Late Bronze Age collapse

1780:, The Fosse Temple III was ritually terminated while a house in Area S appears to have burned in a house fire as the most severe evidence of burning was next to two ovens while no other part of the city had evidence of burning. After this though the city was rebuilt in a grander fashion than before. For Megiddo, most parts of the city did not have any signs of damage and it is only possible that the palace in Area AA might have been destroyed though this is not certain. While the monumental structures at Hazor were indeed destroyed, this destruction was in the mid-13th century long before the end of the Late Bronze Age began. However, many sites were not burned to the ground around 1200 including: Ashkelon, Ashdod, Tell es-Safi, Tel Batash, Tel Burna, Tel Dor, Tel Gerisa, Tell Jemmeh, Khirbet Rabud, Tel Zeror, and Tell Abu Hawam among others. 1448:). Thebes was one of the earliest examples of this, having its palace sacked repeatedly between 1300 and 1200 and eventually completely destroyed by fire. The extent of this destruction is highlighted by Robert Drews, who reasons that the destruction was such that Thebes did not resume a significant position in Greece until at least the late 12th century. Many other sites offer less conclusive causes; for example it is unclear what happened at Athens, although it is clear that the settlement saw a significant decline during the Bronze Age Collapse. While there is no evidence of remnants of a destroyed palace or central structure, a change in location of living quarters and burial sites demonstrates a significant recession. Furthermore, the increase in fortification at this site suggests much fear of the decline in Athens. 1817:

that trade in Cypriot and Mycenaean pottery ended around 1200, trade in Cypriot pottery actually largely came to an end at 1300, while for Mycenaean pottery, this trade ended at 1250, and destruction around 1200 could not have affected either pattern of international trade since it ended before the end of the Late Bronze Age. He has also demonstrated that trade with Egypt continued after 1200. Archaeometallurgical studies performed by various teams have also shown that trade in tin, a non-local metal necessary to make bronze, did not stop or decrease after 1200, even though the closest source of the metal were modern Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, or perhaps even Cornwall, England. Lead from Sardinia was still being imported to the southern Levant after 1200 during the early Iron Age.

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Along with the arrowheads, two lance heads, four javelin heads, five bronze daggers, one bronze sword, and three bronze pieces of armor were scattered throughout the houses and streets suggesting a fight took place in this residential neighborhood. An additional twenty five arrowheads were also recovered scattered around the Centre de la ville all of which suggests the city was burnt by an assault not by an earthquake. At the city of Emar, on the Euphrates, at some time between 1187 and 1175 only the monumental and religious structures were targeted for destruction while the houses appear to have been emptied, abandoned and were not destroyed with the monumental structures which suggests that the city was burned by attackers even though no weapons were recovered.

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conditions generally between the 13th and 10th centuries BC, but not necessarily any one key "episode"; thus, there is a context for change but not necessarily its only or specific cause." Moreover, Karakaya and Riehl's recent study of ancient plant remains from Syria showed little evidence that plants underwent water stress during the Late Bronze Age to Iron Age transition. As they summarize their research, "The emerging picture as concerns plant subsistence is that there is no clear evidence that the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age were periods of dearth and widespread famine, as some climate models have presupposed."

1414:

we observe a cultural continuity." Jesse Millek has demonstrated that while it is possible that the city of Enkomi was destroyed, the archaeological evidence is not clear. Of the two buildings dating to the end of the LC IIC excavated at Enkomi, both had limited evidence of burning and most rooms were without any kind of damage. The same can be said for the site of Sinda as it is not clear if it was destroyed since only some ash was found but no other evidence that the city was destroyed like fallen walls or burnt rubble. The only settlement on Cyprus that has clear evidence it was destroyed around 1200 was

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highlighted by Guy Middleton, "Physical destruction then cannot fully explain the collapse". Drews points out that there was continued occupation at these sites, accompanied by attempts to rebuild, demonstrating the continuation of Tiryns as a settlement. Demand suggests instead that the cause could again be environmental, particularly the lack of homegrown food and the important role of palaces in managing and storing food imports, implying that their destruction only stood to exacerbate the more crucial factor of food shortage. The importance of trade as a factor is supported by

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trade in copper, timber, pottery, and agricultural goods, as well as diplomatic ties progressively deepened their interdependence. Geopolitical powers of the time relied on variations of the palace economy system, in which wealth is first concentrated in a centralized bureaucracy before being redistributed according to the sovereign's agenda, a system which primarily benefits the society's elite. This intricate web of dependencies, coupled with the inflexibility of the palace system, exposed these civilizations to the cascading effects of distant disturbances.

2593: 5891: 1717:, and Qubur el-Walaydah. Not all Egyptian sites in the southern Levant were abandoned without destruction. The Egyptian garrison at Aphek was destroyed, likely in an act of warfare at the end of the 13th century. The Egyptian gate complex uncovered at Jaffa was destroyed at the end of the 12th century between 1134 and 1115 based on C14 dates, while Beth-Shean was partially though not completely destroyed, possibly by an earthquake, in the mid-12th century. 1268:

For Drews's map, and his subsequent discussion of some other sites which he believed were destroyed ca. 1200 BC, of the 60 "destructions" 31, or 52%, are false destructions. The complete list of false destructions includes other notable sites such as: Lefkandi, Orchomenos, Athens, Knossos, Alassa, Carchemish, Aleppo, Alalakh, Hama, Qatna, Kadesh, Tell Tweini, Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Beth-Shean, Tell Dier Alla, and many more.

1697:, the territory around Egypt was safe during the collapse of the Bronze Age, but military campaigns in Asia depleted the economy. With his victory over the Sea People, Ramesses III stated, "My sword is great and mighty like that of Montu. No land can stand fast before my arms. I am a king rejoicing in slaughter. My reign is calmed in peace." With this claim, Ramesses implied that his reign was safe in the wake of the Bronze Age collapse. 34: 1701: 1332: 2281:) were exposed by sociopolitical events (revolt of peasantry and defection of mercenaries), fragility of all kingdoms (Mycenaean, Hittite, Ugaritic, and Egyptian), demographic crises (overpopulation), and wars between states. Other factors that could have placed increasing pressure on the fragile kingdoms include piracy by the Sea Peoples interrupting maritime trade, as well as drought, crop failure, famine, or the 1457: 2298:

Anatolia region demonstrate a severe dry period from c.1198 to c.1196 BC. In the Dead Sea region (The Southern Levant), the subsurface water level dropped by more than 50 meters during the end of the second millennium BC. According to the geography of that region, for water levels to drop so drastically the amount of rain the surrounding mountains received would have been dismal. Using the

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the idea that this is evidence of an attack by Sea People, pointing out that the tablet does not say what is being watched for or why. Cline does not see naval attacks as playing a role in Pylos's decline. Demand, however, argues that, regardless of what the threat from the sea was, it likely played a role in the decline, at least in hindering trade and perhaps vital food imports.

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to survive the Bronze Age Collapse intact. Assyrian written records remained numerous and the most consistent in the world during the period, and the Assyrians were still able to mount long range military campaigns in all directions when necessary. From the late 10th century, Assyria once more asserted itself internationally, and the

2261:, military developments, and a range of political, social and economic systems failures, but none have achieved consensus. Earthquakes have also been proposed as causal, but recent research suggests that earthquakes were not as influential as previously believed. It is likely that a combination of several factors is responsible. 3197:"Flourishing amidst a "Crisis": the regional history of the Paphos polity during the transition from the 13th to the 12th centuries BCE. in Fischer, P. and Burge. T. (eds.), "Sea Peoples" Up-to-Date New Research on Transformations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 13 th −11 th Centuries BCE. 207–228" 2306:

Alternatively, changes at the end of the Bronze Age could be better characterized as a 'gear shift' in Mediterranean climate rather than an event of three years. The long-range shift in precipitation would not have been a crisis event, but rather a continual stress put on societies in the region over

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There is clear evidence that Ugarit was destroyed in some kind of assault, though the exact assailant is not known. In one residential area called the Ville sud, thirty two arrowheads were found scattered throughout the area while 12 of the arrowheads were found on the streets and in the open spaces.

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in 1056, Assyria withdrew to areas close to its natural borders, encompassing what is today northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, the fringes of northwestern Iran, and southeastern Turkey. It still retained a stable monarchy, the best army in the world, and an efficient civil administration, enabling it

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were abandoned, suggesting a major depopulation. Again, as with many of the sites of destruction in Greece, it is unclear how a lot of this destruction came about. The city of Mycenae for example was initially destroyed in an earthquake in 1250 as evidenced by the presence of crushed bodies buried in

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asserts that this is evidence of later migrations away from the city in reaction to its initial decline, although a significant population did remain. It remains possible that this emigration from Athens was not flight from violence. Nancy Demand posits that environmental changes could have played an

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This quote is frequently interpreted as "the degraded one ..." referring to the army being humiliated, destroyed, or both. The letter is also quoted with the final statement "Mayst thou know it"/"May you know it" repeated twice for effect in several later sources, while no such repetition appears to

1492:

Pylos offers some more clues to its destruction, as the intensive and extensive destruction by fire around 1180 reflects the violent destruction of the city. There is some evidence of Pylos expecting a seaborne attack, with tablets at Pylos discussing "Watchers guarding the coast". Eric Cline rebuts

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in 1200 BC, when an earthquake destroyed much of the city including its palace. It is likely however that the city continued to be inhabited for some time following the earthquake. As a result, there is a general agreement that earthquakes did not permanently destroy Mycenae or Tiryns because, as is

1413:

is commonly cited as destroyed at the end of the LC IIC, but the excavator, Vassos Karageorghis, made it expressly clear that it was not destroyed stating, "At Kition, major rebuilding was carried out in both excavated Areas I and II, but there is no evidence of violent destruction; on the contrary,

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evidence suggests climate change was one aspect associated with this period, but not the sole cause. This was also the conclusion reached by Knapp and Manning in 2016 who concluded that, "Based on a series of proxy indicators, there is clearly some sort of shift to cooler and more arid and unstable

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beyond a sustainable level, leading people to revert to simpler ways of life. The growing complexity and specialization of the Late Bronze Age political, economic, and social organization made the organization of civilization too intricate to reestablish once seriously disrupted. The critical flaws

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Advanced civilizations with extensive trade networks and complex sociopolitical institutions characterized the Late Bronze Age (c.1550–1200 BC). Prominent societies (Egyptians, Hittites, Mesopotamians, and Mycenaeans) exhibited monumental architecture, advanced metallurgy, and literacy. Flourishing

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If one goes through archaeological literature from the past 150 years, there are 148 sites with 153 destruction events ascribed to the end of the Late Bronze Age ca. 1200 BC. However, of these, 94, or 61%, have either been misdated, assumed based on little evidence, or simply never happened at all.

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at the end of the Late Bronze Age. Drought in the Nile Valley also may have contributed to the rise of the Sea Peoples and their sudden migration across the eastern Mediterranean. It was suspected that crop failures, famine and the population reduction that resulted from the lackluster flow of the

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Despite many theories which claim that trade relations broke down after 1200 in the southern Levant, there is ample evidence that trade with other regions continued after the end of the Late Bronze Age in the Southern Levant. Archaeologist Jesse Millek has shown that while the common assumption is

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and the Syro-Hittite states came to dominate most of the region demographically; however, these people, and the Levant in general, were also conquered and dominated politically and militarily by the Middle Assyrian Empire until Assyria's withdrawal in the late 11th century, although the Assyrians

2297:

and the Alps brought wetter conditions to Central Europe and drought to the Eastern Mediterranean near the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse. During what may have been the driest era of the Late Bronze Age, tree cover of the Mediterranean forest dwindled. Juniper tree ring measurements in the

2190:

While certain cities such as Ugarit and Emar were destroyed at the end of the Late Bronze Age, there are several others which were not destroyed even though they erroneously appear on most maps of destruction from the end of the Late Bronze Age. No evidence of destruction has been found at Hama,

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Before and during the Bronze Age Collapse, Syria became a battleground between the Hittites, the Middle Assyrian Empire, the Mitanni and the New Kingdom of Egypt between the 15th and late 13th centuries BC, with the Assyrians destroying the Hurri-Mitanni empire and annexing much of the Hittite

1712:

Egypt's withdrawal from the southern Levant was a protracted process lasting some one hundred years and was most likely a product of the political turmoil in Egypt proper. Many Egyptian garrisons or sites with an "Egyptian governor's residence" in the southern Levant were abandoned without

1426:, Toumba tou Skourou, Alassa, and Maroni-Vournes. In a trend which appears to go against much of the Eastern Mediterranean at this time, several areas of Cyprus, Kition and Paphos, appear to have flourished after 1200 during the LC IIIA rather than experiencing any sort of downturn. 2026:

empire. The Egyptian empire had withdrawn from the region after failing to overcome the Hittites and being fearful of the ever-growing Assyrian might, leaving much of the region under Assyrian control until the late 11th century. Later the coastal regions came under attack from the

3750:

Sea Peoples, Philistines, and the Destruction of Cities: A Critical Examination of Destruction Layers 'Caused' by the 'Sea Peoples'. In Fischer, P. And T.Burge (eds.), "Sea Peoples" Up-to-Date: New Research on Transformation in the Eastern Mediterranean in 13th–11th Centuries BCE.

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Sea Peoples, Philistines, and the Destruction of Cities: A Critical Examination of Destruction Layers 'Caused' by the 'Sea Peoples'. in Fischer, P. and T. Burge (eds.), "Sea Peoples" Up-to-Date: New Research on Transformation in the Eastern Mediterranean in 13th–11th Centuries

2112:

A letter by the king is preserved on one of the clay tablets found baked in the conflagration of the destruction of the city. Ammurapi stresses the seriousness of the crisis faced by many Levantine states due to attacks. In response to a plea for assistance from the king of

1911:(reigned 1114–1076 BC) was able to defeat and repel these attacks, conquering the attackers. The Middle Assyrian Empire survived intact throughout much of this period, with Assyria dominating and often ruling Babylonia directly, and controlling southeastern and southwestern 1453:

important role in the collapse of Athens. In particular Demand notes the presence of "enclosed and protected means of access to water sources at Athens" as evidence of persistent droughts in the region that could have resulted in a fragile reliance on imports.

1418:

which was likely destroyed by some sort of attack though the excavators were not sure who attacked it saying, "We might suggest that were 'pirates', 'adventurers' or remnants of the 'Sea Peoples', but this is simply another way of saying that we do not know."

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collapsed buildings. However, the site was rebuilt only to face destruction in 1190 as the result of a series of major fires. There is a suggestion by Robert Drews that the fires could have been the result of an attack on the site and its palace; however,

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claiming that, "Within a period of forty to fifty years at the end of the thirteenth and the beginning of the twelfth century, almost every significant city in the eastern Mediterranean world was destroyed, many of them never to be occupied again."

2134:

As for the matter concerning those enemies: (it was) the people from your country (and) your own ships (who) did this! And (it was) the people from your country (who) committed these transgression(s)...I am writing to inform you and protect you. Be

3084:"After the Empire: Observations on the Early Iron Age in Central Anatolia, in: I. Singer (ed.), ipamati kistamati pari tumatimis. Luwian and Hittite Studies presented to J. David Hawkins on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday (Tel Aviv 2010) 220–229" 1688:

The Nubian War, the First Libyan War, the Northern War and the Second Libyan War were all victories for Ramesses. Due to this, however, the economy of Egypt fell into decline and state treasuries were nearly bankrupt. By defeating the Sea People,

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Competing theories of the cause of the Late Bronze Age collapse have been proposed since the 19th century, with most involving the violent destruction of cities and towns. These include volcanic eruptions, droughts, disease, invasions by the

2474:", who could swarm and cut down a chariot army, would destabilize states that were based upon the use of chariots by the ruling class. That would precipitate an abrupt social collapse as raiders began to conquer, loot and burn cities. 2147:

To Ž(?)rdn, my lord, say: thy messenger arrived. The degraded one trembles, and the low one is torn to pieces. Our food in the threshing floors is sacked and the vineyards are also destroyed. Our city is sacked, and may you know

2121:

My father, behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the

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in 1056 BC, Assyria declined for a century. Its empire shrank significantly by 1020 BC, apparently leaving it in control only of the areas in its immediate vicinity, although its heartland remained well-defended. By the time of

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for 35 Greek, Turkish and Middle Eastern weather stations, it was shown that a persistent drought like the one that began in January of 1972 AD would have affected all of the sites associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse.

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Jerusalem and the Coastal Plain in the Iron Age and Persian Periods New Studies on Jerusalem's Relations with the Southern Coastal Plain of Israel/Palestine (C. 1200–300 BCE) Research on Israel and Aram in Biblical Times

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first dated the Late Bronze Age collapse to 1200 BC. In one of his histories on ancient Greece from 1817, Heeren stated that the first period of Greek prehistory ended around 1200 BC, basing this date on the fall of

2061:

in the 12th century, but they too were overcome by their Assyrian neighbors. The modern term "Syria" is a later Indo-European corruption of "Assyria", which only became formally applied to the Levant during the

2389:

Recent evidence suggests the collapse of the cultures in Mycenaean Greece, Hittite Anatolia, and the Levant may have been precipitated or worsened by the arrival of an early and now-extinct strain of the

2742:

Reinhard Jung & Eleftheria Kardamaki (ed.). 2022. Synchronizing the destructions of the Mycenaean palaces (Mykenische Studien 36). Wien: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften; 978-3-7001-8877-3

2339:, which is superior to bronze for weapons manufacturing, was in more plentiful supply and so allowed larger armies of iron users to overwhelm the smaller bronze-equipped armies that consisted largely of 1343:

Many Anatolian sites were destroyed at the Late Bronze Age, and the area appears to have undergone extreme political decentralization. For much of the Late Bronze Age, Anatolia had been dominated by the

3677: 1041:

that characterized the Late Bronze Age disintegrated, transforming into the small isolated village cultures of the Greek Dark Ages, which lasted from around 1100 to the beginning of the better-known

5230:

Forces of Transformation : The End of the Bronze Age in the Mediterranean : Proceedings of an International Symposium Held at St. John's College University of Oxford 25–6th March 2006

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Qatna, Kadesh, Alalakh, and Aleppo, while for Tell Sukas, archaeologists only found some minor burning on some floors likely indicating that the town was not burned to the ground around 1200 BC.

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points out the lack of archaeological evidence for an attack. Thus, while fire was definitely the cause of the destruction, it is unclear what or who caused it. A similar situation occurred

5864: 5818: 3245:

The Crisis Years: Cyprus. In: W. A. Ward and M. S. Joukowsky (eds.), The Crisis Years: The 12th Century B.C. From Beyond the Danube to the Tigris, (Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Pub): 79-86

5834: 4655: 3053:"Die Zerstörung der Stadt Hattusa, in: G. Wilhelm (Hrsg.), Akten des IV. Internationalen Kongresses für Hethitologie. Studien zu den Boğazköy-Texten 45 (Wiesbaden 2001) 623–634" 1263:

However more recent research has shown that Drews overestimated the number of cities that were destroyed and referenced destructions that never happened. According to Millek,

2369:

Nile and the migration of the Sea Peoples led to New Kingdom Egypt falling into political instability at the end of the Late Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age. A general

1378:

Initially, the Assyrian Empire maintained a presence in the area. However, it gradually withdrew from much of the region for a time in the second half of the 11th century.

3796:"Burke et al. 2017 Excavations of the New Kingdom Fortress in Jaffa, 2011–2014: Traces of Resistance to Egyptian Rule in Canaan | American Journal of Archaeology: 85–133" 5839: 5832: 5853: 5325:

Resilience, innovation and collapse of settlement networks in later Bronze Age Europe: New survey data from the southern Carpathian Basin - PlosOne - November 10, 2023

1508:, continued to be occupied, but with a more local sphere of influence, limited evidence of trade and an impoverished culture, from which it took centuries to recover. 5840: 2836: 2171:

tablet found in 1986 shows that Ugarit was destroyed after the death of Merneptah. It is generally agreed that Ugarit had already been destroyed by the 8th year of

1982:

also) spread unchecked into Babylonia from the Levant, and the power of its weak kings barely extended beyond the city limits of Babylon. Babylon was sacked by the

1484: 3142: 1153:

as well to around 1200 BC. Throughout the remainder of the 19th century AD, other events were then subsumed into the year 1200 BC, including the invasion of the

5879: 1440:

Destruction was heaviest at palaces and fortified sites, and none of the Mycenaean palaces of the Late Bronze Age survived (with the possible exception of the

3669: 1634: 2418:. Other estimated dates for the Hekla 3 eruption range from 1021 (±130) to 1135 BC (±130) and 929 (±34). Other scholars prefer the neutral and vague "3000 2175:, 1178. Letters on clay tablets that were baked in the conflagration caused by the destruction of the city speak of attack from the sea, and a letter from 5201:

Millek, Jesse Michael (2021a). "Just what did they destroy? The Sea Peoples and the end of the Late Bronze Age". In Kamlah, J.; Lichtenberger, A. (eds.).

5826: 2097:

in the Late Bronze Age. Evidence at Ugarit shows that the destruction there occurred after the reign of Merneptah (r. 1213–1203 BC) and even the fall of

5809: 4415:"Our city is sacked. May you know it!; The Destruction of Ugarit and its Environs by the Sea Peoples. Archaeology and History of Lebanon 52–53: 102–132" 5865: 1479: 5828: 1551: 5351: 2253:

Various mutually compatible explanations for the collapse have been proposed, including climatic changes, migratory invasions by groups such as the

1422:

Several settlements on Cyprus were abandoned at the end of the LC IIC or during the first half of the 12th century without destruction such as Pyla

5837: 2617: 3725: 2730:

Jesse Millek. 2023. Destruction and its impact on ancient societies at the end of the Bronze Age. Columbus (GA): Lockwood Press; 978-1-948488-83-9

2126:?... Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us. 2022:-speaking Amorites ("Amurru") and the people of Ugarit were prominent among them. Syria during this time was known as "The land of the Amurru". 5825: 5862: 4340: 1356:, was burned and the corpses left unburied. Many Anatolian sites have destruction layers dating to this general period. Some of them such as 5011: 3670:"SAOC 12. Historical Records of Ramses III: The Texts in Medinet Habu Volumes 1 and 2 | The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago" 2459:. The appearance of bronze foundries suggests "that mass production of bronze artefacts was suddenly important in the Aegean". For example, 5852: 5061: 4731:"Subsistence in Post-Collapse Societies: Patterns of Agroproduction from the Late Bronze Age to Iron Age in the Northern Levant and Beyond" 1352:

was burned at an unknown date in this general period, though it may in fact have been abandoned at that point. Karaoğlan, near present-day

5855: 5835: 4992: 5860: 5856: 5821: 5788: 5816: 5815: 5145:

Exchange, Destruction, and a Transitioning Society. Interregional Exchange in the Southern Levant from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron I

4622: 2160:). Therefore, the date of the destruction is important for the dating of the LH IIIC phase. Since an Egyptian sword bearing the name of 5829: 5102: 4878:

Yurco, Frank J. (1999). "End of the Late Bronze Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause". In Teeter, Emily; Larson John (eds.).

4682:"High-resolution Bronze Age palaeoenvironmental change in the eastern Mediterranean: exploring the links between climate and societies" 5857: 4882:. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization. Vol. 58. Chicago, IL: Oriental Institute of the Univ. of Chicago. pp. 456–458. 1405:

There is little evidence of destruction on the island of Cyprus in the years surrounding 1200 which marks the separation between the

5866: 5870: 3600:

Documents in Mycenaean Greek : three hundred selected tablets from Knossos, Plyos, and Mycenae with commentary and vocabulary

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For Syria, see M. Liverani, "The collapse of the Near Eastern regional system at the end of the Bronze Age: the case of Syria" in

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sent troops to assist Ugarit, but Ugarit was sacked. Letter RS 19.011 (KTU 2.61) sent from Ugarit following the destruction said:

5846: 5845: 941: 5861: 5811: 4531: 2307:

several generations. There was no one year where conditions became untenable, "nor one straw that broke the back of the camel."

854: 5203:

The Mediterranean Sea and the Southern Levant: archaeological and historical perspectives from the Bronze Age to Medieval times

3088:

Ipamati Kistamati Pari Tumatimis. Luwian and Hittite Studies Presented to J. David Hawkins on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday

2533:. Even among these comparative survivors, success was mixed. By the end of the 12th century BC, Elam waned after its defeat by 5849: 5848: 5847: 5841: 5319: 1348:, but by 1200 BC, the state was already fragmenting under the strain of famine, plague, and civil war. The Hittite capital of 1309:

Some recent writing argues that although some collapses may have happened in this period, these may not have been widespread.

5851: 5810: 5344: 5210: 5183: 5152: 5133: 5111: 4551:

a. Bernard Knapp; Sturt w. Manning (2016). "Crisis in Context: The End of the Late Bronze Age in the Eastern Mediterranean".

4052: 3911: 3759: 1966:

The situation in Babylonia was very different. After the Assyrian withdrawal, it was still subject to periodic Assyrian (and

5869: 5850: 5256:"Sea Peoples" Up-To-Date : New Research on Transformations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 13th-11th Centuries Bce. 4285: 2925: 2803:

S. Richard, "Archaeological sources for the history of Palestine: The Early Bronze Age: The rise and collapse of urbanism",

5844: 5843: 5831: 4797: 2483: 424: 4999:, Martin P. Kirkbride & Andrew J. Dugmore, Geological Society, London, Special Publications; 2005; v. 242; p. 145-155. 1161:, the fall of Mycenaean Greece, and eventually in 1896 the first mention of Israel in the southern Levant recorded on the 745: 657: 5875: 5407: 3803: 3528:

Middleton, Guy D. (September 2012). "Nothing Lasts Forever: Environmental Discourses on the Collapse of Past Societies".

2566: 1361: 17: 5842: 3329: 5245: 4279: 3925: 3773: 3136: 2830: 2636: 2482:

Robert Drews described the collapse as "arguably the worst disaster in ancient history, even more calamitous than the

831: 740: 5915: 5278: 4887: 4630: 4145:"Archaeometallurgical Investigation of Thirteenth-Twelfth Centuries BCE Bronze Objects from Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel" 3630: 3477: 3315: 3252: 2919: 5874: 5858: 5813: 5812: 4586:

Weiss, Harvey (June 1982). "The decline of Late Bronze Age civilization as a possible response to climatic change".

3870:"Just how much was destroyed? The end of the Late Bronze Age in the Southern Levant. Ugarit-Forschungen 49: 239–274" 2537:, who briefly revived Babylonian fortunes before suffering a series of defeats by the Assyrians. After the death of 5337: 3992: 3396: 1460:

View of the Megaron of the palace at Tiryns, one of the many Greek palaces destroyed during the Bronze Age Collapse

5814: 5781: 4391: 2561:

polities. Beginning in the mid-10th century BC, a series of small Aramean kingdoms formed in the Levant, and the

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in the Bible, or more likely the people of Adana, also known as Danuna, part of the Hittite Empire) settled from

5258:

Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/j.ctt1v2xvsn.

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There is little evidence that any major city or settlement in the southern Levant was destroyed around 1200. At

5940: 5877: 5838: 4738: 4422: 4231: 4172: 4121: 4058: 3877: 3841: 3200: 3091: 3060: 3023: 2884: 2765: 895: 648: 356: 5872: 5543: 1598:

receded considerably in territorial and economic strength during the mid-twelfth century (during the reign of

1128:

However more recent writing argues that the collapse may have been much more partial than previously thought.

5876: 5873: 5833: 1576: 1110: 5324: 840: 5863: 5859: 5741: 1137: 529: 2323:

The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow spread of

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Arameans eventually superseded the earlier Amorites and people of Ugarit. The Arameans, together with the

812: 807: 5238:

The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age: Continuity and Change Between the Twelfth and Eighth Centuries BC

5162:

Millek, Jesse Michael (2019b). "Destruction at the end of the Late Bronze Age in Syria: A reassessment".

2034:-speaking Arameans came to demographic prominence in Syria, the region outside of the Canaanite-speaking 1713:

destruction including Dier el-Balah, Ashkelon, Tel Mor, Tell el-Far'ah (South), Tel Gerisa, Tell Jemmeh,

1150: 934: 693: 5868: 5854: 5955: 5920: 5894: 5774: 3128: 2791: 2365: 495: 5827: 5822: 5820: 3705: 1946:

who had ravaged Egypt and much of the East Mediterranean, and the Assyrians often conquered as far as

5965: 5950: 5867: 4906:

Baker, Andy; et al. (1995). "The Hekla 3 volcanic eruption recorded in a Scottish speleothem?".

2565:

settled in southern Canaan, where Canaanite speakers had coalesced into a number of polities such as

1122: 348: 4094:"New Insights to Levantine Copper Trade: Analysis of Ingots from the Bronze and Iron Ages in Israel" 3229: 2699:"Getting closer to the Late Bronze Age collapse in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean, c. 1200 BC" 2167:

was found in the destruction levels, 1190 was taken as the date for the beginning of the LH IIIC. A

1773:(r. 1191–1189) though the date of this destruction appears to be much later dating to roughly 1150. 5935: 5930: 5830: 5823: 1018:

civilizations, and it brought a sharp economic decline to regional powers, notably ushering in the

731: 417: 301: 4332: 826: 821: 638: 5492: 5008: 3353:"Cultural and Political Configurations in Iron Age Cyprus: The Sequel to a Protohistoric Episode" 1571: 1146: 703: 5836: 5819: 1879:. At the beginning of the Late Bronze Age collapse, it controlled an empire stretching from the 1367:

This period appears to have also been a time of migration. For instance, some evidence that the

1239:

Initially historians believed that in the first phase of this period, almost every city between

5871: 4989: 2444: 2195: 1868: 1054: 927: 685: 619: 441: 109: 2494:

spoke of Ages of Gold, Silver, and Bronze, separated from the cruel modern Age of Iron by the

2373:

has been put forward as an explanation for the reversals in culture that occurred between the

5659: 5309: 4040:"The impact of destruction on trade at the end of the Late Bronze Age in the Southern Levant" 3216: 2818: 2646: 2549:

Gradually, by the end of the ensuing Dark Age, remnants of the Hittites coalesced into small

1588: 1390:(reigned c. 1237–1209), the island was briefly invaded by the Hittites, either to secure the 975: 517: 382: 5053: 3123: 3057:

Akten des IV. Internationalen Kongresses für Hethitologie. Studien zu den Boğazköy-Texten 45

2954:"Late Bronze Age Socio-Economic and Political Organization, and the Hellenization of Cyprus" 802: 5817: 4962: 4915: 4834: 4693: 4639: 4207: 4156: 4105: 2642: 2299: 1595: 1200: 1062: 963: 792: 722: 643: 629: 505: 501: 289: 157: 4623:"The influence of climatic change on the Late Bronze Age Collapse and the Greek Dark Ages" 2452: 8: 5925: 5824: 5695: 5640: 5554: 5461: 5439: 5296:

The Crisis Years : The 12th Century B.c. : From Beyond the Danube to the Tigris

3830:"Crisis, Destruction, and the End of the Late Bronze Age in Jordan: A Preliminary Survey" 2612: 2550: 2278: 2204: 1960: 1658: 1445: 1295: 1102: 1038: 1034: 787: 671: 604: 410: 321: 277: 265: 257: 226: 97: 93: 4966: 4919: 4838: 4697: 4643: 4211: 4160: 4109: 2156:

The destruction levels of Ugarit contained Late Helladic IIIB ware, but no LH IIIC (see

1583:

in their ships during the battle with the Egyptians. Relief from the mortuary temple of

5960: 5403: 5189: 4931: 4860: 4711: 4603: 4568: 4383: 3984: 3976: 3917: 3765: 3553: 3450:

The last Mycenaeans and their successors; an archaeological survey, c. 1200–c. 1000 B.C

3445: 3388: 3380: 2514: 2508: 2067: 1951: 1880: 1449: 1406: 1074: 845: 717: 548: 378: 360: 325: 230: 2277:

of the Late Bronze Age (its centralization, specialization, complexity, and top-heavy

2057:

belatedly attempted to gain a foothold in the region during their brief revival under

5945: 5798: 5686: 5676: 5274: 5241: 5206: 5193: 5179: 5175: 5148: 5129: 5107: 4935: 4883: 4864: 4852: 4715: 4607: 4572: 4528: 4275: 4223: 4048: 3988: 3968: 3907: 3755: 3717: 3636: 3626: 3603: 3557: 3545: 3483: 3473: 3372: 3321: 3311: 3248: 3132: 3019: 2915: 2826: 2626: 2378: 2273: 2269: 2203:

continued to conduct military campaigns in the region. However, with the rise of the

2031: 2019: 2003: 1928: 1908: 1884: 959: 708: 662: 329: 313: 309: 305: 285: 249: 241: 222: 218: 105: 74: 5766: 3392: 2989: 37:

Invasions, destruction and possible population movements during the collapse of the

5736: 5171: 4970: 4923: 4842: 4764: 4701: 4647: 4595: 4560: 4375: 4215: 4164: 4113: 3960: 3537: 3364: 2965: 2710: 2670: 2650: 2622: 2534: 2495: 2403: 2374: 2370: 2157: 2058: 1987: 1746: 1618: 1415: 1387: 1176: 1030: 991: 983: 873: 534: 386: 374: 352: 340: 297: 281: 273: 269: 261: 253: 214: 210: 153: 141: 4706: 4681: 5753: 5722: 5717: 5707: 5417: 5018:, Stefan WastegÅrd, XVI INQUA Congress, Paper No. 41-13, Saturday, July 26, 2003. 5015: 4996: 4801: 4535: 4269: 4219: 4168: 2907: 2821:. In Stanton, Andrea; Ramsay, Edward; Seybolt, Peter J; Elliott, Carolyn (eds.). 2606: 2592: 2431: 2415: 2355: 2336: 2282: 2106: 2063: 2015: 1876: 1821: 1809: 1662: 1603: 1547: 1497: 1435: 1399: 1162: 1158: 1090: 1019: 890: 572: 317: 293: 173: 169: 137: 4793: 2498:. Rodney Castleden suggests that memories of the Bronze Age collapse influenced 2117:, Ammurapi highlights the desperate situation Ugarit faced in letter RS 18.147: 1489:, who points out the lack of evidence for violent or sudden decline in Mycenae. 149: 5691: 4927: 3125:

The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C.

2863:

The End of the Bronze Age: changes in warfare and the catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C.

2538: 2419: 2391: 2265: 2230: 2098: 2094: 2082: 1955: 1872: 1844: 1766: 1559: 1501: 1423: 1046: 1042: 1026: 1003: 971: 967: 609: 177: 113: 5126:

The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C

4975: 4950: 4847: 4814: 4782:

Mycenaeans and Minoans: Aegean Prehistory in the Light of the Linear B Tablets

4651: 4529:

Severe multi-year drought coincident with Hittite collapse around 1198–1196 BC

4470:"Destruction and Its Impact on Ancient Societies at the End of the Bronze Age" 4117: 3795: 3541: 5909: 5599: 5595: 5428: 5097: 4759:

See A. Stoia and the other essays in M.L. Stig Sørensen and R. Thomas, eds.,

4227: 3972: 3721: 3640: 3549: 3487: 3376: 2525:(albeit temporarily weakened), the New Kingdom of Egypt (also weakened), the 1705: 1470: 1070: 995: 883: 558: 449: 185: 161: 89: 5271:

Destruction and its impact on ancient societies at the end of the Bronze Age

3921: 3900: 3769: 3748: 3607: 3325: 2414:

during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The event is thought to have caused a

5732: 5121: 4856: 4564: 2858: 2557:

and in the Levant, where the new states were composed of mixed Hittite and

2436: 2411: 2311: 2172: 2007: 1991: 1888: 1800: 1792: 1666: 1584: 1256: 979: 580: 553: 193: 165: 64: 5519: 5329: 3964: 3368: 2714: 2521:

Only a few powerful states survived the Bronze Age collapse, particularly

1871:(1392–1056) had destroyed the Hurrian-Mitanni Empire, annexed much of the 1069:

enjoyed increased autonomy and power with the waning military presence of

5561: 5449: 5399: 5361: 2970: 2598: 2562: 2359: 2324: 2254: 2183:) speaks of cities already being destroyed by attackers who came by sea. 2123: 2074: 2054: 2027: 1943: 1942:

were subjugated, and Assyria and its colonies were not threatened by the

1856: 1848: 1784: 1738: 1670: 1638: 1626: 1622: 1599: 1580: 1465: 1224: 1154: 1098: 1086: 1066: 1058: 759: 754: 624: 474: 181: 3980: 3948: 3706:"Destruction and the Fall of Egyptian Hegemony Over the Southern Levant" 3384: 3352: 2823:

Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia

2394:

brought from central Asia by the Sea Peoples or other migrating groups.

2335:

in the 13th and the 12th centuries BC. Leonard R. Palmer suggested that

2207:

in the late 10th century, the entire region once again fell to Assyria.

4990:

Late Holocene solifluction history reconstructed using tephrochronology

4949:

Dugmore AJ, Cook GT, Shore JS, Newton AT, Edwards KJ, Larsen G (1995).

4599: 2953: 2631: 2487: 2471: 2258: 2238: 2140: 2130:

Eshuwara, the senior governor of Cyprus, responded in letter RS 20.18:

1277: 1015: 775: 585: 538: 513: 459: 189: 56: 38: 4387: 4363: 1594:

While it survived the Bronze Age collapse, the Egyptian Empire of the

5611: 5581: 4680:

Hazell, Calian J; Pound, Matthew J; Hocking, Emma P (23 April 2022).

2526: 2343: 2199: 2168: 2164: 2086: 2047: 2035: 2002:

Ancient Syria had been initially dominated by a number of indigenous

1971: 1947: 1939: 1904: 1852: 1762: 1758: 1750: 1714: 1531: 1500:, which lasted roughly 400 years and ended with the establishment of 1496:

The Bronze Age collapse marked the start of what has been called the

1441: 1368: 1303: 1273: 1244: 1184: 1078: 987: 878: 599: 463: 4880:

Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente

4813:

Neumann, Gunnar; Skourtanioti, Eirini; Burri, Marta (25 July 2022).

4730: 4501:

Citadel to City-state: The Transformation of Greece, 1200–700 B.C.E.

4469: 4414: 4195: 4144: 4093: 4039: 3906:(1 ed.). Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. pp. 127–128. 3869: 3829: 3754:(1 ed.). Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. pp. 120–122. 3305: 3196: 3083: 3052: 2876: 2753: 1145:

at 1190 after ten years of war. He then went on in 1826 to date the

5605: 5590: 5586: 5570: 5536: 5524: 5512: 5487: 4379: 2558: 2503: 2464: 2440: 2340: 2328: 2294: 2176: 2102: 2090: 1912: 1896: 1836: 1769:) was destroyed, likely by an earthquake, after the reign of Queen 1726: 1646: 1539: 1527: 1372: 1345: 1336: 1299: 1228: 1208: 1192: 1188: 1180: 1114: 1011: 1007: 590: 487: 400: 145: 2293:

A diversion of midwinter storms from the Atlantic to north of the

1700: 1331: 974:. The collapse is postulated to have affected a large area of the 5664: 5629: 5623: 5617: 5507: 5475: 5454: 2857:

The physical destruction of palaces and cities is the subject of

2649: – events and periods connected to the end of the 2554: 2543: 2522: 2456: 2448: 2407: 2332: 2214: 2161: 2114: 2039: 1979: 1975: 1967: 1895:

in the west. However, in the 12th century, Assyrian satrapies in

1804: 1777: 1770: 1694: 1690: 1678: 1630: 1535: 1523: 1519: 1349: 1276:

were large and important walled settlements in the pre-Israelite

1252: 1248: 1216: 1118: 1106: 1094: 999: 962:

during the 12th century BC. It has been possibly associated with

390: 33: 4550: 1741:(r. 1279–1213) campaigned against them, pursuing them as far as 5313: 5263:

The Philistines and Other "Sea Peoples" in Text and Archaeology

4196:"Lead in the Levant during the Late Bronze and early Iron Ages" 3013: 2609: – period following the Late Bronze Age collapse 2491: 2242: 2218: 2180: 2073:

Levantine sites previously showed evidence of trade links with

2043: 1932: 1924: 1900: 1892: 1840: 1832: 1788: 1787:

were allowed to resettle the coastal strip from Gaza to Joppa,

1682: 1674: 1654: 1650: 1555: 1515: 1505: 1474: 1410: 1395: 1391: 1353: 1306:

were small and relatively insignificant and unfortified towns.

1220: 1212: 1204: 1196: 1050: 914: 117: 5808: 2093:(Hattia, Hurria, Luwia and later the Hittites), Egypt and the 1970:) subjugation, and new groups of Semitic speakers such as the 1745:, where he established a fortress, after a near defeat at the 1456: 5470: 2578: 2499: 2470:

Such new weaponry, in the hands of large numbers of "running

2460: 2377:

of the 13th and 12th centuries BC and the rise of the Celtic

2234: 2078: 1920: 1796: 1754: 1734: 1730: 1614: 1543: 1371:

arrived in Anatolia during this period, possibly through the

1240: 1014:. It was sudden, violent, and culturally disruptive for many 3463: 3461: 3459: 2877:"The Fall of the Bronze Age and the Destruction that Wasn't" 1398:. Shortly afterwards, the island was reconquered by his son 1247:

was violently destroyed, and many were abandoned, including

5466: 2912:

Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period

2574: 2570: 2530: 2226: 2222: 2011: 1983: 1916: 1828: 1742: 1642: 1613:) spoke of attacks (Libyan War) from Putrians (from modern 1357: 1142: 101: 4437: 4073: 4019: 4007: 3018:. Translated by Mellor, Susan. Routledge. pp. 56–60. 2030:. During this period, from the 12th century, the incoming 4951:"Radiocarbon Dating Tephra Layers in Britain and Iceland" 3949:"Hazor at the End of the Late Bronze Age: Back to Basics" 3456: 1807:

in Acre. The sites quickly achieved independence, as the

4812: 4142: 3285: 3261: 4314: 4312: 3581: 3579: 1065:

survived in weakened forms. Other cultures such as the

5021: 4948: 4306:

Jean Nougaryol et al. (1968) Ugaritica V: 87–90 no. 24

3428: 3426: 5796: 5289:

The Sea Peoples and Their World : A Reassessment

3953:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

3273: 2486:". Cultural memories of the disaster told of a "lost 2105:, was a contemporary of the last-known Hittite king, 1223:. The deterioration of these governments interrupted 5320:

The Aftermath of Collapse: Bronze Age Edition (2021)

5033: 4309: 3652: 3650: 3576: 3564: 3506: 3032: 2588: 2443:, using newly developed weapons and armour, such as 1511:

These sites in Greece show evidence of the collapse:

1109:

warfare. Following the collapse, gradual changes in

5294:Ward, William A. and Martha Sharp Joukowsky, 1992. 4796:, on the web page of the local historical society. 4449: 4330: 4271:

The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia

3494: 3423: 3411: 2210:

These sites in Syria show evidence of the collapse:

958:is a term used for a postulated time of widespread 5228:Bachhuber, Christoph R. and Gareth Roberts, 2009. 5205:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 59–98. 4728: 4679: 2910:. In Killebrew, Ann E.; Vaughn, Andrew G. (eds.). 2908:"Biblical Jerusalem: An Archaeological Assessment" 2790:, M. Rowlands, M.T. Larsen, K. Kristiansen, eds. ( 2546:, Phoenicia had regained independence from Egypt. 2364:Primary sources report that the era was marked by 1978:(and in the period after the Bronze Age Collapse, 4506: 4143:Ashkenazi, D.; Bunimovitz, S.; Stern, A. (2016). 3647: 3597: 5907: 3946: 3625:. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 199. 3623:The Mediterranean context of early Greek history 3620: 3472:. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 198. 3470:The Mediterranean context of early Greek history 3467: 2618:Middle Bronze Age migrations (ancient Near East) 1175:BC and 1150 BC saw the cultural collapse of the 2625: – similar period preceding the 2455:, a revolutionizing cut-and-thrust weapon, and 2101:(d. 1192). The last Bronze Age king of Ugarit, 1963:grew to be the largest the world had yet seen. 1729:(ruled either 1319 or 1306 to 1292), wandering 1725:Egyptian evidence shows that from the reign of 1360:were immediately rebuilt, while others such as 5009:Towards a Holocene Tephrochronology for Sweden 4193: 2264:General systems collapse theory, pioneered by 1219:of western Anatolia, and a period of chaos in 5782: 5345: 5128:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 4761:The Bronze Age: Iron Age Transition in Europe 1907:) and those in the Levant from Arameans, but 935: 418: 5261:Killebrew Ann E. and Gunnar Lehmann, 2013. 4091: 3710:Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 3523: 3521: 3310:. Cyprus Dept. of Antiquities. p. 266. 3303: 3242: 2109:. The exact dates of his reign are unknown. 1645:), and a Canaanite revolt, in the cities of 1272:Ann Killebrew has shown that cities such as 5359: 4729:Riehl, Simone; Karakaya, Doğa (2019–2020). 3834:Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 2639: – a similar period in Egypt 1708:and main polities in Eurasia around 1000 BC 1280:IIB and the Israelite Iron Age IIC period ( 5789: 5775: 5396:Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 5352: 5338: 5265:. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. 5254:Fischer, Peter M. and Teresa Bürge, 2017. 5103:1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed 5054:"Drews (Robert) End of Bronze Age Summary" 4200:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 4149:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 4047:. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 39–60. 3947:Ben-Tor, Amnon; Zuckerman, Sharon (2008). 3444: 3014:Lukas de Blois; R.J. van der Spek (1997). 2951: 1409:(LCII) from the LCIII period. The city of 942: 928: 425: 411: 5106:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 4974: 4846: 4705: 4364:"New Evidence on the Last Days of Ugarit" 4274:. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. 3527: 3518: 3307:Excavations at Maa-Palaeokastro 1979–1986 3115: 2969: 2905: 2788:Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World 2696: 1105:and strategy that brought the decline of 4901: 4899: 4735:Archaeology & History in the Lebanon 4499:Thomas, Carol G.; Conant, Craig. (1999) 4331:Dietrich, M.; Loretz, O.; Sanmartín, J. 4251: 4249: 3194: 2816: 1990:(c. 1185–1155), and lost control of the 1699: 1575: 1455: 1330: 1097:, economic disruptions due to increased 32: 27:Societal collapse in the Late Bronze Age 5200: 5161: 5147:. Tübingen: Tübingen University Press. 5142: 4455: 4443: 4324: 4267: 4079: 4025: 4013: 3452:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 113. 3350: 3291: 3279: 3267: 2952:Orphanides, Andreas G. (January 2017). 2810: 2738: 2736: 2717:– via Cambridge University Press. 2692: 2690: 2673:; the original Hittite name is unknown. 2038:coastal areas eventually came to speak 1761:" north from Gaza. Evidence shows that 1733:were more problematic than the earlier 14: 5908: 5268: 4467: 4412: 4361: 4355: 4037: 3898: 3867: 3827: 3746: 3703: 3081: 3050: 2874: 2751: 2726: 2724: 2697:Middleton, Guy D. (25 February 2024). 2349: 5770: 5752: 5731: 5721: 5639: 5610: 5542: 5518: 5333: 5120: 5096: 5064:from the original on 27 December 2011 5051: 5039: 5027: 4905: 4896: 4877: 4620: 4585: 4546: 4544: 4512: 4318: 4246: 4194:Yagel, Omri; Ben-Yosef, Erez (2022). 3928:from the original on 13 February 2023 3863: 3861: 3859: 3823: 3821: 3776:from the original on 13 February 2023 3699: 3697: 3695: 3680:from the original on 30 December 2019 3656: 3585: 3570: 3512: 3500: 3432: 3417: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3121: 3063:from the original on 13 February 2023 3038: 2988:Mark, Joshua J. (20 September 2019). 2983: 2981: 2947: 2945: 2943: 1386:During the reign of the Hittite king 1294:BC), but that during the intervening 4337:Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative 4234:from the original on 9 December 2022 4175:from the original on 9 December 2022 4124:from the original on 9 December 2022 4061:from the original on 9 December 2022 3995:from the original on 4 November 2022 3880:from the original on 9 December 2022 3844:from the original on 9 December 2022 3806:from the original on 3 November 2022 3728:from the original on 3 November 2022 3399:from the original on 4 November 2022 3016:An Introduction to the Ancient World 2987: 2733: 2687: 2484:collapse of the Western Roman Empire 2439:argues for the appearance of massed 1053:collapsed, while states such as the 4343:from the original on 9 October 2021 2754:"Why Did the World End in 1200 BCE" 2721: 2381:in the 9th and 10th centuries BC. 2042:and the region came to be known as 1637:(possibly an Egyptian name for the 1394:resource or as a way of preventing 24: 5298:. Dubuque Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. 5291:. Philadelphia: University Museum. 5273:. Columbus (Ga.): Lockwood Press. 5232:Paperback ed. Oxford: Oxbow Books. 5221: 4661:from the original on 26 March 2023 4541: 4419:Archaeology and History of Lebanon 3856: 3818: 3692: 3530:Journal of Archaeological Research 3183: 2978: 2940: 2914:. Society of Biblical Literature. 2637:Third Intermediate Period of Egypt 2402:Some Egyptologists have dated the 2248: 1783:During the reign of Ramesses III, 25: 5977: 5303: 4741:from the original on 30 June 2023 4631:Journal of Archaeological Science 4488:The Collapse of Complex Societies 4425:from the original on 3 April 2023 4098:Journal of Archaeological Science 3602:. University Press. p. 189. 3203:from the original on 3 April 2023 3094:from the original on 3 April 2023 2887:from the original on 3 April 2023 2768:from the original on 3 April 2023 1919:and much of northern and central 1602:, 1145 to 1137). Previously, the 1375:or over the Caucasus Mountains. 5890: 5889: 4394:from the original on 25 May 2021 4288:from the original on 2 June 2024 3332:from the original on 2 June 2024 3145:from the original on 2 June 2024 2928:from the original on 1 July 2023 2839:from the original on 2 June 2024 2591: 2410:and blamed it for famines under 1464:Up to 90% of small sites in the 1203:, as well as the destruction of 5143:Millek, Jesse Michael (2019a). 5076: 5045: 5002: 4983: 4942: 4871: 4806: 4787: 4774: 4753: 4722: 4673: 4614: 4579: 4553:American Journal of Archaeology 4518: 4493: 4480: 4461: 4406: 4368:American Journal of Archaeology 4300: 4261: 4187: 4136: 4085: 4031: 3940: 3892: 3788: 3740: 3662: 3614: 3591: 3438: 3357:American Journal of Archaeology 3344: 3297: 3236: 3170: 3157: 3106: 3075: 3044: 3007: 2899: 2663: 2366:large-scale migration of people 1010:, and, to a lesser degree, the 4823:genomes from Bronze Age Crete" 4038:Millek, Jesse Michael (2022). 3704:Millek, Jesse Michael (2018). 2868: 2851: 2797: 2780: 2745: 2318: 2310:Analysis of multiple lines of 1954:. However, after the death of 1862: 1824:show evidence of the collapse: 1125:during the 1st millennium BC. 13: 1: 4769:The Coming of the Age of Iron 4707:10.1080/01916122.2022.2067259 4490:(Cambridge University Press). 4042:. In Hagemeyer, Felix (ed.). 3304:Karageorghis, Vassos (1988). 3243:Karageorghis, Vassos (1992). 2680: 1720: 1617:), with associated people of 1607: 1312: 1288: 1281: 1169: 79: 42: 4220:10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103649 4169:10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.02.006 4092:Yahalom-Mack, Naama (2014). 3247:. Kendall/Hunt. p. 80. 2974:– via Athens Journals. 2477: 2397: 2327:technology from present-day 2283:Dorian migration or invasion 2272:results from an increase in 1302:I and IIA/B Ages sites like 1227:and led to severely reduced 1138:Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren 7: 4784:. New York, Alfred A. Knopf 4362:Astour, Michael C. (1965). 3178:The Kingdom of the Hittites 3165:The Kingdom of the Hittites 2584: 2384: 1899:came under attack from the 1326: 1321: 1215:, the fragmentation of the 1131: 10: 5982: 5236:Dickinson, Oliver (2007). 5176:10.13173/STEBLA/2019/1/157 5089: 4928:10.1177/095968369500500309 4780:Palmer, Leonard R (1962). 4621:Drake, Brandon L. (2012). 4333:"Archival view of P521115" 4268:Woodard, Roger D. (2008). 3598:Ventris, Michael. (1959). 3446:Desborough, Vincent R. d'A 3195:Georgiou, Artemis (2017). 3129:Princeton University Press 2994:World History Encyclopedia 2906:Killebrew, Ann E. (2003). 2805:The Biblical Archaeologist 2792:Cambridge University Press 2429: 2425: 2353: 2288: 1569: 1433: 5885: 5805: 5749: 5728: 5716: 5713: 5706: 5703: 5685: 5675: 5658: 5651: 5649: 5615: 5603: 5594: 5585: 5580: 5552: 5535: 5506: 5491: 5486: 5465: 5460: 5448: 5438: 5426: 5416: 5398: 5395: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5368: 5318:NPR Throughline podcast: 4976:10.1017/S003382220003085X 4848:10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.094 4652:10.1016/j.jas.2012.01.029 4118:10.1016/j.jas.2014.02.004 3621:Demand, Nancy H. (2011). 3542:10.1007/s10814-011-9054-1 3468:Demand, Nancy H. (2011). 2958:Athens Journal of History 2404:Hekla 3 volcanic eruption 1429: 1381: 1234: 1168:The half century between 349:Indus Valley Civilisation 5916:Late Bronze Age collapse 5377:Northwestern Mesopotamia 4534:17 February 2023 at the 4486:Tainter, Joseph (1976). 2656: 1997: 1653:and among the people of 1565: 1504:. Other cities, such as 956:Late Bronze Age collapse 302:Proto-Villanovan culture 121:Late Bronze Age collapse 5287:Oren, Eliezer D. 2000. 4995:1 December 2008 at the 4794:History of Castlemagner 3351:Iacovou, Maria (2008). 3082:Seeher, Jürgen (2010). 3051:Seeher, Jürgen (2001). 2881:Ancient Near East Today 2817:Crawford, Russ (2006). 2758:Ancient Near East Today 2153:occur in the original. 2006:-speaking peoples. The 1887:in the south, and from 1572:End of the 19th Dynasty 5537:Middle Hittite Kingdom 5269:Millek, Jesse (2023). 4565:10.3764/aja.120.1.0099 4468:Millek, Jesse (2023). 4413:Millek, Jesse (2020). 3899:Millek, Jesse (2017). 3868:Millek, Jesse (2018). 3828:Millek, Jesse (2019). 3747:Millek, Jesse (2017). 3224:Cite journal requires 3122:Drews, Robert (1995). 2875:Millek, Jesse (2022). 2825:. Sage. p. xxix. 2752:Millek, Jesse (2021). 2669:The name Karaoğlan is 2246: 2150: 2137: 2128: 2010:-speaking polities of 1869:Middle Assyrian Empire 1860: 1749:. During the reign of 1709: 1665:) during the reign of 1591: 1563: 1461: 1444:fortifications on the 1340: 1270: 1231:in much of this area. 1113:led to the subsequent 1111:metallurgic technology 1055:Middle Assyrian Empire 357:Ochre Coloured Pottery 49: 5941:Indo-European history 5660:Neo-Babylonian Empire 5493:Old Babylonian Empire 5408:Early Dynastic period 4800:16 April 2009 at the 3965:10.1086/BASOR25609263 3369:10.3764/aja.112.4.625 3167:. (Clarendon), p. 379 2990:"Bronze Age Collapse" 2715:10.15184/aqy.2023.187 2647:Indo-Aryan migrations 2257:, the spread of iron 2212: 2145: 2132: 2119: 1826: 1703: 1669:(1186–1155) involved 1579: 1513: 1459: 1334: 1265: 1151:Egyptian 19th Dynasty 976:Eastern Mediterranean 972:destruction of cities 530:Age of the human race 36: 5387:Southern Mesopotamia 5382:Northern Mesopotamia 5052:McGoodwin, Michael. 5014:7 April 2009 at the 4833:(16): 3641–3649.e8. 3180:(Clarendon), p. 366. 2971:10.30958/ajhis.3-1-1 2643:Late Harappan period 2300:Palmer Drought Index 1883:in the north to the 1201:New Kingdom of Egypt 1063:New Kingdom of Egypt 1049:of Anatolia and the 964:environmental change 204:Eurasia and Siberia 5641:Neo-Assyrian Empire 5555:Bronze Age Collapse 5488:Old Hittite Kingdom 5462:Old Assyrian period 5440:Third Dynasty of Ur 4967:1995Radcb..37..379D 4920:1995Holoc...5..336B 4839:2022CBio...32E3641N 4821:Salmonella enterica 4763:(Oxford) 1989, and 4698:2022Paly...4667259H 4644:2012JArSc..39.1862D 4446:, pp. 167–169. 4212:2022JArSR..46j3649Y 4161:2016JArSR...6..170A 4110:2014JArSc..45..159Y 4082:, pp. 217–238. 4028:, pp. 180–212. 4016:, pp. 147–188. 2613:Iron Age Cold Epoch 2551:Syro-Hittite states 2463:uses "spears" as a 2350:Migratory invasions 2279:political structure 2205:Neo-Assyrian Empire 1994:valley to Assyria. 1961:Neo-Assyrian Empire 1903:(who may have been 1845:Deir 'Alla (Sukkot) 1820:These sites in the 1659:Battle of the Delta 1657:. A second attack ( 1446:Acropolis of Athens 1255:, and Ugarit, with 1103:military technology 1045:around 750 BC. The 605:Classical antiquity 341:Indian subcontinent 322:Atlantic Bronze Age 278:Bell Beaker culture 227:Mezhovskaya culture 18:Bronze Age Collapse 5497:Southern Akkadians 5404:Jemdet Nasr period 4600:10.1007/BF00140587 4538:, 08 February 2023 4421:. 52–53: 105–108. 3874:Ugarit-Forschungen 2312:paleoenvironmental 2068:Etymology of Syria 2066:(323–150 BC) (see 1952:East Mediterranean 1881:Caucasus Mountains 1710: 1592: 1462: 1450:Vincent Desborough 1341: 1177:Mycenaean kingdoms 326:Bronze Age Britain 231:Cherkaskul culture 50: 5956:Societal collapse 5921:Ancient Near East 5903: 5902: 5799:Ancient Near East 5764: 5763: 5759: 5758: 5687:Macedonian Empire 5677:Achaemenid Empire 5550:c. 1200–1150 BCE 5533:c. 1400–1200 BCE 5504:c. 1600–1400 BCE 5484:c. 1800–1600 BCE 5446:c. 2000–1800 BCE 5436:c. 2100–2000 BCE 5424:c. 2200–2100 BCE 5414:c. 2350–2200 BCE 5393:c. 3500–2350 BCE 5212:978-3-447-11742-5 5185:978-3-447-11300-7 5154:978-3-947251-11-7 5135:978-0-691-04811-6 5113:978-0-691-14089-6 5030:, pp. 192ff. 4771:(New Haven) 1980. 4054:978-3-16-160692-2 3913:978-3-7001-7963-4 3800:www.ajaonline.org 3761:978-3-7001-7963-4 3294:, pp. 79–80. 3270:, pp. 74–77. 2627:Early Middle Ages 2379:Hallstatt culture 2274:social complexity 2270:societal collapse 2032:Northwest Semitic 2020:Northwest Semitic 1938:The Arameans and 1909:Tiglath-Pileser I 1885:Arabian Peninsula 1875:and eclipsed the 1839:- Beth Shemesh - 1136:German historian 1101:, and changes in 960:societal collapse 952: 951: 904: 903: 896:Political history 521: 509: 479: 475:Pleistocene epoch 435: 434: 344:(c. 3300–1200 BC) 330:Nordic Bronze Age 314:Golasecca culture 310:Canegrate culture 306:Hallstatt culture 286:Terramare culture 223:Andronovo culture 219:Sintashta culture 16:(Redirected from 5973: 5966:Volcanic winters 5951:Prehistoric Asia 5893: 5892: 5797:Timeline of the 5791: 5784: 5777: 5768: 5767: 5737:Byzantine Empire 5612:Middle Babylonia 5578:c. 1150–911 BCE 5371: 5370: 5354: 5347: 5340: 5331: 5330: 5284: 5251: 5216: 5197: 5164:Studia Eblaitica 5158: 5139: 5117: 5083: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5069: 5049: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5019: 5006: 5000: 4987: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4903: 4894: 4893: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4850: 4810: 4804: 4791: 4785: 4778: 4772: 4767:and J.D. Muhly, 4757: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4746: 4726: 4720: 4719: 4709: 4677: 4671: 4670: 4668: 4666: 4660: 4627: 4618: 4612: 4611: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4548: 4539: 4525:Sturt W. Manning 4522: 4516: 4510: 4504: 4497: 4491: 4484: 4478: 4477: 4465: 4459: 4453: 4447: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4430: 4410: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4348: 4328: 4322: 4316: 4307: 4304: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4293: 4265: 4259: 4253: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4191: 4185: 4184: 4182: 4180: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4035: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4011: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3865: 3854: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3825: 3816: 3815: 3813: 3811: 3802:. January 2017. 3792: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3744: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3701: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3666: 3660: 3654: 3645: 3644: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3595: 3589: 3583: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3525: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3465: 3454: 3453: 3442: 3436: 3430: 3421: 3415: 3409: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3301: 3295: 3289: 3283: 3277: 3271: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3240: 3234: 3233: 3227: 3222: 3220: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3192: 3181: 3174: 3168: 3161: 3155: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3119: 3113: 3110: 3104: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3079: 3073: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3048: 3042: 3036: 3030: 3029: 3011: 3005: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2985: 2976: 2975: 2973: 2949: 2938: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2903: 2897: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2872: 2866: 2855: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2814: 2808: 2801: 2795: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2749: 2743: 2740: 2731: 2728: 2719: 2718: 2709:(397): 260–263. 2694: 2674: 2667: 2651:Bronze Age India 2623:Migration Period 2601: 2596: 2595: 2535:Nebuchadnezzar I 2529:city-states and 2490:". For example, 2467:for "warriors". 2375:Urnfield culture 2371:systems collapse 2268:, proposes that 2158:Mycenaean Greece 2059:Nebuchadnezzar I 1988:Shutruk-Nahhunte 1927:, as far as the 1757:threatened the " 1747:Battle of Kadesh 1612: 1609: 1488: 1480:Spyros Iakovidis 1416:Maa Palaeokastro 1364:were abandoned. 1293: 1290: 1286: 1285: 1800–1550 1283: 1174: 1171: 1031:Mycenaean Greece 990:, in particular 984:Southeast Europe 944: 937: 930: 919: 913: 874:Age of Discovery 781: 780: 549:Earliest records 535:Recorded history 511: 499: 471: 469: 458: 437: 436: 427: 420: 413: 375:Arsenical bronze 353:Bronze Age India 345: 298:Urnfield culture 282:Apennine culture 274:Srubnaya culture 270:Catacomb culture 246: 245:(c. 3200–900 BC) 215:Abashevo culture 211:Poltavka culture 207: 206:(c. 2700–700 BC) 134: 133:(c. 3100–300 BC) 86: 84: 81: 53: 52: 47: 44: 21: 5981: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5974: 5972: 5971: 5970: 5936:12th century BC 5931:Bronze Age Asia 5906: 5905: 5904: 5899: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5801: 5795: 5765: 5760: 5754:Sassanid Empire 5723:Parthian Empire 5718:Seleucid Empire 5708:Seleucid Empire 5627: 5621: 5598: 5589: 5418:Akkadian Empire 5364: 5358: 5310:Ancient History 5306: 5301: 5281: 5248: 5235: 5224: 5222:Further reading 5219: 5213: 5186: 5155: 5136: 5114: 5092: 5087: 5086: 5081: 5077: 5067: 5065: 5050: 5046: 5038: 5034: 5026: 5022: 5016:Wayback Machine 5007: 5003: 4997:Wayback Machine 4988: 4984: 4947: 4943: 4904: 4897: 4890: 4876: 4872: 4827:Current Biology 4817:Yersinia pestis 4811: 4807: 4802:Wayback Machine 4792: 4788: 4779: 4775: 4758: 4754: 4744: 4742: 4727: 4723: 4678: 4674: 4664: 4662: 4658: 4625: 4619: 4615: 4588:Climatic Change 4584: 4580: 4549: 4542: 4536:Wayback Machine 4523: 4519: 4511: 4507: 4498: 4494: 4485: 4481: 4466: 4462: 4454: 4450: 4442: 4438: 4428: 4426: 4411: 4407: 4397: 4395: 4360: 4356: 4346: 4344: 4329: 4325: 4317: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4291: 4289: 4282: 4266: 4262: 4254: 4247: 4237: 4235: 4192: 4188: 4178: 4176: 4141: 4137: 4127: 4125: 4090: 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2746: 2741: 2734: 2729: 2722: 2695: 2688: 2683: 2678: 2677: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2607:Greek Dark Ages 2597: 2590: 2587: 2480: 2451:spearheads and 2434: 2432:Ancient warfare 2428: 2416:volcanic winter 2400: 2387: 2362: 2356:Dorian invasion 2354:Main articles: 2352: 2321: 2291: 2251: 2249:Possible Causes 2107:Suppiluliuma II 2064:Seleucid Empire 2016:Akkadian Empire 2000: 1915:, northwestern 1891:in the east to 1877:Egyptian Empire 1865: 1822:Southern Levant 1810:Tale of Wenamun 1723: 1663:Battle of Djahy 1610: 1604:Merneptah Stele 1596:New Kingdom era 1574: 1568: 1548:Teichos Dymaion 1498:Greek Dark Ages 1482: 1438: 1436:Greek Dark Ages 1432: 1407:Late Cypriot II 1400:Suppiluliuma II 1384: 1329: 1324: 1315: 1291: 1284: 1237: 1172: 1163:Merneptah Stele 1159:Dorian invasion 1134: 1020:Greek Dark Ages 948: 917: 911: 906: 905: 900: 860: 859: 850: 836: 817: 798: 797: 778: 768: 767: 766: 750: 736: 727: 713: 699: 698: 688: 678: 677: 676: 667: 653: 634: 615: 614: 595: 575: 565: 564: 563: 544: 525: 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5334: 5328: 5327: 5322: 5316: 5305: 5304:External links 5302: 5300: 5299: 5292: 5285: 5279: 5266: 5259: 5252: 5247:978-0415135900 5246: 5233: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5217: 5211: 5198: 5184: 5159: 5153: 5140: 5134: 5118: 5112: 5098:Cline, Eric H. 5093: 5091: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5075: 5044: 5042:, p. 194. 5032: 5020: 5001: 4982: 4961:(2): 379–388. 4941: 4914:(3): 336–342. 4895: 4888: 4870: 4805: 4786: 4773: 4752: 4721: 4692:(4): 2067259. 4672: 4613: 4594:(2): 173–198. 4578: 4540: 4517: 4505: 4492: 4479: 4474:Lockwood Press 4460: 4448: 4436: 4405: 4380:10.2307/502290 4354: 4323: 4321:, p. 151. 4308: 4299: 4281:978-1139469340 4280: 4260: 4255:Georges Roux, 4245: 4186: 4135: 4084: 4072: 4053: 4030: 4018: 4006: 3939: 3912: 3891: 3855: 3840:(2): 127–129. 3817: 3787: 3760: 3739: 3691: 3661: 3646: 3631: 3613: 3590: 3588:, p. 129. 3575: 3573:, p. 131. 3563: 3536:(3): 257–307. 3517: 3515:, p. 130. 3505: 3493: 3478: 3455: 3437: 3422: 3410: 3363:(4): 625–657. 3343: 3316: 3296: 3284: 3272: 3260: 3253: 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1047:Hittite Empire 1027:palace economy 968:mass migration 950: 949: 947: 946: 939: 932: 924: 921: 920: 908: 907: 902: 901: 899: 898: 893: 888: 887: 886: 876: 870: 867: 866: 862: 861: 858: 857: 851: 849: 848: 843: 841:Southeast Asia 837: 835: 834: 829: 824: 818: 816: 815: 810: 805: 799: 796: 795: 790: 784: 779: 774: 773: 770: 769: 765: 764: 763: 762: 751: 749: 748: 743: 741:Southeast Asia 737: 735: 734: 728: 726: 725: 720: 714: 712: 711: 706: 700: 697: 696: 690: 689: 684: 683: 680: 679: 675: 674: 668: 666: 665: 660: 658:Southeast Asia 654: 652: 651: 646: 641: 635: 633: 632: 627: 622: 616: 613: 612: 610:Late antiquity 607: 602: 596: 594: 593: 588: 583: 577: 576: 571: 570: 567: 566: 562: 561: 556: 551: 545: 543: 542: 532: 526: 523: 522: 492: 491: 486: 485: 482: 481: 453: 452: 446: 445: 433: 432: 430: 429: 422: 415: 407: 404: 403: 396: 395: 373: 370: 369: 366: 365: 347: 339: 338: 335: 334: 248: 240: 239: 236: 235: 209: 203: 202: 199: 198: 136: 130: 129: 126: 125: 88: 72: 71: 68: 67: 60: 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Routledge. 5239: 5234: 5231: 5227: 5226: 5214: 5208: 5204: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5160: 5156: 5150: 5146: 5141: 5137: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5122:Drews, Robert 5119: 5115: 5109: 5105: 5104: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5082:Drews 1993: 3 5079: 5063: 5059: 5058:mcgoodwin.net 5055: 5048: 5041: 5036: 5029: 5024: 5017: 5013: 5010: 5005: 4998: 4994: 4991: 4986: 4977: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4945: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4902: 4900: 4891: 4889:1-885923-09-0 4885: 4881: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4822: 4818: 4809: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4790: 4783: 4777: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4756: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4725: 4717: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4676: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4632: 4624: 4617: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4582: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4547: 4545: 4537: 4533: 4530: 4526: 4521: 4514: 4509: 4502: 4496: 4489: 4483: 4475: 4471: 4464: 4457: 4452: 4445: 4440: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4409: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4358: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4327: 4320: 4315: 4313: 4303: 4287: 4283: 4277: 4273: 4272: 4264: 4258: 4252: 4250: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4190: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4139: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4088: 4081: 4076: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4034: 4027: 4022: 4015: 4010: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3943: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3909: 3905: 3904: 3895: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3862: 3860: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3824: 3822: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3791: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3757: 3753: 3752: 3743: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3658: 3653: 3651: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3632:9781444342338 3628: 3624: 3617: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3594: 3587: 3582: 3580: 3572: 3567: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3524: 3522: 3514: 3509: 3503:, p. 23. 3502: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3479:9781444342338 3475: 3471: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3451: 3447: 3441: 3435:, p. 25. 3434: 3429: 3427: 3420:, p. 22. 3419: 3414: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3347: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3317:9963-36-409-8 3313: 3309: 3308: 3300: 3293: 3288: 3282:, p. 76. 3281: 3276: 3269: 3264: 3256: 3254:9780840371485 3250: 3246: 3239: 3231: 3218: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3179: 3173: 3166: 3160: 3144: 3140: 3134: 3131:. p. 8. 3130: 3127: 3126: 3118: 3109: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3078: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3040: 3035: 3027: 3021: 3017: 3010: 2995: 2991: 2984: 2982: 2972: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2927: 2923: 2921:9781589830660 2917: 2913: 2909: 2902: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2864: 2860: 2854: 2838: 2834: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2813: 2806: 2800: 2793: 2789: 2783: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2748: 2739: 2737: 2727: 2725: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2693: 2691: 2686: 2672: 2666: 2662: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2641: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2621: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2600: 2594: 2589: 2582: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2547: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2519: 2517: 2516: 2511: 2510: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2496:Age of Heroes 2493: 2489: 2485: 2475: 2473: 2468: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2433: 2423: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2395: 2393: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2361: 2357: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2316: 2313: 2308: 2304: 2301: 2296: 2286: 2284: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2245: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2208: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2163: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2142: 2139:The ruler of 2136: 2131: 2127: 2125: 2124:Land of Lukka 2118: 2116: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2071: 2069: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2023: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1934: 1930: 1929:Mediterranean 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1859: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1823: 1818: 1814: 1812: 1811: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1779: 1774: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1718: 1716: 1707: 1706:Ancient Egypt 1702: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1562: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1472: 1467: 1458: 1454: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1437: 1427: 1425: 1420: 1417: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1402:around 1200. 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1338: 1333: 1319: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1279: 1278:Middle Bronze 1275: 1269: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1217:Luwian states 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1166: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1139: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1035:Aegean region 1032: 1028: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 996:eastern Libya 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 945: 940: 938: 933: 931: 926: 925: 923: 922: 916: 910: 909: 897: 894: 892: 889: 885: 884:Postmodernity 882: 881: 880: 877: 875: 872: 871: 869: 868: 864: 863: 856: 853: 852: 847: 844: 842: 839: 838: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 819: 814: 813:South America 811: 809: 808:North America 806: 804: 801: 800: 794: 791: 789: 786: 785: 783: 782: 777: 772: 771: 761: 758: 757: 756: 753: 752: 747: 744: 742: 739: 738: 733: 730: 729: 724: 721: 719: 716: 715: 710: 707: 705: 702: 701: 695: 692: 691: 687: 686:Postclassical 682: 681: 673: 670: 669: 664: 661: 659: 656: 655: 650: 647: 645: 642: 640: 637: 636: 631: 630:South America 628: 626: 625:North America 623: 621: 618: 617: 611: 608: 606: 603: 601: 598: 597: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 578: 574: 569: 568: 560: 559:Proto-writing 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 546: 540: 536: 533: 531: 528: 527: 519: 515: 508: 507: 503: 497: 494: 493: 489: 484: 483: 478: 477: 476: 465: 461: 455: 454: 451: 450:Human history 448: 447: 443: 439: 438: 428: 423: 421: 416: 414: 409: 408: 406: 405: 402: 398: 397: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 368: 367: 362: 358: 354: 350: 342: 337: 336: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 243: 238: 237: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 201: 200: 195: 191: 187: 186:Shang dynasty 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 128: 127: 122: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 76: 70: 69: 66: 62: 61: 58: 55: 54: 40: 35: 30: 19: 5740: 5733:Ancient Rome 5704:311–129 BCE 5690: 5683:336–301 BCE 5673:539–331 BCE 5663: 5656:626–539 BCE 5647:729–609 BCE 5637:911–729 BCE 5628: 5622: 5616: 5604: 5569: 5559: 5553: 5523: 5511: 5496: 5473: 5452: 5427: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5360:Timeline of 5295: 5288: 5270: 5262: 5255: 5237: 5229: 5202: 5167: 5163: 5144: 5125: 5101: 5078: 5066:. Retrieved 5057: 5047: 5035: 5023: 5004: 4985: 4958: 4954: 4944: 4911: 4908:The Holocene 4907: 4879: 4873: 4830: 4826: 4820: 4816: 4808: 4789: 4781: 4776: 4768: 4765:T.A. Wertime 4760: 4755: 4743:. Retrieved 4734: 4724: 4689: 4685: 4675: 4663:. Retrieved 4635: 4629: 4616: 4591: 4587: 4581: 4556: 4552: 4524: 4520: 4508: 4500: 4495: 4487: 4482: 4473: 4463: 4456:Millek 2019b 4451: 4444:Millek 2019b 4439: 4427:. Retrieved 4418: 4408: 4396:. Retrieved 4371: 4367: 4357: 4345:. Retrieved 4336: 4326: 4302: 4290:. Retrieved 4270: 4263: 4257:Ancient Iraq 4256: 4236:. Retrieved 4203: 4199: 4189: 4177:. Retrieved 4152: 4148: 4138: 4126:. Retrieved 4101: 4097: 4087: 4080:Millek 2019a 4075: 4063:. Retrieved 4043: 4033: 4026:Millek 2019a 4021: 4014:Millek 2019a 4009: 3997:. Retrieved 3959:(350): 1–6. 3956: 3952: 3942: 3930:. Retrieved 3922:j.ctt1v2xvsn 3901: 3894: 3882:. Retrieved 3873: 3846:. Retrieved 3837: 3833: 3808:. Retrieved 3799: 3790: 3778:. Retrieved 3770:j.ctt1v2xvsn 3749: 3742: 3730:. Retrieved 3713: 3709: 3682:. Retrieved 3673: 3664: 3622: 3616: 3599: 3593: 3566: 3533: 3529: 3508: 3496: 3469: 3449: 3440: 3413: 3401:. Retrieved 3360: 3356: 3346: 3334:. Retrieved 3306: 3299: 3292:Millek 2021a 3287: 3280:Millek 2021a 3275: 3268:Millek 2021a 3263: 3244: 3238: 3217:cite journal 3205:. Retrieved 3177: 3172: 3164: 3159: 3147:. Retrieved 3124: 3117: 3108: 3096:. Retrieved 3087: 3077: 3065:. Retrieved 3056: 3046: 3034: 3015: 3009: 2997:. Retrieved 2993: 2961: 2957: 2930:. Retrieved 2911: 2901: 2889:. Retrieved 2880: 2870: 2862: 2859:Robert Drews 2853: 2841:. Retrieved 2822: 2819:"Chronology" 2812: 2804: 2799: 2787: 2782: 2770:. Retrieved 2761: 2757: 2747: 2706: 2702: 2665: 2548: 2520: 2513: 2507: 2502:'s story of 2481: 2469: 2447:rather than 2437:Robert Drews 2435: 2412:Ramesses III 2401: 2388: 2363: 2322: 2309: 2305: 2292: 2263: 2252: 2213: 2209: 2196:West Semitic 2193: 2189: 2185: 2173:Ramesses III 2155: 2151: 2146: 2138: 2133: 2129: 2120: 2111: 2072: 2052: 2024: 2008:East Semitic 2001: 1992:Diyala River 1965: 1937: 1889:Ancient Iran 1866: 1827: 1819: 1815: 1808: 1793:tribe of Dan 1782: 1775: 1759:Way of Horus 1724: 1711: 1687: 1667:Ramesses III 1593: 1589:Medinet Habu 1585:Ramesses III 1514: 1510: 1495: 1491: 1463: 1439: 1421: 1404: 1388:Tudḫaliya IV 1385: 1377: 1366: 1342: 1316: 1308: 1271: 1266: 1262: 1257:Robert Drews 1238: 1225:trade routes 1167: 1135: 1127: 1083: 1024: 980:North Africa 955: 953: 918: 793:Contemporary 788:Early modern 554:Protohistory 506:Contemporary 500: 473: 472: 468: 194:Zhou dynasty 120: 65:Chalcolithic 41:, beginning 29: 5750:224–mid 7C 5714:129–63 BCE 5696:Macedonians 5591:city-states 5587:Neo-Hittite 5562:Sea Peoples 5478:city-states 5457:city-states 5400:Uruk period 5362:Mesopotamia 5170:: 157–190. 4955:Radiocarbon 4638:(6): 1866. 4155:: 170–181. 4104:: 159–177. 2964:(1): 7–20. 2891:21 February 2599:Asia portal 2563:Philistines 2472:skirmishers 2453:long swords 2360:Sea Peoples 2325:ironworking 2319:Ironworking 2255:Sea Peoples 2200:Phoenicians 2075:Mesopotamia 2055:Babylonians 2028:Sea Peoples 1944:Sea Peoples 1863:Mesopotamia 1857:Tel Megiddo 1849:Tel Lachish 1785:Philistines 1739:Ramesses II 1639:Tyrrhenians 1611: 1200 1600:Ramesses VI 1581:Sea Peoples 1483: [ 1466:Peloponnese 1296:Late Bronze 1173: 1200 1155:Sea Peoples 1099:ironworking 1087:Sea Peoples 1067:Phoenicians 1059:Mesopotamia 1043:Archaic age 760:Renaissance 182:Xia dynasty 110:Mesopotamia 83: 3300 46: 1200 5926:Bronze Age 5910:Categories 5474:and other 5453:and other 5040:Drews 1993 5028:Drews 1993 4686:Palynology 4559:: 99–149. 4513:Cline 2014 4429:5 November 4374:(3): 258. 4319:Cline 2014 4238:5 November 4206:: 103649. 4179:5 November 4128:5 November 4065:5 November 3999:4 November 3932:3 November 3884:4 November 3848:3 November 3810:3 November 3780:3 November 3732:3 November 3657:Drews 1993 3586:Cline 2014 3571:Cline 2014 3513:Cline 2014 3501:Drews 1993 3433:Drews 1993 3418:Drews 1993 3403:4 November 3336:4 November 3207:4 November 3149:9 December 3098:5 November 3067:5 November 3039:Cline 2014 3025:0415127734 2772:5 November 2681:References 2632:Mycenology 2527:Phoenician 2488:golden age 2430:See also: 2259:metallurgy 2239:Tell Sukas 2141:Carchemish 2036:Phoenician 1721:The Levant 1471:Eric Cline 1313:Background 1199:, and the 1091:migrations 1016:Bronze Age 986:) and the 970:, and the 891:Futurology 832:South Asia 732:South Asia 649:South Asia 586:Bronze Age 581:Copper Age 539:Common Era 514:10,000 BCE 460:Prehistory 383:literature 361:Cemetery H 190:Sanxingdui 131:East Asia 57:Bronze Age 39:Bronze Age 5961:Dark ages 5665:Chaldeans 5582:Phoenicia 5520:Karduniaš 5194:259490258 5068:2 January 4936:130396931 4865:251044525 4815:"Ancient 4716:252971820 4608:154059624 4573:191385013 4292:29 August 4228:2352-409X 3989:163208536 3973:0003-097X 3722:1944-2815 3716:: 11–15. 3641:823737347 3558:144866495 3550:1059-0161 3488:823737347 3377:0002-9114 2932:9 October 2703:Antiquity 2478:Aftermath 2398:Volcanoes 2344:chariotry 2169:cuneiform 2165:Merneptah 2087:Babylonia 2048:Eber Nari 1980:Chaldeans 1948:Phoenicia 1940:Phrygians 1905:Phrygians 1853:Tel Hazor 1763:Deir Alla 1751:Merneptah 1715:Tel Masos 1623:Shekelesh 1532:Menelaion 1442:Cyclopean 1369:Phrygians 1304:Jerusalem 1298:(LB) and 1274:Jerusalem 1185:Babylonia 1079:West Asia 988:Near East 879:Modernity 846:West Asia 827:East Asia 746:West Asia 723:East Asia 663:West Asia 644:East Asia 600:Axial Age 502:Neolithic 496:Timelines 464:Stone Age 262:Mycenaean 85:–1200 BC) 75:Near East 5946:Iron Age 5895:Category 5606:Arameans 5600:Damascus 5571:Arameans 5525:Kassites 5513:Hurrians 5124:(1993). 5100:(2014). 5062:Archived 5012:Archived 4993:Archived 4857:35882233 4798:Archived 4745:31 March 4739:Archived 4665:26 March 4656:Archived 4532:Archived 4423:Archived 4392:Archived 4341:Archived 4286:Archived 4232:Archived 4173:Archived 4122:Archived 4059:Archived 3993:Archived 3981:25609263 3926:Archived 3878:Archived 3842:Archived 3804:Archived 3774:Archived 3726:Archived 3678:Archived 3608:70408199 3448:(1964). 3397:Archived 3393:55793645 3385:20627513 3330:Archived 3326:19842786 3201:Archived 3143:Archived 3092:Archived 3061:Archived 2999:2 August 2926:Archived 2885:Archived 2837:Archived 2766:Archived 2585:See also 2512:and the 2504:Atlantis 2457:javelins 2441:infantry 2385:Pandemic 2341:Maryannu 2329:Bulgaria 2295:Pyrenees 2177:Alashiya 2103:Ammurapi 2091:Anatolia 2018:and the 2014:and the 1984:Elamites 1972:Arameans 1950:and the 1913:Anatolia 1897:Anatolia 1837:Ashkelon 1727:Horemheb 1679:Shardana 1647:Ashkelon 1631:Shardana 1540:Nichoria 1528:Lefkandi 1373:Bosporus 1362:Kaymakçı 1327:Anatolia 1322:Evidence 1300:Iron Age 1229:literacy 1207:and the 1195:and the 1193:Anatolia 1181:Kassites 1132:Overview 1115:Iron Age 1061:and the 1039:Anatolia 1012:Caucasus 1008:Anatolia 865:See also 709:Americas 694:Timeline 591:Iron Age 488:Holocene 442:a series 440:Part of 401:Iron Age 266:Caucasus 254:Cycladic 154:Majiayao 146:Gojoseon 142:Erligang 98:Caucasus 94:Anatolia 73:Africa, 5508:Mitanni 5476:Amorite 5455:Amorite 5429:Gutians 5090:Sources 4963:Bibcode 4916:Bibcode 4835:Bibcode 4737:: 155. 4694:Bibcode 4640:Bibcode 4527:et al. 4398:2 March 4347:2 March 4208:Bibcode 4157:Bibcode 4106:Bibcode 3751:113–140 3090:: 221. 2865:, 1993. 2794:) 1987. 2671:Turkish 2559:Aramean 2555:Cilicia 2544:Wenamun 2523:Assyria 2515:Critias 2509:Timaeus 2465:metonym 2426:Warfare 2408:1159 BC 2333:Romania 2289:Drought 2215:Alalakh 2162:Pharaoh 2115:Alasiya 2040:Aramaic 2004:Semitic 1976:Suteans 1968:Elamite 1813:shows. 1805:Tjekker 1778:Lachish 1771:Twosret 1767:Succoth 1695:Nubians 1691:Libyans 1671:Peleset 1536:Mycenae 1524:Kydonia 1520:Knossos 1350:Hattusa 1253:Mycenae 1249:Hattusa 1211:in the 1149:of the 1119:Eurasia 1117:across 1107:chariot 1095:Dorians 1093:of the 1075:Assyria 1000:Balkans 822:Oceania 718:Oceania 639:Oceania 573:Ancient 518:Present 391:Chariot 379:writing 174:Xindian 170:Wucheng 138:Erlitou 5314:Curlie 5277: 5244: 5209: 5192: 5182: 5151: 5132: 5110: 4934: 4886: 4863: 4855: 4714: 4606: 4571: 4388:502290 4386: 4278: 4226: 4051: 3987: 3979: 3971: 3920: 3910: 3768: 3758: 3720: 3639: 3629: 3606: 3556: 3548: 3486: 3476: 3391: 3383: 3375: 3324: 3314: 3251: 3135: 3022: 2918: 2843:21 May 2829: 2807:(1987) 2567:Israel 2492:Hesiod 2449:forged 2243:Ugarit 2219:Aleppo 2181:Cyprus 2135:aware! 2095:Aegean 2044:Aramea 1986:under 1933:Cyprus 1925:Canaan 1901:Mushki 1893:Cyprus 1841:Bethel 1833:Ashdod 1803:, and 1789:Denyen 1753:, the 1693:, and 1683:Denyen 1675:Tjeker 1655:Israel 1651:Yenoam 1635:Teresh 1619:Ekwesh 1556:Tiryns 1516:Iolkos 1506:Athens 1475:Tiryns 1430:Greece 1411:Kition 1396:piracy 1392:copper 1382:Cyprus 1354:Ankara 1235:Debate 1221:Canaan 1213:Levant 1205:Ugarit 1197:Levant 1187:, the 1179:, the 1157:, the 1123:Africa 1051:Levant 1037:, and 1033:, the 1004:Aegean 1002:, the 998:, the 915:Future 855:Europe 803:Africa 776:Modern 755:Europe 704:Africa 672:Europe 620:Africa 371:Topics 258:Minoan 250:Aegean 242:Europe 178:Yueshi 118:Canaan 114:Sistan 106:Levant 5742:Syria 5618:Chal- 5596:Aram- 5471:Larsa 5190:S2CID 4932:S2CID 4861:S2CID 4712:S2CID 4659:(PDF) 4626:(PDF) 4604:S2CID 4569:S2CID 4384:JSTOR 3985:S2CID 3977:JSTOR 3918:JSTOR 3766:JSTOR 3684:4 May 3554:S2CID 3389:S2CID 3381:JSTOR 2764:(8). 2657:Notes 2579:Ammon 2500:Plato 2461:Homer 2235:Qatna 2083:Akkad 2079:Sumer 1998:Syria 1921:Syria 1797:Joppa 1755:Shasu 1735:Apiru 1731:Shasu 1643:Troas 1627:Lukka 1615:Libya 1566:Egypt 1544:Pylos 1487:] 1241:Pylos 1071:Egypt 992:Egypt 387:Sword 162:Qijia 158:Mumun 150:Jomon 90:Egypt 5694:and 5467:Isin 5450:Mari 5275:ISBN 5242:ISBN 5207:ISBN 5180:ISBN 5149:ISBN 5130:ISBN 5108:ISBN 5070:2007 4884:ISBN 4853:PMID 4819:and 4747:2023 4667:2023 4431:2022 4400:2021 4349:2021 4294:2020 4276:ISBN 4240:2022 4224:ISSN 4181:2022 4130:2022 4067:2022 4049:ISBN 4001:2022 3969:ISSN 3934:2022 3908:ISBN 3886:2022 3850:2022 3812:2022 3782:2022 3756:ISBN 3734:2022 3718:ISSN 3686:2019 3637:OCLC 3627:ISBN 3604:OCLC 3546:ISSN 3484:OCLC 3474:ISBN 3405:2022 3373:ISSN 3338:2022 3322:OCLC 3312:ISBN 3249:ISBN 3230:help 3209:2022 3151:2016 3133:ISBN 3100:2022 3069:2022 3020:ISBN 3001:2024 2934:2018 2916:ISBN 2893:2023 2845:2020 2827:ISBN 2774:2022 2577:and 2575:Edom 2571:Moab 2531:Elam 2445:cast 2358:and 2337:iron 2331:and 2227:Hama 2223:Emar 2194:The 2053:The 2046:and 2012:Ebla 1974:and 1931:and 1923:and 1917:Iran 1867:The 1829:Akko 1801:Acre 1743:Moab 1704:The 1681:and 1661:and 1633:and 1554:) - 1358:Troy 1335:The 1287:and 1245:Gaza 1243:and 1143:Troy 1121:and 1073:and 1025:The 982:and 954:The 166:Siwa 102:Elam 5630:ans 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