14441:
3101:, animals were selectively bred for specific traits. Given that traits are inherited, populations contain a varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase any population, Darwin argued that in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in selecting for specific traits. Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals. He further inferred that this would lead to the accumulation of favorable traits over successive generations, thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment.
2148:. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or
2828:
1382:
2171:
3073:
3147:
2628:
4192:
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1836:
12127:
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973:
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1137:
1938:
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786:
1610:
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5186:
2024:
1746:
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12778:
773:
14453:
1552:, which is a large family of organic compounds that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound. Groups of atoms that contain these elements (O-, H-, P-, and S-) and are bonded to a central carbon atom or skeleton are called
1491:
3790:
12810:
4378:
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12800:
47:
71:
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4002:
2238:(PSI). The transport of electrons is coupled to the movement of protons (or hydrogen) from the stroma to the thylakoid membrane, which forms a pH gradient across the membrane as hydrogen becomes more concentrated in the lumen than in the stroma. This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.
3203:
of descendants of a particular species or population. When a lineage divides into two, it is represented as a fork or split on the phylogenetic tree. Phylogenetic trees are the basis for comparing and grouping different species. Different species that share a feature inherited from a common ancestor
3893:
into an early eukaryote about one billion years ago, which gave rise to chloroplasts. The first several clades that emerged following primary endosymbiosis were aquatic and most of the aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms are collectively described as algae, which is a term of convenience as
2139:
that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup
4393:
In the global ecosystem or biosphere, matter exists as different interacting compartments, which can be biotic or abiotic as well as accessible or inaccessible, depending on their forms and locations. For example, matter from terrestrial autotrophs are both biotic and accessible to other organisms
2233:
designated as Q. In the second stage, electrons move from the quinone primary electron acceptor through a series of electron carriers until they reach a final electron acceptor, which is usually the oxidized form of NADP, which is reduced to NADPH, a process that takes place in a protein complex
2480:
containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. The different stages of mitosis all together define the mitotic phase of an animal cell cycleâthe division of the mother cell into two genetically identical daughter cells. The cell cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled
2197:
that can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities via cellular respiration. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water. In most cases, oxygen is released as a waste product. Most plants,
2599:
at the start of chapter XII noted âThe first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented.â
2535:
on the cell. Before binary fission, DNA in the bacterium is tightly coiled. After it has uncoiled and duplicated, it is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting. Growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium (triggered by
1981:, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by
2724:
3595:
10157:
4362:
of a trophic level per unit of time is about one-tenth of the energy of the trophic level that it consumes. Waste and dead material used by decomposers as well as heat lost from metabolism make up the other ninety percent of energy that is not consumed by the next trophic level.
1093:
began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells, continuing to support
7393:
Biologists could say, with confidence, that forms change, and that natural selection is an important force for change. Yet they could say nothing about how that change is accomplished. How bodies or body parts change, or how new structures arise, remained complete
4473:, and ecosystem diversity. The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years, which has contributed to poverty, starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet.
3042:, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals. Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect the body plan and the number, identity, and pattern of body parts. Among the most important toolkit genes are the
6073:
2046:, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are
3115:
A species is a group of organisms that mate with one another and speciation is the process by which one lineage splits into two lineages as a result of having evolved independently from each other. For speciation to occur, there has to be
10173:
3771:, mouth, and on the skin. Their morphological, metabolic, and geographical diversity permits them to play multiple ecological roles: carbon fixation; nitrogen cycling; organic compound turnover; and maintaining microbial symbiotic and
9467:"There are more viruses than stars in the universe. Why do only some infect us? â More than a quadrillion quadrillion individual viruses exist on Earth, but most are not poised to hop into humans. Can we find the ones that are?"
2319:
cells, for example, can reproduce uncontrollably because they release signals that initiate their own self-division. In paracrine signaling, the ligand diffuses to nearby cells and affects them. For example, brain cells called
2451:
are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of
3270:
The history of life on Earth traces how organisms have evolved from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago and all life on Earth, both living and extinct, descended from a
6070:
2990:, and growth. Determination sets the developmental fate of a cell, which becomes more restrictive during development. Differentiation is the process by which specialized cells arise from less specialized cells such as
1392:
Life arose from the Earth's first ocean, which formed some 3.8 billion years ago. Since then, water continues to be the most abundant molecule in every organism. Water is important to life because it is an effective
4289:
living together in a community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific interactions), or of different species (interspecific interactions). These effects may be short-term, like
6616:
Brandeis M. New-age ideas about age-old sex: separating meiosis from mating could solve a century-old conundrum. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2018 May;93(2):801-810. doi: 10.1111/brv.12367. Epub 2017 Sep 14. PMID
8421:
2978:(plant or animal) goes through a series of changes, starting from a single cell, and taking on various forms that are characteristic of its life cycle. There are four key processes that underlie development:
2344:
of plants to reach their target cells. Once a ligand binds with a receptor, it can influence the behavior of another cell, depending on the type of receptor. For instance, neurotransmitters that bind with an
4464:
and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is concerned with factors that influence the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender
2089:
and carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix. At the end of the cycle, the total yield from 1 glucose (or 2 pyruvates) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH
4384:
showing the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, white are stored carbon. Effects of the
1977:) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into
2249:
in the second and third stages, respectively, provide the energy and electrons to drive the synthesis of glucose by fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide into existing organic carbon compounds, such as
1957:
in an organism. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to monomer building blocks; and the elimination of
4243:
that are available. The carrying capacity of a population can be affected by changing environmental conditions such as changes in the availability of resources and the cost of maintaining them. In
10311:
Photosynthesis â the synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, esp. carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than the oxidation of chemical compounds.
1192:
in 1865. This outlined the principles of biological inheritance. However, the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became a unified theory as the
3924:
are eukaryotes that digest foods outside their bodies, secreting digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes. Many fungi are also
2509:). Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor.
9554:"The Secret Life of a Coronavirus - An oily, 100-nanometer-wide bubble of genes has killed more than two million people and reshaped the world. Scientists don't quite know what to make of it"
3858:), protists by themselves do not constitute a separate clade as some protists may be more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists. Like groupings such as
1505:
are molecules that contain carbon bonded to another element such as hydrogen. With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon. Carbon can form
2057:
Sugar in the form of glucose is the main nutrient used by animal and plant cells in respiration. Cellular respiration involving oxygen is called aerobic respiration, which has four stages:
2921:
is the transcription factor that stimulates transcription when it binds to the sequence near or at the promoter. Negative regulation occurs when another transcription factor called a
2673:, states that genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes, i.e., genes are unlinked. An exception to this rule would include traits that are
1907:, all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles. In terms of their structural composition, the microtubules are made up of
4860:
Mosconi, Francesco; Julou, Thomas; Desprat, Nicolas; Sinha, Deepak Kumar; Allemand, Jean-François; Vincent
Croquette; Bensimon, David (2008). "Some nonlinear challenges in biology".
4255:
have helped increase the Earth's carrying capacity for humans over time, which has stymied the attempted predictions of impending population decline, the most famous of which was by
8795:
Wible, John R.; Rougier, Guillermo W.; Novacek, Michael J.; et al. (June 21, 2007). "Cretaceous eutherians and
Laurasian origin for placental mammals near the K/T boundary".
7320:
Yanes, Oscar; Clark, Julie; Wong, Diana M.; Patti, Gary J.; SĂĄnchez-Ruiz, Antonio; Benton, H. Paul; Trauger, Sunia A.; Desponts, Caroline; Ding, Sheng; Siuzdak, Gary (June 2010).
2595:
The beneficial effect of genetic complementation, derived from outcrossing (cross-fertilization) is also referred to as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Charles Darwin in his 1878 book
6638:
Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363
1961:. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as
9466:
1895:
that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds. Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that is made up of
4904:
3034:. Morphogenesis, or the development of body form, is the result of spatial differences in gene expression. A small fraction of the genes in an organism's genome called the
3898:, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae. Unlike glaucophytes, the other algal clades such as
10725:
Koh, Lian Pin; Dunn, Robert R.; Sodhi, Navjot S.; Colwell, Robert K.; Proctor, Heather C.; Smith, Vincent S. (2004). "Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis".
5651:
Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Water and carbon: The chemical basis of life".
5520:
1509:
with up to four other atoms, enabling it to form diverse, large, and complex molecules. For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in
2645:, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring. It has several principles. The first is that genetic characteristics,
6154:
Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold.; Kaiser, Chris A.; Krieger, Monty; Scott, Matthew P.; Bretscher, Anthony; Ploegh, Hidde; Matsudaira, Paul (2008). "Cellular energetics".
7543:
1788:, allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as
7448:
5987:
5814:
Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Lipids, membranes, and the first cells".
2735:
that corresponds to a region of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries genetic information that controls form or function of an organism. DNA is composed of two
3810:) that gave rise to mitochondria and chloroplasts, both of which are now part of modern-day eukaryotic cells. The major lineages of eukaryotes diversified in the
2245:
from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through the ATP synthase is coupled to the synthesis of ATP by that same ATP synthase. The NADPH and ATPs generated by the
1808:
that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell. Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as
3303:, which lasted approximately 4 billion years. Each eon can be divided into eras, with the Phanerozoic eon that began 539 million years ago being subdivided into
922:
Life on Earth, which emerged more than 3.7 billion years ago, is immensely diverse. Biologists have sought to study and classify the various forms of life, from
4342:, which are the species that obtain energy by breaking apart organic compounds from other organisms. Heterotrophs that consume plants are primary consumers (or
9209:
Moissl-Eichinger. C.; Pausan, M.; Taffner, J.; Berg, G.; Bang, C.; Schmitz, R. A. (January 2018). "Archaea Are
Interactive Components of Complex Microbiomes".
6785:
8045:
Ohtomo, Yoko; Kakegawa, Takeshi; Ishida, Akizumi; et al. (January 2014). "Evidence for biogenic graphite in early
Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks".
5839:
Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Nucleic acids and the RNA world".
5789:
Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "An introduction to carbohydrate".
5162:
2497:
of a new cycle. In contrast to mitosis, meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions.
1177:
writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on
1014:(384â322 BCE) contributed extensively to the development of biological knowledge. He explored biological causation and the diversity of life. His successor,
6189:
5734:
Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Protein structure and function".
2949:
encode proteins that are not involved in gene regulation. In addition to regulatory events involving the promoter, gene expression can also be regulated by
10230:
7845:
7510:
4677:
Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Biology and the three of life".
3406:
dates from 1.85 billion years ago, and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their
10053:
9553:
8592:
3870:, the protist grouping is not a formal taxonomic group but is used for convenience. Most protists are unicellular; these are called microbial eukaryotes.
11251:
2140:
of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is
8768:
8743:
3631:. Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of
1424:
O). Because the OâH bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge. This polar
8092:
2903:
of a protein. Gene expression can be influenced by positive or negative regulation, depending on which of the two types of regulatory proteins called
1081:. Advances in microscopy had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, biologists pointed to the central importance of the
13087:
10372:
9341:"The collapse of the two-kingdom system, the rise of protistology and the founding of the International Society for Evolutionary Protistology (ISEP)"
8378:
8138:
2336:. In juxtacrine signaling, there is direct contact between the signaling and responding cells. Finally, hormones are ligands that travel through the
1689:
are the fundamental units of life, that all living things are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from preexisting cells through
7711:
9278:
O'Malley, Maureen A.; Leger, Michelle M.; Wideman, Jeremy G.; Ruiz-Trillo, Iñaki (2019-02-18). "Concepts of the last eukaryotic common ancestor".
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5392:
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of that dominant allele. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.
10782:
10494:
9013:
8554:
6129:
8374:"Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events"
6626:
Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809
6396:
6363:
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through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales.
3162:
10270:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Ecological and evolutionary consequences within and among species".
5764:
Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "The structure and function of large biological molecules".
4609:
Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry".
1448:
than it is as a solid (or ice). This unique property of water allows ice to float above liquid water such as ponds, lakes, and oceans, thereby
13396:
8859:
7299:
6520:
5222:
1640:, and fats, largely nonpolar and hydrophobic (water-repelling) substances. Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules. They include
2054:, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a cell because of the slow, controlled release of energy from the series of reactions.
12846:
8546:
7929:
7473:
Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Descent with modifications: A Darwinian view of life".
3157:
9853:
6926:
6751:
4817:
2649:, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents. Based on the
8000:
Rosing, Minik T. (January 29, 1999). "C-Depleted Carbon
Microparticles in >3700-Ma Sea-Floor Sedimentary Rocks from West Greenland".
5206:
4078:. Because viruses possess some but not all characteristics of life, they have been described as "organisms at the edge of life", and as
4066:âpieces of DNA that can move between cellsâwhile others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of
3475:
became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the
Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. After the
3212:). Phylogeny provides the basis of biological classification. This classification system is rank-based, with the highest rank being the
2861:
in 1958. According to the
Central Dogma, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes:
817:
9476:
13895:
13862:
13224:
13117:
12859:
11343:
6541:
Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Meiosis".
3476:
3163:
107:
6568:"Targeting Bacterial Cell Division: A Binding Site-Centered Approach to the Most Promising Inhibitors of the Essential Protein FtsZ"
1632:
include monomers and polymers of sugars. Lipids are the only class of macromolecules that are not made up of polymers. They include
13168:
9147:
6647:
Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray. darwin-online.org.uk
5565:
5444:, chapter 10: "Darwin's evidence for evolution and common descent"; and chapter 11: "The causation of evolution: natural selection"
4552:
3155:
10031:
8260:
2009:
of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.
10925:
5679:
Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Carbon and the molecular diversity of life".
5508:
3402:
eon and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment. The earliest evidence of
3121:
2779:
process whereby each strand serves as a template for a new strand of DNA. Mutations are heritable changes in DNA. They can arise
2604:, often produced as a byproduct of sexual reproduction, may provide long-term advantages to those sexual lineages that engage in
3160:
1126:
3165:
13857:
13219:
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11083:
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11026:
10997:
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10906:
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10591:
10563:
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10304:
10167:
10099:
9958:
9933:
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8693:
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7876:
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6695:
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5981:
5467:
5320:
5295:
5263:
5236:
5156:
5125:
5098:
5064:
5028:
4844:
3468:
3199:, a diagram showing lines of descent among organisms or their genes. Each line drawn on the time axis of a tree represents a
2650:
1355:
is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including
1019:
11032:
10655:
10394:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The distribution of Earth's ecological systems".
9895:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The distribution of Earth's ecological systems".
8480:
8187:
7423:
1460:. Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into
13661:
12553:
8618:
7502:
6018:
5473:
5269:
5131:
5021:
The beginnings of
Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context
3429:, at least 2.7 billion years ago. Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the
2670:
2275:
to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself. Signals can be non-chemical such as light,
723:
504:
9253:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The origin and diversification of eukaryotes".
6242:
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that feed on the waste products or dead bodies of organisms. On average, the total amount of energy incorporated into the
13229:
12135:
2690:
2544:) fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium. The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods,
904:
718:
17:
6682:
Griffiths, Anthony J. F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M., eds. (2000).
3166:
3010:
indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. Cellular differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape,
1408:. Once dissolved in water, these solutes are more likely to come in contact with one another and therefore take part in
13019:
12994:
11723:
10641:
10403:
10347:
10323:
Edwards, Katrina. "Microbiology of a
Sediment Pond and the Underlying Young, Cold, Hydrologically Active Ridge Flank".
10279:
10011:
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9449:
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7906:
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7482:
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6666:
6550:
6488:
6455:
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5823:
5798:
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5713:
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4686:
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3158:
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1875:
play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. Biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by
1106:
were able to reify the third tenet, and by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets which consolidated into
841:
with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all
6209:
5945:
Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Membrane structure and function".
3195:
A phylogeny is an evolutionary history of a specific group of organisms or their genes. It can be represented using a
13981:
13389:
11748:
8679:
7705:
7452:
6857:
5428:
4643:
Hillis, David M.; Heller, H. Craig; Hacker, Sally D.; Laskowski, Marta J.; Sadava, David E. (2020). "Studying life".
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by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.
3164:
2086:
6773:
5704:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Carbon and molecular diversity of life".
3156:
1436:
results from the cohesive force due to the attraction between molecules at the surface of the liquid. Water is also
14014:
12839:
5589:
Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "The chemical context of life".
4702:
Modell, Harold; Cliff, William; Michael, Joel; McFarland, Jenny; Wenderoth, Mary Pat; Wright, Ann (December 2015).
3583:
relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about 27 percent of the
3540:
3175:
2581:
9744:
Rybicki, E. P. (1990). "The classification of organisms at the edge of life, or problems with virus systematics".
9593:
9415:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The evolution and diversity of fungi".
7659:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Reconstructing and using phylogenies".
5146:
3421:
Algae-like multicellular land plants are dated back to about 1 billion years ago, although evidence suggests that
1587:
showed that organic compounds could be synthesized abiotically within a closed system mimicking the conditions of
1464:. As a molecule, water is not completely stable as each water molecule continuously dissociates into hydrogen and
50:
Biology is the science of life. It spans multiple levels from biomolecules and cells to organisms and populations.
13250:
12966:
12906:
12876:
8908:"Geomicrobiology of high-level nuclear waste-contaminated vadose sediments at the Hanford site, Washington state"
6179:
4547:
3855:
3161:
2907:
bind to the DNA sequence close to or at a promoter. A cluster of genes that share the same promoter is called an
2900:
2153:
2131:
If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of
1193:
1031:
9562:
3177:
3174:
3167:
3159:
3030:
sequence itself. Thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same
2135:. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to
2093:, and 2 ATP molecules. Finally, the next stage is oxidative phosphorylation, which in eukaryotes, occurs in the
12941:
11178:
8580:
7205:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Genes, development, and evolution".
3940:
3272:
2942:
2938:
2229:. The absorbed light energy is used to remove electrons from a donor (water) to a primary electron acceptor, a
2082:
810:
8884:
6099:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Cells: The working units of life".
4277:
A (a) trophic pyramid and a (b) simplified food web. The trophic pyramid represents the biomass at each level.
3169:
2811:, particles emitted by unstable isotopes). Mutations can lead to phenotypic effects such as loss-of-function,
2042:
into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are
13888:
12971:
12813:
11733:
9709:
Canchaya, C.; Fournous, G.; Chibani-Chennoufi, S. (August 2003). "Phage as agents of lateral gene transfer".
8780:
8739:
8726:
8718:
6657:
Griffiths, Anthony J.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley, John (2015). "The genetics revolution".
4932:
4563:
3154:
3128:. Speciation can occur when there are physical barriers that divide an ancestral species, a process known as
2878:
2819:
for evolution. Others are harmful if they were to result in a loss of function of genes needed for survival.
2397:
exchange genetic information during meiosis I. The daughter cells divide again in meiosis II to form haploid
1413:
4096:
Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life, the interaction between organisms and their
3740:
with no other organisms. Improved molecular detection tools led to the discovery of archaea in almost every
3168:
1129:, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleableâeven suggesting the possibility of
13382:
13161:
12956:
12936:
12761:
10061:
8588:
7136:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Regulation of gene expression".
5509:"Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they?"
4573:
4055:
3714:
3619:), a term that has fallen out of use. Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other
2776:
1372:
1201:
10364:
9440:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Animal origins and diversity".
7897:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The history of life on Earth".
6819:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "DNA and its role in heredity".
6421:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Cell membranes and signaling".
4281:
A community is a group of populations of species occupying the same geographical area at the same time. A
14105:
14099:
13938:
13353:
13135:
12832:
12751:
10678:"Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land"
10002:
Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Population ecology".
9471:
8776:
7685:
6259:
6226:
6184:
4522:
2767:. The genetic information is held within genes, and the complete assemblage in an organism is called its
1376:
38:
3152:
2937:), thereby allowing transcription to occur. Specific genes that can be activated by inducers are called
2929:, which is part of an operon, to prevent transcription. Repressors can be inhibited by compounds called
2560:
Meiosis is a central feature of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes, and the most fundamental function of
1420:
with a bent shape formed by the polar covalent bonds of two hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen (O) atom (H
14419:
13915:
12931:
12199:
11266:
7372:
6254:
6221:
6040:
Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002).
5367:
3209:
2585:
2366:
2073:. Glycolysis is a metabolic process that occurs in the cytoplasm whereby glucose is converted into two
2034:
Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in cells to convert
1584:
10780:
10525:
8964:
6125:
3173:
1993:âthey allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly without being consumed by itâby reducing the amount of
1452:
the liquid below from the cold air above. Water has the capacity to absorb energy, giving it a higher
13961:
13928:
13188:
12234:
12194:
12159:
11771:
11350:
11327:
11295:
11209:
10953:
9387:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The evolution of plants".
6388:
6355:
6279:
Bryant, D. A.; Frigaard, N. U. (Nov 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated".
3316:
3153:
2812:
2740:
2580:, are likely maintained respectively by the adaptive advantages of recombinational repair of genomic
2077:, with two net molecules of ATP being produced at the same time. Each pyruvate is then oxidized into
2070:
1797:
1591:, thus suggesting that complex organic molecules could have arisen spontaneously in early Earth (see
1417:
1257:
1046:
working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on
Aristotelian thought.
803:
86:
10338:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Ecological communities".
8417:"Precambrian animal diversity: Putative phosphatized embryos from the Doushantuo Formation of China"
7593:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Processes of evolution".
3487:
may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.
3150:
13943:
13881:
12891:
12803:
11514:
11323:
7564:
4532:
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2346:
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that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (
2066:
1146:
1086:
713:
31:
9765:"Are viruses alive? The replicator paradigm sheds decisive light on an old but misguided question"
7868:
7283:
6512:
3170:
3151:
14291:
13154:
13009:
12946:
12886:
12286:
11420:
10885:
8083:
4953:; et al. (March 1, 2018). "Constraining the Time Interval for the Origin of Life on Earth".
3588:
3512:
2979:
2888:
2698:
2370:
2284:
1726:
955:
880:
13405:
8558:
7922:
7751:"Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya"
6683:
2373:
cascades. The process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a
2101:
that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH
2006:
1919:) whereas intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous proteins. Microfilaments are made up of
896:
13471:
13039:
12989:
12961:
12921:
12363:
12045:
11987:
11630:
8850:
6281:
4955:
4537:
4282:
3411:
3172:
3117:
2975:
2913:
2866:
2423:, and the subsequent partitioning of its cytoplasm into two daughter cells in a process called
2296:
2242:
2136:
2110:
1864:
1785:
1534:
1472:, the number of hydrogen ions balances (or equals) the number of hydroxyl ions, resulting in a
1453:
1368:
1166:
1095:
708:
314:
9837:
7239:
Slack, J.M.W. (2007). "Metaplasia and transdifferentiation: from pure biology to the clinic".
6922:
6739:
5056:
4821:
3555:. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its
3171:
2097:. Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four
14445:
13933:
13556:
13531:
13511:
13327:
13322:
13060:
12448:
12423:
12403:
11743:
11484:
11414:
11394:
10243:
9949:
Chapin III, F. Stuart; Matson, Pamela A.; Mooney, Harold A. (2002). "The ecosystem concept".
8626:
7816:. From the Century of the Genome to the Century of the Organism: New Theoretical Approaches.
7734:
Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Phylogeny: The unity and diversity of life".
4909:
4542:
4386:
4381:
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4256:
4150:
and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals move
3658:
3633:
3426:
3276:
3129:
3035:
3018:, and responsiveness to signals, which are largely due to highly controlled modifications in
2971:
2896:
2884:
2642:
2573:
2541:
2498:
2394:
2329:
2308:
2288:
2250:
2221:. Light absorption is the initial step of photosynthesis whereby light energy is absorbed by
2187:
2121:
1900:
1868:
1440:
as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules. Water is
1182:
1155:
1122:
1050:
399:
374:
354:
189:
169:
9561:
7860:
5191:
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
5048:
14007:
13776:
13586:
13536:
13092:
13065:
13004:
12951:
12668:
12478:
12428:
12239:
12209:
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12040:
12002:
11650:
11288:
10811:
10734:
10128:
9287:
9050:
8979:
8919:
8868:
8806:
8635:
8497:
8429:
8344:
8289:
8056:
8011:
7762:
7040:
6989:
5080:
4974:
4869:
4772:
4439:
4395:
4314:, harmful to both partners. Every species participates as a consumer, resource, or both in
3850:
organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals. While it is likely that protists share a
3706:
3638:
3098:
3067:
2918:
2904:
2658:
2654:
2634:
depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms
2149:
2018:
1966:
1801:
1718:
1429:
1405:
1265:
947:
870:
741:
619:
429:
379:
6327:
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2883:
The regulation of gene expression by environmental factors and during different stages of
1965:âthe breaking down of compounds (for example, the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by
1428:
of water allows it to attract other water molecules via hydrogen bonds, which makes water
8:
14218:
14153:
13691:
13561:
13245:
13097:
13034:
12926:
12911:
12756:
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12583:
12453:
12164:
12154:
12075:
12017:
11271:
9977:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Populations".
8965:"Novel Microbial Diversity and Functional Potential in the Marine Mammal Oral Microbiome"
8476:
8247:
7861:
5557:
5221:
Fahd, Toufic (1996). "Botany and agriculture". In Morelon, RĂ©gis; Rashed, Roshdi (eds.).
4512:
4494:
4307:
4268:
4224:
4212:
4115:
4097:
4075:
3972:
3948:
3620:
3280:
3245:
3200:
3120:. Reproductive isolation can result from incompatibilities between genes as described by
3038:
control the development of that organism. These toolkit genes are highly conserved among
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2378:
2374:
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2051:
2002:
1986:
1942:
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1425:
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756:
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404:
96:
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8501:
8433:
8348:
8293:
8060:
8015:
7766:
7623:
Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Speciation".
7523:
7044:
6993:
6342:
This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation.
4978:
4873:
4776:
4481:
upon which people depend. Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends of
4013:
3433:
period. Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the
3026:. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the
2780:
2210:
of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.
1855:
that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units. These organelles include the
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10758:
10702:
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9789:
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9691:
9643:
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9526:
9499:
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9005:
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7321:
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7064:
7013:
6904:
6661:(11th ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: W.H. Freeman & Company. pp. 1â30.
6594:
6567:
6061:
The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing
5889:
4998:
4964:
4885:
4793:
4760:
4736:
4703:
4557:
4527:
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4186:
3979:âbut it has been estimated there are over 7 million animal species in total. They have
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3011:
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perform photosynthesis, which is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the
1982:
1954:
1813:
1805:
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1249:
1237:
1197:
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967:
703:
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103:
91:
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5376:
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5291:
5259:
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5121:
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4990:
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4220:
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4158:
4123:
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3564:
3283:
that divides the history of the Earth into major divisions, starting with four eons (
3217:
3196:
3076:
2816:
2601:
2532:
2350:
2125:
2062:
1994:
1978:
1781:
1645:
1485:
1409:
1352:
1336:
1241:
1178:
908:
900:
884:
862:
751:
634:
514:
369:
202:
140:
10762:
9325:
9009:
8931:
8214:
7539:
6908:
5488:
3802:
Eukaryotes are hypothesized to have split from archaea, which was followed by their
2815:, and conditional mutations. Some mutations are beneficial, as they are a source of
2784:
2783:
as a result of replication errors that were not corrected by proofreading or can be
2531:
in eukaryotes, binary fission in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a
14499:
14206:
14095:
14065:
13516:
13112:
12793:
12408:
12095:
11982:
11592:
11555:
11440:
11410:
11274:
10829:
10819:
10742:
10697:
10689:
10629:
10621:
10509:
10440:
10432:
10239:
10200:
10136:
9784:
9776:
9718:
9695:
9675:
9638:
9628:
9521:
9511:
9352:
9303:
9295:
9271:
9218:
9181:
9115:
9107:
9080:
9058:
8987:
8935:
8927:
8880:
8876:
8834:
8814:
8797:
8735:
8643:
8614:
8517:
8505:
8488:
8447:
8437:
8395:
8387:
8352:
8317:
8297:
8280:
8256:
8202:
8183:
8155:
8147:
8109:
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8019:
7841:
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7780:
7770:
7693:
7519:
7498:
7341:
7333:
7268:
7248:
7174:
7095:
7068:
7048:
7017:
6997:
6886:
6589:
6579:
6290:
5893:
5873:
5086:
5002:
4982:
4877:
4788:
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4731:
4715:
4399:
4335:
4252:
4244:
4174:
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4079:
4016:
3764:
3572:
3548:
3525:
3484:
3233:
3213:
3090:
2358:
2325:
2276:
2214:
1851:. In addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called
1820:
and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a
1793:
1698:
1553:
1502:
1402:
1381:
1344:
1335:
constituting essentially all the remainder. Different elements can combine to form
1292:
1253:
1043:
1027:
790:
359:
198:
11227:
10228:
Wootton, JT; Emmerson, M (2005). "Measurement of Interaction Strength in Nature".
10074:
a community of animals, plants, or humans among whose members interbreeding occurs
9111:
4493:
the well-being of human society. Organizations and citizens are responding to the
3894:
not all algae are closely related. Algae comprise several distinct clades such as
14406:
14281:
14236:
14130:
14125:
14115:
14000:
13904:
13801:
13766:
13102:
12693:
12658:
12007:
11949:
11791:
11728:
11570:
11444:
11016:
10786:
10617:
10611:
9208:
8521:
8218:
8129:
8023:
7407:
7369:
7100:
7083:
6264:
6231:
6077:
5455:
5313:
Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function, and Transformation
5253:
5115:
5051:
A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century
4568:
4338:, which can then be used by the rest of the community. At the next level are the
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3584:
3552:
3265:
3229:
3225:
3072:
3019:
2946:
2840:
2772:
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individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency of two alleles. Finally, the
2416:
2341:
2218:
2194:
2170:
2118:
2098:
1958:
1872:
1817:
1613:
The (a) primary, (b) secondary, (c) tertiary, and (d) quaternary structures of a
1561:
1530:
1433:
1228:
and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by
1159:
1090:
838:
644:
609:
12824:
11398:
10141:
10116:
9780:
8651:
7966:
6002:
2627:
2174:
Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O
174:
14481:
14457:
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13971:
13656:
13466:
12782:
12548:
12358:
12189:
12184:
12174:
12169:
12070:
12012:
11944:
11939:
11801:
11796:
11690:
11645:
11622:
11504:
11494:
11436:
10983:
10893:
Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walter, P. (2002).
10669:
10412:
8905:
8675:
8275:
7755:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
7559:
6584:
6041:
5363:
5023:(2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1â20.
4490:
4419:
4236:
4162:
4147:
4143:
4024:
3952:
3890:
3878:
3851:
3710:
3661:. Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on
3568:
3521:
3440:
3398:
of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early
3379:
3003:
2999:
2736:
2686:
2631:
2520:
2482:
2477:
2412:
2354:
2272:
2266:
2165:
2035:
1750:
1686:
1677:
1565:
1518:
1469:
1205:
1174:
1162:
1141:
1130:
1113:
Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians.
1103:
1082:
1066:
1007:
895:
of plants and animals, and evolution of populations. Hence, there are multiple
846:
777:
499:
309:
10625:
10205:
10188:
9299:
9222:
8992:
7229:
Slack, J.M.W. (2013) Essential Developmental Biology. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.
6294:
5090:
4219:
can be estimated by multiplying population density by the area or volume. The
2226:
14493:
14464:
14090:
13736:
13631:
13521:
13496:
13491:
13337:
12628:
12523:
12413:
12388:
12383:
12276:
12224:
12219:
11997:
11914:
11816:
11781:
11550:
11262:: A biological journal publishing significant peer-reviewed scientific papers
11235:
11232:
11066:
10916:
10651:
10214:
9708:
6977:
6947:
6712:
6565:
6498:
6465:
6250:
6217:
5864:
Mazzarello, P. (May 1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory".
5197:
5192:
4950:
4727:
4719:
4327:
4191:
4154:
and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and
4044:
4036:
4005:
3960:
3807:
3702:
3666:
3532:
3422:
3395:
3336:
3141:
2987:
2858:
2485:
develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin,
2473:
2424:
2315:. In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it.
2292:
2241:
During the third stage of photosynthesis, the movement of protons down their
2235:
2203:
2124:. The transfer of electrons terminates with molecular oxygen being the final
1932:
1904:
1860:
1809:
1773:
1761:
1734:
1690:
1621:
1604:
1569:
1506:
1233:
1189:
1170:
1114:
991:
579:
474:
364:
339:
334:
13146:
11125:
11093:
11007:
10975:
10945:
10824:
10746:
9186:
9169:
8703:
8415:
Jun-Yuan, Chen; Oliveri, Paola; Chia-Wei, Li; et al. (April 25, 2000).
7986:
7775:
5908:
4350:). And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on.
2506:
1668:. Their function is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information.
1556:. There are six prominent functional groups that can be found in organisms:
990:
The earliest of roots of science, which included medicine, can be traced to
14314:
14300:
13781:
13761:
13726:
13721:
13711:
13706:
13686:
13666:
13576:
13546:
13506:
13486:
13476:
13456:
13451:
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12653:
12618:
12613:
12603:
12598:
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12468:
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12398:
12378:
12368:
12348:
12343:
12338:
12333:
12214:
12204:
12179:
11836:
11670:
11587:
11545:
11406:
11173:
10843:
10754:
10711:
10693:
10454:
10436:
9798:
9730:
9687:
9652:
9633:
9535:
9516:
9366:
9317:
9230:
9195:
9072:
9001:
8949:
8826:
8461:
8442:
8391:
8309:
8169:
8151:
8105:
7833:
7355:
7260:
7188:
7109:
6963:
6900:
6603:
6302:
6014:
5885:
5388:
4994:
4802:
4745:
4474:
4445:
4423:
4346:) whereas heterotrophs that consume herbivores are secondary consumers (or
4334:) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into
4330:
within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or
3964:
3863:
3827:
3803:
3729:
3501:
3375:
2892:
2792:
2760:
2666:
2502:
2254:
2190:
2132:
2114:
2106:
2074:
1974:
1916:
1912:
1856:
1848:
1829:
1710:
1637:
1629:
1340:
1245:
1229:
1209:
1099:
1015:
982:
977:
939:
624:
604:
569:
564:
554:
549:
529:
509:
419:
389:
349:
329:
319:
299:
294:
289:
284:
184:
12126:
11188:
9357:
9340:
9129:
8357:
8332:
8031:
7794:
7444:
7060:
7009:
4986:
3506:
2415:
that cause it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the
1835:
1445:
14273:
14148:
13831:
13826:
13796:
13751:
13696:
13636:
13621:
13616:
13581:
13541:
13431:
13421:
13416:
13072:
12723:
12718:
12688:
12643:
12588:
12528:
12513:
12508:
12473:
12433:
12323:
12313:
12308:
11992:
11718:
11640:
11519:
11509:
11460:
11402:
11239:
11205:
10398:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 916â934.
10342:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 898â915.
10274:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 882â897.
9981:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 864â897.
9899:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 845â863.
9549:
9497:
9444:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 469â519.
9419:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 451â468.
9391:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 420â449.
9257:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 402â419.
8188:"The origin of the Metazoa in the light of the Proterozoic fossil record"
7901:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 357â376.
7807:
7663:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 325â342.
7627:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 343â356.
7597:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 299â324.
7337:
7209:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 273â298.
7140:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 215â233.
6823:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 172â193.
4517:
4427:
4415:
4407:
4394:
whereas the matter in rocks and minerals are abiotic and inaccessible. A
4339:
4291:
3936:
3907:
3903:
3895:
3811:
3694:
3662:
3602:
3529:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3023:
2950:
2934:
2853:
in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is summarized by the
2808:
2796:
2702:
2674:
2605:
2577:
2461:
2448:
2333:
2253:(RuBP) in a sequence of light-independent (or dark) reactions called the
2222:
2141:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1777:
1714:
1682:
1664:. Twenty amino acids are used in proteins. Nucleic acids are polymers of
1649:
1592:
1588:
1549:
1526:
1514:
1461:
1356:
1136:
1107:
1058:
995:
923:
919:, perform experiments, and form conclusions about the world around them.
912:
853:, which can be transmitted to future generations. Another major theme is
674:
669:
639:
594:
539:
479:
464:
459:
424:
384:
274:
264:
259:
179:
125:
10251:
9679:
9308:
8818:
8301:
8278:; et al. (May 26, 2011). "Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes".
7738:(4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 401â429.
6425:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 82â104.
4354:
heterotrophs are able to consume at multiple levels. Finally, there are
2926:
938:, fungi, plants, and animals. These various organisms contribute to the
14365:
14246:
13816:
13811:
13756:
13741:
13681:
13646:
13641:
13611:
13571:
13551:
13481:
13461:
13014:
12708:
12703:
12648:
12633:
12573:
12538:
12533:
12503:
12463:
12443:
12373:
12353:
12102:
11929:
11821:
11766:
11695:
11675:
11635:
11540:
11456:
11390:
11386:
11214:
11018:
The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance
10633:
10521:
9769:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
9096:"Walsby's square bacterium: fine structure of an orthogonal procaryote"
7578:
Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Evolutionary biology".
7531:
6103:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 60â81.
6066:
5708:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 56â65.
5541:
Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Evolutionary Biology".
4486:
4461:
4457:
4411:
4355:
4319:
4248:
4166:
4131:
4032:
3929:
3847:
3760:
3733:
3560:
3536:
3448:
3430:
3407:
3360:
3352:
3324:
3110:
3094:
3015:
2835:
includes all the processes involved in the flow of genetic information.
2752:
2744:
2678:
2512:
2494:
2493:
are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the
2486:
2453:
2406:
2389:
2078:
2058:
2043:
1950:
1880:
1825:
1706:
1694:
1693:. Most cells are very small, with diameters ranging from 1 to 100
1665:
1661:
1653:
1614:
1316:
1217:
1074:
1070:
1054:
1039:
999:
916:
892:
858:
659:
654:
599:
584:
524:
489:
484:
454:
414:
394:
324:
304:
164:
159:
14476:
13374:
11246:
8206:
7052:
6891:
6874:
6158:(6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 479â532.
3748:. Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in
3649:
that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes, notably for the
3615:
as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria
2332:
to bind with a receptor on an adjacent cell such as another neuron or
1937:
1609:
14324:
14286:
14241:
14231:
14171:
13992:
13731:
13716:
13701:
13651:
13626:
13362:
13358:
13316:
13295:
13204:
13082:
13029:
13024:
12999:
12623:
12608:
12593:
12543:
12518:
12259:
12060:
11972:
11854:
11786:
11758:
11665:
11479:
11468:
11464:
11432:
11159:
8261:
10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6
8132:; Javaux, Emmanuelle J.; Hewitt, David; et al. (June 29, 2006).
8068:
7582:(4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 3â26.
7001:
6566:
Casiraghi, A.; Suigo, L.; Valoti, E.; Straniero, V. (February 2020).
5545:(4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 3â26.
5228:
4403:
4372:
4347:
4343:
4331:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4139:
4109:
4059:
4048:
3915:
3899:
3835:
3819:
3784:
3772:
3745:
3737:
3722:
3690:
3624:
3580:
3576:
3472:
3444:
3403:
3391:
3383:
3371:
3304:
3253:
3189:
3181:
3083:
2991:
2954:
2922:
2850:
2804:
2748:
2693:, which states that genes are found on chromosomes, was supported by
2662:
2469:
2465:
2457:
2428:
2420:
2039:
2028:
1990:
1962:
1852:
1821:
1765:
1754:
1722:
1573:
1332:
1286:
1062:
1011:
943:
931:
876:
866:
854:
699:
574:
559:
544:
494:
469:
222:
135:
130:
10513:
9063:
9038:
8414:
7809:
7252:
4231:
that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food,
3673:. Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from
3611:
constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially
2597:
The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom
1843:
Within the cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as
1533:(CO). Moreover, carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting
14428:
14375:
14319:
14251:
14186:
14072:
14060:
14032:
13821:
13746:
13676:
13606:
13601:
13426:
13312:
13281:
13077:
12777:
12713:
12638:
12568:
12498:
12493:
12318:
12252:
11849:
11806:
11705:
11577:
11452:
11428:
11200:
9614:
9277:
8854:
7322:"Metabolic oxidation regulates embryonic stem cell differentiation"
5283:
4969:
4466:
4453:
4351:
4323:
4286:
4240:
4200:
4127:
4028:
3984:
3956:
3944:
3935:
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. With few exceptions, animals
3874:
3867:
3831:
3823:
3814:
about 1.5 billion years ago and can be classified into eight major
3752:
may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet.
3749:
3686:
3670:
3467:, dominated the land, but most of this group became extinct in the
3460:
3356:
3348:
3344:
3332:
3328:
3320:
3312:
3308:
3087:
3050:
3043:
2957:, which is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells.
2846:
2768:
2764:
2732:
2682:
2638:
2589:
2545:
2316:
1998:
1970:
1876:
1465:
1437:
1398:
1348:
1328:
1308:
1304:
1078:
1023:
951:
842:
772:
664:
589:
519:
449:
444:
269:
238:
217:
13873:
9170:"Archaea associated with human surfaces: not to be underestimated"
8962:
8509:
6875:"The bacterial nucleoid: a highly organized and dynamic structure"
5423:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 2002.
5369:
The foundations of The origin of species, a sketch written in 1842
4489:, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to
4477:
affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of
4142:. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through
3798:, a single-celled eukaryote that can both move and photosynthesize
3789:
3471:
252 million years ago. During the recovery from this catastrophe,
3374:
from their common ancestor. Biologists regard the ubiquity of the
3252:(originally Archaebacteria), bacteria (originally eubacteria), or
2186:
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to
2023:
1745:
1490:
1240:. From the 1950s onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the
14370:
14358:
14226:
14201:
14161:
14140:
14110:
13836:
13566:
13436:
13274:
12728:
12458:
12328:
12245:
12090:
12065:
12050:
12032:
11879:
11844:
11685:
11680:
11607:
11602:
11582:
11375:
10467:
9345:
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
8906:
Fredrickson, J. K.; Zachara, J. M.; Balkwill, D. L. (July 2004).
5877:
4470:
4449:
4444:
Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of Earth's
4359:
4232:
4228:
4204:
4155:
4135:
4091:
4063:
4047:
have been described in detail. Viruses are found in almost every
4040:
3980:
3976:
3968:
3925:
3843:
3794:
3741:
3718:
3697:) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea
3678:
3608:
3598:
3556:
3479:
66 million years ago killed off the non-avian dinosaurs, mammals
3399:
3387:
3367:
3340:
3288:
3249:
3241:
3185:
2930:
2788:
2661:; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the
2561:
2549:
2528:
2524:
2516:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2362:
2312:
2230:
1908:
1892:
1844:
1729:, every cell in the organism's body is derived ultimately from a
1633:
1625:
1542:
1510:
1495:
1457:
1441:
1394:
1312:
1035:
935:
927:
888:
679:
409:
279:
226:
212:
9498:
Koonin, E. V.; Senkevich, T. G.; Dolja, V. V. (September 2006).
7808:
Montévil, M; Mossio, M; Pocheville, A; Longo, G (October 2016).
6872:
6545:(6th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson. pp. 271â289.
5380:
4905:"How Did Life Become Complex, And Could It Happen Beyond Earth?"
4758:
4146:
and energy flows. Energy from the sun enters the system through
3086:
is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in
2755:. The set of chromosomes in a cell is collectively known as its
2723:
972:
14353:
14346:
14055:
14050:
14024:
13501:
13288:
12393:
11924:
11909:
11869:
11864:
11738:
11660:
11655:
11565:
11163:
9762:
9585:
8474:
6062:
5969:
4377:
4170:
4151:
3921:
3839:
3650:
3628:
3594:
3544:
3464:
3452:
3284:
3221:
3039:
3031:
2911:, found mainly in prokaryotes and some lower eukaryotes (e.g.,
2908:
2756:
2646:
2565:
2505:), and sister chromatids are separated in the second division (
2490:
2432:
2398:
2321:
2280:
2094:
1730:
1725:, whereas eukaryotes can be single-celled or multicellular. In
1641:
1538:
1324:
1320:
1300:
1296:
1269:
344:
234:
46:
11168:
9811:
8619:"Assessing the record and causes of Late Triassic extinctions"
8273:
7748:
7684:
Kitching, Ian J.; Forey, Peter L.; Williams, David M. (2001).
6656:
5907:
Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006).
4051:
on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity.
3842:, and animals. Five of these clades are collectively known as
3049:. Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many
2456:(during which the DNA is replicated) and is often followed by
1887:
such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell,
14383:
14341:
14334:
14329:
14166:
14120:
14082:
14040:
12055:
11954:
11886:
11874:
11612:
11560:
10581:
10421:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time"
9666:
Edwards, R.A.; Rohwer, F. (June 2005). "Viral metagenomics".
8843:
6681:
6243:
6210:
4418:) compartments of Earth. There are biogeochemical cycles for
4302:
of the species involved. A long-term interaction is called a
4273:
3996:
3886:
3859:
3815:
3237:
2800:
2199:
2047:
1920:
1577:
1557:
1261:
1225:
230:
70:
10800:"Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean"
10470:
Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective
8579:
Barry, Patrick L. (January 28, 2002). Phillips, Tony (ed.).
8372:
Algeo, Thomas J.; Scheckler, Stephen E. (January 29, 1998).
7163:"Eukaryotic mRNPs may represent posttranscriptional operons"
6278:
3906:
are multicellular. Green algae comprise three major clades:
2681:
can be performed to experimentally determine the underlying
2299:
a cell. There are generally four types of chemical signals:
1867:(ATP) to power cellular processes. Other organelles such as
1220:
that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as
1158:, who presented a coherent theory of evolution. The British
14261:
14196:
14191:
14181:
14176:
14045:
11934:
11919:
11859:
11535:
11424:
11380:
11183:
10989:
Why Big Fierce Animals are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective
10859:
Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity
6172:
4701:
4642:
4389:, such as volcanic and tectonic activity, are not included.
3756:
3642:
2714:
2540:
polymerization and "Z-ring" formation). The new cell wall (
2537:
1221:
1154:
Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of
1121:
for the natural world in 1735, and in the 1750s introduced
850:
834:
150:
11280:
10117:"The flexible application of carrying capacity in ecology"
8044:
6540:
6322:(International ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
6000:
5838:
5818:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 119â141.
5813:
5793:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 107â118.
5788:
5733:
5650:
5375:. Cambridge: Printed at the University Press. p. 53.
4761:"Self-organization and entropy reduction in a living cell"
4676:
4195:
Reaching carrying capacity through a logistic growth curve
4126:) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature,
3983:
with each other and their environments, forming intricate
3299:), the first three of which are collectively known as the
2411:
The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a
2050:
reactions. Although cellular respiration is technically a
1311:
account for most (96%) of the mass of all organisms, with
11713:
10613:
Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications
10508:(11). American Institute of Biological Sciences: 727â34.
10162:(5th ed.). Brooks/Cole, a part of Cengage Learning.
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8333:"Early life on land and the first terrestrial ecosystems"
7928:. International Stratigraphic Commission. February 2022.
7472:
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5944:
5843:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 93â106.
5763:
5678:
5588:
4608:
3682:
3244:. All organisms can be classified as belonging to one of
3027:
2718:
2568:
that is passed on to progeny by parents. Two aspects of
2447:. Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, in which replicated
2369:. Activation of G protein-coupled receptors can initiate
1789:
1628:. Monomers include sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides.
1213:
1065:
and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by
907:
that they use. Like other scientists, biologists use the
11258:
10777:
Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis.
10006:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 1188â1211.
8794:
8740:
10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015<4:TEOTDI>2.0.CO;2
6065:. It is also common to describe small molecules such as
5906:
5738:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 78â92.
5655:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 55â77.
5460:
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5019:
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4948:
4859:
4001:
3928:, feeding on dead organic matter, making them important
3370:
indicate that they have diverged through the process of
2945:
that are almost constantly active. In contrast to both,
2689:
can be used to predict the results of a test cross. The
2113:. Energy from the proton motive force drives the enzyme
1949:
All cells require energy to sustain cellular processes.
1923:
molecules that interact with other strands of proteins.
1018:, began the scientific study of plants. Scholars of the
869:. Finally, all organisms are able to regulate their own
11597:
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10425:
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9665:
9617:"Structural and functional studies of archaeal viruses"
9286:(3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 338â344.
6153:
6042:"Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body"
6039:
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4402:
of matter are turned over or moved through the biotic (
3627:. Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized
2439:
cells), there are two distinct types of cell division:
1473:
1359:
synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.
11208:
A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the
10960:(7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company.
10189:"Historical Biogeography: Evolution in Time and Space"
9948:
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8855:"Major Patterns in the History of Carnivorous Mammals"
8245:(January 7, 1998). "The origins of multicellularity".
8128:
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6923:"Genotype definition â Medical Dictionary definitions"
5949:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 126â142.
4820:. Texas State University at San Marcos. Archived from
3053:
of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.
1883:
have additional organelles that distinguish them from
1468:
ions before reforming into a water molecule again. In
14417:
10393:
10337:
10269:
9976:
9894:
9439:
9414:
9386:
9332:
9252:
8717:
Fastovsky, David E.; Sheehan, Peter M. (March 2005).
7896:
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6873:
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6818:
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Davies, PC; Rieper, E; Tuszynski, JA (January 2013).
3124:. Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with
1188:
The basis for modern genetics began with the work of
10265:
10263:
10261:
10231:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
9972:
9970:
9615:
Lawrence C. M.; Menon S.; Eilers, B. J. (May 2009).
8769:"Dinosaur Extinction Spurred Rise of Modern Mammals"
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5593:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 28â43.
5255:
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5117:
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3721:; unlike bacteria, no known species of Archaea form
2960:
2845:
Gene expression is the molecular process by which a
2588:
which masks the expression of deleterious recessive
2271:
Cell signaling (or communication) is the ability of
861:
is also important to life as it allows organisms to
11254:
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10724:
9842:. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2004. p. 238.
9410:
9408:
9382:
9380:
9378:
9376:
9248:
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7888:
7319:
6675:
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2564:appears to be conservation of the integrity of the
2353:of a target cell. Other types of receptors include
1891:that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and
1624:are large molecules made up of smaller subunits or
1397:, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and
10924:Begon, M.; Townsend, C. R.; Harper, J. L. (2005).
10894:
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9592:. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses.
8719:"The Extinction of the Dinosaurs in North America"
8612:
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7654:
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7650:
7648:
7646:
7644:
7618:
7616:
7614:
7577:
7200:
7198:
7131:
7129:
7127:
7125:
7123:
7121:
7119:
6845:
6814:
6812:
6810:
6808:
6806:
6804:
6802:
6650:
6416:
6414:
6347:
6094:
6092:
6090:
6088:
6086:
5540:
4298:, or long-term; both often strongly influence the
3455:originated about 525 million years ago during the
3256:(includes the fungi, plant, and animal kingdoms).
2917:). In positive regulation of gene expression, the
2555:
1224:. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as
857:, which explains the unity and diversity of life.
12854:
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6383:
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4944:
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3889:. Plant cells were derived by endosymbiosis of a
3705:, no known species of archaea does both. Archaea
2519:and bacteria) can also undergo cell division (or
1780:that sit between phospholipids to maintain their
1660:. The basic unit (or monomer) of a protein is an
1385:Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of
37:"Biological" redirects here. For other uses, see
14491:
11189:Journal of the History of Biology (springer.com)
11137:(3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth.
10992:(reissue ed.). Princeton University Press.
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3315:eras. These three eras together comprise eleven
1548:The simplest form of an organic molecule is the
1073:and helped to develop techniques of microscopic
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8849:
8555:California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
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5725:
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5628:
5626:
5624:
5622:
5620:
5618:
5616:
5614:
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4122:) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving (
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2152:. The ATP generated in this process is made by
849:that process hereditary information encoded in
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9885:(2006), p. 522; Smith & Smith 2012, p. G-5
9873:Tansley (1934); Molles (1999), p. 482; Chapin
8371:
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4138:, and soil) of their environment is called an
2887:can occur at each step of the process such as
2393:In meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate and the
14008:
13889:
13390:
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13088:History of the creation-evolution controversy
12840:
11296:
9542:
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8481:"Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China"
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5224:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
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3366:The similarities among all known present-day
2763:. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within the
2739:chains that coil around each other to form a
1339:such as water, which is fundamental to life.
1236:in 1953, marked the transition to the era of
1185:to independently reach the same conclusions.
811:
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10418:
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2705:between eye color and sex in these insects.
2685:of an organism with a dominant phenotype. A
1859:, which contains most of the cell's DNA, or
1784:at various temperatures. Cell membranes are
1165:, combining the biogeographical approach of
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946:, where they play specialized roles in the
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1042:. Medicine was especially well studied by
818:
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13863:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
13225:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
13118:Relationship between religion and science
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3641:similarity to bacteria, archaea possess
3593:
3505:
3145:
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2722:
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2626:
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3481:increased rapidly in size and diversity
3410:. Later, around 1.7 billion years ago,
2012:
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1697:and are therefore only visible under a
1057:. It was then that scholars discovered
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2759:. In eukaryotes, DNA is mainly in the
2144:. This type of fermentation is called
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1268:was launched in 1990 to map the human
1127:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
1049:Biology began to quickly develop with
899:, each defined by the nature of their
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2653:, which states that some alleles are
2501:are separated in the first division (
2225:pigments attached to proteins in the
1717:cells, which do not. Prokaryotes are
1181:; similar reasoning and evidence led
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2279:, and heat, or chemical signals (or
1989:that release energy. Enzymes act as
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11110:. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
11035:from the original on 2015-10-03
10658:from the original on 2020-07-27
10495:"What is Conservation Biology?"
10363:Riebeek, Holli (16 June 2011).
10121:Global Ecology and Conservation
9856:from the original on 2021-04-15
9711:Current Opinion in Microbiology
9150:from the original on 2021-04-28
9019:from the original on 2021-03-08
8932:10.1128/AEM.70.7.4230-4241.2004
8749:from the original on 2019-03-22
8595:from the original on 2010-04-10
7801:
7553:
7437:
7426:from the original on 2023-03-26
7399:
7313:
7302:from the original on 2021-04-12
7288:. Academic Press. p. 452.
7232:
7223:
7024:
6970:
6940:
6929:from the original on 2013-09-21
6915:
6866:
6852:. New York: Benjamin Cummings.
6788:from the original on 2021-05-20
6754:from the original on 2021-05-21
6641:
6620:
6610:
6523:from the original on 2020-11-29
6505:
6439:
6192:from the original on 2013-03-07
6117:
6052:from the original on 2020-01-22
5927:from the original on 2014-11-02
5900:
5568:from the original on 2006-06-14
5558:"Human genome finally complete"
5549:
5523:from the original on 2019-07-19
5480:
5447:
5434:
5355:
5342:
5329:
5304:
5276:
5245:
5138:
5107:
5073:
4548:List of omics topics in biology
4433:
4398:is a pathway by which specific
4215:from generation to generation.
4161:present. By breaking down dead
3975:âof which around 1 million are
3856:last eukaryotic common ancestor
3846:, which are mostly microscopic
3451:, along with most other modern
3122:BatesonâDobzhanskyâMuller model
3093:of populations over successive
2901:post-translational modification
2651:law of dominance and uniformity
2556:Sexual reproduction and meiosis
2154:substrate-level phosphorylation
1941:Example of an enzyme-catalysed
1053:'s dramatic improvement of the
13020:One geneâone enzyme hypothesis
9586:"Virus Taxonomy: 2019 Release"
9280:Nature Ecology & Evolution
8881:10.1146/annurev.earth.27.1.463
5258:. CRC Press. pp. 133â44.
4853:
4828:
4316:consumerâresource interactions
4262:
4180:
4054:The origins of viruses in the
4031:. Viruses infect all types of
3744:, including soil, oceans, and
3435:Late Devonian extinction event
3279:. Geologists have developed a
3273:last universal common ancestor
2751:, and circular chromosomes in
2616:
2083:pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
1792:. Cell membranes also contain
1347:within and relating to living
1022:who wrote on biology included
13:
1:
11219:: General journal publishing
11078:(2nd ed.). Bison Books.
10897:Molecular Biology of the Cell
10558:. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
9723:10.1016/S1369-5274(03)00086-9
9112:10.1128/JB.148.1.352-360.1981
8767:Roach, John (June 20, 2007).
8648:10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5
8422:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
7180:10.1016/s1097-2765(02)00559-2
6046:Molecular Biology of the Cell
5973:Molecular Biology of the Cell
4580:
4285:is the effect that a pair of
4199:A population is the group of
4103:
4035:, from animals and plants to
3778:
3463:, including the ancestors of
3459:. During the Permian period,
3104:
3036:developmental-genetic toolkit
2879:Regulation of gene expression
2671:law of independent assortment
2384:
1926:
1291:All organisms are made up of
897:subdisciplines within biology
11021:. Harvard University Press.
9668:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
8589:Marshall Space Flight Center
8024:10.1126/science.283.5402.674
7690:Encyclopedia of Biodiversity
7688:. In Levin, Simon A. (ed.).
7101:10.1016/j.molcel.2016.03.005
7084:"Central Dogma Goes Digital"
6925:. Medterms.com. 2012-03-19.
6711:Hartl, D.; Jones, E (2005).
4645:Life: The Science of Biology
4366:
4056:evolutionary history of life
3767:, they are important in the
3755:Archaea are a major part of
3490:
3135:
3056:
2998:or partially differentiated
1456:than other solvents such as
1373:Circumstellar habitable zone
7:
13354:List of conservation topics
11310:
11250:: Internationally renowned
10552:Hunter, Malcolm L. (1996).
10142:10.1016/j.gecco.2017.e00365
9816:(4th ed.). Blackwell.
9781:10.1016/j.shpsc.2016.02.016
9472:National Geographic Society
9465:Wu, K. J. (15 April 2020).
8777:National Geographic Society
8553:(Lecture). Pomona, Calif.:
7859:De Duve, Christian (2002).
7039:(5252): 1198â9. June 1970.
6185:Online Etymology Dictionary
5148:The Epic History of Biology
4523:List of biological websites
4500:
4495:current biodiversity crisis
4448:with the aim of protecting
4058:are unclear: some may have
3539:in length, bacteria have a
2611:
2523:). Unlike the processes of
2367:G protein-coupled receptors
2117:to synthesize more ATPs by
1377:Water distribution on Earth
1144:penned his first sketch of
915:, pose questions, generate
833:is the scientific study of
39:Biological (disambiguation)
10:
14516:
13239:Institutions, publications
10883:
10857:Soule, Michael E. (1986).
10798:Jackson, J. B. C. (2008).
10616:(2nd ed.). New York:
10493:Soulé, Michael E. (1986).
9881:(2005); p. 400; Gurevitch
8551:ZOO 138 Vertebrate Zoology
7923:"Stratigraphic Chart 2022"
7031:"Central dogma reversed".
6585:10.3390/antibiotics9020069
6244:
6211:
5556:Noble, Ivan (2003-04-14).
5454:Larson, Edward J. (2006).
5145:Serafini, Anthony (2013).
4882:10.1088/0951-7715/21/8/T03
4815:Based on definition from:
4564:Tinbergen's four questions
4437:
4370:
4266:
4184:
4107:
4089:
4085:
3994:
3990:
3782:
3775:communities, for example.
3499:
3263:
3139:
3108:
3065:
2974:is the process by which a
2964:
2876:
2857:, which was formulated by
2838:
2791:such as a chemical (e.g.,
2712:
2620:
2404:
2375:series of molecular events
2264:
2163:
2016:
1930:
1798:integral membrane proteins
1675:
1602:
1494:Organic compounds such as
1483:
1366:
1284:
965:
961:
36:
29:
14397:
14310:
14269:
14260:
14217:
14139:
14081:
14031:
13952:
13924:
13911:
13845:
13412:
13346:
13305:
13259:
13238:
13197:
13184:
13178:Topics related to biology
13126:
13048:
12980:
12867:
12770:
12739:
12299:
12269:
12235:Polymerase chain reaction
12195:Green fluorescent protein
12145:
12134:
12123:
12031:
11963:
11895:
11835:
11772:Earliest known life forms
11757:
11704:
11621:
11528:
11368:
11359:
11318:
11223:from all areas of biology
11210:Public Library of Science
11107:Biology, Visualizing Life
11047:Hoagland, Mahlon (2001).
10901:(4th ed.). Garland.
10626:10.1007/978-1-4020-6891-1
10206:10.1007/s12052-012-0421-2
9300:10.1038/s41559-019-0796-3
9223:10.1016/j.tim.2017.07.004
9174:FEMS Microbiology Reviews
8993:10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.040
6479:Griffiths, A. J. (2012).
6295:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001
6071:molecular building blocks
5311:Coleman, William (1977).
5091:10.1007/978-3-319-90119-0
4931:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
4318:, which form the core of
4039:, including bacteria and
3763:of all organisms. In the
3587:have species that can be
3378:as evidence of universal
2476:of one cell into two new
2247:light-dependent reactions
2071:oxidative phosphorylation
2005:. Enzymes also allow the
1839:Structure of a plant cell
1814:storing electrical energy
1258:Marshall Warren Nirenberg
954:and energy through their
724:List of unsolved problems
27:Science that studies life
9877:(2002), p. 380; Schulze
9037:Pace, N. R. (May 2006).
8773:National Geographic News
8684:(2nd ed.). London:
8681:Vertebrate Palaeontology
8195:Paleontological Research
7565:On the Origin of Species
7503:"The Units of Selection"
7409:Strickberger's Evolution
5252:Magner, Lois N. (2002).
5114:Magner, Lois N. (2002).
4720:10.1152/advan.00107.2015
4533:List of biology journals
4460:from excessive rates of
4068:horizontal gene transfer
3937:consume organic material
3701:, but unlike plants and
3575:. Bacteria also live in
3524:that constitute a large
3204:are described as having
2743:. It is found as linear
2701:, which established the
2146:lactic acid fermentation
2067:electron transport chain
1671:
1362:
1147:On the Origin of Species
719:List of research methods
32:Biology (disambiguation)
12287:species discovery curve
11415:Response to environment
11076:On Becoming a Biologist
10886:Bibliography of biology
10825:10.1073/pnas.0802812105
10747:10.1126/science.1101101
10610:Van Dyke, Fred (2008).
10159:Fundamentals of Ecology
9924:Fundamentals of Ecology
9920:Odum, Eugene P (1971).
9144:"Archaea Basic Biology"
9100:Journal of Bacteriology
8851:Van Valkenburgh, Blaire
7776:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576
7326:Nature Chemical Biology
6844:Russell, Peter (2001).
6448:A dictionary of biology
6260:A GreekâEnglish Lexicon
6227:A GreekâEnglish Lexicon
5910:Biology: Exploring Life
5207:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
4306:. Symbioses range from
3932:in ecological systems.
3759:. They are part of the
3520:Bacteria are a type of
3513:Gemmatimonas aurantiaca
3412:multicellular organisms
2324:release ligands called
2243:concentration gradients
2085:, which also generates
1749:Structure of an animal
1727:multicellular organisms
1719:single-celled organisms
1709:cells, which contain a
1498:are vital to organisms.
1069:led to new interest in
1034:(865â925) who wrote on
998:in around 3000 to 1200
956:biophysical environment
190:Response to environment
13472:Biological engineering
13365:development strategies
13040:Spontaneous generation
12990:Germ theory of disease
12967:Zoology (through 1859)
12762:Plant morphology terms
12364:Biological engineering
12046:Biological interaction
10694:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024
10437:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370
10086:Hartl, Daniel (2007).
9634:10.1074/jbc.R800078200
9517:10.1186/1745-6150-1-29
9211:Trends in Microbiology
8475:D-G., Shu; H-L., Luo;
8443:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457
8392:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195
8152:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843
8106:10.1098/rspb.1999.0934
7971:. Sinauer Associates.
7285:Handbook of Stem Cells
6282:Trends in Microbiology
6156:Molecular Cell Biology
6126:"Cellular Respiration"
6003:"Physiology, Membrane"
4574:Terminology of biology
4538:List of biology topics
4390:
4326:. There are different
4283:biological interaction
4278:
4196:
4074:in a way analogous to
4009:
3799:
3605:
3517:
3427:terrestrial ecosystems
3414:began to appear, with
3192:
3118:reproductive isolation
3080:
3062:Evolutionary processes
2976:multicellular organism
2914:Caenorhabditis elegans
2836:
2799:) or radiation (e.g.,
2728:
2635:
2499:Homologous chromosomes
2431:(i.e., animal, plant,
2417:duplication of its DNA
2402:
2395:homologous chromosomes
2328:that diffuse across a
2183:
2031:
1946:
1901:intermediate filaments
1865:adenosine triphosphate
1840:
1757:
1618:
1585:MillerâUrey experiment
1499:
1454:specific heat capacity
1389:
1369:Planetary habitability
1151:
1096:spontaneous generation
1020:medieval Islamic world
987:
976:Diagram of a fly from
881:levels of organization
709:List of biology awards
315:Biological engineering
51:
13557:Developmental biology
13532:Computational biology
13512:Cellular microbiology
13328:Environmental science
13323:Physical anthropology
13061:Philosophy of biology
12449:Developmental biology
12424:Computational biology
12404:Cellular microbiology
11744:Mendelian inheritance
11656:Energy transformation
11074:Janovy, John (2004).
10884:Further information:
10810:(Suppl 1): 11458â65.
9839:Habitats of the world
9358:10.1099/ijs.0.02587-0
9187:10.1093/femsre/fuv010
8627:Earth-Science Reviews
8613:Tanner, Lawrence H.;
8358:10.1186/2192-1709-2-1
7445:"Evolution Resources"
7373:"The Origins of Form"
6251:Liddell, Henry George
6218:Liddell, Henry George
4987:10.1089/ast.2017.1674
4910:Astrobiology Magazine
4835:Craig, Nancy (2014).
4543:List of life sciences
4380:
4276:
4259:in the 18th century.
4194:
4004:
3961:embryonic development
3792:
3677:, such as sugars, to
3634:Haloquadratum walsbyi
3597:
3509:
3500:Further information:
3277:3.5 billion years ago
3179:
3130:allopatric speciation
3075:
2905:transcription factors
2830:
2809:ultraviolet radiation
2726:
2713:Further information:
2643:Mendelian inheritance
2630:
2574:meiotic recombination
2392:
2287:, which can be found
2283:) that interact with
2251:ribulose bisphosphate
2173:
2109:), which generates a
2095:mitochondrial cristae
2026:
1987:spontaneous reactions
1940:
1931:Further information:
1869:endoplasmic reticulum
1838:
1802:membrane transporters
1748:
1612:
1515:double covalent bonds
1493:
1484:Further information:
1384:
1285:Further information:
1202:series of experiments
1183:Alfred Russel Wallace
1156:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
1139:
1125:for all his species.
1051:Anton van Leeuwenhoek
1010:philosophers such as
975:
871:internal environments
400:Developmental biology
375:Computational biology
355:Cellular microbiology
49:
14282:Evolutionary history
13777:Reproductive biology
13662:Mathematical biology
13587:Evolutionary biology
13537:Conservation biology
13093:Human Genome Project
13005:Great chain of being
12972:Zoology (since 1859)
12907:Evolutionary thought
12877:Agricultural science
12669:Reproductive biology
12554:Mathematical biology
12479:Evolutionary biology
12429:Conservation biology
12240:Two-hybrid screening
12210:Protein purification
12041:Biogeochemical cycle
12003:Internal environment
11651:Cellular respiration
11184:OneZoom Tree of Life
11015:Mayr, Ernst (1982).
9552:(26 February 2021).
8775:. Washington, D.C.:
8477:Conway Morris, Simon
8337:Ecological Processes
8184:Fedonkin, Mikhail A.
8086:(December 7, 1999).
7965:Futuyma, DJ (2005).
7499:Lewontin, Richard C.
7447:. Washington, D.C.:
7338:10.1038/nchembio.364
6772:Miko, Ilona (2008).
6738:Miko, Ilona (2008).
6356:"Cell communication"
5507:Miko, Ilona (2008).
4440:Conservation biology
4396:biogeochemical cycle
3981:complex interactions
3496:Bacteria and Archaea
3425:formed the earliest
3416:differentiated cells
3099:artificial selection
3068:Evolutionary biology
2787:by an environmental
2731:A gene is a unit of
2697:'s experiments with
2464:; which divides the
2150:ethanol fermentation
2019:Cellular respiration
2013:Cellular respiration
1967:cellular respiration
1527:triple covalent bond
1266:Human Genome Project
1216:as the component of
742:Agricultural science
620:Reproductive biology
505:Mathematical biology
430:Evolutionary biology
380:Conservation biology
30:For other uses, see
14219:Natural environment
13562:Ecological genetics
13406:Branches of biology
13306:Related disciplines
13246:Bachelor of Science
13098:Humboldtian science
13035:Sequence hypothesis
12942:Molecular evolution
12454:Ecological genetics
12165:Gel electrophoresis
12155:Genetic engineering
12108:Population dynamics
12018:Reproductive system
11238:journal publishing
10816:2008PNAS..10511458J
10739:2004Sci...305.1632K
10133:2018GEcoC..1300365C
10058:Oxford Dictionaries
9680:10.1038/nrmicro1163
9590:talk.ictvonline.org
9292:2019NatEE...3..338O
9055:2006Natur.441..289P
9039:"Time for a change"
8984:2017CBio...27E3752D
8924:2004ApEnM..70.4230F
8873:1999AREPS..27..463V
8819:10.1038/nature05854
8811:2007Natur.447.1003W
8805:(7147): 1003â1006.
8640:2004ESRv...65..103T
8547:"Synapsid Reptiles"
8502:1999Natur.402...42S
8434:2000PNAS...97.4457C
8349:2013EcoPr...2....1B
8302:10.1038/nature09943
8294:2011Natur.473..505S
8248:Integrative Biology
8146:(1470): 1023â1038.
8100:(1436): 2375â2382.
8061:2014NatGe...7...25O
8016:1999Sci...283..674R
7767:1990PNAS...87.4576W
7045:1970Natur.226.1198.
6994:1970Natur.227..561C
5866:Nature Cell Biology
5493:. pp. 134â138.
4979:2018AsBio..18..343P
4874:2008Nonli..21..131M
4777:2013BiSys.111....1D
4513:Glossary of biology
4406:) and the abiotic (
4269:Community (ecology)
4076:sexual reproduction
3963:. Over 1.5 million
3707:reproduce asexually
3591:in the laboratory.
3281:geologic time scale
2570:sexual reproduction
2379:signal transduction
2338:circulatory systems
2297:located deep inside
2295:of another cell or
2277:electrical impulses
2227:thylakoid membranes
2111:proton motive force
2052:combustion reaction
2044:catabolic reactions
1806:peripheral proteins
1770:extracellular space
1764:that separates its
1703:electron microscope
1658:structural proteins
1535:carbonâcarbon bonds
1416:, water is a small
1414:molecular structure
1281:Atoms and molecules
747:Biomedical sciences
405:Ecological genetics
57:Part of a series on
18:Biological research
13853:History of biology
13787:Structural biology
13772:Relational biology
13597:Generative biology
13592:Freshwater biology
13215:History of biology
13210:Notable biologists
13198:People and history
13108:Natural philosophy
13056:History of science
12856:History of biology
12783:Biology portal
12679:Structural biology
12664:Relational biology
12489:Generative biology
12484:Freshwater biology
12282:mark and recapture
12230:Restriction enzyme
12023:Respiratory system
11978:Circulatory system
11905:Epidermis (botany)
11102:Johnson, George B.
11049:The Way Life Works
10785:2019-10-14 at the
10396:Principles of Life
10365:"The Carbon Cycle"
10340:Principles of Life
10295:Smith, AL (1997).
10272:Principles of Life
10092:Sinauer Associates
10030:. Biology Online.
9979:Principles of Life
9897:Principles of Life
9558:The New York Times
9442:Principles of Life
9417:Principles of Life
9389:Principles of Life
9255:Principles of Life
8686:Chapman & Hall
8676:Benton, Michael J.
8276:Brasier, Martin D.
8243:Bonner, John Tyler
8186:(March 31, 2003).
7899:Principles of Life
7661:Principles of Life
7625:Principles of Life
7595:Principles of Life
7207:Principles of Life
7138:Principles of Life
6821:Principles of Life
6543:Biological Science
6423:Principles of Life
6101:Principles of Life
6076:2020-01-22 at the
5841:Biological Science
5816:Biological Science
5791:Biological Science
5736:Biological Science
5706:Principles of Life
5653:Biological Science
5417:Gould, Stephen Jay
4679:Biological Science
4558:Outline of biology
4528:List of biologists
4508:Biology in fiction
4391:
4279:
4197:
4187:Population ecology
4070:, which increases
4043:. More than 6,000
4010:
3949:reproduce sexually
3881:eukaryotes of the
3806:with bacteria (or
3800:
3647:metabolic pathways
3606:
3561:acidic hot springs
3535:. Typically a few
3518:
3457:Cambrian explosion
3443:appear during the
3193:
3126:genetic divergence
3081:
3016:metabolic activity
3012:membrane potential
2943:constitutive genes
2869:(RNA to protein).
2837:
2729:
2636:
2623:Classical genetics
2403:
2347:inotropic receptor
2184:
2065:(or Krebs cycle),
2032:
1997:needed to convert
1979:metabolic pathways
1973:âthe building up (
1955:chemical reactions
1947:
1841:
1758:
1753:depicting various
1646:transport proteins
1619:
1500:
1410:chemical reactions
1390:
1345:chemical processes
1250:Har Gobind Khorana
1238:molecular genetics
1198:classical genetics
1152:
1117:published a basic
1004:natural philosophy
988:
968:History of biology
934:organisms such as
926:organisms such as
901:research questions
778:Biology portal
630:Structural biology
615:Relational biology
440:Generative biology
435:Freshwater biology
52:
14415:
14414:
14393:
14392:
14066:chemical elements
13990:
13989:
13871:
13870:
13792:Synthetic biology
13672:Molecular biology
13527:Cognitive biology
13372:
13371:
13268:Omne vivum ex ovo
13260:Terms and phrases
13144:
13143:
13010:Hierarchy of life
12957:Plant systematics
12937:Molecular biology
12822:
12821:
12684:Synthetic biology
12564:Molecular biology
12419:Cognitive biology
12295:
12294:
12121:
12120:
11812:Natural selection
11593:Organic compounds
11490:Scientific method
11480:Emergent property
11421:Hierarchy of life
11391:Energy processing
11272:interdisciplinary
11221:original research
11144:978-0-534-40653-0
11135:Asking About Life
11117:978-0-03-016723-2
11085:978-0-8032-7620-8
11058:978-0-7637-1688-2
11028:978-0-674-36446-2
10999:978-0-691-02364-9
10967:978-0-8053-7146-8
10937:978-1-4051-1117-1
10908:978-0-8153-3218-3
10868:978-0-87893-795-0
10593:978-0-87893-518-5
10565:978-0-86542-371-8
10479:978-0-87893-800-1
10369:Earth Observatory
10306:978-0-19-854768-6
10169:978-0-534-42066-6
10101:978-0-87893-308-2
9960:978-0-387-95443-1
9935:978-0-534-42066-6
9849:978-0-7614-7523-1
9823:978-1-4051-1117-1
9627:(19): 12599â603.
8978:(24): 3752â3762.
8695:978-0-412-73800-5
8615:Lucas, Spencer G.
8581:"The Great Dying"
8386:(1365): 113â130.
8288:(7348): 505â509.
8207:10.2517/prpsj.7.9
8082:Nisbet, Euan G.;
8048:Nature Geoscience
8010:(5402): 674â676.
7978:978-0-87893-187-3
7878:978-0-19-515605-8
7501:(November 1970).
7419:978-1-4496-4722-3
7295:978-0-12-385943-3
7053:10.1038/2261198a0
6978:Crick, Francis H.
6948:Crick, Francis H.
6892:10.1002/jcb.20519
6724:978-0-7637-1511-3
6697:978-0-7167-3520-5
6519:. 28 March 2018.
6337:978-0-321-73975-9
6324:Pearson Education
5983:978-0-8153-3218-3
5469:978-1-58836-538-5
5322:978-0-521-29293-1
5297:978-0-19-515618-8
5265:978-0-203-91100-6
5238:978-0-415-12410-2
5158:978-1-4899-6327-7
5127:978-0-203-91100-6
5100:978-3-319-90118-3
5066:978-052-1-68957-1
5030:978-0-226-48205-7
4951:Pudritz, Ralph E.
4846:978-0-19-965857-2
4483:biodiversity loss
4387:slow carbon cycle
4382:Fast carbon cycle
4336:organic compounds
4245:human populations
4221:carrying capacity
4207:that occupies an
4072:genetic diversity
4017:infectious agents
3912:coleochaetophytes
3675:organic compounds
3565:radioactive waste
3275:that lived about
3197:phylogenetic tree
3079:for darker traits
3077:Natural selection
2994:. Stem cells are
2941:, in contrast to
2865:(DNA to RNA) and
2817:genetic variation
2657:while others are
2602:Genetic variation
2533:spindle apparatus
2357:receptors (e.g.,
2326:neurotransmitters
2126:electron acceptor
2099:protein complexes
2063:citric acid cycle
2027:Respiration in a
1995:activation energy
1863:, which generate
1794:membrane proteins
1554:functional groups
1503:Organic compounds
1486:Organic chemistry
1480:Organic compounds
1476:that is neutral.
1353:Molecular biology
1293:chemical elements
1179:natural selection
909:scientific method
887:of a cell to the
885:molecular biology
859:Energy processing
828:
827:
752:Health technology
635:Synthetic biology
515:Molecular biology
370:Cognitive biology
165:Energy processing
16:(Redirected from
14507:
14480:
14479:
14468:
14467:
14456:
14455:
14454:
14444:
14443:
14442:
14432:
14431:
14423:
14405:
14404:
14277:
14267:
14266:
14207:tropical cyclone
14157:
14017:
14010:
14003:
13994:
13993:
13980:
13979:
13970:
13960:
13959:
13939:Physical science
13898:
13891:
13884:
13875:
13874:
13517:Chemical biology
13399:
13392:
13385:
13376:
13375:
13171:
13164:
13157:
13148:
13147:
13134:
13133:
13113:Natural theology
12849:
12842:
12835:
12826:
12825:
12812:
12811:
12802:
12801:
12792:
12791:
12785:
12781:
12780:
12757:Ecological terms
12409:Chemical biology
12270:Field techniques
12143:
12142:
12129:
11988:Digestive system
11983:Endocrine system
11556:Chemical element
11515:Biology journals
11411:Self-replication
11366:
11365:
11305:
11298:
11291:
11282:
11281:
11148:
11129:
11097:
11070:
11043:
11041:
11040:
11011:
10979:
10949:
10920:
10900:
10873:
10872:
10854:
10848:
10847:
10837:
10827:
10795:
10789:
10773:
10767:
10766:
10733:(5690): 1632â4.
10722:
10716:
10715:
10705:
10673:
10667:
10666:
10664:
10663:
10607:
10598:
10597:
10579:
10570:
10569:
10549:
10540:
10539:
10537:
10536:
10530:
10524:. Archived from
10499:
10490:
10484:
10483:
10465:
10459:
10458:
10448:
10431:(1636): 759â65.
10416:
10410:
10409:
10391:
10385:
10384:
10382:
10380:
10360:
10354:
10353:
10335:
10329:
10328:
10320:
10314:
10313:
10292:
10286:
10285:
10267:
10256:
10255:
10225:
10219:
10218:
10208:
10184:
10178:
10177:
10172:. Archived from
10153:
10147:
10146:
10144:
10112:
10106:
10105:
10083:
10077:
10076:
10071:
10069:
10050:
10044:
10043:
10041:
10039:
10024:
10018:
10017:
10004:Campbell Biology
9999:
9993:
9992:
9974:
9965:
9964:
9946:
9940:
9939:
9927:
9917:
9911:
9910:
9892:
9886:
9871:
9865:
9864:
9862:
9861:
9834:
9828:
9827:
9809:
9803:
9802:
9792:
9760:
9754:
9753:
9741:
9735:
9734:
9706:
9700:
9699:
9663:
9657:
9656:
9646:
9636:
9612:
9606:
9605:
9603:
9601:
9582:
9576:
9575:
9573:
9571:
9565:
9560:. Archived from
9546:
9540:
9539:
9529:
9519:
9495:
9489:
9488:
9486:
9484:
9475:. Archived from
9462:
9456:
9455:
9437:
9431:
9430:
9412:
9403:
9402:
9384:
9371:
9370:
9360:
9336:
9330:
9329:
9311:
9275:
9269:
9268:
9250:
9235:
9234:
9206:
9200:
9199:
9189:
9165:
9159:
9158:
9156:
9155:
9140:
9134:
9133:
9123:
9091:
9085:
9084:
9066:
9034:
9028:
9027:
9025:
9024:
9018:
8995:
8969:
8960:
8954:
8953:
8943:
8903:
8897:
8896:
8894:
8892:
8847:
8841:
8838:
8791:
8789:
8788:
8779:. Archived from
8764:
8758:
8757:
8755:
8754:
8748:
8723:
8714:
8708:
8707:
8672:
8666:
8665:
8663:
8662:
8656:
8650:. Archived from
8634:(1â2): 103â139.
8623:
8610:
8604:
8603:
8601:
8600:
8576:
8570:
8569:
8567:
8566:
8557:. Archived from
8542:
8536:
8535:
8533:
8532:
8526:
8520:. Archived from
8485:
8472:
8466:
8465:
8455:
8445:
8428:(9): 4457â4462.
8412:
8406:
8405:
8403:
8369:
8363:
8362:
8360:
8328:
8322:
8321:
8271:
8265:
8264:
8239:
8233:
8232:
8230:
8229:
8223:
8217:. Archived from
8192:
8180:
8174:
8173:
8163:
8130:Knoll, Andrew H.
8126:
8120:
8119:
8117:
8079:
8073:
8072:
8069:10.1038/ngeo2025
8042:
8036:
8035:
7997:
7991:
7990:
7962:
7956:
7951:
7945:
7944:
7942:
7940:
7934:
7927:
7919:
7913:
7912:
7894:
7883:
7882:
7866:
7856:
7850:
7849:
7805:
7799:
7798:
7788:
7778:
7746:
7740:
7739:
7731:
7725:
7723:
7721:
7719:
7681:
7675:
7674:
7656:
7639:
7638:
7620:
7609:
7608:
7590:
7584:
7583:
7575:
7569:
7557:
7551:
7550:
7548:
7507:
7495:
7489:
7488:
7475:Campbell Biology
7470:
7457:
7456:
7441:
7435:
7434:
7432:
7431:
7403:
7397:
7396:
7390:
7388:
7370:Carroll, Sean B.
7366:
7360:
7359:
7349:
7317:
7311:
7310:
7308:
7307:
7279:
7273:
7272:
7236:
7230:
7227:
7221:
7220:
7202:
7193:
7192:
7182:
7173:(6): 1161â1167.
7158:
7152:
7151:
7133:
7114:
7113:
7103:
7079:
7073:
7072:
7028:
7022:
7021:
7002:10.1038/227561a0
6974:
6968:
6967:
6944:
6938:
6937:
6935:
6934:
6919:
6913:
6912:
6894:
6870:
6864:
6863:
6851:
6841:
6835:
6834:
6816:
6797:
6796:
6794:
6793:
6778:Nature Education
6769:
6763:
6762:
6760:
6759:
6744:Nature Education
6735:
6729:
6728:
6708:
6702:
6701:
6679:
6673:
6672:
6654:
6648:
6645:
6639:
6636:
6627:
6624:
6618:
6614:
6608:
6607:
6597:
6587:
6563:
6557:
6556:
6538:
6532:
6531:
6529:
6528:
6509:
6503:
6502:
6476:
6470:
6469:
6443:
6437:
6436:
6418:
6409:
6408:
6406:
6404:
6393:Nature Education
6389:"Cell signaling"
6385:
6376:
6375:
6373:
6371:
6360:Nature Education
6351:
6345:
6344:
6313:
6307:
6306:
6276:
6267:
6247:
6246:
6240:
6234:
6214:
6213:
6207:
6201:
6200:
6198:
6197:
6180:"photosynthesis"
6176:
6170:
6169:
6151:
6134:
6133:
6124:Bailey, Regina.
6121:
6115:
6114:
6096:
6081:
6060:
6058:
6057:
6048:(4th ed.).
6037:
6031:
6030:
6028:
6026:
5998:
5992:
5991:
5967:
5961:
5960:
5947:Campbell Biology
5942:
5936:
5935:
5933:
5932:
5904:
5898:
5897:
5861:
5855:
5854:
5836:
5830:
5829:
5811:
5805:
5804:
5786:
5780:
5779:
5766:Campbell Biology
5761:
5750:
5749:
5731:
5720:
5719:
5701:
5695:
5694:
5681:Campbell Biology
5676:
5667:
5666:
5648:
5605:
5604:
5591:Campbell Biology
5586:
5577:
5576:
5574:
5573:
5553:
5547:
5546:
5538:
5532:
5531:
5529:
5528:
5513:Nature Education
5504:
5495:
5494:
5484:
5478:
5477:
5451:
5445:
5438:
5432:
5414:
5408:
5407:
5405:
5403:
5397:
5374:
5359:
5353:
5346:
5340:
5333:
5327:
5326:
5308:
5302:
5301:
5280:
5274:
5273:
5249:
5243:
5242:
5218:
5212:
5211:
5190:
5188:
5187:
5181:
5175:
5174:
5172:
5170:
5142:
5136:
5135:
5111:
5105:
5104:
5077:
5071:
5070:
5054:
5044:
5035:
5034:
5016:
5007:
5006:
4972:
4946:
4937:
4936:
4930:
4922:
4920:
4918:
4900:
4894:
4893:
4857:
4851:
4850:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4813:
4807:
4806:
4796:
4756:
4750:
4749:
4739:
4699:
4693:
4692:
4674:
4659:
4658:
4640:
4625:
4624:
4611:Campbell Biology
4606:
4253:Green revolution
4175:nutrient cycling
4080:self-replicators
3877:, predominantly
3765:human microbiome
3541:number of shapes
3516:(-=1 Micrometer)
3485:mass extinctions
3148:
2996:undifferentiated
2947:structural genes
2813:gain-of-function
2777:semiconservative
2419:and some of its
2371:second messenger
2361:for the hormone
2342:vascular systems
2215:Light absorption
1959:metabolic wastes
1733:in a fertilized
1578:sulfhydryl group
1343:is the study of
1254:Robert W. Holley
1194:modern synthesis
1123:scientific names
1044:Islamic scholars
930:and bacteria to
820:
813:
806:
793:
788:
787:
780:
776:
775:
714:List of journals
360:Chemical biology
73:
54:
53:
21:
14515:
14514:
14510:
14509:
14508:
14506:
14505:
14504:
14490:
14489:
14486:
14474:
14462:
14452:
14450:
14440:
14438:
14426:
14418:
14416:
14411:
14389:
14306:
14275:
14256:
14213:
14155:
14135:
14126:Gaia hypothesis
14116:Plate tectonics
14077:
14027:
14021:
13991:
13986:
13948:
13920:
13907:
13905:Natural science
13902:
13872:
13867:
13841:
13802:Systems biology
13767:Quantum biology
13408:
13403:
13373:
13368:
13342:
13301:
13255:
13234:
13193:
13180:
13175:
13145:
13140:
13122:
13103:Natural history
13044:
12982:
12976:
12932:Model organisms
12869:
12863:
12853:
12823:
12818:
12775:
12774:
12766:
12752:Botanical terms
12735:
12734:
12733:
12694:Systems biology
12659:Quantum biology
12291:
12265:
12147:
12137:
12130:
12117:
12027:
12008:Muscular system
11965:
11959:
11950:Vascular tissue
11897:
11891:
11831:
11792:History of life
11753:
11734:Gene regulation
11729:Gene expression
11700:
11617:
11524:
11355:
11314:
11309:
11228:Biology Letters
11216:Current Biology
11169:OSU's Phylocode
11156:
11151:
11145:
11132:
11118:
11100:
11086:
11073:
11059:
11046:
11038:
11036:
11029:
11014:
11000:
10984:Colinvaux, Paul
10982:
10968:
10952:
10938:
10923:
10909:
10892:
10888:
10882:
10880:Further reading
10877:
10876:
10869:
10855:
10851:
10796:
10792:
10787:Wayback Machine
10774:
10770:
10723:
10719:
10682:Biology Letters
10674:
10670:
10661:
10659:
10644:
10618:Springer-Verlag
10608:
10601:
10594:
10580:
10573:
10566:
10550:
10543:
10534:
10532:
10528:
10514:10.2307/1310054
10497:
10491:
10487:
10480:
10466:
10462:
10417:
10413:
10406:
10392:
10388:
10378:
10376:
10361:
10357:
10350:
10336:
10332:
10321:
10317:
10307:
10293:
10289:
10282:
10268:
10259:
10226:
10222:
10185:
10181:
10170:
10154:
10150:
10113:
10109:
10102:
10084:
10080:
10067:
10065:
10064:on 4 March 2016
10052:
10051:
10047:
10037:
10035:
10026:
10025:
10021:
10014:
10000:
9996:
9989:
9975:
9968:
9961:
9947:
9943:
9936:
9918:
9914:
9907:
9893:
9889:
9872:
9868:
9859:
9857:
9850:
9836:
9835:
9831:
9824:
9810:
9806:
9761:
9757:
9742:
9738:
9707:
9703:
9664:
9660:
9613:
9609:
9599:
9597:
9584:
9583:
9579:
9569:
9567:
9547:
9543:
9496:
9492:
9482:
9480:
9463:
9459:
9452:
9438:
9434:
9427:
9413:
9406:
9399:
9385:
9374:
9337:
9333:
9276:
9272:
9265:
9251:
9238:
9207:
9203:
9166:
9162:
9153:
9151:
9142:
9141:
9137:
9092:
9088:
9064:10.1038/441289a
9035:
9031:
9022:
9020:
9016:
8972:Current Biology
8967:
8961:
8957:
8904:
8900:
8890:
8888:
8853:(May 1, 1999).
8848:
8844:
8786:
8784:
8765:
8761:
8752:
8750:
8746:
8721:
8715:
8711:
8696:
8673:
8669:
8660:
8658:
8654:
8621:
8611:
8607:
8598:
8596:
8577:
8573:
8564:
8562:
8543:
8539:
8530:
8528:
8524:
8496:(6757): 42â46.
8483:
8473:
8469:
8413:
8409:
8370:
8366:
8329:
8325:
8272:
8268:
8240:
8236:
8227:
8225:
8221:
8190:
8181:
8177:
8127:
8123:
8080:
8076:
8043:
8039:
7998:
7994:
7979:
7963:
7959:
7952:
7948:
7938:
7936:
7932:
7925:
7921:
7920:
7916:
7909:
7895:
7886:
7879:
7857:
7853:
7806:
7802:
7761:(12): 4576â79.
7747:
7743:
7732:
7728:
7717:
7715:
7708:
7682:
7678:
7671:
7657:
7642:
7635:
7621:
7612:
7605:
7591:
7587:
7576:
7572:
7560:Darwin, Charles
7558:
7554:
7546:
7505:
7496:
7492:
7485:
7471:
7460:
7443:
7442:
7438:
7429:
7427:
7420:
7404:
7400:
7386:
7384:
7377:Natural History
7367:
7363:
7318:
7314:
7305:
7303:
7296:
7280:
7276:
7253:10.1038/nrm2146
7237:
7233:
7228:
7224:
7217:
7203:
7196:
7159:
7155:
7148:
7134:
7117:
7080:
7076:
7030:
7029:
7025:
6988:(5258): 561â3.
6975:
6971:
6945:
6941:
6932:
6930:
6921:
6920:
6916:
6871:
6867:
6860:
6842:
6838:
6831:
6817:
6800:
6791:
6789:
6770:
6766:
6757:
6755:
6736:
6732:
6725:
6709:
6705:
6698:
6680:
6676:
6669:
6655:
6651:
6646:
6642:
6637:
6630:
6625:
6621:
6615:
6611:
6564:
6560:
6553:
6539:
6535:
6526:
6524:
6511:
6510:
6506:
6491:
6477:
6473:
6458:
6444:
6440:
6433:
6419:
6412:
6402:
6400:
6387:
6386:
6379:
6369:
6367:
6352:
6348:
6338:
6314:
6310:
6289:(11): 488â496.
6277:
6270:
6265:Perseus Project
6241:
6237:
6232:Perseus Project
6208:
6204:
6195:
6193:
6178:
6177:
6173:
6166:
6152:
6137:
6122:
6118:
6111:
6097:
6084:
6078:Wayback Machine
6055:
6053:
6038:
6034:
6024:
6022:
5999:
5995:
5984:
5968:
5964:
5957:
5943:
5939:
5930:
5928:
5921:
5905:
5901:
5862:
5858:
5851:
5837:
5833:
5826:
5812:
5808:
5801:
5787:
5783:
5776:
5762:
5753:
5746:
5732:
5723:
5716:
5702:
5698:
5691:
5677:
5670:
5663:
5649:
5608:
5601:
5587:
5580:
5571:
5569:
5554:
5550:
5539:
5535:
5526:
5524:
5505:
5498:
5485:
5481:
5470:
5452:
5448:
5439:
5435:
5415:
5411:
5401:
5399:
5395:
5372:
5364:Darwin, Francis
5360:
5356:
5347:
5343:
5334:
5330:
5323:
5309:
5305:
5298:
5281:
5277:
5266:
5250:
5246:
5239:
5231:. p. 815.
5227:. Vol. 3.
5219:
5215:
5200:, ed. (1911). "
5185:
5183:
5182:
5178:
5168:
5166:
5159:
5143:
5139:
5128:
5112:
5108:
5101:
5079:
5078:
5074:
5067:
5045:
5038:
5031:
5017:
5010:
4947:
4940:
4924:
4923:
4916:
4914:
4901:
4897:
4858:
4854:
4847:
4833:
4829:
4816:
4814:
4810:
4757:
4753:
4700:
4696:
4689:
4675:
4662:
4655:
4641:
4628:
4621:
4607:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4569:Science tourism
4503:
4442:
4436:
4375:
4369:
4271:
4265:
4217:Population size
4189:
4183:
4144:nutrient cycles
4112:
4106:
4094:
4088:
3999:
3993:
3852:common ancestor
3787:
3781:
3637:. Despite this
3623:, Bacteria and
3585:bacterial phyla
3543:, ranging from
3504:
3498:
3493:
3268:
3266:History of life
3262:
3260:History of life
3178:
3146:
3144:
3138:
3113:
3107:
3091:characteristics
3070:
3064:
3059:
3020:gene expression
2984:differentiation
2969:
2963:
2939:inducible genes
2881:
2875:
2873:Gene regulation
2843:
2841:Gene expression
2825:
2823:Gene expression
2773:DNA replication
2721:
2711:
2625:
2619:
2614:
2586:complementation
2558:
2491:internal organs
2409:
2387:
2269:
2263:
2219:carbon fixation
2195:chemical energy
2181:
2177:
2168:
2162:
2119:phosphorylating
2104:
2092:
2036:chemical energy
2029:eukaryotic cell
2021:
2015:
1935:
1929:
1873:Golgi apparatus
1818:cell signalling
1743:
1680:
1674:
1607:
1601:
1574:phosphate group
1531:carbon monoxide
1524:
1488:
1482:
1434:Surface tension
1423:
1379:
1365:
1289:
1283:
1278:
1248:was cracked by
970:
964:
845:are made up of
839:natural science
824:
783:
770:
769:
762:
761:
737:
729:
728:
695:
687:
686:
685:
684:
645:Systems biology
610:Quantum biology
253:
245:
244:
209:
194:
156:
145:
121:
113:
78:
76:Science of life
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
14513:
14503:
14502:
14485:
14484:
14472:
14460:
14448:
14446:Earth sciences
14436:
14413:
14412:
14410:
14409:
14398:
14395:
14394:
14391:
14390:
14388:
14387:
14380:
14379:
14378:
14373:
14363:
14362:
14361:
14356:
14351:
14350:
14349:
14339:
14338:
14337:
14322:
14317:
14311:
14308:
14307:
14305:
14304:
14294:
14289:
14284:
14279:
14270:
14264:
14258:
14257:
14255:
14254:
14249:
14244:
14239:
14234:
14229:
14223:
14221:
14215:
14214:
14212:
14211:
14210:
14209:
14204:
14194:
14189:
14184:
14179:
14174:
14169:
14164:
14159:
14151:
14145:
14143:
14137:
14136:
14134:
14133:
14128:
14123:
14118:
14113:
14108:
14103:
14093:
14087:
14085:
14079:
14078:
14076:
14075:
14070:
14069:
14068:
14063:
14053:
14048:
14043:
14037:
14035:
14029:
14028:
14020:
14019:
14012:
14005:
13997:
13988:
13987:
13985:
13984:
13974:
13972:Science Portal
13964:
13953:
13950:
13949:
13947:
13946:
13941:
13936:
13931:
13925:
13922:
13921:
13919:
13918:
13912:
13909:
13908:
13901:
13900:
13893:
13886:
13878:
13869:
13868:
13866:
13865:
13860:
13855:
13849:
13847:
13843:
13842:
13840:
13839:
13834:
13829:
13824:
13819:
13814:
13809:
13804:
13799:
13794:
13789:
13784:
13779:
13774:
13769:
13764:
13759:
13754:
13749:
13744:
13739:
13734:
13729:
13724:
13719:
13714:
13709:
13704:
13699:
13694:
13689:
13684:
13679:
13674:
13669:
13664:
13659:
13657:Marine biology
13654:
13649:
13644:
13639:
13634:
13629:
13624:
13619:
13614:
13609:
13604:
13599:
13594:
13589:
13584:
13579:
13574:
13569:
13564:
13559:
13554:
13549:
13544:
13539:
13534:
13529:
13524:
13519:
13514:
13509:
13504:
13499:
13494:
13489:
13484:
13479:
13474:
13469:
13467:Bioinformatics
13464:
13459:
13454:
13449:
13444:
13439:
13434:
13429:
13424:
13419:
13413:
13410:
13409:
13402:
13401:
13394:
13387:
13379:
13370:
13369:
13367:
13366:
13356:
13350:
13348:
13344:
13343:
13341:
13340:
13335:
13330:
13325:
13320:
13309:
13307:
13303:
13302:
13300:
13299:
13292:
13285:
13278:
13271:
13263:
13261:
13257:
13256:
13254:
13253:
13248:
13242:
13240:
13236:
13235:
13233:
13232:
13227:
13222:
13217:
13212:
13207:
13201:
13199:
13195:
13194:
13192:
13191:
13185:
13182:
13181:
13174:
13173:
13166:
13159:
13151:
13142:
13141:
13139:
13138:
13127:
13124:
13123:
13121:
13120:
13115:
13110:
13105:
13100:
13095:
13090:
13085:
13080:
13075:
13070:
13069:
13068:
13058:
13052:
13050:
13046:
13045:
13043:
13042:
13037:
13032:
13027:
13022:
13017:
13012:
13007:
13002:
12997:
12992:
12986:
12984:
12978:
12977:
12975:
12974:
12969:
12964:
12959:
12954:
12949:
12944:
12939:
12934:
12929:
12924:
12919:
12914:
12909:
12904:
12899:
12894:
12889:
12884:
12879:
12873:
12871:
12865:
12864:
12852:
12851:
12844:
12837:
12829:
12820:
12819:
12817:
12816:
12806:
12796:
12786:
12771:
12768:
12767:
12765:
12764:
12759:
12754:
12749:
12743:
12741:
12737:
12736:
12732:
12731:
12726:
12721:
12716:
12711:
12706:
12701:
12696:
12691:
12686:
12681:
12676:
12671:
12666:
12661:
12656:
12651:
12646:
12641:
12636:
12631:
12626:
12621:
12616:
12611:
12606:
12601:
12596:
12591:
12586:
12581:
12576:
12571:
12566:
12561:
12556:
12551:
12549:Marine biology
12546:
12541:
12536:
12531:
12526:
12521:
12516:
12511:
12506:
12501:
12496:
12491:
12486:
12481:
12476:
12471:
12466:
12461:
12456:
12451:
12446:
12441:
12436:
12431:
12426:
12421:
12416:
12411:
12406:
12401:
12396:
12391:
12386:
12381:
12376:
12371:
12366:
12361:
12359:Bioinformatics
12356:
12351:
12346:
12341:
12336:
12331:
12326:
12321:
12316:
12311:
12305:
12304:
12303:
12301:
12297:
12296:
12293:
12292:
12290:
12289:
12284:
12279:
12273:
12271:
12267:
12266:
12264:
12263:
12256:
12249:
12242:
12237:
12232:
12227:
12222:
12217:
12212:
12207:
12202:
12197:
12192:
12190:DNA microarray
12187:
12185:DNA sequencing
12182:
12177:
12175:Centrifugation
12172:
12170:Chromatography
12167:
12162:
12160:Transformation
12157:
12151:
12149:
12140:
12132:
12131:
12124:
12122:
12119:
12118:
12116:
12115:
12110:
12105:
12100:
12099:
12098:
12088:
12083:
12078:
12073:
12071:Climate change
12068:
12063:
12058:
12053:
12048:
12043:
12037:
12035:
12029:
12028:
12026:
12025:
12020:
12015:
12013:Nervous system
12010:
12005:
12000:
11995:
11990:
11985:
11980:
11975:
11969:
11967:
11961:
11960:
11958:
11957:
11952:
11947:
11945:Vascular plant
11942:
11937:
11932:
11927:
11922:
11917:
11912:
11907:
11901:
11899:
11893:
11892:
11890:
11889:
11884:
11883:
11882:
11877:
11872:
11867:
11862:
11852:
11847:
11841:
11839:
11833:
11832:
11830:
11829:
11824:
11819:
11814:
11809:
11804:
11802:Microevolution
11799:
11797:Macroevolution
11794:
11789:
11784:
11779:
11774:
11769:
11763:
11761:
11755:
11754:
11752:
11751:
11746:
11741:
11736:
11731:
11726:
11721:
11716:
11710:
11708:
11702:
11701:
11699:
11698:
11693:
11691:Photosynthesis
11688:
11683:
11678:
11673:
11668:
11663:
11658:
11653:
11648:
11646:Cell signaling
11643:
11638:
11633:
11627:
11625:
11619:
11618:
11616:
11615:
11610:
11605:
11600:
11595:
11590:
11585:
11580:
11575:
11574:
11573:
11563:
11558:
11553:
11548:
11543:
11538:
11532:
11530:
11529:Chemical basis
11526:
11525:
11523:
11522:
11517:
11512:
11507:
11502:
11497:
11495:Taxonomic rank
11492:
11487:
11482:
11477:
11475:Reductionistic
11472:
11418:
11383:
11378:
11372:
11370:
11363:
11357:
11356:
11354:
11353:
11348:
11347:
11346:
11336:
11331:
11322:Introduction (
11319:
11316:
11315:
11308:
11307:
11300:
11293:
11285:
11279:
11278:
11263:
11255:
11243:
11224:
11212:
11203:
11192:
11191:
11186:
11181:
11176:
11171:
11166:
11155:
11154:External links
11152:
11150:
11149:
11143:
11130:
11116:
11098:
11084:
11071:
11057:
11044:
11027:
11012:
10998:
10980:
10966:
10954:Campbell, Neil
10950:
10936:
10921:
10907:
10889:
10881:
10878:
10875:
10874:
10867:
10849:
10790:
10768:
10717:
10668:
10643:978-1402068904
10642:
10599:
10592:
10571:
10564:
10541:
10485:
10478:
10460:
10411:
10405:978-1464175121
10404:
10386:
10355:
10349:978-1464175121
10348:
10330:
10315:
10305:
10287:
10281:978-1464175121
10280:
10257:
10220:
10199:(4): 555â568.
10179:
10176:on 2011-08-20.
10168:
10148:
10107:
10100:
10094:. p. 45.
10078:
10045:
10019:
10013:978-0134093413
10012:
9994:
9988:978-1464175121
9987:
9966:
9959:
9941:
9934:
9912:
9906:978-1464175121
9905:
9887:
9866:
9848:
9829:
9822:
9804:
9755:
9736:
9701:
9658:
9607:
9577:
9541:
9504:Biology Direct
9490:
9479:on 28 May 2020
9457:
9451:978-1464175121
9450:
9432:
9426:978-1464175121
9425:
9404:
9398:978-1464175121
9397:
9372:
9331:
9270:
9264:978-1464175121
9263:
9236:
9201:
9160:
9146:. March 2018.
9135:
9086:
9029:
8955:
8918:(7): 4230â41.
8898:
8842:
8840:
8839:
8759:
8709:
8694:
8667:
8605:
8571:
8537:
8467:
8407:
8364:
8323:
8266:
8234:
8175:
8121:
8084:Fowler, C.M.R.
8074:
8037:
7992:
7977:
7957:
7946:
7914:
7908:978-1464175121
7907:
7884:
7877:
7851:
7800:
7741:
7726:
7706:
7676:
7670:978-1464175121
7669:
7640:
7634:978-1464175121
7633:
7610:
7604:978-1464175121
7603:
7585:
7570:
7568:, John Murray.
7552:
7490:
7484:978-0134093413
7483:
7458:
7436:
7418:
7398:
7361:
7332:(6): 411â417.
7312:
7294:
7274:
7247:(5): 369â378.
7231:
7222:
7216:978-1464175121
7215:
7194:
7167:Molecular Cell
7153:
7147:978-1464175121
7146:
7115:
7094:(6): 791â792.
7088:Molecular Cell
7074:
7023:
6969:
6939:
6914:
6865:
6858:
6836:
6830:978-1464175121
6829:
6798:
6764:
6740:"Test crosses"
6730:
6723:
6703:
6696:
6674:
6668:978-1464109485
6667:
6649:
6640:
6628:
6619:
6609:
6558:
6552:978-0321976499
6551:
6533:
6504:
6490:978-1429229432
6489:
6471:
6457:978-0199204625
6456:
6438:
6432:978-1464175121
6431:
6410:
6377:
6346:
6336:
6308:
6268:
6235:
6202:
6171:
6165:978-0716776017
6164:
6135:
6116:
6110:978-1464175121
6109:
6082:
6032:
5993:
5982:
5962:
5956:978-0134093413
5955:
5937:
5920:978-0132508827
5919:
5899:
5856:
5850:978-0321976499
5849:
5831:
5825:978-0321976499
5824:
5806:
5800:978-0321976499
5799:
5781:
5775:978-0134093413
5774:
5751:
5745:978-0321976499
5744:
5721:
5715:978-1464175121
5714:
5696:
5690:978-0134093413
5689:
5668:
5662:978-0321976499
5661:
5606:
5600:978-0134093413
5599:
5578:
5548:
5533:
5496:
5487:Henig (2000).
5479:
5468:
5446:
5433:
5409:
5366:, ed. (1909).
5354:
5341:
5328:
5321:
5303:
5296:
5275:
5264:
5244:
5237:
5213:
5198:Chisholm, Hugh
5176:
5157:
5137:
5126:
5106:
5099:
5072:
5065:
5036:
5029:
5008:
4963:(3): 343â364.
4938:
4895:
4852:
4845:
4839:. OUP Oxford.
4827:
4824:on 2004-06-08.
4808:
4751:
4714:(4): 259â266.
4694:
4688:978-0321976499
4687:
4660:
4654:978-1319017644
4653:
4626:
4620:978-0134093413
4619:
4585:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4469:, population,
4438:Main article:
4435:
4432:
4371:Main article:
4368:
4365:
4328:trophic levels
4267:Main article:
4264:
4261:
4257:Thomas Malthus
4185:Main article:
4182:
4179:
4163:organic matter
4148:photosynthesis
4108:Main article:
4105:
4102:
4090:Main article:
4087:
4084:
4037:microorganisms
4014:submicroscopic
4006:Bacteriophages
3995:Main article:
3992:
3989:
3941:breathe oxygen
3891:cyanobacterium
3879:photosynthetic
3783:Main article:
3780:
3777:
3711:binary fission
3667:cell membranes
3569:deep biosphere
3533:microorganisms
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3447:period, while
3441:Ediacara biota
3423:microorganisms
3396:Microbial mats
3380:common descent
3264:Main article:
3261:
3258:
3140:Main article:
3137:
3134:
3109:Main article:
3106:
3103:
3066:Main article:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3004:types of cells
2965:Main article:
2962:
2959:
2877:Main article:
2874:
2871:
2839:Main article:
2824:
2821:
2737:polynucleotide
2710:
2707:
2695:Thomas Morgans
2687:Punnett square
2632:Punnett square
2621:Main article:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2557:
2554:
2521:binary fission
2483:fertilized egg
2405:Main article:
2386:
2383:
2355:protein kinase
2349:can alter the
2340:of animals or
2330:synaptic cleft
2267:Cell signaling
2265:Main article:
2262:
2261:Cell signaling
2259:
2208:oxygen content
2179:
2178:, and fixes CO
2175:
2166:Photosynthesis
2164:Main article:
2161:
2160:Photosynthesis
2158:
2137:waste products
2102:
2090:
2017:Main article:
2014:
2011:
1953:is the set of
1928:
1925:
1905:microfilaments
1742:
1741:Cell structure
1739:
1678:Cell (biology)
1676:Main article:
1673:
1670:
1622:Macromolecules
1603:Main article:
1600:
1599:Macromolecules
1597:
1570:hydroxyl group
1566:carbonyl group
1562:carboxyl group
1522:
1519:carbon dioxide
1507:covalent bonds
1481:
1478:
1421:
1418:polar molecule
1364:
1361:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1276:Chemical basis
1274:
1206:Alfred Hershey
1163:Charles Darwin
1142:Charles Darwin
1131:common descent
1104:Rudolf Virchow
1067:Jan Swammerdam
980:'s innovative
966:Main article:
963:
960:
826:
825:
823:
822:
815:
808:
800:
797:
796:
795:
794:
781:
764:
763:
760:
759:
754:
749:
744:
738:
735:
734:
731:
730:
727:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
696:
693:
692:
689:
688:
683:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
500:Marine biology
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
342:
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
312:
310:Bioinformatics
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
256:
255:
254:
251:
250:
247:
246:
243:
242:
220:
215:
208:
207:
193:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
155:
154:
149:Properties of
144:
143:
138:
133:
128:
122:
120:Key components
119:
118:
115:
114:
112:
111:
100:
99:
94:
89:
83:
80:
79:
74:
66:
65:
59:
58:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
14512:
14501:
14498:
14497:
14495:
14488:
14483:
14478:
14473:
14471:
14466:
14461:
14459:
14449:
14447:
14437:
14435:
14430:
14425:
14424:
14421:
14408:
14400:
14399:
14396:
14386:
14385:
14381:
14377:
14374:
14372:
14369:
14368:
14367:
14364:
14360:
14357:
14355:
14352:
14348:
14345:
14344:
14343:
14340:
14336:
14333:
14332:
14331:
14328:
14327:
14326:
14323:
14321:
14318:
14316:
14313:
14312:
14309:
14302:
14298:
14295:
14293:
14290:
14288:
14285:
14283:
14280:
14278:
14276:(abiogenesis)
14272:
14271:
14268:
14265:
14263:
14259:
14253:
14250:
14248:
14245:
14243:
14240:
14238:
14235:
14233:
14230:
14228:
14225:
14224:
14222:
14220:
14216:
14208:
14205:
14203:
14200:
14199:
14198:
14195:
14193:
14190:
14188:
14185:
14183:
14180:
14178:
14175:
14173:
14170:
14168:
14165:
14163:
14160:
14158:
14152:
14150:
14147:
14146:
14144:
14142:
14138:
14132:
14129:
14127:
14124:
14122:
14119:
14117:
14114:
14112:
14109:
14107:
14104:
14101:
14097:
14094:
14092:
14091:Earth science
14089:
14088:
14086:
14084:
14080:
14074:
14071:
14067:
14064:
14062:
14059:
14058:
14057:
14054:
14052:
14049:
14047:
14044:
14042:
14039:
14038:
14036:
14034:
14030:
14026:
14018:
14013:
14011:
14006:
14004:
13999:
13998:
13995:
13983:
13975:
13973:
13969:
13965:
13963:
13955:
13954:
13951:
13945:
13944:Space science
13942:
13940:
13937:
13935:
13934:Life sciences
13932:
13930:
13929:Earth science
13927:
13926:
13923:
13917:
13914:
13913:
13910:
13906:
13899:
13894:
13892:
13887:
13885:
13880:
13879:
13876:
13864:
13861:
13859:
13856:
13854:
13851:
13850:
13848:
13844:
13838:
13835:
13833:
13830:
13828:
13825:
13823:
13820:
13818:
13815:
13813:
13810:
13808:
13805:
13803:
13800:
13798:
13795:
13793:
13790:
13788:
13785:
13783:
13780:
13778:
13775:
13773:
13770:
13768:
13765:
13763:
13760:
13758:
13755:
13753:
13750:
13748:
13745:
13743:
13740:
13738:
13737:Phylogenetics
13735:
13733:
13730:
13728:
13725:
13723:
13720:
13718:
13715:
13713:
13710:
13708:
13705:
13703:
13700:
13698:
13695:
13693:
13690:
13688:
13685:
13683:
13680:
13678:
13675:
13673:
13670:
13668:
13665:
13663:
13660:
13658:
13655:
13653:
13650:
13648:
13645:
13643:
13640:
13638:
13635:
13633:
13632:Human biology
13630:
13628:
13625:
13623:
13620:
13618:
13615:
13613:
13610:
13608:
13605:
13603:
13600:
13598:
13595:
13593:
13590:
13588:
13585:
13583:
13580:
13578:
13575:
13573:
13570:
13568:
13565:
13563:
13560:
13558:
13555:
13553:
13550:
13548:
13545:
13543:
13540:
13538:
13535:
13533:
13530:
13528:
13525:
13523:
13522:Chronobiology
13520:
13518:
13515:
13513:
13510:
13508:
13505:
13503:
13500:
13498:
13497:Biotechnology
13495:
13493:
13492:Biostatistics
13490:
13488:
13485:
13483:
13480:
13478:
13475:
13473:
13470:
13468:
13465:
13463:
13460:
13458:
13455:
13453:
13450:
13448:
13445:
13443:
13440:
13438:
13435:
13433:
13430:
13428:
13425:
13423:
13420:
13418:
13415:
13414:
13411:
13407:
13400:
13395:
13393:
13388:
13386:
13381:
13380:
13377:
13364:
13360:
13357:
13355:
13352:
13351:
13349:
13345:
13339:
13338:Biotechnology
13336:
13334:
13333:Life Sciences
13331:
13329:
13326:
13324:
13321:
13318:
13314:
13311:
13310:
13308:
13304:
13298:
13297:
13293:
13291:
13290:
13286:
13284:
13283:
13279:
13277:
13276:
13272:
13270:
13269:
13265:
13264:
13262:
13258:
13252:
13249:
13247:
13244:
13243:
13241:
13237:
13231:
13228:
13226:
13223:
13221:
13218:
13216:
13213:
13211:
13208:
13206:
13203:
13202:
13200:
13196:
13190:
13187:
13186:
13183:
13179:
13172:
13167:
13165:
13160:
13158:
13153:
13152:
13149:
13137:
13129:
13128:
13125:
13119:
13116:
13114:
13111:
13109:
13106:
13104:
13101:
13099:
13096:
13094:
13091:
13089:
13086:
13084:
13081:
13079:
13076:
13074:
13071:
13067:
13064:
13063:
13062:
13059:
13057:
13054:
13053:
13051:
13047:
13041:
13038:
13036:
13033:
13031:
13028:
13026:
13023:
13021:
13018:
13016:
13013:
13011:
13008:
13006:
13003:
13001:
12998:
12996:
12993:
12991:
12988:
12987:
12985:
12979:
12973:
12970:
12968:
12965:
12963:
12960:
12958:
12955:
12953:
12950:
12948:
12945:
12943:
12940:
12938:
12935:
12933:
12930:
12928:
12925:
12923:
12920:
12918:
12915:
12913:
12910:
12908:
12905:
12903:
12900:
12898:
12895:
12893:
12892:Biotechnology
12890:
12888:
12885:
12883:
12880:
12878:
12875:
12874:
12872:
12866:
12861:
12857:
12850:
12845:
12843:
12838:
12836:
12831:
12830:
12827:
12815:
12807:
12805:
12797:
12795:
12787:
12784:
12779:
12773:
12772:
12769:
12763:
12760:
12758:
12755:
12753:
12750:
12748:
12745:
12744:
12742:
12738:
12730:
12727:
12725:
12722:
12720:
12717:
12715:
12712:
12710:
12707:
12705:
12702:
12700:
12697:
12695:
12692:
12690:
12687:
12685:
12682:
12680:
12677:
12675:
12672:
12670:
12667:
12665:
12662:
12660:
12657:
12655:
12652:
12650:
12647:
12645:
12642:
12640:
12637:
12635:
12632:
12630:
12629:Phylogenetics
12627:
12625:
12622:
12620:
12617:
12615:
12612:
12610:
12607:
12605:
12602:
12600:
12597:
12595:
12592:
12590:
12587:
12585:
12582:
12580:
12577:
12575:
12572:
12570:
12567:
12565:
12562:
12560:
12557:
12555:
12552:
12550:
12547:
12545:
12542:
12540:
12537:
12535:
12532:
12530:
12527:
12525:
12524:Human biology
12522:
12520:
12517:
12515:
12512:
12510:
12507:
12505:
12502:
12500:
12497:
12495:
12492:
12490:
12487:
12485:
12482:
12480:
12477:
12475:
12472:
12470:
12467:
12465:
12462:
12460:
12457:
12455:
12452:
12450:
12447:
12445:
12442:
12440:
12437:
12435:
12432:
12430:
12427:
12425:
12422:
12420:
12417:
12415:
12414:Chronobiology
12412:
12410:
12407:
12405:
12402:
12400:
12397:
12395:
12392:
12390:
12389:Biotechnology
12387:
12385:
12384:Biostatistics
12382:
12380:
12377:
12375:
12372:
12370:
12367:
12365:
12362:
12360:
12357:
12355:
12352:
12350:
12347:
12345:
12342:
12340:
12337:
12335:
12332:
12330:
12327:
12325:
12322:
12320:
12317:
12315:
12312:
12310:
12307:
12306:
12302:
12298:
12288:
12285:
12283:
12280:
12278:
12277:Belt transect
12275:
12274:
12272:
12268:
12262:
12261:
12257:
12255:
12254:
12250:
12248:
12247:
12243:
12241:
12238:
12236:
12233:
12231:
12228:
12226:
12225:Southern blot
12223:
12221:
12220:Northern blot
12218:
12216:
12213:
12211:
12208:
12206:
12203:
12201:
12198:
12196:
12193:
12191:
12188:
12186:
12183:
12181:
12178:
12176:
12173:
12171:
12168:
12166:
12163:
12161:
12158:
12156:
12153:
12152:
12150:
12144:
12141:
12139:
12133:
12128:
12114:
12111:
12109:
12106:
12104:
12101:
12097:
12094:
12093:
12092:
12089:
12087:
12084:
12082:
12079:
12077:
12074:
12072:
12069:
12067:
12064:
12062:
12059:
12057:
12054:
12052:
12049:
12047:
12044:
12042:
12039:
12038:
12036:
12034:
12030:
12024:
12021:
12019:
12016:
12014:
12011:
12009:
12006:
12004:
12001:
11999:
11998:Immune system
11996:
11994:
11991:
11989:
11986:
11984:
11981:
11979:
11976:
11974:
11971:
11970:
11968:
11962:
11956:
11953:
11951:
11948:
11946:
11943:
11941:
11938:
11936:
11933:
11931:
11928:
11926:
11923:
11921:
11918:
11916:
11915:Ground tissue
11913:
11911:
11908:
11906:
11903:
11902:
11900:
11894:
11888:
11885:
11881:
11878:
11876:
11873:
11871:
11868:
11866:
11863:
11861:
11858:
11857:
11856:
11853:
11851:
11848:
11846:
11843:
11842:
11840:
11838:
11834:
11828:
11825:
11823:
11820:
11818:
11817:Phylogenetics
11815:
11813:
11810:
11808:
11805:
11803:
11800:
11798:
11795:
11793:
11790:
11788:
11785:
11783:
11782:Genetic drift
11780:
11778:
11775:
11773:
11770:
11768:
11765:
11764:
11762:
11760:
11756:
11750:
11747:
11745:
11742:
11740:
11737:
11735:
11732:
11730:
11727:
11725:
11722:
11720:
11717:
11715:
11712:
11711:
11709:
11707:
11703:
11697:
11694:
11692:
11689:
11687:
11684:
11682:
11679:
11677:
11674:
11672:
11669:
11667:
11664:
11662:
11659:
11657:
11654:
11652:
11649:
11647:
11644:
11642:
11639:
11637:
11634:
11632:
11629:
11628:
11626:
11624:
11620:
11614:
11611:
11609:
11606:
11604:
11601:
11599:
11596:
11594:
11591:
11589:
11588:Nucleic acids
11586:
11584:
11581:
11579:
11576:
11572:
11569:
11568:
11567:
11564:
11562:
11559:
11557:
11554:
11552:
11551:Chemical bond
11549:
11547:
11546:Carbohydrates
11544:
11542:
11539:
11537:
11534:
11533:
11531:
11527:
11521:
11518:
11516:
11513:
11511:
11508:
11506:
11503:
11501:
11498:
11496:
11493:
11491:
11488:
11486:
11483:
11481:
11478:
11476:
11473:
11470:
11466:
11462:
11458:
11454:
11450:
11446:
11442:
11438:
11434:
11430:
11426:
11422:
11419:
11416:
11412:
11408:
11404:
11400:
11396:
11392:
11388:
11384:
11382:
11379:
11377:
11374:
11373:
11371:
11367:
11364:
11362:
11358:
11352:
11349:
11345:
11342:
11341:
11340:
11337:
11335:
11332:
11329:
11325:
11321:
11320:
11317:
11313:
11306:
11301:
11299:
11294:
11292:
11287:
11286:
11283:
11276:
11273:
11269:
11268:
11264:
11261:
11260:
11256:
11253:
11249:
11248:
11244:
11241:
11240:peer-reviewed
11237:
11236:Royal Society
11234:
11230:
11229:
11225:
11222:
11218:
11217:
11213:
11211:
11207:
11204:
11202:
11199:
11198:
11197:
11196:
11195:Journal links
11190:
11187:
11185:
11182:
11180:
11177:
11175:
11172:
11170:
11167:
11165:
11161:
11158:
11157:
11146:
11140:
11136:
11131:
11127:
11123:
11119:
11113:
11109:
11108:
11103:
11099:
11095:
11091:
11087:
11081:
11077:
11072:
11068:
11064:
11060:
11054:
11050:
11045:
11034:
11030:
11024:
11020:
11019:
11013:
11009:
11005:
11001:
10995:
10991:
10990:
10985:
10981:
10977:
10973:
10969:
10963:
10959:
10955:
10951:
10947:
10943:
10939:
10933:
10929:
10928:
10922:
10918:
10914:
10910:
10904:
10899:
10898:
10891:
10890:
10887:
10870:
10864:
10860:
10853:
10845:
10841:
10836:
10831:
10826:
10821:
10817:
10813:
10809:
10805:
10801:
10794:
10788:
10784:
10781:
10778:
10772:
10764:
10760:
10756:
10752:
10748:
10744:
10740:
10736:
10732:
10728:
10721:
10713:
10709:
10704:
10699:
10695:
10691:
10687:
10683:
10679:
10672:
10657:
10653:
10649:
10645:
10639:
10635:
10631:
10627:
10623:
10619:
10615:
10614:
10606:
10604:
10595:
10589:
10585:
10578:
10576:
10567:
10561:
10557:
10556:
10548:
10546:
10531:on 2019-04-12
10527:
10523:
10519:
10515:
10511:
10507:
10503:
10496:
10489:
10481:
10475:
10471:
10464:
10456:
10452:
10447:
10442:
10438:
10434:
10430:
10426:
10422:
10415:
10407:
10401:
10397:
10390:
10374:
10370:
10366:
10359:
10351:
10345:
10341:
10334:
10326:
10319:
10312:
10308:
10302:
10298:
10291:
10283:
10277:
10273:
10266:
10264:
10262:
10253:
10249:
10245:
10241:
10237:
10233:
10232:
10224:
10216:
10212:
10207:
10202:
10198:
10194:
10190:
10183:
10175:
10171:
10165:
10161:
10160:
10152:
10143:
10138:
10134:
10130:
10126:
10122:
10118:
10111:
10103:
10097:
10093:
10089:
10082:
10075:
10063:
10059:
10055:
10049:
10033:
10029:
10023:
10015:
10009:
10005:
9998:
9990:
9984:
9980:
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9931:
9926:
9925:
9916:
9908:
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9898:
9891:
9884:
9880:
9876:
9870:
9855:
9851:
9845:
9841:
9840:
9833:
9825:
9819:
9815:
9808:
9800:
9796:
9791:
9786:
9782:
9778:
9774:
9770:
9766:
9759:
9751:
9747:
9740:
9732:
9728:
9724:
9720:
9717:(4): 417â24.
9716:
9712:
9705:
9697:
9693:
9689:
9685:
9681:
9677:
9674:(6): 504â10.
9673:
9669:
9662:
9654:
9650:
9645:
9640:
9635:
9630:
9626:
9622:
9618:
9611:
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9587:
9581:
9566:on 2021-12-28
9564:
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9468:
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9436:
9428:
9422:
9418:
9411:
9409:
9400:
9394:
9390:
9383:
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9379:
9377:
9368:
9364:
9359:
9354:
9350:
9346:
9342:
9335:
9327:
9323:
9319:
9315:
9310:
9305:
9301:
9297:
9293:
9289:
9285:
9281:
9274:
9266:
9260:
9256:
9249:
9247:
9245:
9243:
9241:
9232:
9228:
9224:
9220:
9216:
9212:
9205:
9197:
9193:
9188:
9183:
9180:(5): 631â48.
9179:
9175:
9171:
9164:
9149:
9145:
9139:
9131:
9127:
9122:
9117:
9113:
9109:
9106:(1): 352â60.
9105:
9101:
9097:
9090:
9082:
9078:
9074:
9070:
9065:
9060:
9056:
9052:
9049:(7091): 289.
9048:
9044:
9040:
9033:
9015:
9011:
9007:
9003:
8999:
8994:
8989:
8985:
8981:
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8828:
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8812:
8808:
8804:
8800:
8799:
8793:
8792:
8783:on 2008-05-11
8782:
8778:
8774:
8770:
8763:
8745:
8741:
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8733:
8729:
8728:
8720:
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8701:
8697:
8691:
8687:
8683:
8682:
8677:
8671:
8657:on 2007-10-25
8653:
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8637:
8633:
8629:
8628:
8620:
8616:
8609:
8594:
8590:
8586:
8582:
8575:
8561:on 2009-05-20
8560:
8556:
8552:
8548:
8541:
8527:on 2009-02-26
8523:
8519:
8515:
8511:
8510:10.1038/46965
8507:
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8311:
8307:
8303:
8299:
8295:
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8287:
8283:
8282:
8277:
8270:
8262:
8258:
8254:
8250:
8249:
8244:
8238:
8224:on 2009-02-26
8220:
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8200:
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7893:
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7804:
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7782:
7777:
7772:
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7756:
7752:
7745:
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7730:
7713:
7709:
7707:9780123847201
7703:
7699:
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7353:
7348:
7343:
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7286:
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7270:
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6999:
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6991:
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6949:
6943:
6928:
6924:
6918:
6910:
6906:
6902:
6898:
6893:
6888:
6885:(3): 506â21.
6884:
6880:
6876:
6869:
6861:
6859:0-8053-4553-1
6855:
6850:
6849:
6840:
6832:
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6809:
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6300:
6296:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6283:
6275:
6273:
6266:
6262:
6261:
6256:
6255:Scott, Robert
6252:
6248:
6239:
6233:
6229:
6228:
6223:
6222:Scott, Robert
6219:
6215:
6206:
6191:
6187:
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5989:
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5922:
5916:
5912:
5911:
5903:
5895:
5891:
5887:
5883:
5879:
5875:
5872:(1): E13â15.
5871:
5867:
5860:
5852:
5846:
5842:
5835:
5827:
5821:
5817:
5810:
5802:
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5602:
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5501:
5492:
5491:
5483:
5475:
5471:
5465:
5461:
5457:
5450:
5443:
5440:Mayr, Ernst.
5437:
5430:
5429:0-674-00613-5
5426:
5422:
5418:
5413:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5378:
5371:
5370:
5365:
5358:
5351:
5348:Mayr, Ernst.
5345:
5338:
5335:Mayr, Ernst.
5332:
5324:
5318:
5314:
5307:
5299:
5293:
5289:
5286:(2003). "7".
5285:
5279:
5271:
5267:
5261:
5257:
5256:
5248:
5240:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5225:
5217:
5209:
5208:
5203:
5199:
5194:
5193:public domain
5180:
5164:
5160:
5154:
5150:
5149:
5141:
5133:
5129:
5123:
5120:. CRC Press.
5119:
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4906:
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4823:
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4770:
4766:
4762:
4755:
4747:
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4738:
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4725:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4698:
4690:
4684:
4680:
4673:
4671:
4669:
4667:
4665:
4656:
4650:
4646:
4639:
4637:
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4612:
4605:
4603:
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4567:
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4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4498:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4441:
4431:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4388:
4383:
4379:
4374:
4364:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4288:
4284:
4275:
4270:
4260:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4193:
4188:
4178:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4111:
4101:
4099:
4093:
4083:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4045:virus species
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4015:
4007:
4003:
3998:
3988:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3871:
3869:
3865:
3864:invertebrates
3861:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3828:stramenopiles
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3808:symbiogenesis
3805:
3804:endosymbioses
3797:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3776:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3753:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3730:extremophiles
3726:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3715:fragmentation
3712:
3708:
3704:
3703:cyanobacteria
3700:
3696:
3693:archaea (the
3692:
3691:Salt-tolerant
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3655:transcription
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3639:morphological
3636:
3635:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3573:Earth's crust
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3515:
3514:
3508:
3503:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3337:Carboniferous
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3257:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3246:three domains
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3208:features (or
3207:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3143:
3142:Phylogenetics
3133:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3102:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3078:
3074:
3069:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3046:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2988:morphogenesis
2985:
2981:
2980:Determination
2977:
2973:
2968:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2915:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2889:transcription
2886:
2880:
2870:
2868:
2864:
2863:transcription
2860:
2859:Francis Crick
2856:
2852:
2848:
2842:
2834:
2831:The extended
2829:
2820:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2781:spontaneously
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2709:Genes and DNA
2706:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2667:Heterozygotic
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2479:
2475:
2474:cell membrane
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2425:cell division
2422:
2418:
2414:
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2293:cell membrane
2290:
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2268:
2258:
2256:
2252:
2248:
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2239:
2237:
2236:photosystem I
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
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2209:
2205:
2204:cyanobacteria
2201:
2196:
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2189:
2172:
2167:
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2020:
2010:
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1996:
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1984:
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1972:
1968:
1964:
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1934:
1933:Bioenergetics
1924:
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1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
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1870:
1866:
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1858:
1854:
1850:
1849:nucleic acids
1846:
1837:
1833:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1810:cell adhesion
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1786:semipermeable
1783:
1779:
1775:
1774:lipid bilayer
1771:
1767:
1763:
1762:cell membrane
1756:
1752:
1747:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
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1691:cell division
1688:
1684:
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1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1638:phospholipids
1635:
1631:
1630:Carbohydrates
1627:
1623:
1616:
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1606:
1605:Macromolecule
1596:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1583:In 1953, the
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1579:
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1235:
1234:Francis Crick
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1190:Gregor Mendel
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1176:
1172:
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1161:
1157:
1149:
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1138:
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1132:
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1124:
1120:
1116:
1115:Carl Linnaeus
1111:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
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1072:
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1064:
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1041:
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1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1008:Ancient Greek
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
992:ancient Egypt
985:
984:
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959:
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953:
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613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
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596:
593:
591:
588:
586:
583:
581:
580:Phylogenetics
578:
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566:
563:
561:
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541:
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475:Human biology
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365:Chronobiology
363:
361:
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353:
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348:
346:
343:
341:
340:Biotechnology
338:
336:
335:Biostatistics
333:
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14301:astrobiology
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14023:Elements of
13782:Sociobiology
13762:Protistology
13727:Photobiology
13722:Pharmacology
13712:Parasitology
13707:Paleontology
13687:Neuroscience
13667:Microbiology
13577:Epidemiology
13547:Cytogenetics
13507:Cell biology
13487:Biosemiotics
13477:Biomechanics
13457:Biogeography
13452:Biochemistry
13447:Bacteriology
13442:Astrobiology
13332:
13294:
13287:
13280:
13273:
13266:
13251:Publications
12947:Paleontology
12887:Biochemistry
12674:Sociobiology
12654:Protistology
12619:Photobiology
12614:Pharmacology
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12599:Paleontology
12579:Neuroscience
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12469:Epidemiology
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12379:Biosemiotics
12369:Biomechanics
12349:Biogeography
12344:Biochemistry
12339:Bacteriology
12334:Astrobiology
12258:
12251:
12244:
12215:Western blot
12205:Enzyme assay
12180:Cell culture
12081:Conservation
11966:and function
11964:Animal form
11898:and function
11671:Fermentation
11449:Organ system
11407:Reproduction
11385:Properties (
11360:
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11265:
11257:
11245:
11226:
11215:
11206:PLOS Biology
11194:
11193:
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11048:
11037:. Retrieved
11017:
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10926:
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10858:
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10688:(4): 544â7.
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10681:
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10660:. Retrieved
10612:
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10533:. Retrieved
10526:the original
10505:
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10469:
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10389:
10377:. Retrieved
10368:
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10174:the original
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10151:
10124:
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10110:
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10081:
10073:
10066:. Retrieved
10062:the original
10057:
10048:
10036:. Retrieved
10028:"Population"
10022:
10003:
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9944:
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9838:
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9568:. Retrieved
9563:the original
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9493:
9481:. Retrieved
9477:the original
9470:
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9435:
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9217:(1): 70â85.
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9152:. Retrieved
9138:
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9032:
9021:. Retrieved
8975:
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8889:. Retrieved
8864:
8858:
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8796:
8785:. Retrieved
8781:the original
8772:
8762:
8751:. Retrieved
8731:
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8670:
8659:. Retrieved
8652:the original
8631:
8625:
8608:
8597:. Retrieved
8585:Science@NASA
8584:
8574:
8563:. Retrieved
8559:the original
8550:
8540:
8529:. Retrieved
8522:the original
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8219:the original
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8077:
8055:(1): 25â28.
8052:
8046:
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7967:
7960:
7954:Futuyma 2005
7949:
7937:. Retrieved
7917:
7898:
7862:
7854:
7820:(1): 36â50.
7817:
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7803:
7758:
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7744:
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7729:
7716:. Retrieved
7689:
7686:"Cladistics"
7679:
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7555:
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7428:. Retrieved
7408:
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7385:. Retrieved
7376:
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7304:. Retrieved
7284:
7277:
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6942:
6931:. Retrieved
6917:
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6878:
6868:
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6839:
6820:
6790:. Retrieved
6781:
6777:
6767:
6756:. Retrieved
6747:
6743:
6733:
6713:
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6687:
6677:
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6536:
6525:. Retrieved
6517:openstax.org
6516:
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6480:
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6447:
6441:
6422:
6401:. Retrieved
6392:
6368:. Retrieved
6359:
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6311:
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6225:
6205:
6194:. Retrieved
6183:
6174:
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6100:
6054:. Retrieved
6045:
6035:
6023:. Retrieved
6006:
5996:
5972:
5965:
5946:
5940:
5929:. Retrieved
5909:
5902:
5878:10.1038/8964
5869:
5865:
5859:
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5834:
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5735:
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5570:. Retrieved
5561:
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5536:
5525:. Retrieved
5516:
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5482:
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5412:
5400:. Retrieved
5368:
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5202:Theophrastus
5179:
5167:. Retrieved
5151:. Springer.
5147:
5140:
5116:
5109:
5081:
5075:
5050:
5020:
4960:
4956:Astrobiology
4954:
4915:. Retrieved
4908:
4898:
4865:
4862:Nonlinearity
4861:
4855:
4836:
4830:
4822:the original
4811:
4768:
4764:
4754:
4711:
4707:
4697:
4678:
4644:
4610:
4475:Biodiversity
4446:biodiversity
4443:
4434:Conservation
4392:
4340:heterotrophs
4280:
4251:such as the
4249:technologies
4239:, and other
4203:of the same
4198:
4113:
4095:
4053:
4012:Viruses are
4011:
3945:able to move
3934:
3920:
3908:chlorophytes
3896:glaucophytes
3872:
3801:
3793:
3757:Earth's life
3754:
3727:
3687:hydrogen gas
3669:, including
3663:ether lipids
3653:involved in
3645:and several
3632:
3607:
3519:
3511:
3502:Microbiology
3439:
3420:
3376:genetic code
3365:
3269:
3216:followed by
3210:synapomorphy
3194:
3114:
3082:
3044:
2970:
2912:
2893:RNA splicing
2882:
2844:
2793:nitrous acid
2761:cell nucleus
2741:double helix
2730:
2679:Test crosses
2637:
2596:
2594:
2584:and genetic
2559:
2511:
2410:
2351:excitability
2270:
2255:Calvin cycle
2240:
2212:
2191:light energy
2185:
2133:fermentation
2130:
2115:ATP synthase
2107:chemiosmosis
2056:
2033:
1948:
1897:microtubules
1889:chloroplasts
1885:animal cells
1861:mitochondria
1857:cell nucleus
1842:
1830:cytoskeleton
1796:, including
1778:cholesterols
1776:, including
1759:
1685:states that
1681:
1620:
1582:
1547:
1501:
1391:
1341:Biochemistry
1290:
1246:genetic code
1244:domain. The
1230:James Watson
1210:Martha Chase
1187:
1153:
1145:
1112:
1100:Robert Remak
1061:, bacteria,
1048:
1016:Theophrastus
989:
983:Micrographia
981:
978:Robert Hooke
940:biodiversity
921:
913:observations
875:
865:, grow, and
830:
829:
736:Applications
625:Sociobiology
605:Protistology
570:Photobiology
565:Pharmacology
555:Parasitology
550:Paleontology
530:Neuroscience
510:Microbiology
420:Epidemiology
390:Cytogenetics
350:Cell biology
330:Biosemiotics
320:Biomechanics
300:Biogeography
295:Biochemistry
290:Bacteriology
285:Astrobiology
197:
185:Reproduction
148:
75:
62:
43:
14470:Environment
14366:Prokaryotes
14154:Atmosphere
14149:Meteorology
13832:Xenobiology
13827:Virophysics
13797:Systematics
13752:Primatology
13697:Ornithology
13637:Ichthyology
13622:Herpetology
13617:Gerontology
13582:Epigenetics
13542:Cryobiology
13432:Agrostology
13422:Aerobiology
13417:Abiogenesis
13073:Ethnobotany
12962:RNA biology
12870:disciplines
12814:WikiProject
12724:Xenobiology
12719:Virophysics
12689:Systematics
12644:Primatology
12589:Ornithology
12529:Ichthyology
12514:Herpetology
12509:Gerontology
12474:Epigenetics
12434:Cryobiology
12324:Agrostology
12314:Aerobiology
12309:Abiogenesis
12146:Laboratory
11993:Homeostasis
11896:Plant form
11719:Epigenetics
11641:Cell theory
11541:Amino acids
11520:Common name
11510:Peer review
11485:Mechanistic
11233:high-impact
10634:11059/14777
9775:: 125â134.
9570:28 February
8867:: 463â493.
8734:(3): 4â10.
8343:(1): 1â17.
8201:(1): 9â41.
6572:Antibiotics
6326:. pp.
6067:amino acids
5402:27 November
5352:, chapter 7
5339:, chapter 4
4917:14 February
4868:(8): T131.
4771:(1): 1â10.
4765:Bio Systems
4518:Idiobiology
4487:extinctions
4416:hydrosphere
4408:lithosphere
4356:decomposers
4320:food chains
4312:competition
4292:pollination
4263:Communities
4225:environment
4181:Populations
4167:decomposers
4118:of living (
4098:environment
4023:inside the
3930:decomposers
3904:green algae
3836:amoebozoans
3812:Precambrian
3734:hot springs
3695:Haloarchaea
3659:translation
3621:two domains
3603:Haloarchaea
3537:micrometers
3530:prokaryotic
3510:Bacteria â
3449:vertebrates
3301:Precambrian
3297:Phanerozoic
3293:Proterozoic
3095:generations
3024:epigenetics
3008:proliferate
2972:Development
2953:changes to
2935:allolactose
2897:translation
2885:development
2867:translation
2797:benzopyrene
2753:prokaryotes
2745:chromosomes
2703:sex linkage
2699:fruit flies
2617:Inheritance
2606:outcrossing
2578:outcrossing
2513:Prokaryotes
2489:, and some
2487:blood cells
2462:cytokinesis
2449:chromosomes
2334:muscle cell
2223:chlorophyll
2182:into sugar.
2142:lactic acid
1881:Plant cells
1731:single cell
1715:prokaryotic
1695:micrometers
1683:Cell theory
1666:nucleotides
1652:molecules,
1593:abiogenesis
1589:early Earth
1558:amino group
1550:hydrocarbon
1529:such as in
1517:such as in
1462:water vapor
1218:chromosomes
1212:pointed to
1108:cell theory
1098:. However,
1085:. In 1838,
1059:spermatozoa
1028:Al-Dīnawarī
1026:(781â869),
996:Mesopotamia
924:prokaryotic
883:, from the
675:Xenobiology
670:Virophysics
640:Systematics
595:Primatology
540:Ornithology
480:Ichthyology
465:Herpetology
460:Gerontology
425:Epigenetics
385:Cryobiology
275:Agrostology
265:Aerobiology
260:Abiogenesis
126:Cell theory
14247:Wilderness
14100:geological
13817:Toxicology
13812:Teratology
13757:Proteomics
13742:Physiology
13682:Neontology
13647:Lipidology
13642:Immunology
13612:Geobiology
13572:Embryology
13552:Dendrology
13482:Biophysics
13462:Biogeology
13015:Lamarckism
12922:Immunology
12740:Glossaries
12709:Toxicology
12704:Teratology
12649:Proteomics
12634:Physiology
12574:Neontology
12539:Lipidology
12534:Immunology
12504:Geobiology
12464:Embryology
12444:Dendrology
12374:Biophysics
12354:Biogeology
12148:techniques
12103:Microbiome
11930:Plant stem
11822:Speciation
11767:Adaptation
11696:Prokaryote
11676:Metabolism
11636:Cell cycle
11467:>
11463:>
11459:>
11457:Population
11455:>
11451:>
11447:>
11443:>
11439:>
11435:>
11431:>
11427:>
11403:Regulation
11387:Adaptation
11039:2015-06-27
10662:2021-05-15
10535:2021-05-15
10502:BioScience
10238:: 419â44.
10127:: e00365.
10068:5 December
10038:5 December
9860:2020-08-24
9550:Zimmer, C.
9154:2021-05-14
9023:2021-05-14
8787:2020-02-21
8753:2015-01-23
8661:2007-10-22
8599:2015-01-22
8565:2015-01-22
8531:2015-01-22
8228:2008-09-02
7430:2021-05-27
7394:mysteries.
7306:2021-05-28
6958:: 138â63.
6933:2013-10-02
6792:2021-05-28
6784:(1): 143.
6758:2021-05-28
6750:(1): 136.
6527:2020-11-24
6196:2013-05-23
6056:2021-05-13
6007:StatPearls
5931:2021-05-13
5572:2006-07-22
5527:2021-05-13
5519:(1): 134.
4970:1808.09460
4581:References
4485:, species
4462:extinction
4458:ecosystems
4412:atmosphere
4352:Omnivorous
4348:carnivores
4344:herbivores
4332:autotrophs
4132:atmosphere
4104:Ecosystems
4033:life forms
3971:have been
3916:stoneworts
3868:protozoans
3848:eukaryotic
3832:rhizarians
3830:, plants,
3820:alveolates
3779:Eukaryotes
3773:syntrophic
3761:microbiota
3746:marshlands
3738:salt lakes
3723:endospores
3699:fix carbon
3683:metal ions
3613:classified
3567:, and the
3473:archosaurs
3431:Ordovician
3408:metabolism
3404:eukaryotes
3392:eukaryotes
3361:Quaternary
3353:Cretaceous
3325:Ordovician
3206:homologous
3190:eukaryotes
3111:Speciation
3105:Speciation
2992:stem cells
2951:epigenetic
2749:eukaryotes
2675:sex-linked
2582:DNA damage
2507:meiosis II
2495:interphase
2470:organelles
2454:interphase
2429:eukaryotes
2421:organelles
2407:Cell cycle
2385:Cell cycle
2377:is called
2309:juxtacrine
2079:acetyl-CoA
2059:glycolysis
2007:regulation
1951:Metabolism
1943:exothermic
1927:Metabolism
1853:organelles
1826:glycocalyx
1755:organelles
1707:eukaryotic
1662:amino acid
1654:antibodies
1615:hemoglobin
1470:pure water
1450:insulating
1367:See also:
1317:phosphorus
1160:naturalist
1075:dissection
1071:entomology
1055:microscope
1040:physiology
932:eukaryotic
917:hypotheses
893:physiology
877:Biologists
837:. It is a
660:Toxicology
655:Teratology
600:Proteomics
585:Physiology
525:Neontology
490:Lipidology
485:Immunology
455:Geobiology
415:Embryology
395:Dendrology
325:Biophysics
305:Biogeology
180:Regulation
160:Adaptation
14325:Eukaryota
14292:Hierarchy
14287:Biosphere
14252:Wildfires
14242:Radiation
14232:Ecosystem
14172:Moonlight
14106:Structure
14061:particles
13732:Phycology
13717:Pathology
13702:Osteology
13692:Nutrition
13652:Mammalogy
13627:Histology
13363:Precocial
13359:Altricial
13317:Physician
13296:In silico
13205:Biologist
13083:Dysgenics
13066:Teleology
13030:RNA world
13025:Protocell
13000:Darwinism
12981:Theories,
12952:Phycology
12624:Phycology
12609:Pathology
12594:Osteology
12584:Nutrition
12544:Mammalogy
12519:Histology
12260:in silico
12136:Research
12113:Resources
12086:Ecosystem
12076:Community
12061:Biosphere
11973:Breathing
11855:Eukaryote
11837:Diversity
11787:Gene flow
11759:Evolution
11666:Eukaryote
11578:Molecules
11469:Biosphere
11465:Ecosystem
11461:Community
11433:Organelle
11328:Evolution
11275:scholarly
11067:223090105
10917:145080076
10652:232001738
10215:1936-6434
9752:: 182â86.
9510:(1): 29.
8727:GSA Today
7968:Evolution
7736:Evolution
7718:29 August
7580:Evolution
7387:9 October
6848:iGenetics
6578:(2): 69.
6499:698085201
6466:176818780
5543:Evolution
5431:. p. 187.
5284:Sapp, Jan
5229:Routledge
4890:119808230
4728:1043-4046
4404:biosphere
4373:Biosphere
4367:Biosphere
4324:food webs
4308:mutualism
4304:symbiosis
4300:evolution
4296:predation
4287:organisms
4241:resources
4213:reproduce
4201:organisms
4156:microbial
4140:ecosystem
4116:community
4110:Ecosystem
4049:ecosystem
4029:organisms
4021:replicate
3985:food webs
3973:described
3959:, during
3875:organisms
3824:excavates
3785:Eukaryote
3671:archaeols
3665:in their
3625:Eukaryota
3581:parasitic
3577:symbiotic
3491:Diversity
3461:synapsids
3445:Ediacaran
3372:evolution
3305:Paleozoic
3136:Phylogeny
3088:heritable
3084:Evolution
3057:Evolution
3051:vertebrae
2955:chromatin
2923:repressor
2919:activator
2851:phenotype
2805:gamma ray
2663:phenotype
2659:recessive
2590:mutations
2546:ribosomes
2503:meiosis I
2466:cytoplasm
2458:telophase
2305:paracrine
2301:autocrine
2285:receptors
2075:pyruvates
2040:nutrients
1999:reactants
1991:catalysts
1975:synthesis
1963:catabolic
1917:ÎČ-tubulin
1913:α-tubulin
1877:lysosomes
1822:cell wall
1768:from the
1766:cytoplasm
1650:signaling
1357:molecular
1349:organisms
1337:compounds
1333:magnesium
1287:Chemistry
1242:molecular
1175:Malthus's
1140:In 1842,
1087:Schleiden
1063:infusoria
1012:Aristotle
952:nutrients
944:ecosystem
867:reproduce
855:evolution
843:organisms
700:Biologist
575:Phycology
560:Pathology
545:Osteology
535:Nutrition
495:Mammalogy
470:Histology
141:Phylogeny
136:Evolution
131:Ecosystem
14494:Category
14407:Category
14376:bacteria
14359:protista
14320:Organism
14187:Sunlight
14033:Universe
13962:Category
13846:See also
13822:Virology
13807:Taxonomy
13747:Pomology
13677:Mycology
13607:Genomics
13602:Genetics
13427:Agronomy
13313:Medicine
13289:In utero
13282:In vitro
13136:Category
13078:Eugenics
12983:concepts
12927:Medicine
12912:Genetics
12860:timeline
12794:Category
12714:Virology
12699:Taxonomy
12639:Pomology
12569:Mycology
12499:Genomics
12494:Genetics
12319:Agronomy
12300:Branches
12253:in vitro
11850:Bacteria
11827:Taxonomy
11807:Mutation
11777:Function
11706:Genetics
11608:Proteins
11453:Organism
11429:Molecule
11413:),
11369:Overview
11344:Timeline
11324:Genetics
11201:PLOS ONE
11126:36306648
11104:(2005).
11094:55138571
11033:Archived
11008:10081738
10986:(1979).
10976:71890442
10956:(2004).
10946:57639896
10844:18695220
10783:Archived
10763:30713492
10755:15361627
10712:20106856
10656:Archived
10455:18198148
10373:Archived
10371:. NASA.
10252:30033811
10032:Archived
9854:Archived
9799:26965225
9731:12941415
9688:15886693
9653:19158076
9600:25 April
9594:Archived
9536:16984643
9367:14657097
9326:67790751
9318:30778187
9231:28826642
9196:25907112
9148:Archived
9073:16710401
9014:Archived
9010:43864355
9002:29153320
8950:15240306
8885:Archived
8827:17581585
8744:Archived
8704:37378512
8678:(1997).
8593:Archived
8462:10781044
8310:21490597
8215:55178329
8170:16754612
7987:57311264
7939:25 April
7930:Archived
7846:Archived
7834:27530930
7712:Archived
7562:(1859).
7544:Archived
7540:84684420
7518:: 1â18.
7453:Archived
7451:. 2016.
7424:Archived
7381:Archived
7356:20436487
7300:Archived
7261:17377526
7189:12086614
7110:26990983
6964:13580867
6927:Archived
6909:25355087
6901:15988757
6786:Archived
6752:Archived
6617:28913952
6604:32046082
6521:Archived
6397:Archived
6364:Archived
6328:235, 244
6303:16997562
6245:ÏÏΜΞΔÏÎčÏ
6190:Archived
6130:Archived
6074:Archived
6050:Archived
6019:Archived
6015:30855799
5988:Archived
5925:Archived
5886:10559875
5566:Archived
5562:BBC News
5521:Archived
5474:Archived
5393:Archived
5381:61057537
5270:Archived
5163:Archived
5132:Archived
4995:29570409
4927:cite web
4803:23159919
4746:26628646
4501:See also
4479:services
4454:habitats
4452:, their
4420:nitrogen
4400:elements
4169:release
4128:humidity
4064:plasmids
3957:blastula
3926:saprobes
3844:protists
3750:plankton
3685:or even
3557:habitats
3384:bacteria
3382:for all
3357:Tertiary
3349:Jurassic
3345:Triassic
3333:Devonian
3329:Silurian
3321:Cambrian
3313:Cenozoic
3309:Mesozoic
3182:bacteria
2931:inducers
2927:operator
2847:genotype
2769:genotype
2765:nucleoid
2733:heredity
2683:genotype
2655:dominant
2639:Genetics
2612:Genetics
2550:plasmids
2359:receptor
2313:hormones
2289:embedded
2003:products
1985:them to
1983:coupling
1971:anabolic
1945:reaction
1893:vacuoles
1845:proteins
1782:fluidity
1723:bacteria
1721:such as
1648:, large
1634:steroids
1626:monomers
1537:such as
1525:), or a
1466:hydroxyl
1438:adhesive
1430:cohesive
1426:property
1406:solution
1399:chloride
1329:chlorine
1309:nitrogen
1305:hydrogen
1167:Humboldt
1119:taxonomy
1079:staining
1024:al-Jahiz
936:protists
911:to make
903:and the
791:Category
757:Pharming
694:Research
665:Virology
650:Taxonomy
590:Pomology
520:Mycology
450:Genomics
445:Genetics
270:Agronomy
252:Branches
239:Protists
218:Bacteria
203:Kingdoms
108:timeline
97:Glossary
14500:Biology
14482:Science
14458:Ecology
14434:Biology
14420:Portals
14384:Viruses
14371:archaea
14347:animals
14299: (
14297:Biology
14274:Origin
14227:Ecology
14202:tornado
14162:Climate
14156:(Earth)
14141:Weather
14111:Geology
14098: (
14096:History
13982:Commons
13916:Outline
13837:Zoology
13567:Ecology
13437:Anatomy
13275:In vivo
13049:Related
12917:Geology
12902:Ecology
12882:Anatomy
12868:Fields,
12804:Commons
12747:Biology
12729:Zoology
12459:Ecology
12329:Anatomy
12246:in vivo
12138:methods
12091:Habitat
12066:Climate
12051:Biomass
12033:Ecology
11880:Protist
11845:Archaea
11739:Genomes
11686:Mitosis
11681:Meiosis
11603:Polymer
11583:Monomer
11571:Quantum
11405:,
11401:,
11397:,
11393:,
11389:,
11376:Science
11361:Biology
11339:History
11334:Outline
11312:Biology
11247:Science
11160:Biology
10958:Biology
10835:2556419
10812:Bibcode
10735:Bibcode
10727:Science
10703:2936204
10522:1310054
10446:2596898
10379:5 April
10129:Bibcode
9790:5406846
9696:8059643
9644:2675988
9527:1594570
9288:Bibcode
9130:7287626
9081:4431143
9051:Bibcode
8980:Bibcode
8920:Bibcode
8891:May 15,
8869:Bibcode
8835:4334424
8807:Bibcode
8636:Bibcode
8518:4402854
8498:Bibcode
8430:Bibcode
8401:1692181
8345:Bibcode
8318:4418860
8290:Bibcode
8161:1578724
8115:1690475
8057:Bibcode
8032:9924024
8012:Bibcode
8003:Science
7842:3671068
7795:2112744
7763:Bibcode
7532:2096764
7347:2873061
7269:3353748
7069:4184060
7061:5422595
7041:Bibcode
7018:4164029
7010:4913914
6990:Bibcode
6595:7167804
6319:Biology
6263:at the
6230:at the
6063:embryos
6025:May 14,
5894:7338204
5490:Op. cit
5456:"Ch. 3"
5389:1184581
5195::
5169:14 July
5003:4419671
4975:Bibcode
4870:Bibcode
4794:3712629
4773:Bibcode
4737:4669363
4491:sustain
4471:species
4467:genetic
4450:species
4360:biomass
4233:habitat
4229:species
4205:species
4159:biomass
4136:acidity
4124:abiotic
4092:Ecology
4086:Ecology
4060:evolved
4041:archaea
3991:Viruses
3977:insects
3969:species
3967:animal
3883:kingdom
3795:Euglena
3742:habitat
3719:budding
3679:ammonia
3651:enzymes
3617:kingdom
3609:Archaea
3599:Archaea
3571:of the
3553:spirals
3545:spheres
3483:. Such
3465:mammals
3400:Archean
3388:archaea
3368:species
3341:Permian
3317:periods
3289:Archean
3254:eukarya
3250:Archaea
3242:species
3218:kingdom
3201:lineage
3186:archaea
2933:(e.g.,
2789:mutagen
2785:induced
2647:alleles
2562:meiosis
2529:meiosis
2525:mitosis
2517:archaea
2515:(i.e.,
2445:meiosis
2441:mitosis
2437:protist
2399:gametes
2363:insulin
2322:neurons
2291:in the
2281:ligands
2234:called
2231:quinone
2188:convert
2081:by the
1911:(e.g.,
1909:tubulin
1711:nucleus
1642:enzymes
1617:protein
1543:glucose
1511:methane
1496:glucose
1458:ethanol
1403:aqueous
1395:solvent
1313:calcium
1226:viruses
1091:Schwann
1036:anatomy
962:History
948:cycling
928:archaea
889:anatomy
831:Biology
680:Zoology
410:Ecology
280:Anatomy
227:Animals
223:Eukarya
213:Archaea
205:of life
199:Domains
104:History
92:Outline
63:Biology
14335:plants
14167:Clouds
14131:Future
14121:Oceans
14073:Change
14056:Matter
14051:Energy
14025:nature
13502:Botany
12897:Botany
12394:Botany
12200:vector
12056:Biomes
11925:Phloem
11910:Flower
11870:Fungus
11865:Animal
11661:Enzyme
11566:Matter
11561:Lipids
11500:Theory
11441:Tissue
11395:Growth
11164:Curlie
11141:
11124:
11114:
11092:
11082:
11065:
11055:
11025:
11006:
10996:
10974:
10964:
10944:
10934:
10915:
10905:
10865:
10842:
10832:
10761:
10753:
10710:
10700:
10650:
10640:
10590:
10562:
10520:
10476:
10453:
10443:
10402:
10346:
10303:
10278:
10250:
10213:
10166:
10098:
10010:
9985:
9957:
9932:
9903:
9883:et al.
9879:et al.
9875:et al.
9846:
9820:
9797:
9787:
9729:
9694:
9686:
9651:
9641:
9534:
9524:
9483:18 May
9448:
9423:
9395:
9365:
9324:
9316:
9261:
9229:
9194:
9128:
9121:216199
9118:
9079:
9071:
9043:Nature
9008:
9000:
8948:
8941:444790
8938:
8833:
8825:
8798:Nature
8702:
8692:
8516:
8489:Nature
8460:
8450:
8398:
8316:
8308:
8281:Nature
8213:
8168:
8158:
8112:
8030:
7985:
7975:
7905:
7875:
7840:
7832:
7793:
7783:
7704:
7667:
7631:
7601:
7538:
7530:
7481:
7416:
7354:
7344:
7292:
7267:
7259:
7213:
7187:
7144:
7108:
7067:
7059:
7033:Nature
7016:
7008:
6982:Nature
6962:
6907:
6899:
6856:
6827:
6721:
6694:
6665:
6602:
6592:
6549:
6497:
6487:
6464:
6454:
6429:
6403:29 May
6370:29 May
6334:
6301:
6162:
6107:
6013:
5980:
5953:
5917:
5892:
5884:
5847:
5822:
5797:
5772:
5742:
5712:
5687:
5659:
5597:
5466:
5427:
5387:
5379:
5319:
5294:
5262:
5235:
5189:
5155:
5124:
5097:
5063:
5027:
5001:
4993:
4888:
4843:
4801:
4791:
4744:
4734:
4726:
4685:
4651:
4617:
4456:, and
4426:, and
4424:carbon
4414:, and
4247:, new
4223:of an
4171:carbon
4152:matter
4120:biotic
3965:living
3955:, the
3947:, can
3943:, are
3914:, and
3816:clades
3526:domain
3390:, and
3359:, and
3311:, and
3295:, and
3285:Hadean
3240:, and
3234:family
3222:phylum
3214:domain
3188:, and
3032:genome
2909:operon
2899:, and
2757:genome
2566:genome
2548:, and
2542:septum
2435:, and
2433:fungal
2365:) and
2311:, and
2202:, and
2069:, and
1969:); or
1903:, and
1828:, and
1816:, and
1804:, and
1713:, and
1656:, and
1576:, and
1539:octane
1513:, two
1446:liquid
1442:denser
1375:, and
1331:, and
1325:sodium
1321:sulfur
1307:, and
1301:carbon
1297:oxygen
1270:genome
1264:. The
1262:codons
1032:Rhazes
986:, 1665
942:of an
789:
345:Botany
235:Plants
170:Growth
14354:fungi
14342:fauna
14330:flora
14237:Field
14192:Tides
14083:Earth
14041:Space
13347:Other
13189:Index
12096:niche
11955:Xylem
11940:Shoot
11887:Virus
11875:Plant
11623:Cells
11613:Water
11536:Atoms
11445:Organ
11399:Order
11351:Index
11270:: An
10759:S2CID
10529:(PDF)
10518:JSTOR
10498:(PDF)
10248:JSTOR
9692:S2CID
9322:S2CID
9077:S2CID
9017:(PDF)
9006:S2CID
8968:(PDF)
8831:S2CID
8747:(PDF)
8722:(PDF)
8655:(PDF)
8622:(PDF)
8525:(PDF)
8514:S2CID
8484:(PDF)
8453:18256
8314:S2CID
8222:(PDF)
8211:S2CID
8191:(PDF)
7933:(PDF)
7926:(PDF)
7838:S2CID
7786:54159
7547:(PDF)
7536:S2CID
7528:JSTOR
7506:(PDF)
7265:S2CID
7065:S2CID
7014:S2CID
6905:S2CID
5890:S2CID
5396:(PDF)
5373:(PDF)
5059:â26.
4999:S2CID
4965:arXiv
4886:S2CID
4428:water
4237:water
4062:from
4025:cells
4019:that
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