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33:
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larva. However, they would also lay eggs within cracks and crevices of the fungal shelves the eggs were on as well. The wasps have a shorter gestation period than the forked fungus beetle, and so the larva of the braconid wasp will often consume the unhatched eggs or the larva of the forked fungus beetle. However, adult female braconid wasps themselves will often attack larva of the forked fungus beetle.
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development again in the summer. Once they are done wintering, their pupal stage is shorter than the first brood's. Development for the forked fungus beetle is the quickest during early summer. The secondary brood becomes adults in their second summer and oftentimes can then reproduce within the same summer.
353:
Unlike many darkling beetles, they tend to lay fewer eggs at a time, often only laying one egg per mate or even one egg per mating season. Their mating season usually lasts from June to August. The beetles very rarely lay more than one egg at a time, but on average can lay 8-12 eggs in a season. Eggs
529:
For the secondary brood, eggs are laid in July and take longer on average to hatch than the first brood. Because of how late in the season the second brood hatches, they oftentimes winter in their larval stage. This means that they hibernate and slow their development during this time. They continue
502:
The pupal stage occurs after the larval stage. After create larval passages in the fungus, the larval will construct a pupal chamber in which it will mature. The larva will become less active as it becomes a pupa as it needs to enter this stage to mature into an adult beetle. This pupa is more prone
459:
Age has a major effect on the sperm for the forked fungus beetle. As a male beetle ages, his sperm packet gets larger each time. It is not directly linked to each individual sperm packet being larger, but over time there is significant data. These larger sperm packets over time mean that older
533:
Regardless of brood, the earliest they can reproduce is their second summer. However, the first brood tends to reproduce in the early summer and their offspring are more likely to be first brood. The second brood are usually not sexually mature until the end of their second summer, and so they are
327:
needs a carcass to reproduce, horned fungus beetles need a fungal bracket to reproduce. Male beetles will find and defend a piece of fungus they deem to be good for offspring. Females are limited in how many offspring they can have by how big the fungus is, causing them to select males with larger
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wasp, is a parasitic wasp that persists off of the eggs of the forked fungus beetle. Female braconid wasps often find early-stage egg capsules of the forked fungus beetle and burrow a small hole within it in order to lay their eggs inside. They make a light yellow silken cocoon in the body of the
498:
Larva often do not interact with their parents after hatching. Larva themselves are protected firstly by their egg capsules and then by the fungus they live and develop within when they hatch. Larva do not often interact with other larva, although larval passages and tunnels throughout the fungus
357:
Forked fungus beetle eggs are often laid in clutches of only one, but they can be laid in groups of egg capsules. These capsules are usually ovular in shape. They are usually 3.8 mm wide and 2.7 mm in width. The individual eggs within the capsule are translucent, approximately 2 mm
314:
tends to live in eastern North
America. They do not have a strict climate preference, as they commonly live as north as Canada and as south as Florida. The main requirement for where they will live correlates to where their preferred host fungus lives, and in turn the trees where the host fungus
450:
For B. cornutus, males need to attract females. Females have the ability to selectively open and close their anal plate in order to entirely physically block males. This means that many males need to present themselves for female selection. Males can convince females to mate with them by having
393:
and copulation takes place. Following copulation, the male remains on top, facing the same direction as the female and mate-guards her. The male remains in this position for several hours, preventing other males from courting the female. Later, the female will deposit single eggs on the upper
525:
For the first brood, the eggs are laid in June. They take approximately 2 weeks to hatch. Their larval stage can also take approximately 2 weeks. Then, their pupal stage can take approximately two months as they enter winter. The first brood spends their first winter as adults.
303:, or winter. Beetles of all developmental stages can winter but they tend to winter in different locations. Mature beetles can winter in bark, decaying trees, and stumps, among others. Both mature and immature beetles can also winter in fungus.
537:
Forked fungus beetles can live up to 8 years, and so the pattern of first brood parents having first brood offspring, and second brood offspring have second brood offspring is unconfirmed and unstudied past their first reproductive season.
481:
with longer horns on average also have longer elytral length, which are the hardened forewings of a beetle as well as bigger overall masses. As a result, all three of these traits result in positive total sexual selection amongst mating
472:
is under significant direct selection. Females consistently select for longer horn lengths in male mates when given the opportunity. This positive selection on male horn length is mainly due to differences in the lifespan of male
411:
431:
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The eggs themselves can take anywhere between one and four weeks to hatch, but usually only take two. Post-hatching, the larvae take 5 days before they leave their egg capsules and go into the fungus they were laid upon.
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to potential predators. Oftentimes, these pupa are attacked or consumed by larval siblings or by other forked fungus beetle larva. There is evidence of the larva potentially attacking and consuming one another, however,
623:
has the ability to detect mammalian breathe, and in response they can produce a volatile gas. This volatile gas can be produced by any mature forked fungus beetle, but their diet can affect the exact makeup of the gas.
389:. During a copulation attempt, the male reverses position on top of the female so that both individuals point the same direction and their abdomens are aligned. If the courtship is successful, the female opens her anal
277:
The forked fungus beetle has the ability to fly; however, they are not at all reliant on flight. The beetle itself is designed to be camouflaged onto bark or fungus, and so there is no advantage to frequent flights.
614:
to fit into the fungus that it lives in. The rough texture and dark color often help the beetle blend into both the bark of the trees the fungus attached to as well as the fungus itself. Furthermore, the beetle's
740:
This article incorporates text from a scholarly publication published under a copyright license that allows anyone to reuse, revise, remix and redistribute the materials in any form for any purpose:
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Due to the stationary nature of their life, it is also incredibly common for mammals to both purposefully and accidentally try to consume them. Rodents often predate on the beetle, ranging from small
258:
451:
territorial control over large fungal brackets. Females need as much food as possible for their offspring, and so females are more likely to be attracted to males who have larger a larger fungus.
602:
is a fungus that often overtakes the fungal shelves that the forked fungus beetles lay their eggs upon. The fungus itself will consume egg capsules as well as larva of the forked fungus beetle.
373:
adults perform reproductive behaviors on the surfaces of fruiting bodies of their host fungus. Mating pairs engage in a courtship ritual in which the male grips the female's
237:
possess a continuous range of horn and body sizes. Adult horned fungus beetles are active at night, but may be found during the day on the undersides of their host fungi.
340:
family. Although adults can consume other materials, larvae prefer to only consume the egg that they hatched from and the fungus that they are raised within.
575:
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has many predators. The majority of the fungus beetle's defenses are designed to fight against other members of the same species for reproductive purposes.
709:
Heatwole, H.; Heatwole, A. (1 January 1968). "Movements, Host-Fungus
Preferences, and Longevity of Bolitotherus cornutus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)".
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beetles are more likely to father offspring. This advantage specifically means that beetles that live the longest have the best chances of mating.
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is quite hard and makes it difficult to puncture and attack the beetle. The most complex form of defense the beetle has is a chemical defense.
1289:
328:
pieces of fungi. This leads to male-male fighting over fungal brackets, as a male want the largest fungus in order to attract females.
510:
Once the pupa has matured into an adult beetle, the socialization between individuals of this species diminishes until reproduction.
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are only laid between June and August, which leads to a very limited number of offspring depending on how often females mate.
1101:
286:
The forked fungus beetle lives in a variety of climates. Due to the fact that the beetle consumes mainly shelf fungus of the
948:
Formica, V. A.; McGlothlin, J. W.; Wood, C. W.; Augat, M. E.; Butterfield, R. E.; Barnard, M. E.; Brodie Iii, E. D. (2011).
398:. When the eggs hatch, the larvae burrow into and consume the fungus, in which they later pupate before emerging as adults.
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1335:
653:
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1205:
1141:"Factors Limiting Populations of Arid-Land Darkling Beetles (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae): Predation by Rodents"
1115:
812:"Horn size predicts physical performance in the beetle Euoniticellus intermedius (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)"
1024:"Mammalian breath: trigger of defensive chemical response in a tenebrionid beetle (Bolitotherus cornutus)"
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45:
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The fungus beetle has three major defenses against these predators. The fungus beetle itself is
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993:
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Emlen DJ (1996) Artificial selection on horn length body size allometry in the horned beetle
140:
32:
1307:
950:"Phenotypic Assortment Mediates the Effect of Social Selection in a Wild Beetle Population"
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823:
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The horned fungus beetle's entire life revolves around fungal brackets. Similarly to how a
189:
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Conner JK (1988) Field measurements of natural and sexual selection in the fungus beetle,
8:
1102:"A STUDY OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE FORKED FUNGUS BEETLE, BOLITOTHERUS CORNUTUS (PANZER)"
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745:"Morphological Correlates of a Combat Performance Trait in the Forked Fungus Beetle,
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214:
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1022:
Conner, Jeffrey; Camazine, Scott; Aneshansley, Daniel; Eisner, Thomas (1985-01-01).
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surface of a host fungus, then cover each egg with a distinctive dark brown oval of
183:. All of its life stages are associated with the fruiting bodies of a wood-decaying
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869:"Colloquium Papers: On the origin and evolutionary diversification of beetle horns"
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Adults are brown, armored beetles, 10–12 mm (0.4–0.5 in) long. They are
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107:
743:
Benowitz, K. M.; Brodie, E. D.; Formica, V. A. (2012). Proulx, Stephen R (ed.).
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324:
230:
678:
Liles, M.P. (1956). "A study of the life history of the forked fungus beetle,
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groups for development. It is affected by when in the year the eggs are laid.
217:; males have two sets of horns and females lack horns. Males use their horns,
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that exhibit male dimorphism for horns with major and minor morphs, male
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385:. Courtship often lasts several hours, and is a necessary precursor to
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The forked fungus beetle almost exclusively consumes the fungus of the
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The beetle itself can live throughout these climates because they
382:
810:
Lailvaux, S. P.; Hathway, J.; Pomfret, J.; Knell, R. J. (2005).
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long and 1mm wide. The eggs are white with raised darker spots.
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as well as concentration and access to females. Additionally,
866:
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809:
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867:
Emlen, D. J.; Corley Lavine, L.; Ewen-Campen, B. (2007).
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Please check the source for the exact licensing terms.
854:(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Evolution 50: 1219–1230.
742:
518:
Forked fungus beetles are divided into two different
437:
Large male attacks a smaller male on top of a female
592:Some larvae die after attack by an uncharacterized
493:
1322:
708:
873:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1116:"forked fungus beetle - Bolitotherus cornutus"
711:Annals of the Entomological Society of America
292:family, they are restricted to areas in which
454:
926:
924:
922:
534:more likely to have second brood offspring.
639:
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264:Male undergoing a grip strength measurement
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507:of pupa has been experimentally observed.
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1139:Parmenter, Robert (April 1, 1988).
1028:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
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306:
296:fungus lives within North America.
13:
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14:
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967:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01340.x
837:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2005.01024.x
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646:Beetles of Eastern North America
494:Larval sociality and cannibalism
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257:
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1132:
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171:is a North American species of
648:. Princeton University Press.
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1:
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774:10.1371/journal.pone.0042738
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541:
7:
605:
425:, attacked by a second male
10:
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455:Male age based competition
281:
1341:Beetles described in 1794
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934:. Evolution 42: 736–749.
644:Evans, Arthur V. (2014).
587:
568:
365:
272:
229:. Unlike many species of
146:
139:
41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
23:
1336:Beetles of North America
319:Male territorial defense
994:"Bolitotherus cornutus"
894:10.1073/pnas.0701209104
446:Mate searching behavior
331:
879:(Suppl 1): 8661–8668.
852:Onthophagus acuminatus
563:large ground squirrels
1206:Bolitotherus cornutus
1176:Bolitotherus cornutus
932:Bolitotherus cornutus
747:Bolitotherus cornutus
680:Bolitotherus cornutus
470:Bolitotherus cornutus
371:Bolitotherus cornutus
344:Reproductive behavior
168:Bolitotherus cornutus
150:Bolitotherus cornutus
998:Animal Diversity Web
723:10.1093/aesa/61.1.18
468:Horn length in male
381:over the end of her
190:Ganoderma applanatum
181:forked fungus beetle
177:horned fungus beetle
1100:Liles, M. Pferrer.
992:Orlander, Evelyne.
936:doi:10.2307/2408865
885:2007PNAS..104.8661E
856:doi:10.2307/2410662
828:2005FuEco..19..632L
765:2012PLoSO...742738B
576:Eubadizon orchesiae
312:Bolitherus cornutus
1120:entnemdept.ufl.edu
1040:10.1007/BF00295144
816:Functional Ecology
505:larval cannibalism
215:sexually dimorphic
1318:
1317:
1303:Open Tree of Life
1168:Taxon identifiers
960:(10): 2771–2781.
499:often intersect.
414:
315:prefers to live.
225:, to compete for
202:Ganoderma lucidum
164:
163:
16:Species of beetle
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599:Fomes applanatus
464:Sexual selection
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307:Geographic range
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132:B. cornutus
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173:darkling beetle
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1034:(2): 115–118.
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1331:Tenebrioninae
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141:Binomial name
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717:(1): 18–23.
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484:B. cornutus.
483:
478:
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370:
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337:
335:
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188:
185:shelf fungus
180:
176:
167:
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165:
149:
147:
131:
130:
119:Bolitotherus
118:
117:
25:Bolitotherus
24:
18:
1277:NatureServe
1264:iNaturalist
1200:Wikispecies
690:: 329–337.
621:B. Cornutus
617:exoskeleton
612:camouflaged
559:pocket mice
547:B. cornutus
479:B. cornutus
475:B. cornutus
377:, with his
349:Oviposition
235:B. cornutus
209:Description
187:, commonly
1325:Categories
1125:2024-03-01
1003:2024-03-01
822:(4): 632.
684:Ohio J Sci
628:References
514:Life cycle
419:A pair of
387:copulation
98:Coleoptera
78:Arthropoda
1048:1432-0762
954:Evolution
696:1811/4397
594:parasitic
553:Mammalian
542:Predators
422:in copula
338:Ganoderma
301:hibernate
294:Ganoderma
289:Ganoderma
126:Species:
64:Kingdom:
58:Eukaryota
1282:2.744093
1238:BugGuide
1214:BioLib:
1191:Q2009476
1185:Wikidata
1150:March 1,
1056:35130398
976:21967420
913:17494751
793:22916153
753:PLOS ONE
606:Defenses
596:fungus.
581:braconid
561:to even
391:sternite
223:thoracic
104:Family:
74:Phylum:
68:Animalia
54:Domain:
1256:7633104
904:1876444
881:Bibcode
824:Bibcode
784:3419742
761:Bibcode
383:abdomen
282:Habitat
219:clypeal
114:Genus:
94:Order:
88:Insecta
84:Class:
1308:266864
1295:683890
1230:211123
1217:659513
1054:
1046:
974:
911:
901:
791:
781:
652:
588:Fungal
569:Insect
379:thorax
375:elytra
366:Mating
273:Flight
199:, and
159:, 1794
157:Panzer
1269:53814
1052:S2CID
520:brood
396:frass
252:Larva
227:mates
1290:NCBI
1251:GBIF
1243:7187
1225:BOLD
1152:2024
1044:ISSN
972:PMID
909:PMID
789:PMID
650:ISBN
579:, a
573:The
332:Diet
221:and
1036:doi
962:doi
899:PMC
889:doi
877:104
832:doi
779:PMC
769:doi
719:doi
692:hdl
682:".
179:or
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