358:
5357:
5347:
5341:
5335:
5323:
5310:
5300:
5294:
5285:
5280:
5270:
5267:United Nations
5256:
5250:
5244:
5238:
5233:
5226:
5225:External links
5223:
5221:
5220:
5155:
5119:
5100:(18): 5202–6.
5082:
5062:
5027:
5001:
4994:
4976:
4933:
4921:
4882:
4865:
4834:
4819:
4802:
4777:
4734:
4693:
4645:
4628:
4611:
4562:
4544:
4525:(9): 739–740.
4506:
4481:
4457:
4455:
4454:
4451:Radiochemistry
4447:
4428:
4415:
4389:
4372:
4365:
4347:
4308:
4297:
4286:
4255:
4208:
4183:
4167:Nobelprize.org
4150:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4070:
4048:
4042:
4035:
4018:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4002:
3971:
3960:
3922:cosmochemistry
3913:
3910:
3885:Main article:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3867:
3860:
3851:
3844:
3837:
3818:
3814:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3791:
3788:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3760:
3756:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3737:
3731:
3728:
3701:
3695:
3692:
3648:binding energy
3635:
3624:
3621:
3563:from uranium.
3538:All the known
3510:
3501:
3415:
3412:
3405:
3396:
3386:
3377:
3367:
3358:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3312:
3311:All primordial
3308:
3307:
3304:
3301:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3286:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3266:
3258:
3244:
3241:
3233:
3224:
3212:
3203:
3191:
3182:
3170:
3161:
3149:
3140:
3129:30 + 2(9) = 48
3122:
3113:
3099:
3090:
3076:
3067:
3053:
3044:
3030:
3021:
3007:
2998:
2984:
2975:
2961:
2952:
2938:
2929:
2907:
2898:
2884:
2875:
2852:
2843:
2831:
2822:
2793:
2784:
2767:
2764:
2756:
2747:
2735:
2726:
2710:
2701:
2686:nuclear isomer
2678:
2669:
2657:
2648:
2636:
2627:
2615:
2606:
2594:
2585:
2567:
2566:
2556:
2551:
2545:
2536:
2528:
2527:
2517:
2512:
2506:
2497:
2489:
2488:
2478:
2473:
2467:
2458:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2426:in stars (see
2424:nuclear fusion
2416:
2407:
2395:
2386:
2374:
2365:
2332:
2329:
2253:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2236:All primordial
2233:
2232:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2217:
2213:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2164:
2156:
2135:Main article:
2132:
2129:
2117:
2108:
2095:
2092:
2085:
2076:
2058:
2049:
2038:
2029:
2003:Stable nuclide
1998:
1995:
1968:becomes larger
1928:
1920:
1906:
1898:
1884:
1876:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1843:James Chadwick
1834:
1831:
1790:
1787:
1783:T. W. Richards
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1645:'s formation.
1632:
1624:
1614:
1606:
1596:
1588:
1568:
1565:
1558:
1549:
1539:
1530:
1513:
1504:
1489:nuclear isomer
1483:). The letter
1478:
1470:
1460:
1452:
1442:
1434:
1424:
1416:
1406:
1398:
1388:
1380:
1370:
1361:
1351:
1342:
1332:
1323:
1313:
1304:
1294:
1285:
1275:
1266:
1202:
1199:
1168:
1159:
1149:
1140:
1130:
1121:
1111:
1102:
1092:
1083:
1073:
1064:
1015:
1012:
970:is called its
968:atom's nucleus
953:periodic table
922:periodic table
904:) of the same
863:
862:
860:
859:
852:
845:
837:
834:
833:
832:
831:
818:
801:
800:
797:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
671:
666:
661:
656:
651:
646:
641:
635:
630:
629:
626:
625:
622:
621:
616:
611:
605:
600:
599:
596:
595:
592:
591:
590:
589:
584:
579:
570:
569:
568:
567:
562:
557:
546:
545:
543:Nuclear fusion
539:
529:
528:
525:
524:
521:
520:
515:
514:
513:
502:
499:
498:
495:
494:
491:
490:
489:
488:
483:
473:
472:
471:
466:
456:
455:
454:
443:
440:
439:
436:
435:
432:
431:
426:
425:
424:
414:
408:
403:
402:
399:
398:
395:
394:
389:
384:
379:
373:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
351:
350:
345:
335:
330:
329:
328:
323:
322:
321:
306:
300:
295:
294:
291:
290:
287:
286:
284:Stable nuclide
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
259:Binding energy
255:
252:
251:
248:
247:
244:
243:
242:
241:
231:
226:
221:
215:
214:
200:
199:
192:
191:
175:
174:
162:
161:
149:
148:
135:
129:
128:
125:
124:
121:
120:
115:
110:
105:
99:
94:
93:
90:
89:
88:
87:
82:
77:
72:
70:Nuclear matter
67:
66:
65:
60:
50:
42:
41:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8283:
8272:
8269:
8267:
8264:
8263:
8261:
8246:
8243:
8241:
8238:
8236:
8233:
8231:
8227:
8225:
8222:
8221:
8218:
8208:
8207:
8200:
8196:
8191:
8187:
8186:
8179:
8175:
8170:
8166:
8165:
8158:
8154:
8149:
8145:
8144:
8137:
8133:
8128:
8124:
8123:
8116:
8112:
8107:
8103:
8102:
8095:
8091:
8086:
8082:
8081:
8074:
8070:
8065:
8061:
8060:
8053:
8049:
8044:
8040:
8039:
8032:
8028:
8023:
8019:
8018:
8011:
8007:
8002:
7998:
7997:
7990:
7986:
7981:
7977:
7976:
7969:
7965:
7960:
7956:
7955:
7948:
7944:
7939:
7935:
7934:
7927:
7923:
7918:
7911:
7908:
7904:
7900:
7899:
7892:
7888:
7883:
7879:
7878:
7871:
7867:
7862:
7858:
7857:
7850:
7846:
7841:
7837:
7836:
7829:
7825:
7820:
7816:
7815:
7808:
7804:
7799:
7795:
7794:
7787:
7783:
7778:
7774:
7773:
7766:
7762:
7757:
7753:
7752:
7745:
7741:
7736:
7732:
7731:
7724:
7720:
7715:
7711:
7710:
7703:
7699:
7694:
7690:
7689:
7682:
7678:
7673:
7669:
7668:
7661:
7657:
7652:
7648:
7647:
7640:
7636:
7631:
7627:
7626:
7619:
7615:
7610:
7603:
7601:
7599:
7597:
7596:
7592:
7587:
7586:
7579:
7575:
7570:
7566:
7565:
7558:
7554:
7549:
7546:
7542:
7541:
7536:
7535:
7528:
7524:
7519:
7515:
7514:
7507:
7503:
7498:
7494:
7493:
7486:
7482:
7477:
7473:
7472:
7465:
7461:
7456:
7452:
7451:
7444:
7440:
7435:
7431:
7430:
7423:
7419:
7414:
7410:
7409:
7402:
7398:
7393:
7389:
7388:
7381:
7377:
7372:
7368:
7367:
7360:
7356:
7351:
7347:
7346:
7339:
7335:
7330:
7326:
7325:
7318:
7314:
7309:
7305:
7304:
7297:
7293:
7288:
7284:
7283:
7276:
7272:
7267:
7263:
7262:
7255:
7251:
7246:
7242:
7241:
7234:
7230:
7225:
7221:
7220:
7213:
7209:
7204:
7197:
7193:
7192:
7185:
7181:
7176:
7172:
7171:
7164:
7160:
7155:
7152:
7148:
7147:
7142:
7141:
7134:
7130:
7125:
7121:
7120:
7113:
7109:
7104:
7100:
7099:
7092:
7088:
7083:
7079:
7078:
7071:
7067:
7062:
7058:
7057:
7050:
7046:
7041:
7037:
7036:
7029:
7025:
7020:
7016:
7015:
7008:
7004:
6999:
6995:
6994:
6987:
6983:
6978:
6974:
6973:
6966:
6962:
6957:
6953:
6952:
6945:
6941:
6936:
6932:
6931:
6924:
6920:
6915:
6911:
6910:
6903:
6899:
6894:
6890:
6889:
6882:
6878:
6873:
6869:
6868:
6861:
6857:
6852:
6848:
6847:
6840:
6836:
6831:
6827:
6826:
6819:
6815:
6810:
6803:
6799:
6798:
6791:
6787:
6782:
6778:
6777:
6770:
6766:
6761:
6758:
6754:
6753:
6748:
6747:
6740:
6736:
6731:
6727:
6726:
6719:
6715:
6710:
6706:
6705:
6698:
6694:
6689:
6685:
6684:
6677:
6673:
6668:
6664:
6663:
6656:
6652:
6647:
6643:
6642:
6635:
6631:
6626:
6622:
6621:
6614:
6610:
6605:
6601:
6600:
6593:
6589:
6584:
6580:
6579:
6572:
6568:
6563:
6559:
6558:
6551:
6547:
6542:
6538:
6537:
6530:
6526:
6521:
6517:
6516:
6509:
6505:
6500:
6496:
6495:
6488:
6484:
6479:
6475:
6474:
6467:
6463:
6458:
6454:
6453:
6446:
6442:
6437:
6433:
6432:
6425:
6421:
6416:
6414:
6410:
6409:
6402:
6398:
6393:
6389:
6388:
6381:
6377:
6372:
6369:
6365:
6364:
6359:
6358:
6351:
6347:
6342:
6338:
6337:
6330:
6326:
6321:
6317:
6316:
6309:
6305:
6300:
6296:
6295:
6288:
6284:
6279:
6275:
6274:
6267:
6263:
6258:
6254:
6253:
6246:
6242:
6237:
6233:
6232:
6225:
6221:
6216:
6212:
6211:
6204:
6200:
6195:
6191:
6190:
6183:
6179:
6174:
6170:
6169:
6162:
6158:
6153:
6149:
6148:
6141:
6137:
6132:
6128:
6127:
6120:
6116:
6111:
6107:
6106:
6099:
6095:
6090:
6086:
6085:
6078:
6074:
6069:
6065:
6064:
6057:
6053:
6048:
6044:
6043:
6036:
6032:
6027:
6025:
6021:
6020:
6013:
6009:
6004:
6000:
5999:
5992:
5988:
5983:
5980:
5976:
5975:
5970:
5969:
5962:
5958:
5953:
5949:
5948:
5941:
5937:
5932:
5928:
5927:
5920:
5916:
5911:
5907:
5906:
5899:
5895:
5890:
5886:
5885:
5878:
5874:
5869:
5865:
5864:
5857:
5853:
5848:
5842:
5841:
5834:
5830:
5825:
5821:
5820:
5813:
5809:
5804:
5801:
5797:
5796:
5791:
5790:
5783:
5779:
5774:
5770:
5769:
5762:
5758:
5753:
5749:
5748:
5741:
5737:
5732:
5728:
5727:
5720:
5716:
5711:
5707:
5706:
5699:
5695:
5690:
5686:
5685:
5678:
5674:
5669:
5663:
5662:
5655:
5651:
5646:
5642:
5641:
5634:
5630:
5625:
5622:
5618:
5617:
5612:
5611:
5604:
5600:
5595:
5589:
5588:
5581:
5577:
5572:
5569:
5565:
5564:
5560:
5557:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5547:
5545:
5543:
5541:
5539:
5537:
5535:
5533:
5531:
5529:
5527:
5525:
5523:earth metals
5520:
5515:
5512:
5508:
5507:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5410:
5406:
5405:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5385:
5380:
5378:
5373:
5371:
5366:
5365:
5362:
5355:
5351:
5348:
5345:
5342:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5330:
5327:
5324:
5321:
5317:
5314:
5311:
5308:
5304:
5301:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5278:
5274:
5271:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5257:
5254:
5251:
5248:
5245:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5228:
5216:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5159:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5132:
5131:
5123:
5115:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5096:
5095:
5086:
5072:
5066:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5043:(5): 918–21.
5042:
5038:
5031:
5017:on 2018-10-10
5016:
5012:
5005:
4997:
4991:
4987:
4980:
4971:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4949:
4944:
4937:
4930:
4925:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4886:
4879:
4875:
4869:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4838:
4831:
4826:
4824:
4816:
4812:
4806:
4799:
4795:
4794:0-19-530573-6
4791:
4787:
4781:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4750:(1): 146–57.
4749:
4745:
4738:
4731:
4729:
4728:George Beilby
4721:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4697:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4649:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4625:
4621:
4615:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4566:
4559:
4555:
4548:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4520:
4513:
4511:
4504:
4503:0-19-530573-6
4500:
4496:
4490:
4488:
4486:
4477:
4473:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4452:
4448:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4436:
4432:
4425:
4419:
4403:
4399:
4393:
4385:
4379:
4377:
4369:
4361:
4357:
4351:
4344:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4306:
4301:
4295:
4290:
4276:on 2015-03-18
4272:
4265:
4259:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4212:
4197:
4193:
4187:
4180:
4169:. p. 393
4168:
4161:
4154:
4146:
4139:
4135:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4077:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4055:Nuclear power
4052:
4051:Radionuclides
4049:
4046:
4043:
4040:
4036:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4020:
4011:
4007:
4003:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3909:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3894:
3888:
3873:
3870:
3866:
3859:
3854:
3850:
3843:
3836:
3831:
3816:
3812:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3795:
3792:
3789:
3786:
3781:
3777:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3758:
3754:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3735:
3726:
3715:
3699:
3690:
3679:
3675:
3670:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3655:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3634:
3630:
3620:
3618:
3614:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3596:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3564:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3535:for details.
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3521:plutonium-244
3518:
3495:
3489:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3411:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3344:nuclear force
3341:
3340:fast neutrons
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3316:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3287:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3251:
3240:
3237:
3216:
3195:
3174:
3153:
3132:
3107:
3084:
3061:
3038:
3015:
2992:
2969:
2946:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2892:
2869:
2865:
2859:
2856:
2835:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2778:
2773:
2763:
2760:
2739:
2719:
2714:
2694:
2689:
2687:
2682:
2661:
2640:
2619:
2598:
2578:
2574:
2565:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2530:
2529:
2526:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2491:
2490:
2487:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2452:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2399:
2378:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2309:
2307:
2306:cluster decay
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2128:
2126:
2121:
2101:
2091:
2070:
2066:
2042:
2022:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1978:isotopologues
1975:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1914:
1892:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1847:
1844:
1840:
1830:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1795:J. J. Thomson
1786:
1784:
1776:
1772:
1771:J. J. Thomson
1767:
1763:
1761:
1757:
1756:Margaret Todd
1751:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1717:
1716:radioelements
1713:
1709:
1706:
1691:
1690:for details.
1689:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1582:
1578:
1577:radionuclides
1574:
1564:
1523:
1521:
1520:tantalum-180m
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1247:atomic number
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1011:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
993:For example,
991:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
972:atomic number
969:
964:
962:
958:
957:Margaret Todd
954:
950:
946:
941:
939:
938:atomic masses
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
910:atomic number
907:
903:
902:
897:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
869:
858:
853:
851:
846:
844:
839:
838:
836:
835:
829:
819:
816:
811:
805:
804:
803:
802:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
665:
662:
660:
657:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
636:
633:
628:
627:
620:
617:
615:
612:
610:
607:
606:
603:
598:
597:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
574:
572:
571:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
552:
548:
547:
544:
541:
540:
537:
532:
527:
526:
519:
516:
512:
511:by cosmic ray
509:
508:
507:
504:
503:
497:
496:
487:
484:
482:
479:
478:
477:
474:
470:
467:
465:
462:
461:
460:
457:
453:
450:
449:
448:
445:
444:
438:
437:
430:
427:
423:
422:pair breaking
420:
419:
418:
415:
413:
410:
409:
406:
401:
400:
393:
390:
388:
387:Decay product
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
374:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
360:Cluster decay
358:
356:
353:
349:
346:
344:
341:
340:
339:
336:
334:
331:
327:
324:
320:
317:
316:
315:
312:
311:
310:
307:
305:
302:
301:
298:
293:
292:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
256:
250:
249:
240:
237:
236:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
216:
213:
209:
205:
204:Mirror nuclei
202:
201:
197:
194:
193:
190:
189:
186: −
185:
180:
177:
176:
173:
172:
167:
164:
163:
160:
159:
154:
151:
150:
146:
145:
140:
137:
136:
132:
127:
126:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
100:
97:
92:
91:
86:
83:
81:
78:
76:
75:Nuclear force
73:
71:
68:
64:
61:
59:
56:
55:
54:
51:
49:
46:
45:
44:
43:
39:
35:
34:
31:
28:
27:
22:
8228:Categories:
8204:
8183:
8162:
8141:
8120:
8099:
8078:
8057:
8036:
8015:
7994:
7973:
7952:
7931:
7896:
7875:
7854:
7833:
7812:
7791:
7770:
7749:
7728:
7707:
7686:
7665:
7644:
7623:
7583:
7562:
7532:
7511:
7490:
7469:
7448:
7427:
7406:
7385:
7364:
7343:
7322:
7301:
7280:
7259:
7238:
7217:
7189:
7168:
7138:
7117:
7096:
7075:
7054:
7033:
7012:
6991:
6970:
6949:
6928:
6907:
6886:
6865:
6844:
6823:
6795:
6774:
6744:
6723:
6702:
6681:
6660:
6639:
6618:
6597:
6576:
6555:
6534:
6513:
6492:
6471:
6450:
6429:
6406:
6385:
6355:
6334:
6313:
6292:
6271:
6250:
6229:
6208:
6187:
6166:
6145:
6124:
6103:
6082:
6061:
6040:
6017:
5996:
5966:
5945:
5924:
5903:
5882:
5861:
5838:
5817:
5787:
5766:
5745:
5724:
5703:
5682:
5659:
5638:
5608:
5585:
5561:Noble gases
5516:Hydrogen and
5390:
5305:by the CDC (
5299:isotope.info
5261:Homepage of
5175:(1): 30774.
5172:
5168:
5158:
5133:
5128:
5122:
5097:
5092:
5085:
5074:. Retrieved
5065:
5040:
5036:
5030:
5019:. Retrieved
5015:the original
5004:
4985:
4979:
4952:
4946:
4936:
4924:
4899:
4895:
4885:
4877:
4873:
4868:
4851:
4850:. Series 6.
4847:
4837:
4814:
4805:
4785:
4780:
4747:
4743:
4737:
4724:
4710:
4706:
4696:
4663:
4659:
4648:
4640:
4636:
4631:
4623:
4619:
4614:
4580:
4576:
4565:
4557:
4553:
4547:
4522:
4518:
4494:
4475:
4450:
4443:
4439:
4431:
4423:
4418:
4406:. Retrieved
4402:the original
4392:
4350:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4320:
4311:
4300:
4289:
4278:. Retrieved
4271:the original
4258:
4225:
4221:
4211:
4199:. Retrieved
4195:
4186:
4178:
4171:. Retrieved
4166:
4153:
4138:
3998:
3890:
3868:
3864:
3857:
3852:
3848:
3841:
3834:
3832:
3716:
3677:
3671:
3656:
3632:
3626:
3613:Solar System
3597:
3577:
3573:aluminium-26
3565:
3537:
3490:
3446:potassium-40
3423:
3352:
3322:
3133:
2913:
2863:
2860:
2771:
2769:
2690:
2572:
2570:
2401:) or eight (
2356:
2344:
2334:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2310:
2282:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2256:
2147:
2143:
2097:
2068:
2064:
2018:
1981:
1971:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1935:reduced mass
1862:
1858:
1836:
1808:
1792:
1780:
1752:
1720:
1715:
1712:decay chains
1705:radiochemist
1702:
1681:
1673:proton decay
1670:
1647:
1643:Solar System
1570:
1524:
1497:ground state
1484:
1249:, and E for
1242:
1234:
1204:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1054:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1027:
1023:
1017:
992:
965:
942:
930:mass numbers
899:
895:
894:
429:Photofission
377:Decay energy
304:Alpha α
211:
207:
187:
183:
170:
157:
143:
138:
4713:: 203–216.
3652:mass defect
3640:mass number
3629:atomic mass
3589:chlorine-37
3585:chlorine-35
3549:nucleogenic
3478:nucleogenic
3442:uranium-238
3336:fissionable
2292:(including
1810:F. W. Aston
1743:alpha decay
1723:mesothorium
1573:radioactive
1255:superscript
1239:mass number
1227:uranium-239
1223:uranium-235
988:mass number
912:(number of
734:Oppenheimer
412:Spontaneous
382:Decay chain
333:K/L capture
309:Beta β
179:Isodiaphers
103:Liquid drop
8260:Categories
5076:2012-06-16
5021:2013-05-03
4626:: 262–288.
4560:: 131–136.
4362:, or even
4280:2018-01-06
4201:21 October
4131:References
4100:Isotopomer
3617:meteorites
3587:and 24.2%
3569:supernovae
3553:radiogenic
3450:cosmic ray
3430:primordial
3418:See also:
3300:Long-lived
2891:promethium
2868:technetium
2290:beta decay
2216:Long-lived
2001:See also:
1837:After the
1818:resolution
1799:canal rays
1747:beta decay
1650:half-lives
1493:metastable
1229:). When a
764:Strassmann
754:Rutherford
632:Scientists
587:Artificial
582:Cosmogenic
577:Primordial
573:Nuclides:
550:Processes:
506:Spallation
5197:2045-2322
4408:2 January
4173:9 January
4145:"Isotope"
4090:Geotraces
4028:half-life
3949:isoscapes
3730:¯
3694:¯
3517:plutonium
3462:carbon-14
3348:deuterium
3324:Actinides
2945:potassium
2810:r-process
2806:s-process
2718:CNO cycle
2447:Half-life
2142:Even/odd
1974:molecules
1891:deuterium
1731:thorium X
1658:tellurium
1259:subscript
1219:carbon-14
1215:carbon-12
1003:carbon-14
999:carbon-13
995:carbon-12
976:electrons
928:numbers (
916:in their
885:deuterium
769:Świątecki
684:Pi. Curie
679:Fr. Curie
674:Ir. Curie
669:Cockcroft
644:Becquerel
565:Supernova
269:Drip line
264:p–n ratio
239:Borromean
118:Ab initio
8266:Isotopes
8230:Isotopes
8195:Isotopes
8174:Isotopes
8153:Isotopes
8132:Isotopes
8111:Isotopes
8090:Isotopes
8069:Isotopes
8048:Isotopes
8027:Isotopes
8006:Isotopes
7985:Isotopes
7964:Isotopes
7943:Isotopes
7922:Isotopes
7887:Isotopes
7866:Isotopes
7845:Isotopes
7824:Isotopes
7803:Isotopes
7782:Isotopes
7761:Isotopes
7740:Isotopes
7719:Isotopes
7698:Isotopes
7677:Isotopes
7656:Isotopes
7635:Isotopes
7614:Isotopes
7574:Isotopes
7553:Isotopes
7545:⑧
7523:Isotopes
7502:Isotopes
7481:Isotopes
7460:Isotopes
7439:Isotopes
7418:Isotopes
7397:Isotopes
7376:Isotopes
7355:Isotopes
7334:Isotopes
7313:Isotopes
7292:Isotopes
7271:Isotopes
7250:Isotopes
7229:Isotopes
7208:Isotopes
7180:Isotopes
7159:Isotopes
7151:⑦
7129:Isotopes
7108:Isotopes
7087:Isotopes
7066:Isotopes
7045:Isotopes
7024:Isotopes
7003:Isotopes
6982:Isotopes
6961:Isotopes
6940:Isotopes
6919:Isotopes
6898:Isotopes
6877:Isotopes
6856:Isotopes
6835:Isotopes
6814:Isotopes
6786:Isotopes
6765:Isotopes
6757:⑥
6735:Isotopes
6714:Isotopes
6693:Isotopes
6672:Isotopes
6651:Isotopes
6630:Isotopes
6609:Isotopes
6588:Isotopes
6567:Isotopes
6546:Isotopes
6525:Isotopes
6504:Isotopes
6483:Isotopes
6462:Isotopes
6441:Isotopes
6420:Isotopes
6397:Isotopes
6376:Isotopes
6368:⑤
6346:Isotopes
6325:Isotopes
6304:Isotopes
6283:Isotopes
6262:Isotopes
6241:Isotopes
6220:Isotopes
6199:Isotopes
6178:Isotopes
6157:Isotopes
6136:Isotopes
6115:Isotopes
6094:Isotopes
6073:Isotopes
6052:Isotopes
6031:Isotopes
6008:Isotopes
5987:Isotopes
5979:④
5957:Isotopes
5936:Isotopes
5915:Isotopes
5894:Isotopes
5873:Isotopes
5852:Isotopes
5829:Isotopes
5808:Isotopes
5800:③
5778:Isotopes
5757:Isotopes
5736:Isotopes
5715:Isotopes
5694:Isotopes
5673:Isotopes
5650:Isotopes
5629:Isotopes
5621:②
5599:Isotopes
5576:Isotopes
5568:①
5521:Alkaline
5391:Isotopes
5356:(France)
5329:Archived
5316:Archived
5215:27488228
5114:12926859
5057:19246206
4772:16134128
4643:: 49–52.
4339:Archived
4074:See also
3995:proteins
3966:via the
3644:nucleons
3604:Big Bang
3581:chlorine
3525:nuclides
3106:thallium
3060:antimony
2922:chlorine
2349:helium-4
1991:infrared
1833:Neutrons
1827:chlorine
1781:In 1914
1211:helium-4
1207:helium-3
1201:Notation
1050:synonyms
1037:isotopes
1032:chemical
984:nucleons
980:neutrons
934:neutrons
901:nuclides
896:Isotopes
877:hydrogen
828:Category
729:Oliphant
714:Lawrence
694:Davisson
664:Chadwick
560:Big Bang
447:electron
417:Products
338:Isomeric
229:Even/odd
206: –
181:– equal
168:– equal
166:Isotones
155:– equal
141:– equal
139:Isotopes
131:Nuclides
53:Nucleons
8197:
8176:
8155:
8134:
8113:
8092:
8071:
8050:
8029:
8008:
7987:
7966:
7945:
7924:
7905:
7889:
7868:
7847:
7826:
7805:
7784:
7763:
7742:
7721:
7700:
7679:
7658:
7637:
7616:
7576:
7555:
7525:
7504:
7483:
7462:
7441:
7420:
7399:
7378:
7357:
7336:
7315:
7294:
7273:
7252:
7231:
7210:
7182:
7161:
7131:
7110:
7089:
7068:
7047:
7026:
7005:
6984:
6963:
6942:
6921:
6900:
6879:
6858:
6837:
6816:
6788:
6767:
6737:
6716:
6695:
6674:
6653:
6632:
6611:
6590:
6569:
6548:
6527:
6506:
6485:
6464:
6443:
6422:
6399:
6378:
6348:
6327:
6306:
6285:
6264:
6243:
6222:
6201:
6180:
6159:
6138:
6117:
6096:
6075:
6054:
6033:
6010:
5989:
5959:
5938:
5917:
5896:
5875:
5854:
5831:
5810:
5780:
5759:
5738:
5717:
5696:
5675:
5652:
5631:
5601:
5578:
5424:
5393:of the
5290:at the
5206:4973271
5177:Bibcode
5138:Bibcode
4957:Bibcode
4916:4267919
4880:: 1–20.
4752:Bibcode
4688:3965303
4668:Bibcode
4605:3975657
4585:Bibcode
4527:Bibcode
4250:3965303
4230:Bibcode
3863:, ...,
3847:, ...,
3611:of the
3470:uranium
3458:tritium
3456:(e.g.,
3328:fissile
3271:as even
3104:), and
3083:iridium
3014:bromine
2991:gallium
2777:fissile
2693:isobars
2353:pairing
2345:several
2286:isobars
1993:range.
1987:photons
1913:tritium
1911:), and
1869:protium
1694:History
1666:rhenium
1251:element
1237:is the
1187:nuclide
1183:nuclide
1179:isotope
1175:isobars
1056:isomers
1028:isotope
1024:nuclide
1020:nuclide
926:nucleon
914:protons
889:tritium
881:protium
784:Thomson
774:Szilárd
744:Purcell
724:Meitner
659:N. Bohr
654:A. Bohr
639:Alvarez
555:Stellar
459:neutron
343:Gamma γ
196:Isomers
153:Isobars
48:Nucleus
5511:Period
5213:
5203:
5195:
5112:
5055:
4992:
4914:
4896:Nature
4792:
4770:
4686:
4660:Nature
4603:
4577:Nature
4501:
4248:
4222:Nature
3942:. For
3924:, and
3833:where
3667:dalton
3561:radium
3547:, the
3474:radium
3391:, and
3330:(with
3289:Stable
3250:parity
3218:, and
3037:silver
2968:copper
2889:) and
2642:, and
2319:, and
2196:Stable
2191:Total
2013:, and
1727:radium
1664:, and
1662:indium
1465:, and
1356:, and
1007:carbon
1001:, and
918:nuclei
826:
794:Wigner
789:Walton
779:Teller
709:Jensen
476:proton
219:Stable
5409:Group
4912:S2CID
4684:S2CID
4601:S2CID
4316:IUPAC
4274:(PDF)
4267:(PDF)
4246:S2CID
4163:(PDF)
3991:SILAC
3557:radon
3353:Only
3338:with
2554:alpha
2515:alpha
2442:Decay
2169:as OE
949:τόπος
759:Soddy
739:Proca
719:Mayer
699:Fermi
649:Bethe
224:Magic
8210:102
8189:101
8168:100
7589:120
7568:119
7538:118
7517:117
7496:116
7475:115
7454:114
7433:113
7412:112
7391:111
7370:110
7349:109
7328:108
7307:107
7286:106
7265:105
7244:104
7223:103
5292:LBNL
5269:(UN)
5211:PMID
5193:ISSN
5110:PMID
5053:PMID
4990:ISBN
4811:p. 9
4790:ISBN
4768:PMID
4499:ISBN
4410:2016
4203:2021
4175:2019
4065:and
4057:and
3957:Mars
3627:The
3559:and
3444:and
3284:Odd
3281:Even
2918:even
2837:and
2808:and
2741:and
2558:7.04
2519:1.06
2476:beta
2337:spin
2304:and
2273:and
2251:286
2211:251
2176:p, n
1803:neon
1775:neon
1619:and
1491:, a
1245:the
1225:and
1193:and
1173:are
945:ἴσος
749:Rabi
704:Hahn
614:RHIC
234:Halo
8147:99
8126:98
8105:97
8084:96
8063:95
8042:94
8021:93
8000:92
7979:91
7958:90
7937:89
7902:70
7881:69
7860:68
7839:67
7818:66
7797:65
7776:64
7755:63
7734:62
7713:61
7692:60
7671:59
7650:58
7629:57
7585:Ubn
7564:Uue
7195:88
7174:87
7144:86
7123:85
7102:84
7081:83
7060:82
7039:81
7018:80
6997:79
6976:78
6955:77
6934:76
6913:75
6892:74
6871:73
6850:72
6829:71
6801:56
6780:55
6750:54
6729:53
6708:52
6687:51
6666:50
6645:49
6624:48
6603:47
6582:46
6561:45
6540:44
6519:43
6498:42
6477:41
6456:40
6435:39
6412:38
6391:37
6361:36
6340:35
6319:34
6298:33
6277:32
6256:31
6235:30
6214:29
6193:28
6172:27
6151:26
6130:25
6109:24
6088:23
6067:22
6046:21
6023:20
6002:19
5972:18
5951:17
5930:16
5909:15
5888:14
5867:13
5844:12
5823:11
5793:10
5354:CEA
5201:PMC
5185:doi
5146:doi
5102:doi
5045:doi
4965:doi
4953:136
4904:doi
4900:105
4876:A,
4856:doi
4760:doi
4715:doi
4676:doi
4641:107
4593:doi
4535:doi
4366:210
4238:doi
3985:or
3669:).
3494:tin
3472:to
3317:65
3314:221
3295:58
3292:193
3081:),
3058:),
3035:),
3012:),
2989:),
2966:),
2943:),
2573:and
2562:10
2523:10
2484:10
2480:7.7
2430:).
2357:any
2296:),
2239:168
2231:35
2199:145
2100:tin
1889:),
1841:by
1522:).
1053:or
619:LHC
533:and
8262::
8206:No
8185:Md
8164:Fm
8143:Es
8122:Cf
8101:Bk
8080:Cm
8059:Am
8038:Pu
8017:Np
7975:Pa
7954:Th
7933:Ac
7898:Yb
7877:Tm
7856:Er
7835:Ho
7814:Dy
7793:Tb
7772:Gd
7751:Eu
7730:Sm
7709:Pm
7688:Nd
7667:Pr
7646:Ce
7625:La
7534:Og
7513:Ts
7492:Lv
7471:Mc
7450:Fl
7429:Nh
7408:Cn
7387:Rg
7366:Ds
7345:Mt
7324:Hs
7303:Bh
7282:Sg
7261:Db
7240:Rf
7219:Lr
7191:Ra
7170:Fr
7140:Rn
7119:At
7098:Po
7077:Bi
7056:Pb
7035:Tl
7014:Hg
6993:Au
6972:Pt
6951:Ir
6930:Os
6909:Re
6867:Ta
6846:Hf
6825:Lu
6797:Ba
6776:Cs
6746:Xe
6704:Te
6683:Sb
6662:Sn
6641:In
6620:Cd
6599:Ag
6578:Pd
6557:Rh
6536:Ru
6515:Tc
6494:Mo
6473:Nb
6452:Zr
6408:Sr
6387:Rb
6357:Kr
6336:Br
6315:Se
6294:As
6273:Ge
6252:Ga
6231:Zn
6210:Cu
6189:Ni
6168:Co
6147:Fe
6126:Mn
6105:Cr
6063:Ti
6042:Sc
6019:Ca
5968:Ar
5947:Cl
5884:Si
5863:Al
5840:Mg
5819:Na
5789:Ne
5772:9
5751:8
5730:7
5709:6
5688:5
5665:4
5661:Be
5644:3
5640:Li
5614:2
5610:He
5591:1
5503:18
5498:17
5493:16
5488:15
5483:14
5478:13
5473:12
5468:11
5463:10
5209:.
5199:.
5191:.
5183:.
5171:.
5167:.
5144:.
5134:48
5108:.
5098:51
5051:.
5041:67
5039:.
4963:.
4951:.
4945:.
4910:.
4898:.
4894:.
4878:89
4852:24
4846:.
4822:^
4766:.
4758:.
4748:25
4746:.
4723:.
4709:.
4705:.
4682:.
4674:.
4664:92
4662:.
4658:.
4639:,
4624:10
4622:,
4599:.
4591:.
4581:91
4579:.
4575:.
4558:14
4556:,
4533:.
4523:59
4521:.
4509:^
4484:^
4460:^
4444:63
4442:,
4375:^
4364:Pb
4358:,
4244:.
4236:.
4226:92
4224:.
4220:.
4194:.
4177:.
4165:.
4001:).
3920:,
3908:.
3840:,
3714::
3619:.
3595:.
3506:Sn
3502:50
3460:,
3382:Be
3372:,
3363:Pt
3359:78
3306:7
3303:28
3273:)
3229:Bi
3225:83
3208:Eu
3204:63
3197:,
3187:Re
3183:75
3176:,
3166:In
3162:49
3155:,
3145:Rb
3141:37
3118:Tl
3114:81
3095:Ir
3091:77
3072:Sb
3068:51
3049:Ag
3045:47
3026:Br
3022:35
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