Law of Japan - Knowledge

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Massachusetts, 1963; Takayanagi K, 'A Century of Innovation: The Development of Japanese Law, 1868–1961' in Law in Japan: The Legal Order in a Changing Society, von Mehren A T (ed), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1963; Tanaka K, The Japanese Legal System: Introductory Cases and Materials, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 1976; Oda H, Japanese Law, Buttworths, London 1992 in English, Murakami J, Einfurung in die Grundlagen des Japanischen Rechts, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 1974; Igarashi K, Einfurung in das Japanische Recht, Wissenschaftliche Buchgedellschaft, Darmstadt, 1990; Conig et al, Die Japanisierung des Westlichen Rechts, J C B Moor, Tulbingen, 1990; Scholler H (ed), Die Enrwicklung der Rezeption westlichen Rechts auf die sozialen Verhältnisse in der fernöstlichen Rechtskultur, Nomos, Baden-Baden, 1993; Menkhaus H, Das Japanische in Japanischen Recht, Iudicium Verlag, München, 1994 in German; Scheer M K, Japanese Law in Western Languages 1974–1989: A Bibliography, Deutsch-Japanischen Juristenvereinigung, Hamburg, 1993 in both German and English; Centre Francais de Droite Comparé, Etudes de Droit Japonais, Société de Législation Comparé, Paris 1989; Maison du Japon, Boissonade et la Reception du Droit Francais au Japon, Société de Législation Comparé, Paris, 1991; Matsukawa T, La Familé et Droit au Japon, Economica, Paris 1991 in French.

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entity, shall have its own Prefectural Police (PP). The PP is supervised by the Prefectural Public Safety Commission, which carries out all police duties within the boundaries of the prefecture. In practice, the PP forces are located in each of the 47 prefectures. The National Police Academy, the National Research Institute of Police Science and the Imperial Guard Headquarters are also organizations affiliated with the NPA. In addition, the Koban system provides local residents with safety and peace through daily contacts of police officers with residents in the area. Originally created by the Japanese police, this system has been recently adopted by countries such as Germany and Singapore. However, its success depends on the human relationship between the police officers and the community people. At times, there is an excess of intervention by police. The Koban system rests on approximately 15,000 police boxes (Hasshusho) and residential police boxes (Chuzaisho) located throughout the country.

2994:) is the basic law on civil procedure. The reformed Code came into effect in 1998. After an initial complaint to the court, the Court schedules the first session of the oral proceeding. The court clerk serves a summons on the defendant to notify him of the date of the first session, along with a copy of the complaint and documentary evidence. The defendant's lawyer must then file an answer to the complaint. At the first session of the oral proceeding after the filing of the complaint and answer, the judge decides whether the case should proceed under the Preparatory Proceeding. A Preparatory Proceeding is closed to the public and held chiefly to identify the key issues of the dispute. In a complex dispute, there are usually multiple Preparatory Proceedings. The Oral Proceedings are held in open court, either by a single judge or three judges. After the close proceedings, the court renders a judgment on the merits of the case. 2496:), provides that Cabinet orders may not impose duties or restrict rights of citizens, unless such a power is delegated by statute. This rule reflects the traditional understanding of broad executive understanding developed under the 1889 Constitution. Under this principle, a Cabinet order can authorize government subsidies without statutory sanction, but cannot levy taxes. Other theories suggest that the 1947 Constitution requires a broader need for statutory authorization, on matters that do not restrict rights of citizens, such as on fiscal transfers to local governments, the pension system, or the unemployment system. The Law on the Organisation of State Administration provides authorizes ministerial ordinances to implement laws and cabinet orders, as long as it is specifically delegated by statute or cabinet order (Art. 12, para. 1). 2086:. It consisted of mostly criminal laws and precedents, and was compiled and issued in 1742, under the eighth Tokugawa shogun, Yoshimune. Crimes punished include forgery, harboring runaway servants, abandonment of infants, adultery, gambling, theft, receiving stolen goods, kidnapping, blackmailing, arson, killing and wounding. Punishment ranged from banishment to various forms of execution, the most lenient of which is decapitation; others include burning at the stake and public sawing before execution. The justice system often employed torture as a means to obtain a confession, which was required for executions. Punishment was often extended to the culprit's family as well as the culprit. 2842:

death or an injury resulted in litigation, compared to 21.5% in the United States. The litigation rate was low, Tanase said, because Japan provides non-litigious methods of assessing fault, advising victims, determining compensation, and ensuring payment. Non-litigious dispute resolution mechanisms, mediation services, consultation centers operated by governments, the bar association, and insurance companies. The Japanese judiciary also works hard at developing clear, detailed rules that guarantee virtually automatic, predictable, moderate compensation for most accident victims. This contrasts with the American tort system, where the legal rules concerning both

1734:, as well as the struggle for central hegemony amongst the Chinese dynasties, kingdoms, warlords, invasions and other quarrels. These disturbances produced a large number of refugees who were exiled or forced to escape from their homelands. Immigrants to Japan may have included privileged classes, such as experienced officials and excellent technicians who were hired in the Japanese court, and were included in the official rank system which had been introduced by the immigrants themselves. It is conceivable – but unknown – that other legal institutions were also introduced, although partially rather than systematically, and this was probably the first 2211: 357: 314: 3546:

population is about one officer to 556 citizens. The NPA is composed of approximately 7,600 personnel, of whom 1,200 are police officers, 900 are Imperial Guards and 5,500 are civilian personnel. The 47 PP forces have a total strength of approximately 250,000, of whom 220,000 are police officers and 30,000 are civilians. There are approximately 4,200 female police officers (1.6%), whose role has been growing in importance. In addition, there are about 14,000 female civilians, of whom about 3,100 are traffic control personnel and juvenile guidance personnel engaged in on-the-street juvenile control.

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Accordingly, they have the power to suspend prosecution even when they can prove the offender committed a crime. They can also investigate all categories of criminal cases on their own initiative, without assistance from the police and other law enforcement agencies. Special cases, such as bribery involving highly placed government officials or corporate crimes involving a breach of trust by executives are often investigated by prosecutors. The increasing frequency of the occurrence of these special cases have emphasized the importance of the prosecutor's investigative powers.

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leadership of Queen Himiko, who was reputed to be a shaman. This leads to the assertion that Yamatai had its own primitive system of law, perhaps court law, which enabled it to maintain government over competing clan laws. As a result, the whole legal system formed a primitive legal pluralism of court law and clan law. It can also be asserted that this whole legal system was ideologically founded on the indigenous postulate which adhered to the shamanistic religio-political belief in polytheistic gods and which was called kami and later developed into

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promotion, retirement and dismissal (LSA s. 89). About 42 per cent of the private sector workforce is employed in firms with fewer than ten employees. Consequently, these employers are exempt from the legal obligation to provide formal work rules in respect of their employees. The LSA also requires the employer to consult with the union, if any, or with a person who represents a majority of the employees in drafting the work rules (LSA s. 89). A copy of the work rules must also be submitted to the Labour Standards Office (LSA s. 90).

3522:(NPA). Since the commission makes basic policy while the NPA administers police affairs, the commission has control over the NPA. The commission is a governmental body responsible mainly for the administrative supervision of the police and coordination of police administration. It also oversees matters relating to police education, communication, criminal identification, criminal statistics and police equipment. To ensure its independence and neutrality, not even the Prime Minister is empowered to direct and give orders to the NPSC. 2512:), which are regarded as administrative rules rather than legislation. They are not a source of law but are instead internal guidelines; despite this, they can be very important in practice. Ministries also issue non-binding administrative guidances (written or oral), which has been criticized as opaque. The Law on Administrative Procedure prohibits retaliation in cases where persons do not follow government administrative guidances and some ministries attempted to codify them in cabinet orders and ministerial ordinances. 106: 1763:

this was due to the lack of written formalities, although court law was gradually emerging into a formal state law as far as central government was concerned. For these reasons, it cannot be denied that a primitive legal pluralism had developed based on court and clan law, partially with Korean law and overwhelmingly with indigenous law. These traits of legal pluralism, however primitive, were the prototype of the Japanese legal system which developed in later periods into more organised legal pluralisms.

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the juvenile. Possible measures include placement under the supervision of probation officers, commitment to a child education or training home or a house for dependent children, and commitment to a juvenile training school. The Juvenile Law states that juvenile cases should be in principle separated from adult cases in terms of their future development. Although there are exceptions, juveniles are criminally prosecuted when the case involves a certain punishment in response to a very serious offense.

297: 2316: 52: 2777:). The Commercial Code also includes typical commercial contracts, such as: sale, articles of incorporation, carriage of goods, warehousing, and insurance. Commercial contracts between Japanese companies are often brief, with parties preferring to leave certain possibilities open and negotiate for a mutually acceptable response instead of setting out detailed terms in writing. Courts sometimes prevent the termination or non-renewal of contracts when there is a strong 6712: 3396:

juvenile punishment, or the abolition of the practice of imprisoning defendants in police cells. Japanese society is relatively conservative in its approach to reforms and is generally inclined to oppose them. The government attempts to reform older laws by issuing a series of supplements. However, both the Code of Criminal Law and the Juvenile Law were revised in 1948 after the manifested new constitution of 1946, following the interruption to reform that

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and embezzlement. The concept of theft has a very broad meaning and includes burglary, shoplifting, and stealing the goods in a car. Stealing bicycles from in front of railway stations is a typical theft according to criminal statistics. Crimes which significantly cause social disorder, like arson, indecent behavior in the public, and gambling, are usually placed in a category of crimes against society. Bribery is considered a crime against the state.

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Toluene, thinner, and bonding substances are regulated by special law as well. Their abuse is a serious problem among the youth, partly because of their cheap price. Drug abuse in Japanese society largely stems from the use of amphetamine, which is largely imported from other Asian countries. Organized crime is involved in the handling and production of amphetamines and has become rich from this activity.

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contexts important to the protection of human rights. When police investigation is completed, police must refer the matter, including the evidentiary data, immediately to a public prosecutor. If the matter involves confining a suspect, they must refer the case to the public prosecutor within 48 hours of the suspect's arrest after which a determination is made concerning pre-trial detention.

3979: 3436:, anti-organized crime laws, and road traffic laws. There are a large number of traffic offenses, indicating serious problems on roads in Japan. Annually, there are 11,000 deaths caused by traffic accidents. After a controversy involving citizens' freedom of association in 1992, an anti-organized crime law was passed which regulated the activity of Boryokudan crime organizations. 3881:

investigations and reports by probation officers, evidentiary data bearing on the sentencing must be presented by the parties to the case, to be supplemented by the court's own inquiries. In this context, the court is the exclusive trier of fact, which consists of the physical evidence and, when that is the case, the confession of the accused as well as any witnesses testimony.

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regarded as the principle of due process. Article 33 covers protection from illegal arrest: "no person shall be arrested except upon a warrant issued by a competent judicial official, which specifies the offense with which a person is charged". Article 34 protects persons from illegal confinement and Article 35 protects persons from illegal deprivation of residence and property.

2279:. American law was the strongest influence, at times replacing and at times overlaid onto existing rules and structures. The Constitution, criminal procedure, and labor law, all crucial for the protection of human rights, and corporate law, were substantially revised. Major reforms on gender equality, education, democratization, economic reform and land reform were introduced. 1997: 2854:

motor vehicle accident tort claims (not just lawsuits), payments to lawyers equaled 47% of the total personal injury benefits paid by insurers. This expense drives up the cost of insurance to the point that huge numbers of drivers are uninsured or under-insured, which means that victims of their negligent driving will get little or nothing from the tort system.

2729:) is limited. These include minors and certain adults under guardianship, whose acts may be rescinded if done without their legal guardian's consent. Legal persons also have legal capacity; they include foundations and associations (businesses and non-profits), with for-profit associations being companies subject to the Company Law. Acts by legal persons may be 1751:

their duties with occasional punishments for crimes. The law of the court organised the clan chiefs into an effective power structure, in order to control the whole of society through the clan system. The form of these laws is not clearly known, but they may be characterised as indigenous and unofficial, as official power can rarely be identified.

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are adversarial, with parties taking initiative in producing and examining evidence; parties are in theory allowed to cross-examine witnesses, although trials often rely on documentary testimony rather than live testimony. Judges deliver the verdict and determine sentencing. Both the prosecution and the defense may appeal to a higher court.

2788:), or because a party lacked good faith and fair dealing. Examples include gambling contracts, contracts that limited a person's right to withdraw from a union, and contracts that violate consumer protection laws. Contracts in areas such as leases, employment and consumer transactions are subject to additional regulation by law. 2680:

example, good faith and fair dealing was used to justify piercing the corporate veil, protecting tenants from evictions in certain cases, and developing the doctrine of unfair dismissal under employment law. The prohibition on abuse of rights was also invoked by courts in cases even where there is no contractual relationship.

3145:(LSA), to all intents and purposes the courts regard the two as one and the same, and the terms "labour contract" and "employment contract" as interchangeable. It is through the civil procedure, therefore, that the boundaries of the individual contract have largely been defined by means of a comprehensive body of case law. 3423:

crimes against the imperial family and the state were highly emphasized. While crimes against the imperial family were abolished after World War II, the fundamental structure of this law was little changed. Since there has been no complete revision of the law, the law remains fairly antiquated on the surface.

4917:, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 1976, pp. 16–24 for the text. The Constitution gave the legal system its basic structure, composed of several modern legal essentials: that is, national sovereignty, fundamental human rights, separation of powers, a representative government and state-controlled finances. 2564:(concerning the relationship between private individuals, also known as private law) includes the Civil Code, the Commercial Code, and various supplemental laws. Civil law is the same throughout the country, and punishments and "provisions governing criminal offences" are found in the Penal Code of Japan. 3356:, or the judges they appointed, possessed a large amount of discretion, which often resulted in the abuse of power. Capital punishment was the main measure of dealing with offenders in the criminal justice system. Under feudalism, authorities frequently used the death penalty against political rivals. 3459:

Police, prosecution, court, correction and after-care divisions each publish their own statistics as a yearbook. The Ministry of Justice summarizes their statistics and publishes a book, White Paper on Crime. Because of the nationwide unitary system of these agencies, such a complete portrayal of the

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Drug offenses. There are special laws regulating cannabis, narcotics and psychotropics, stimulants and opium. Drug regulations cover punishment for the use, trade, possession, and production of drugs. In the 1990s a new drug regulation was introduced to conform to the standards of the United Nations.

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Age of criminal liability. Persons younger than 20 years of age are legally considered juveniles. According to the Juvenile Law, juvenile cases go to Family court. The court subsequently determines the need to subject the juvenile concerned to protective measures and the most beneficial treatment for

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The criminal justice system reflects the state's task of protecting individual interests in daily life. Crimes against life, person, and freedom include homicide, assault, bodily injury, forcible rape, indecent assault, and kidnapping. Crimes against property include theft, fraud, robbery, extortion,

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Legal classification. The three main categories of crime under the Japanese Criminal Law are crimes against the state, crimes against society and crimes against individuals. This law was passed under the old Constitution which had mainly focused on the power of the emperor and the state. As a result,

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was gradually developed largely based on case law, including cases on pollution. Statutes outside the Civil Code also regulate specific types of torts, such as the Law on the Compensation of Losses arising from Car Accidents enacted in 1955, the 1973 Law on the Remedies of Harm Caused to Human Health

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law is based mostly on the Civil Code, which defines the rights and obligations of the parties in general and in certain types of contracts, and the Commercial Code for certain commercial transactions. The Commercial Code is considered a specialized law, meaning it take precedence over the Civil Code

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However, cabinets based on party politics were powerless against growing interference by the Japanese military. The army and navy had seats in the cabinet, and their refusal to serve in a cabinet would force its dissolution. A series of rebellions and coups weakened the Diet, leading to military rule

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In this period, a more powerful polity and a more developed legal system than the unofficial clan law of the struggling clan chiefs was required effectively to govern the society as a whole. Yamatai must have been the first central government which succeeded in securing the required power through the

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Pre-trial incarceration conditions. If the public prosecutor believes that continued detention of the accused is needed, he or she must apply to a judge for a warrant of detention. This warrant must be applied for within 24 hours after police transfer to the prosecutor, or a maximum of 72 hours from

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Proportion of prosecuted cases going to trial. Japan has a low rate of acquittals and a high rate of convictions. In 1988, there were 57,790 accused persons tried in first-instance courts, of which only 50 (0.01%) were found not guilty. Defense lawyers generally prefer the introduction of mitigating

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The jury system has, for all practical purposes, been suspended. There are no procedures equivalent to a guilty plea. That is, even if the defendant acknowledges guilt, the prosecutor must submit evidence to establish guilt. Further, since the Japanese procedural system does not include pre-sentence

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Number of police. The NPA and the PP personnel forces are composed of police officers, officers of the Imperial Guard Headquarters, and civilian employees such as clerical workers and technical engineers. In 1990, there were about 258,800 authorized full-time police personnel. The ratio of police to

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The Code of Criminal Procedure (刑事訴訟法) governs Japanese criminal procedure. Investigation is conducted by police officers and public prosecutors. No one can be apprehended, searched or seized except on the basis of a warrant issued by a competent judicial officer. Warrants for arrests are not needed

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In 1926, a governmental advisory commission drafted forty principles to be included in the revision of the penal code that a few years later were used as the basis of a provisional "Revised Penal Code of Japan", published in 1941. While this document itself does not remain as the present form of the

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Under the Industrial Safety and Health Act of 1972 (ISHA), employers bear the major responsibility for the prevention of occupational disease and accident through an integrated scheme of insurance and safety and health management. Furthermore, through the employment contract, employers owe a general

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Under the Japanese Constitution, citizens are guaranteed the right to maintain the minimum standards of a wholesome and cultured life (s. 25). These are to be maintained through the right to work (s. 27) and the right to property (s. 29). The Constitution also guarantees certain work-related rights.

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under which judicial precedent provides non-binding guidance on how laws should be interpreted in practice. Judges seriously consider a series of similar precedents, especially any pertinent Supreme Court decisions, thus making understanding of precedent essential to practice. For example, the field

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The Civil Code, Commercial Code and the Criminal Code were enacted in the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. Parts of the Civil Code on family and inheritance were totally amended after World War II to achieve gender equality. Other codes were also periodically amended. For example, company

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With a new government and a new constitution, Japan began to systematically reforming its legal system. Reformers had two goals in mind: first, to consolidate power under the new imperial government; second, to "modernize" the legal system and establish enough credibility to abolish unequal treaties

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were adopted and adapted by the Japanese, the Japanese had no known writing system with which to record their history. Chinese characters were known to the Japanese in earlier centuries, but the process of assimilation of these characters into their indigenous language system took place in the third

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Translation of "kami" = gods in Shintoism, not only enshrined in Jinja (enshrinement of Shinto gods, worshiped by any group of small local fraternities, local communities or associated believers from different localities) but also deified as governing human affairs and natural occurrences, as cited

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Provisions directly governing trial proceedings provide that admissions of testimony must be compelling. There are also rights guaranteeing a speedy and public trial, full opportunity to examine all witnesses, and legal counsel by lawyers employed by the state if the accused cannot afford a private

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Availability of police automobiles. Motor vehicles are assigned to all police boxes throughout the country. Because of their mobility, they are useful in handling emergency cases, investigating criminal activity, and enforcing traffic control. As of 1994, there are approximately 26,000 police motor

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Expenditures. There are two types of police budgets: the national budget and the prefectural budget. The national police budget covers the expenditures of the NPA relevant to the execution of duties under its jurisdiction, including personnel costs, expenses incurred by the prefectural police which

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Article 1 of the Civil Code, in the General Part (総則), emphasized public welfare, prohibited the abuse of rights, and required good faith and fair dealing. Similar provisions can be found in French and German law. These provisions are often invoked by Japanese courts to reach equitable results. For

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The NPA, which is headed by a Director General, maintains Regional Police Bureaus as its local agencies throughout the country. There are seven bureaus in the major cities, excluding Tokyo and the northern island of Hokkaido. Police law stipulates that each prefectural government, which is a local

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Criminal trials are necessary in Japan regardless of whether the defendant pleads guilty. In a criminal trial where the defendant has admitted guilt, the average time needed to complete the trial is 2.6 months; but contested cases take an average of 8.5 months to complete. Japanese criminal trials

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Japan is widely regarded to have exceptionally low levels of crime. In 2017, for example, its intentional homicide rate was 0.2 per 100,000 people, compared to 5.3 per 100,000 in the United States and 1.2 in the United Kingdom. In 2018, crime fell to a new low since World War II, declining for the

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Japanese criminal law is primarily based on the Criminal Code (刑法) of 1907. Other important statutes include the Law on Misdemeanours, the Law on the Prevention of Subversive Activities, the Law on Penalising Hijacking, the Law on the Prohibition of Unlawful Access to Computers, and the Law on the

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The Criminal Procedure Code was also drastically amended after World War II, under American legal influence, to guarantee due process and largely adopting an adversarial system. Under this system, the roles of the police, the prosecutor, and the judge changed. The rights of offenders also became a

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The result was a system that is vastly more efficient and reliable in delivering compensation than the American tort system. Tanase estimated that legal fees comprised only 2% of the total compensation paid to injured persons. In the United States in the late 1980s, according to two big studies of

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The Commercial Code also authorizes applying commercial custom over the Civil Code. Certain acts, such as buying properties with intention of reselling for profit as defined as commercial per se, while other acts are governed by the Commercial Code depending on whether the actors are businesses or

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Therefore, the Japanese legal system today is essentially a hybrid of civilian and common law structures, with strong underlying "flavors" from indigenous Japanese and Chinese characteristics. While historical aspects remain active in the present, Japanese law also represents a dynamic system that

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Two qualifications can be added to these assertions. First, some Korean law must have been transplanted, albeit unsystematically; this can be seen by the rank system in court law and the local customs among settled immigrants. Second, official law was not clearly distinguished from unofficial law;

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in the second and third centuries. According to this account, Japanese indigenous law was based on the clan system, with each clan forming a collective unit of Japanese society. A clan comprised extended families and was controlled by its chief, who protected the rights of the members and enforced

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During these periods, Japanese law was unwritten and immature, and thus was far from comprising any official legal system. Nonetheless, Japanese society could not have functioned without some sort of law, however unofficial. Glimpses of the law regulating people's social lives may be guessed at by

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Rights of the accused. The Constitution is the source of individual rights in the setting of criminal investigations and trial. Article 31 declares, "No person shall be deprived of life or liberty, nor shall any other penalty be imposed, except according to procedure established by law", which is

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system and a very small number of lawyers (advocates) are complemented by large numbers of civil law notaries and scriveners. Japan introduced a new legal training system in 2004 as part of a justice system reform. The justice system reform has been criticized for failing to incorporate a gender

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Although a jury system came into force in 1939, it was practically never used because of inflexibility in the ongoing criminal justice system at that time. In addition, professional judges have always enjoyed a high level of trust in Japanese society. After the war, the police began to carry guns

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Based on the new Constitution after World War II, the Criminal Code was radically changed to reflect constitutional rights such as free expression and gender equality. The Criminal Code has since been amended from time to time, and special laws were also enacted to target specific areas of crime.

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Most terms and conditions of employment are provided by the company's work rules, which may be drawn up and varied unilaterally. However, under the LSA, an employer of more than ten persons is required to draw up a set of rules specifying certain conditions of work, including hours, rates of pay,

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Basics of the Japanese employment law are established in the Japanese Constitution, which was framed in large part with an eye toward the U.S. Constitution. As such, employment laws in Japan are similar to those in the U.S., and can be divided into three general categories: labor standards, labor

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In a 1990 article, Takao Tanase posited that the calculated structuring of governmental and legal processes, not a cultural propensity toward harmonious social relations, accounted for the persistently low litigation rate in Japan. In Japan in 1986, fewer than 1% of automobile accidents involving

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thus included administrative law of both central and local government and international law in the treaties and agreements of the new government under the emperor (in addition to former agreements with the United States and other countries, which had been entered into by the Tokugawa Shogunate).

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If reasonable grounds to detain a suspect exist, the judge must promptly issue a warrant or order of detention at a maximum of 10 days before prosecution is instituted. Reasonable grounds are determined by three criteria: 1) whether the suspect has a fixed dwelling, 2) whether the suspect might

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Official who conducts prosecution. Only prosecutors are empowered to institute the prosecution of a criminal case and to direct the enforcement of criminal sentences. They have a large amount of discretion in controlling and directing criminal cases. (Japanese Criminal Procedure Code, Art.248).

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has no formal basis in Japanese law. Courts are in theory free to deviate from precedents and have from time to time done so, although they risk being reversed by a higher court. In addition, Japanese judges are generally career judges whose promotion and transfer can be greatly affected by the

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The modern system of Japanese law, together with the process of the transplantation and its socio-cultural background, has been studied by many Western and Japanese scholars. Prominent are von Mehren A T, Law in Japan: The Legal Order in a Changing Society, Harvard University Press, Cambridge,

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The total National Police Agency Budget for the 1990 fiscal year was 198,420 billion yen, of which 41.5% (82,282 billion yen) went toward personnel expenses, 14.5% (28,870 billion yen) went toward equipment, communications, and facilities, 18.2% (36,149 billion yen) were allocated toward other

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Numerous laws have been enacted to supplement the Civil Code as soon as it was adopted, including laws on the Registration of Real Property (1899) and the Law on Deposits (1899). The 1991 Law on Land and Building Leases merged three previous statutes on buildings, house leases and land leases.

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Delegated legislation is implicitly recognized under Art. 73, para. 6 of the Constitution, which states that cabinet orders may not include criminal sanctions unless delegated by law. Delegations to the cabinet must not undermine the supremacy of the Diet in law-making and must be specific and

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Laws on censorship and laws aimed to control political and labor movements were enacted in the Meiji era, curtailing the freedom of association. By the 1920s, laws were amended so that leaders of organizations that advocated for Marxism or changing the imperial structure could be put to death.

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Preparatory procedures for bringing a suspect to trial. Procedure in criminal prosecutions is uniform throughout Japan, and based primarily on the 1948 Code of Criminal Procedure and the 1949 Rules of Criminal Procedure under the Constitutional Law, reflecting Anglo-American legal concepts in

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Arguments were frequently made for reforming the main laws such as the Criminal Law (1907), the Juvenile Law (1947) and the Prisons Law (1907). However, plans for reform were controversial because they addressed delicate issues, such as the introduction of protective measures to Criminal Law,

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and brought closer to European civil law. This was because the parts on family and succession had retained certain vestiges of the old patriarchal family system that was the basis of Japanese feudalism. Other parts of the Civil Code remained substantially unchanged even after the occupation.

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Suspects can be detained for a maximum of seventy-two hours before being brought before a judge to authorize continued detention. Suspects must be informed of their right to remain silent, and counsel will be appointed if they cannot afford one. Suspects can be detained for 10 days prior to

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Local authorities may issue local regulations under Art. 94 of the Constitution and Law on Local Self-Administration, as long as they are not contrary to law. The law also authorizes local regulations to impose punishments including up to two years’ imprisonment or a fine of 1,000,000 yen.

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and the law of the Tokugawa Shogunate. However, new criminal law and prison laws were passed in an effort to bring Japan into line with Western countries. An 1880 criminal code was primarily inspired on French law, while the current code, enacted in 1907 was primarily based on German law.

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However, Japanese legal and general historians have not overtly affirmed or denied this for two reasons: first, because there are no written records left and, second, because Japanese official history tended to devaluate, or even deny, and Korean influence, cited in Masaji Chiba,

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are shouldered by the state, and subsidies to the PP. Expenditures needed by the PP to carry out their duties are appropriated in the budget of each prefecture. In 1992, the NPA budget totalled 213,464 billion yen and the PP budget totalled 2,992,454 million yen (US$ 270 billion).

2470:, there are statutes such as the Labor Standards Law, the Trade Union Law, the Law on the Adjustment of Labor Relations, and the newly enacted Labor Contract Law. Other important statutes include the Banking Law, the Financial Instruments and Exchange Law, the Anti-Monopoly Law ( 2466:, there isn't a comprehensive administrative code. Instead, individual statutes such as the Cabinet Law, the Law on Administrative Litigation, the Law on Compensation by the State, City Planning Law, and other statutes all concern administrative law. Similarly, in the domain of 3564:

Weapons. After World War II, the United States advised Japanese police to require individual police officers to carry guns, whereas they used to carry only sabers. However, few guns are actually used. One problem is that offenders may initially attack police in order to obtain

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with broad imperial powers; British and French systems were considered but were abandoned because they were seen as too liberal and democratic. Elections took place for the lower house, with voters consisting of males paying a certain amount of tax, about 1% of the population.

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civil law – were the primary models for the Japanese legal system, although they were often substantially modified before adoption. Court cases and subsequent revisions of the code also lessened the friction between the new laws and established social practice. The draft

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Recruited police officers must immediately attend a three-part training course, consisting of preservice, on-the-job, and a comprehensive training course. Those recruited by the PP are enrolled in a 1-year preservice training course at their respective police academies.

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Electronic equipment. Network technology includes police telephone circuits, facsimile, an integrated system for police activities, a communication command system and mobile radio system, portable radio sets, a communication satellite, and multi-channel mobile telephone

3584:

Confessions. Admissions of testimony in court may not include confessions made under compulsion, torture or threat, or after prolonged detention or confinement. Conviction or punishment cannot be permitted where the only proof against the defendant is his or her own

2150:(1868–1912), the Japanese populace and politicians quickly accepted the need to import western legal system as part of the modernization effort, leading to a rather smooth transition in law. Under the influence of western ideas, the Emperor proclaimed in 1881 that a 2717:, torts, and incorporation. All living natural persons (and in some cases, unborn fetuses) have such private rights, which enable them to inherit property and claim damages in tort cases. Despite having full rights capacity, some persons' transactional capacity ( 2286:

proclaimed that sovereignty rested with the people, deprived the Emperor of political powers, and strengthened the powers of the Diet, which is to be elected by universal suffrage. The Constitution also renounced war, introduced a Bill of Rights, and authorized

1712:

century. This was due to the willingness of the Japanese to borrow aspects of the culture of continental civilisations, which was achieved mainly via adjacent countries such as the Korean kingdoms rather than directly from the Chinese mainland empires.

2529:

of tort law originated from one intentionally general provision in the Civil Code (Art. 709) and was developed by a substantial body of case law. Similar developments are seen in the fields of administrative, labor, and landlord and tenant law.

2947:

are generally not allowed to unilaterally terminate leases without "just cause". Many landlords are forced to buy out their tenants if they wish to demolish buildings to make way for new development: one well-known contemporary instance is the

3557:

vehicles, including 5,000 patrol cars, 3,000 traffic police motorcycles, 5,000 vehicles employed for criminal investigation and 2,500 transport vehicles. In addition, about 200 police boats and 60 helicopters are assigned to each jurisdiction.

4212:

This may be shown by reference to some epochal events in Japanese relations with three Korean countries during this period: with Shilla in 205 AD, Paekche in 2016 AD and Kogryo, bordering upon North China, in 297 AD as cited by Masaji Chiba,

2117:(townspeople). For example, a samurai is permitted to summarily execute petty townspeople or peasants if they behaved rudely towards him, although such executions were rarely carried out. Because official treatment was often harsh, villages ( 3890:

Under the Supreme Public Prosecution Office are 8 higher offices, 50 district offices and 810 local offices. As of 1990, there were about 1,100 prosecutors and 900 assistant public officers, who are all appointed by the central government.

3388:

main issue in the criminal justice system in the post-war period. Unfortunately, immediately following this innovation, a series of cases resulted in a miscarriage of justice partly because the police were not accustomed to the new system.

1727:, which emphasize social/group/community harmony rather than individual interests, have been very influential in the Japanese society, with the consequence that individuals tend to avoid litigation in favour of compromise and conciliation. 2401:

was officially restored to political power. Japanese law is primarily inspired by the Civilian system in continental Europe, which emphasizes codified statutes ("codes") that set out the basic legal framework in a particular area of law.

2833:, the Japanese Civil Code only has a single provision on tort liability. Article 709 of the Civil Code states: "A person who intentionally or negligently violates the rights of others shall be liable for the loss caused by the act." 2652:

Special laws on torts such as Nuclear Damage (1961), Pollution (1971) and Traffic Accidents (1955) were also enacted to supplement the Civil Code. Other laws include the 1994 Product Liability Law and the 2000 Consumer Contract Law.

2477:

In general, provisions of a specialized law take precedence over a more general law if there is a conflict. Thus, when provisions of the Civil Code and the Commercial Code both apply to a situation, the latter takes priority.

2813:, or jests. In such cases, the law contains rules that balance the interests of the obligor, the obligee, and third parties, based partially on their states of mind and whether they acted in good faith. Some contracts are 2746:

if both laws apply. Contracts, along with wills, gifts and other acts with legal consequences, are considered juridical acts; and are governed by the Civil Code when the Commercial Code and commercial custom do not apply.

3481:

indictment, renewable once (Art. 208). After indictment, there is no limit to the length of detention and some defendants spend months awaiting trial. Bail is available only after indictment, although its use is limited.

2449:

law was separated from the Civil Code in 2005. The Japanese Civil Code has had a significant role in the development of civil law in several East Asian nations including South Korea and the Republic of China (Taiwan).

1723:(India), were officially transplanted in 284–285 and 522 AD respectively, and became deeply acculturated into indigenous Japanese thought and ethics. David and Zweigert and Kotz argue that the old Chinese doctrines of 2749:

A contract requires the coinciding of the minds, with an offer and an acceptance. Parties must act in good faith when negotiating a contract and may need to disclose information before contracting in some situations.

3777: 3594:

Japan recognizes a large number of legal professions, however the number of lawyers is significantly fewer than in the United States. This is due to the fact that Japanese law is based on the Continental European

1742:

considering the few contemporary general descriptions in Chinese historical books. The most noted of these is The Record on the Men of Wa, which was found in the Wei History, describing the Japanese state called

5888:

Osaka, Eri. "Gender Issues in the Legal Profession and Legal Education in Japan" Paper presented at the annual meeting of The Law and Society Association, Hilton Bonaventure, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, May 27,

6207:(Civil Affairs Bureau, Criminal Affairs Bureau, Correction Bureau, Rehabilitation Bureau, Human Rights Bureau, Immigration Bureau, Public Prosecutors Office, etc. Also contains annual "White Paper on crime") 2671:

merchants. The Code is supplemented by various other laws such as the Law on Cheques, the Law on Bills, and the Law on Commercial Registration. A Company Law was separated from the Commercial Code in 2005.

1810:, it also showed a desire to establish a political system centered on the emperor, with the help of a coalition of noble families. Nevertheless, there are doubts that the document was fabricated later. 6677: 5856: 2850:(i.e. non-economic loss) are stated in general terms, leaving a great deal to the judgment of constantly rotating lay juries—which in turn makes courtroom outcomes variable and difficult to predict. 509: 3861:

lawyer. In addition, a person cannot incur criminal liability if the act was lawful at the time it was committed, and cannot be subject to conviction for the same crime twice (double jeopardy).

2295:, and the Civil Code provisions on family law and succession were systematically revised. Laws also legalized labor unions, reformed the education system, and dissolved business conglomerates ( 1730:

It is theorized by some that the flow of immigrants was accelerated by both internal and external circumstances. The external factors were the continuing political instability and turmoil in

6687: 3413:

Control of Stalking. The General Part of the Criminal Code expounds principles and concepts, including intention, negligence, attempt, and accomplice, which applies to all criminal laws.

3896:

circumstantial evidence rather than arguing with the prosecutor. In addition, both practicing lawyers and judges regard criminal cases as being less attractive than other types of cases.

3141:

relations, and trade unions. The 'employment' or 'service' contract is recognised under article 623 of the Japanese Civil Code. While the term "labour contract" is not defined under the

3157:

duty to take care of their employees’ health and safety—and may be sued for damages for negligence in cases where breach of duty or violation of the statutory regulations has occurred.

2350:. Laws, ordinances and government acts that violate the Constitution do not have legal effect, and courts are authorized to judicially review acts for conformity with the constitution. 2240:

was still controlled by the aristocracy. Voting rights was never extended to the colonies, like Korea, although colonial subjects who moved to Japan could vote after the 1925 reforms.

3484:

Prosecutors have broad discretion on whether to prosecute, but a Prosecution Review Board (検察審査会) consisting of randomly selected citizens and the court (through a procedure known as

2105:

and the samurai were subject to the shogunate's laws, and shogunate administrative officials would perform judicial functions. Daimyos had considerable autonomy within their domains (

6601: 3363:, as Western culture was introduced, the government established new laws reflecting a gradually modernizing Japanese society. The first criminal code after the Restoration was the 2016:分国法) in order to establish order in their respective territories. Most such laws sought to improve the military and economic power of the warring lords, including instituting the 2203:(German civil code) served as the model for the Japanese Civil Code. For this reason, scholars have argued that the Japanese legal system is a descendant of the Romano-Germanic 2338:

in 1947. The Constitution contains thirty-three articles relating to human rights and articles providing for the separation of powers vested into three independent bodies: the

1829:

was dispatched. The envoys learned of Tang Dynasty's laws, as a mechanism to support China's centralized state. Based on the Tang code, various systems of law, known as the

2232:(leaders of the Meiji Restoration) would privately confer and recommend Prime Minister candidates and cabinet members to the Emperor. Reforms in this period include the 6436: 5595:

Self-Defence Force case, Sup. Ct., 3rd Small Bench, February 25, 1975, Minshu, vol. 29, no. 2, p. 143 as cited by Y. Matsuda, S. J. Deery & R. J. Mitchell (eds.),

2365:(lower house). Article 41 of the Constitution provides that "the Diet shall be the highest organ of State power, and shall be the sole law-making organ of the State." 499: 3096:

Japanese commercial law is also characterized by a relationship with the bureaucracy that is important in determining how those engaged in commerce conduct business.

3013:) was separated from the Commercial Code in 2005. Shareholder liability rules generally follow American example. Under Japanese law the basic types of companies are: 6682: 3822:

In-house legal advisors at major corporations are almost entirely unregulated, although there has been a trend in the past decade towards attorneys moving in-house.

2236:, which abolished property qualifications and allowed almost all men over age 25 to vote for members of the House of Representatives (the lower house), although the 6641: 6546: 3541:

expenses, and 25.8% (51,119 billion yen) went toward subsidies for Prefectural Police. In all, 74.2% of the total (147,301 billion yen) went toward NPA expenses.

2667:) of 1897 but with some French influence. The Commercial Code is considered a specialized law, meaning it take precedence over the Civil Code if both laws apply. 6651: 2303:

was kept as a punishment for certain serious crimes. However, Japan retained its civil law legal system and did not adopt an American common law legal system.

504: 6596: 6516: 4778:

Levin, Mark (2009). "Continuities of Legal Consciousness: Professor John Haley's Writings On Twelve Hundred Years of Japanese Legal History". Rochester, NY.

4865: 1920:

Beginning in the 9th century, the Ritsuryo system began to break down. As the power of the manor lords (荘園領主) grew stronger, the manor lords' estate laws (

1670:

legal system with six legal codes, which were greatly influenced by Germany, to a lesser extent by France, and also adapted to Japanese circumstances. The

5810: 6606: 6581: 6496: 6218:– written by Chief Judge of IP High Court, including statistics on substantial winning rate (42–47%) for patentees in patent infringement cases in Japan. 2591:(総則), which includes basic rules and definitions of Japanese civil law, such as the capacity of natural and legal persons, juridical acts, and agency. 6636: 6521: 2275:(overwhelmingly American) supervised and controlled the Japanese government. Japanese law underwent major reform under the guidance and direction of 6526: 6506: 5442:". This paper was presented at a Sho Sato Conference held on February 12–13, 2005 at Boalt Hall School of Law, University of California, Berkeley. 2959:

power and can expropriate land for any public purpose as long as reasonable compensation is afforded. This power was famously used in the wake of

6491: 6406: 321: 2409:

in 1889, the Commercial Code, Criminal Procedure Act and Civil Procedure Act in 1890 and the Civil Code in 1896 and 1898. These were called the

6616: 6576: 6531: 5696: 4400: 2111:) and issued their own edicts. Daimyos and the samurai also exercised considerable arbitrary power over other classes, such as peasants or the 1904:. These ritsuryō positions would be mostly preserved until the Meiji Restoration, although substantive power would for a long time fall to the 427: 2226:

In the 1910s, a movement for more democracy developed and there were several cabinet supported by elected political parties. Before this, the

6536: 6229: 6322: 3842:

Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers, 438 Summary Courts, one District Court in each prefecture, eight High Courts and the

1777: 1806:, which differed from modern constitutions in that it was also moral code for the bureaucracy and aristocracy. While it was influenced by 2462:

In addition to the six codes, there are individual statutes on more specific matters which are not codified. For example, in the area of

1645: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 2093:

ideas, the populace was divided into classes, with the samurai on top. Central power was exercised to various degrees by the shogun and

6251: 3515: 1568: 5647: 5468: 5372: 5315: 5216: 4610: 4158: 3404:

penal code of Japan it was largely influential to its construction and has informed the judicial interpretation of the modern code.

2883:), in contrast to personal rights which can only be claimed against specific parties. Property is classified into immovables (i.e. 2792: 546: 6626: 6308: 2659:(商法 Shōhō) is divided into the General Part, Commercial Transactions, and Merchant Shipping and Insurance. It was modeled on the 2272: 1195: 1077: 6266: 5775: 269: 1618: 5934: 5919: 5665: 5545: 5486: 5390: 5333: 5234: 4628: 4461: 4425: 4376: 4354: 4176: 1051: 966: 961: 956: 951: 946: 556: 364: 5038: 4840: 6351: 4993:

C. Milhaupt and G. Miller, ‘Cooperation. Conflict and Convergence in Japanese Finance; Evidence from the “Jūsen” Problem’,

4069: 2215: 1064: 1060: 551: 541: 4844: 2406: 1042: 17: 2643:

After World War II, sections dealing with family law and succession (books four and five) were fully revised during the

3826: 1573: 1515: 1405: 998: 514: 2552:

Scholars and practising lawyers often comment on judicial judgments, which can then affect future judicial reasoning.

1875:, there was no concept of private law and there was no direct mentioning of contracts and other private law concepts. 6159: 6145: 6131: 6103: 6005: 5991: 5956: 4826: 4685: 4520: 4200: 2968: 2758:

or the purchase of farm land may require certain formalities, such as a written contract or administrative approval.

2159: 2094: 1558: 1548: 1200: 980: 162: 138: 6286: 1666:, which is primarily based on legal codes and statutes, with precedents also playing an important role. Japan has a 3166: 2895:

of transfers of immovable property is not required, it is necessary for one to claim rights against a third party.

2773:), lease, employment, hire of services, mandate, deposit (consignment), partnership, life annuity, and settlement ( 2362: 1345: 1135: 436: 305: 248: 221: 209: 2182:

systems and, to a lesser extent, English and American common law elements. Chinese-style criminal codes (Ming and

6751: 6261: 6221: 4873: 2039:(幕藩体制), a feudal political system. The shogunate also promulgated laws and collection of precedents, such as the 1822: 1638: 1553: 1530: 1475: 1355: 1335: 1320: 1215: 145: 3865:

Assistance to the accused. The state must provide legal counsel if the defendant cannot afford a private lawyer.

3432:

Special laws. Includes firearms and sword control law, laws for regulating business that affects public morals,

6303: 4349:

Hane, Mikiso; Perez, Louis G. (2014). Premodern Japan: a Historical Survey. (Second edition ed.). Boulder, CO.

3519: 2802: 2292: 1814: 1803: 1470: 1260: 1235: 1225: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 656: 651: 646: 641: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 536: 531: 5075:

Y. Higuchi, ‘Hanrei no kōsoku-ryoku kō (On the Binding Force of Precedent)’, in Higuchi and M. Shimizu (eds),

2486:

The Constitution is the supreme law in Japan; below it are statutes enacted by the Diet, then Cabinet orders (

6646: 3017: 2054: 1520: 1460: 1360: 1350: 1330: 1275: 1210: 1140: 474: 6246: 2972: 2358: 1971:, a body of samurai laws consisting of precedents, reasons and customs in samurai society from the time of 1678:

is the supreme law in Japan. An independent judiciary has the power to review laws and government acts for

1581: 1485: 1435: 1370: 1325: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1250: 1185: 1170: 1145: 1110: 1100: 6201:(about judicial system, judicial statistics, court procedure, court cases, judicial training system, etc.) 5796:

The American Series of Foreign Penal Codes 8: A Preparatory Draft for The Revised Penal Code of Japan 1961

6276: 6175: 5857:"Japan's crime rate hits postwar low, but child abuse, domestic violence and offenses by elderly on rise" 3988: 3711: 3142: 2300: 1563: 1510: 1445: 1440: 1430: 1420: 1410: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1265: 1230: 1220: 1205: 1175: 1150: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1090: 2210: 5279:

to be considered legally born for purely beneficial purposes; this is the equivalent of the common law

5089: 4032: 2967:

and sell their land to farmers at very cheap rates (one historical reason for agriculture's support of

1631: 1505: 1495: 1490: 1480: 1455: 1425: 1415: 1375: 1365: 1285: 1245: 1240: 1180: 1160: 1155: 1095: 1035: 33: 2705:). Juridical acts are all declarations of will with specific legal consequences, including contracts, 2200: 2191: 6238: 3994: 3050: 2818: 1540: 1535: 1500: 1465: 1450: 1340: 1315: 1270: 1255: 1165: 1115: 1105: 235: 167: 117: 6281: 4804: 6368: 6344: 4022: 3837: 3667: 3596: 3509: 2248: 2204: 2179: 1901: 1667: 1525: 1290: 1280: 1190: 397: 356: 6291: 6226: 6117:

International Law, Human Rights, and Japanese Law: The Impact of International Law on Japanese Law

5657: 5582:, Routledge, London, at 102, cited in "Japan", Y. Matsuda, S. J. Deery & R. J. Mitchell (ed), 5325: 4620: 4247:(2nd ed, Vol 1, Oxford, Clarendon press, 1987), pp. 361, 370–371; R. David and J. E. C. Brierley, 4168: 6314: 5501:

Law on the Lease of Land and Houses, Laws No. 49 and No. 50, 1921 (replaced by Law No. 90, 1991).

3627: 3604: 3600:

perspective. The major professions, each of which has a separate qualification process, include:

2062: 1937: 1310: 1047: 1017: 1007: 204: 152: 6267:

Japanese Knowledge article on "List of Japanese laws" (contains links to many key Japanese laws)

3967: 3957: 3947: 3937: 2898:

Like other civil codes, the Japanese Civil Code classifies types of property rights, including:

2158:) was ‘granted’ to the subjects by the Emperor in 1889. Japan's Meiji Constitution emulated the 2020:(楽市・楽座) policy, which dissolved guilds and allowed some free marketplaces, and the principle of 313: 5478: 5382: 5226: 4701:

Lectures on the New Japanese Civil Code as Materials for the Study of Comparative Jurisprudence

3843: 3113: 3105: 2913: 2810: 2343: 2237: 1771: 413: 405: 180: 6215: 6019:

Civil Code / Commercial Code / Code of Civil Procedure of Japan: Laws and Regulations of Japan

4783: 2393:

The modernization of Japanese law by transplanting law from Western countries began after the

2000:

Edo Castle with surrounding residential palaces and moats, from a 17th-century screen painting

1882:, promulgated in 702. Within the central government, the law codes established offices of the 6746: 6256: 4791: 4054: 4042: 4017: 4007: 3433: 3376: 2335: 2329: 2283: 2183: 1897: 1671: 76: 65: 6262:

Ono,Shusei "A Comparative Study of the Transfer of Property Rights in Japanese Civil Law(1)"

2891:); different types of property are sometimes subject to different rules. For example, while 2754:

is not required and gifts are also considered contracts. Certain types of contract, such as

2405:

The first major legislation enacted in Japan was the Criminal Code of 1880, followed by the

3474: 2334:

The present national authorities and legal system are constituted upon the adoption of the

2268: 2233: 2049: 1972: 1893: 1082: 988: 348: 255: 157: 5438:

R. Kagan, "On the Routinization of Tort Claims: Takao Tanase's 'The Management of Disputes

8: 6666: 6561: 6337: 6315:"IPCA [International Parental - Child Abduction System] – Background Information" 6257:

Laws & Regulations on Setting Up Business in Japan: Human Resource Management (JETRO)

5907: 4059: 4012: 3918: 3135: 3124: 3109: 3076: 3063: 2644: 2537:

Supreme Court. Because of this, scholars have commented that Supreme Court decisions are

2276: 2190:) were initially considered as models but abandoned. European legal systems – especially 264: 188: 2500:

concrete. The Supreme Court tend to allow broad delegations of power to the government.

2413:(six codes) and the term began to be used to mean the whole of Japan's statute law. The 196: 6486: 6481: 6376: 5690: 5425:

Takao Tanase, "The Management of Disputes: Automobile Accident Compensation in Japan",

5117: 4394: 4249:

Major Legal Systems in the World Today, An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Law

4064: 3689: 3353: 2710: 2605: 2463: 2385:

or otherwise refuse to approve a law passed by the Diet, or exercise emergency powers.

2378: 2256: 2155: 2139: 2032: 1986: 1967: 1962: 1958: 1909: 1856: 1708: 1012: 492: 81: 5834: 6721: 6476: 6426: 6396: 6386: 6155: 6141: 6127: 6099: 6001: 5987: 5952: 5930: 5915: 5769: 5661: 5541: 5482: 5386: 5329: 5282: 5230: 4822: 4779: 4681: 4624: 4526: 4516: 4467: 4457: 4431: 4421: 4382: 4372: 4350: 4196: 4172: 4037: 3360: 2921: 2892: 2888: 2660: 2614: 2580: 2576: 2394: 2143: 2125:

often resolved disputes internally, based on written or unwritten codes and customs.

1679: 1072: 383: 42: 3938:"Trends in Japanese Constitutional Law Cases: Important Judicial Decisions for 2004" 1985:

and manor lords. It was the first systematic code for the samurai class. Later, the

1799: 130: 6692: 6571: 6566: 6446: 5653: 5474: 5378: 5321: 5222: 4616: 4164: 3733: 3647: 3044: 3031: 2940: 2398: 2370: 2090: 1975:, and which clarified the standards for judging the settlement of disputes between 1735: 994: 328: 230: 112: 99: 3968:"Trends in Japanese Constitutional Law Cases: Important Legal Precedents for 2007" 3958:"Trends in Japanese Constitutional Law Cases: Important Legal Precedents for 2006" 3948:"Trends in Japanese Constitutional Law Cases: Important Legal Precedents for 2005" 2784:

Contracts are sometimes void because they go against public order or good morals (

6586: 6541: 6511: 6411: 6233: 6171: 5779: 5042: 4725:

Griffin, Edward G. "The Universal Suffrage Issue in Japanese Politics, 1918–25."

4027: 2847: 2843: 2830: 2471: 2319:

The National Diet is the national legislature, responsible for enacting new laws.

2288: 2195: 1933: 479: 371: 6271: 3083: 3070: 3057: 1883: 6611: 6391: 6381: 6012:

Penal Code / Code of Criminal Procedure of Japan: Laws and Regulations of Japan

3454: 2956: 2949: 2706: 2696: 2005: 1908:(shogunate) established by the samurai. Locally, Japan was reorganized into 66 1864: 1594: 1022: 243: 217: 105: 2955:

Despite this emphasis on tenant rights, the government exercises a formidable

6740: 6715: 6656: 6591: 6556: 6471: 6421: 6401: 6112:, revised edn. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2006 (1st edn. 1998). 4971:

See e.g. Law on Water Pollution Controls, Law No. 138, 1970, Art. 3, para. 1.

4471: 4435: 4386: 3983: 2952:

complex, which offered several previous tenants special deals on apartments.

2884: 2751: 2699:

to hold rights, assume duties, and incur liabilities through juridical acts (

2546: 2366: 2354: 2151: 2040: 449: 420: 288: 6210: 4530: 2315: 2255:, Japan was turned into a totalitarian state, which continued until Japan's 1879: 1703:. Little is known about Japanese law prior to the seventh century, when the 296: 6697: 6551: 6441: 6431: 6416: 4866:"Japanese Law Translation - [Law text] - The Constitution of Japan" 3929: 3477:(現行犯) and serious offenses for which a warrant cannot be obtained in time. 3397: 3349: 2960: 2929: 2862: 2596: 2374: 1868: 1844: 1836: 1826: 1782: 1716: 1675: 1612: 469: 340: 6204: 6075:

Japanese Contract and Anti-Trust Law: A Sociological and Comparative Study

5258:

F. Takakura, ‘Shōhō-ten no Tanjō (The Emergence of the Commercial Code)’,

5034:

Transparency of Japanese Law Project – Group for International Finance Law

4415: 4234:

Poh-Ling Tan, (ed), Asian Legal Systems, Butterworths, London, 1997 at 90.

1889: 6725: 6501: 6461: 6456: 6451: 6360: 4904:

edited by Poh-Ling Tan, "Asian Legal Systems" Butterworths, London, 1997.

4510: 4485: 3037: 2909: 2904: 2635: 2613:

is considered one source from which an obligation emerges, together with

2561: 2490:), then ministerial ordinances. Article 11 of the Cabinet Law (Japanese: 2339: 2307:

has undergone major reforms and changes in the past two decades as well.

2252: 2147: 2098: 2089:

Justice in the Edo period was very much based on one's status. Following

1818: 1786: 1700: 51: 3153:

Wages, hours and other working conditions must be fixed by law (s. 27).

2503: 2291:. On gender equality, women were enfranchised for the first time in the 2187: 2178:

The early modernization of Japanese law was primarily based on European

2154:(parliament) would be established, and the first Japanese Constitution ( 1951: 1831: 1793: 1704: 510:

Japanese House of Councillors national proportional representation block

6216:

Decade History and Future Prospects of Intellectual Property High Court

6124:

Japanese Law in Context: Readings in Society, the Economy, and Politics

2762: 2714: 2626: 2542: 2467: 2107: 2028: 1860: 1785:, which was an imperial palace modeled after Tang China palaces in the 462: 5979:. Trans. by Anthony H. Angelo. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1976. 5215:

Oda, Hiroshi (2009). "General Rules and Institutions of Private Law".

4980:

For an exception, see Judgment of the Supreme Court, 20 January 1971,

2571:(民法 Minpō) was created in 1896. It was heavily influenced by the 1887 2357:

is the bicameral supreme legislative body of Japan, consisting of the

2166: 1940:

remained strong, and a dual legal order existed with samurai laws and

1715:

Two of the most significant systems of human philosophy and religion,

6295: 3799: 2899: 2422: 2347: 1872: 1724: 6070:. Trans. by Leo Kanowitz. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2002. 6054:

Product Safety and Liability Law in Japan: From Minamata to Mad Cows

2113: 1852: 6198: 4659:

Thayer, N. B. (1996). The Japanese prime minister and his cabinet.

3755: 2944: 2933: 2917: 2814: 2778: 2742: 2618: 2296: 1807: 1720: 124: 2228: 5077:

Nihon-koku Kenpō no Riron (Theories of the Constitution of Japan)

3982:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

3905:

destroy evidence and; 3) whether he might flee the jurisdiction.

3392:

instead of sabers, according to the advice of the United States.

2920:), and commonage (collective rights over land, such as forests). 1977: 1925: 1743: 252: 6059:

Hiroo Sono, Luke Nottage, Andrew Pardieck, & Kenji Saigusa.

5925:

Francisco Barberán, Kiyohiko Kuroda, & Fuminobu Okabe, eds.

2975:

is another well-known example of eminent domain power in Japan.

2600:(物権) and covers property and security rights over real property. 2524:

In the civil law system of Japan, courts follow the doctrine of

2964: 2755: 2102: 2009: 1756: 1747: 6329: 6309:

Columbia Law School's Center for Japanese Legal Studies (CJLS)

6241:– Presentation and theses on IP in English by Japanese judges. 5811:"Japan's crime problem? Too many police, not enough criminals" 5565:"Japan", Y. Matsuda, S. J. Deery & R. J. Mitchell (eds.), 3846:. There is also one Family Court tied to each District Court. 2138:

Major reforms in Japanese law took place with the fall of the

4751:

R. P. G. Steven, "Hybrid Constitutionalism in Prewar Japan",

2806: 2508:

Ministries and administrative agencies also issue circulars (

2128: 2061:), which set out the relationship between the shogunate, the 1731: 1696: 1663: 5912:

Código civil japonés: Estudio preliminar, traducción y notas

2683:

The Civil Code's General Part also defines rights capacity (

2369:

originates from the National Diet, with the approval of the

2133: 1851:(令) provides for administrative organization, taxation, and 6119:. London: Clarendon; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. 4915:

The Japanese Legal System: Introductory Cases and Materials

4609:

Oda, Hiroshi (2009). "The History of Modern Japanese Law".

3089: 2925: 2834: 2610: 2441:

The Code of Criminal Procedure (刑事訴訟法 Keiji-soshō-hō, 1948)

2382: 2067: 1942: 6033:

Modern Trends in Tort Law: Dutch and Japanese Law Compared

5968:

Curtis J. Milhaupt, J. Mark Ramseyer, & Mark D. West.

4454:

Art and palace politics in early modern Japan, 1580s–1680s

3950:, trans. John Donovan, Yuko Funaki, and Jennifer Shimada, 2549:

by the Supreme Court is also often cited by lower courts.

500:

List of districts of the House of Representatives of Japan

6181:(contains the overview and court cases in various areas) 6136:

Kenneth L. Port, Gerald Paul McAlinn, & Salil Mehra.

6040:

The Essentials of Japanese Patent Law: Cases And Practice

5314:

Oda, Hiroshi (2009). "Law of Obligations and Contracts".

5006:

H. Shiono, ‘Administrative Guidance’, in K. Tsuji (ed.),

4550:

Wren, Harold G. "The Legal System of Pre-Western Japan."

2474:), the Patent Law, Copyright Law, and the Trademark Law. 2438:

The Constitution of Japan (日本国憲法 Nippon-koku-kenpō, 1946)

1996: 1900:, eight central government ministries, and a prestigious 1589: 5561: 5559: 5557: 5555: 5553: 4766:

Legal Reform in Occupied Japan: A Participant Looks Back

3375:) of 1869, primarily influenced by the Chinese Ming and 2865:

is outlined in Book Two of the Civil Code. Real rights (

2817:, meaning that they are valid until a contracting party 2444:

The Code of Civil Procedure (民事訴訟法 Minji-soshō-hō, 1996)

1924:本所法) began to develop. Furthermore, as the power of the 5970:

The Japanese Legal System: Cases, Codes, and Commentary

5580:

Industrial Relations in Japan: The Peripheral Workforce

4251:(2nd ed, London, Stevens and Sons, 1978), pp. 479, 500. 3930:

English summaries of important family law related cases

2879:

Real rights in a thing are good against all the world (

2871:) concern the rights of a person over a thing, a right 2761:

The Civil Code lists 13 nominate contracts, including:

2388: 2024:(喧嘩両成敗), which punished both sides involved in brawls. 6140:, 3rd edn. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2015. 5951:. Seattle, Wa.: University of Washington Press, 2007. 5879:

Art. 33 and Art. 35 of the Code of Criminal Procedure.

2791:

Contractual consent can sometimes be defective due to

505:

List of districts of the House of Councillors of Japan

6252:

Labor law (in English) – includes Worker Dispatch law

6178:(Japanese Law Translation Database System in English) 6096:

Authority Without Power: Law and the Japanese Paradox

6091:, 4th edn. Alphen aan den Rijn: Wolters Kluwer, 2017. 5550: 4678:

Authority Without Power: Law and the Japanese Paradox

4655: 4653: 4486:"Japan | History, Flag, Map, Population, & Facts" 4413: 2504:

Administrative rules, guidances and local regulations

2170:

Meiji Constitution promulgation by Toyohara Chikanobu

2097:, who were appointed from the daimyo, similar to the 1855:(the people's labor obligations), similar to today's 5972:, 2nd edn. NY: Foundation Press; Thomson/West, 2012. 5021:

An Equitable Framework for Humanitarian Intervention

4896: 4894: 4892: 4890: 2838:

by Pollution, or the 1994 Law on Product Liability.

6297:

electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies

6138:

Comparative Law: Law and the Legal Process in Japan

5835:"Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) | Data" 5681:Lenz, K-F. (2005). "Penal Law". In Röhl, W. (ed.). 5646:Oda, Hiroshi (2009). "Criminal Law and Procedure". 2939:Japan has gradually strengthened the rights of the 1950:), the latter having developed on the basis of old 1835:(律令), were enacted in Japan, especially during the 6000:, 3rd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. 5965:. St. Paul, Minn.: West Academic Publishing, 2018. 5348:T. Uchida and V. Taylor, "Japan's 'Era of Contract 4650: 2071:, and the Laws on Religious Establishments (寺院諸法度 6292:The Reluctant Japanese Litigant: A new assessment 5764: 5762: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5754: 5752: 5750: 5748: 5746: 5744: 5742: 5740: 5738: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5730: 5728: 5726: 5090:"An overview of the criminal law system in Japan" 4887: 4838:M. Ibusuki, "Japanese Law via the Internet" 2005 4740:Koreans in Japan: Critical voices from the margin 4369:Buddhism and the state in sixteenth-century Japan 2262: 6738: 6089:The rule of law in Japan: a comparative analysis 5771:World Factbook of Criminal Justice Systems—Japan 5724: 5722: 5720: 5718: 5716: 5714: 5712: 5710: 5708: 5706: 4832: 3514:The national level police organizations are the 2781:at stake, citing the duty to act in good faith. 1699:are believed to have been heavily influenced by 6304:The Australian Network for Japanese Law (ANJeL) 5929:. Cizur Menor: Thomson Reuters-Aranzadi, 2013. 5789: 5787: 3810: 3788: 3778:Certified social insurance and labor consultant 3766: 3744: 3722: 3700: 3678: 3658: 3638: 3615: 6294:, discussion paper by Masayuki Yoshida in the 6154:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. 3804: 3782: 3760: 3738: 3716: 3694: 3672: 3652: 3632: 3609: 3569: 3491: 3485: 3370: 3364: 3081: 3068: 3055: 3042: 3029: 3021: 3008: 3003: 2989: 2984: 2866: 2718: 2700: 2684: 2491: 6345: 5944:, 2nd edn. London: Routledge-Cavendish, 2002. 5703: 5652:. Oxford University Press. pp. 426–442. 5597:Labour Law & Industrial Relations in Asia 5584:Labour Law & Industrial Relations in Asia 5567:Labour Law & Industrial Relations in Asia 5421: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5320:. Oxford University Press. pp. 136–163. 4508: 4296:by Masaji Chiba, "Japan" Poh-Ling Tan, (ed), 3960:, trans. Asami Miyazawa and Angela Thompson, 3496:) may review cases and initiate prosecution. 1892:(Grand Council of State), which included the 1639: 6277:Japanese Family Laws in English and Japanese 6049:. Alphen aan den Rijn: Wolters Kluwer, 2007. 6042:. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2006. 6035:. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1999. 5784: 5280: 3099: 2796: 2724: 2690: 1915: 1912:and 592 counties, with appointed governors. 5914:, 2nd edn. Madrid: Thomson-Aranzadi, 2006. 4958:Judgment of the Supreme Court, 1 May 1958, 4371:. Princeton, New Jersey. pp. 196–200. 4163:. Oxford University Press. pp. 26–52. 4157:Oda, Hiroshi (2009). "The Sources of Law". 3416: 3088:, a now abolished form based on the German 2146:in the late 1800s. At the beginning of the 6352: 6338: 5961:Colin P. A. Jones & Frank S. Ravitch. 5695:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5514:. LBC Information Services, Sydney. p. 38. 5412: 4841:"GlobaLex - Japanese Law via the Internet" 4399:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4309:Masaji Chiba, "Japan" Poh-Ling Tan, (ed), 2630:(親族), including marriage and guardianship. 2129:Modern developments and Japanese law today 1685: 1646: 1632: 6098:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. 5986:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. 5798:. Sweet & Maxwell Limited. p. 1. 5658:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232185.003.0019 5599:, 1993, Longman Cheshire: Sydney, at 177. 5586:, 1993, Longman Cheshire: Sydney, at 175. 5569:, 1993, Longman Cheshire: Sydney, at 175. 5326:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232185.003.0008 4995:Law and Policy in International Business, 4755:, Vol. 3, No. 1 (Winter 1977) pp. 99–133. 4621:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232185.003.0001 4272: 4224: 4169:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232185.003.0003 2609:(債権). Like in other civil law countries, 2381:, the Emperor does not have the power to 2134:Legal reforms after the Meiji Restoration 2101:of medieval England. Certain conducts of 2078:The Code of One Hundred Articles (御定書百箇条 2055:Laws for the Imperial and Court Officials 6150:J. Mark Ramseyer & Minoru Nakazato. 6126:. Harvard University Asia Center, 2001. 5409:(Cambridge, Massachusetts), pp. 128–130. 5039:"Finance - Transparency of Japanese Law" 4949:Part 1, 2nd edn (Tokyo, 1994), pp. 57–67 4821:(University of Washington Press, 2007). 4451: 4366: 3970:, trans. Mark A. Levin and Jesse Smith, 3849: 2963:to dismantle the estates of the defunct 2765:, sale, exchange, loan for consumption ( 2733:if they exceed their scope of purposes. 2481: 2314: 2209: 2165: 1995: 1859:. Other provisions correspond to modern 1770: 4817:Id.; see generally, Daniel Foote, ed., 4345: 4343: 4341: 4339: 3831: 2583:. The code is divided into five books: 2452: 1932:) came to be established. In the early 789:Japanese House of Councillors elections 14: 6739: 6319:U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Japan 5927:Introducción al derecho japonés actual 5641: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5629: 5627: 5625: 5479:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232185.001.1 5383:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232185.001.1 5227:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232185.001.1 5210: 5208: 5206: 5204: 5202: 5200: 5198: 5196: 5194: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5186: 5184: 5182: 5180: 5178: 5176: 5174: 5172: 5170: 5064:Hanrei no Yomikata (How to read Cases) 4604: 4602: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4447: 4445: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4331: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4221:, Butterworths, London, 1997 at 89–90. 3972:Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 3962:Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 3952:Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 3942:Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 3460:crime situation in Japan is possible. 1867:. Ritsuryō was strongly influenced by 6333: 6021:. Norderstedt: Books on Demand, 2015. 6014:. Norderstedt: Books on Demand, 2015. 5854: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5609: 5607: 5605: 5467:Oda, Hiroshi (2009). "Property Law". 5462: 5460: 5458: 5456: 5454: 5452: 5450: 5448: 5371:Oda, Hiroshi (2009). "Law of Torts". 5366: 5364: 5362: 5309: 5307: 5305: 5303: 5301: 5299: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5168: 5166: 5164: 5162: 5160: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5142:Minpō-Ronshū (Treatise on Civil Law), 5112: 5110: 4777: 4712:P. Alminjon, B. Nolde, and M. Wolff, 4695: 4693: 4578: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4560: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4540: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4104: 3467: 2674: 2639:(相続), including wills and succession. 5680: 5118:"Japanese Civil Code | Japanese law" 4716:(Paris, 1950), Tome II, pp. 427–428. 4300:, Butterworths, London, 1997 at 118. 4102: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4084: 3589: 2532:Despite the importance of case law, 2432:The Commercial Code (商法 Shōhō, 1899) 2389:The Six Codes in modern Japanese law 2216:Imperial Rule Assistance Association 1888:(chancellor), who presided over the 1878:One major reform on the law was the 77:Constitution of Japan (1947–present) 5793: 5645: 5536:Antonio Augusto Cancado Trinidade. 5466: 5370: 5313: 5214: 4608: 4442: 4316: 4313:, Butterworths, London, 1997 at 91. 4286:, Butterworths, London, 1997 at 91. 4269:, Butterworths, London, 1997 at 90. 4156: 3448: 3172:Japanese criminal sentencing, 1994 2407:Constitution of the Empire of Japan 2323: 1707:was developed and codified. Before 24: 6152:Japanese Law: An Economic Approach 5895: 5683:History of Law in Japan since 1868 5602: 5512:Asian Laws Through Australian Eyes 5445: 5359: 5290: 5147: 5107: 4690: 4557: 4537: 4509:Hashimoto, Masanobu; 橋本政宣 (2002). 3827:Japan In-House Lawyers Association 3503: 2978: 2435:The Criminal Code (刑法 Keihō, 1907) 2373:as a formality. Under the current 1766: 25: 6763: 6165: 6068:Japanese Employment and Labor Law 5808: 5144:vol. 6 (Tokyo, 1980), pp. 90–149. 4081: 3516:National Public Safety Commission 3407: 3129: 2310: 2175:signed with western governments. 1843:(律) is the equivalent of today's 1821:in 607. Later, in 630, the first 6720: 6711: 6710: 6325:from the original on 2023-12-11. 6211:Intellectual Property High Court 6122:Curtis J. Milhaupt et al., eds. 4870:www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp 4420:. Florence: Taylor and Francis. 4048: 3977: 3167:Criminal justice system of Japan 2997: 1804:Seventeenth-article Constitution 1606: 437:Intellectual Property High Court 355: 312: 295: 195: 129: 104: 50: 6359: 5882: 5873: 5855:Osumi, Magdalena (2019-11-29). 5848: 5827: 5802: 5674: 5589: 5572: 5538:International Law for Humankind 5530: 5517: 5504: 5495: 5432: 5399: 5342: 5265: 5252: 5243: 5134: 5082: 5069: 5056: 5026: 5013: 5000: 4987: 4974: 4965: 4952: 4947:Gyōsei-hō (Administrative Law), 4939: 4930: 4920: 4907: 4858: 4811: 4771: 4758: 4745: 4732: 4719: 4706: 4670: 4637: 4502: 4478: 4407: 4360: 4245:Introduction to Comparative Law 3352:(1867–1912), the powers of the 3160: 3049:(G.K.), similar to an American 3036:(K.K.), similar to an American 2429:The Civil Code (民法 Minpō, 1896) 1746:(or Yamato) ruled by the Queen 6678:British Indian Ocean Territory 6282:Summaries of major court cases 6222:Guidebook of the IP High Court 5008:Public Administration in Japan 4414:Kleinschmidt, Harald. (2007). 4303: 4289: 4254: 4237: 4206: 4185: 3018:Limited liability partnerships 2555: 2263:Japanese law post-World War II 1736:transplantation of foreign law 1690: 1662:refers to the legal system in 82:Meiji Constitution (1890–1947) 13: 1: 5949:Law in Japan: A Turning Point 5354:Law in Japan: A Turning Point 5275:fiction which allows a fetus 4819:Law in Japan: A Turning Point 4515:. Tōkyō: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan. 4456:. Leiden: Brill. p. 88. 4075: 3869: 3578: 3550: 3118: 2983:The Code of Civil Procedure ( 2579:, and to a lesser extent the 2059:kinchū narabini kuge shohatto 2053:(公事方御定書). It also issued the 428:Justices of the Supreme Court 6227:IP judgments listed by topic 5977:Introduction to Japanese Law 5036:2006–2009 Kyushu University 4727:The Journal of Asian Studies 4645:The Emergence of Meiji Japan 4512:Kinsei kuge shakai no kenkyū 4452:Lillehoj, Elizabeth (2011). 3529: 2973:Narita International Airport 2736: 2519: 2041:Laws for the Military Houses 7: 6073:Willem M. Visser ‘t Hooft. 5473:. Oxford University Press. 5377:. Oxford University Press. 5221:. Oxford University Press. 4753:Journal of Japanese Studies 4615:. Oxford University Press. 4070:New (2006) Corporations Law 4001: 3908: 3811: 3800:Land and House Investigator 3789: 3767: 3745: 3723: 3712:Certified public accountant 3701: 3679: 3659: 3639: 3616: 3570:Training and qualifications 3486: 3365: 3092:(limited liability company) 3082: 3069: 3056: 3043: 3030: 3022: 3009: 2990: 2857: 2457: 2186:) and past Japanese codes ( 1043:Ministry of Foreign Affairs 10: 6768: 6110:The Spirit of Japanese Law 6077:. London: Routledge, 2002. 6056:. London: Routledge, 2012. 5407:Environmental Law in Japan 5405:J. Gresser et al. (1981), 4033:Legal systems of the world 3835: 3824: 3507: 3452: 3343: 3164: 3133: 3122: 3103: 3023:yūgen sekinin jigyō kumiai 2541:even more binding than in 2327: 2249:Japanese invasion of China 1791: 524:Japanese general elections 6706: 6665: 6625: 6367: 6045:Gerald Paul McAlinn, ed. 5963:The Japanese Legal System 5906:Francisco Barberán & 5809:Tokyo, David McNeill in. 5685:. Leiden. pp. 607ff. 5066:(Tokyo, 1986), pp. 14–16. 3995:Federal Research Division 3914:International family law 3805: 3783: 3761: 3739: 3717: 3695: 3673: 3653: 3633: 3610: 3492: 3371: 3303: 3272:6–12 months at hard labor 3233: 3187: 3100:Intellectual property law 3075:, similar to an American 3062:, similar to an American 3051:limited liability company 3004: 2985: 2867: 2719: 2701: 2685: 2492: 1989:more or less adopted the 1916:Laws under the shogunates 168:Imperial Household Agency 6427:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 6172:Japanese Law Translation 5774:, Takushoku University, 5525:Japanese Employment Laws 5262:1999, No. 1155, pp. 5–15 4023:Judicial system of Japan 3838:Judicial system of Japan 3734:Certified tax accountant 3668:Administrative scrivener 3510:Law enforcement in Japan 3417:Classification of crimes 2824: 2468:labor and employment law 2363:House of Representatives 1928:rose, samurai laws (武家法 1813:Japan began to dispatch 981:Administrative divisions 306:House of Representatives 32:This article is part of 6688:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 6063:. Wolters Kluwer, 2019. 5510:V. Taylor, ed. (1997). 5356:(Tokyo, 2007), p. 454ff 5122:Encyclopedia Britannica 4714:Traité de droit comparé 4490:Encyclopedia Britannica 4367:McMullin, Neil (2014). 4243:K Zweigert and H Kotz, 4195:. p. 49. Oxford, 2003. 3940:, trans. Daryl Takeno, 3640:gaikokuhō jimu bengoshi 3628:Attorney at foreign law 3464:16th consecutive year. 3310:1–2 years at hard labor 3264:1–2 years at hard labor 2928:, preferential rights, 2922:Real rights in security 2526:jurisprudence constante 2201:Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch 2012:developed feudal laws ( 1938:imperial court in Kyoto 1781:, the main building to 1686:Historical developments 939:Unified local elections 270:Administrative Agencies 6752:Legal history of Japan 6287:National Police Agency 6199:Supreme Court of Japan 5427:Law and Society Review 5281: 4799:Cite journal requires 3924:Lagerfeld v. Yamaguchi 3520:National Police Agency 3434:anti-prostitution laws 3114:Japanese trademark law 3106:Japanese copyright law 3002:Japanese Company Law ( 2902:, surface rights (aka 2797: 2725: 2691: 2661:German Commercial Code 2397:in 1868, in which the 2320: 2277:Occupation authorities 2273:Allied military forces 2219: 2205:civil law legal system 2171: 2001: 1880:Taihō (Great Law) Code 1789: 1061:Diplomatic missions of 6272:Links on Japanese law 6061:Contract Law in Japan 6047:Japanese Business Law 5947:Daniel H. Foote, ed. 5942:Japanese Legal System 5271:This is known as the 5079:(Tokyo, 1987), p. 684 5023:(Oxford: Hart, 2013). 4729:31.2 (1972): 275–290. 4055:Constitution of Japan 4043:Women in law in Japan 4018:Human rights in Japan 4008:Constitution of Japan 3850:Rights of the accused 3825:Further information: 3280:6–12 months in prison 3202:3 years at hard labor 2887:) and movables (i.e. 2624:Book Four deals with 2594:Book Two is entitled 2482:Delegated legislation 2336:Constitution of Japan 2330:Constitution of Japan 2318: 2284:Japanese Constitution 2214:Establishment of the 2213: 2169: 2080:osadamegaki hyakkajyō 1999: 1898:Minister of the Right 1792:Further information: 1774: 1672:Japanese Constitution 6602:United Arab Emirates 5578:Chalmers, N. (1989) 5094:Government of Canada 4997:1997, No. 1, p. 1ff. 4282:Poh-Ling Tan, (ed), 4265:Poh-Ling Tan, (ed), 4217:Poh-Ling Tan, (ed), 3832:Courts and procedure 3812:tochi kaoku chōsashi 3790:shakai hoken rōmushi 3475:in flagrante delicto 3194:7–10 years in prison 2453:Other sources of law 2359:House of Councillors 2269:the Second World War 2234:General Election Law 2084:Kujikata Osadamegaki 2050:Kujikata Osadamegaki 1973:Minamoto no Yoritomo 1894:Minister of the Left 349:House of Councillors 158:Chrysanthemum Throne 6629:limited recognition 6247:Japan Patent Office 6205:Ministry of Justice 6176:Ministry of Justice 6031:Ewoud Hondius, ed. 5984:Basic Japanese Laws 5908:Rafael Domingo Osle 4643:M.B. Jansen (ed.), 4311:Asian Legal Systems 4298:Asian Legal Systems 4284:Asian Legal Systems 4267:Asian Legal Systems 4219:Asian Legal Systems 4060:Japanese Civil Code 4013:Government of Japan 3919:Sweden v. Yamaguchi 3900:the time of arrest. 3326:2–3 years in prison 3318:1–2 years in prison 3288:1–2 years in prison 3218:5–7 years in prison 3210:3–5 years in prison 3173: 3143:Labor Standards Act 3136:Japanese labour law 3125:Family law in Japan 3110:Japanese patent law 3077:limited partnership 3064:general partnership 2569:Civil Code of Japan 2160:German constitution 2095:shogunate officials 1936:, the power of the 1902:Ministry of Deities 1196:Trinidad and Tobago 163:Imperial Succession 18:Civil Code of Japan 6300:, 13 October 2003. 6232:2015-08-12 at the 6038:Hiroya Kawaguchi. 5778:2016-05-31 at the 4764:Alfred C. Oppler, 4742:. Routledge, 2013. 4738:Ryang, Sonia, ed. 4647:(Cambridge, 1995). 4191:Malcolm D. Evans. 4065:Local Autonomy Law 3966:Teruki Tsunemoto, 3956:Teruki Tsunemoto, 3946:Teruki Tsunemoto, 3936:Teruki Tsunemoto, 3690:Judicial scrivener 3468:Criminal procedure 3354:Tokugawa shogunate 3171: 2786:contra bonos mores 2726:Handlungsfähigkeit 2675:General provisions 2606:Law of Obligations 2603:Book Three is the 2464:administrative law 2379:Meiji Constitution 2361:(upper house) and 2321: 2301:Capital punishment 2220: 2172: 2156:Meiji Constitution 2140:Tokugawa Shogunate 2082:) was part of the 2033:Tokugawa shogunate 2002: 1991:Goseibai Shikimoku 1987:Ashikaga shogunate 1968:Goseibai Shikimoku 1963:Kamakura Shogunate 1910:imperial provinces 1857:administrative law 1790: 1709:Chinese characters 1695:The early laws of 6734: 6733: 6671:other territories 6108:John Owen Haley. 6094:John Owen Haley. 6087:Carl F. Goodman. 5982:Hiroshi Oda, ed. 5935:978-84-9014-912-6 5920:978-84-9767-632-8 5667:978-0-19-923218-5 5546:978-90-04-18428-2 5488:978-0-19-923218-5 5392:978-0-19-923218-5 5335:978-0-19-923218-5 5283:en ventre sa mère 5236:978-0-19-923218-5 5062:T. Nakano (ed.), 4768:(Princeton, 1976) 4676:John Owen Haley, 4630:978-0-19-923218-5 4463:978-90-04-21126-1 4427:978-1-351-87370-3 4378:978-1-4008-5597-1 4355:978-0-8133-4970-1 4193:International Law 4178:978-0-19-923218-5 4038:Politics of Japan 3590:Legal professions 3361:Meiji Restoration 3341: 3340: 3256:¥300–500,000 fine 3248:¥200–300,000 fine 3240:¥100–200,000 fine 2889:personal property 2831:French Civil Code 2793:vitiating factors 2779:reliance interest 2769:), loan for use ( 2665:Handelsgesetzbuch 2633:Book Five covers 2615:unjust enrichment 2581:French Civil Code 2577:German Civil Code 2395:Meiji Restoration 2144:Meiji Restoration 2031:(1603–1868), the 2008:(1467–1615), the 1680:constitutionality 1656: 1655: 1078:Visa requirements 1073:Japanese passport 1036:Foreign relations 1023:Submunicipalities 515:Political parties 384:Hiroyuki Nagahama 43:Politics of Japan 16:(Redirected from 6759: 6724: 6714: 6713: 6683:Christmas Island 6369:Sovereign states 6354: 6347: 6340: 6331: 6330: 6326: 6082:Legal philosophy 5890: 5886: 5880: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5868: 5867: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5843: 5842: 5831: 5825: 5824: 5822: 5821: 5806: 5800: 5799: 5791: 5782: 5766: 5701: 5700: 5694: 5686: 5678: 5672: 5671: 5643: 5600: 5593: 5587: 5576: 5570: 5563: 5548: 5540:. Boston, 2003. 5534: 5528: 5523:Curtis Seubert: 5521: 5515: 5508: 5502: 5499: 5493: 5492: 5464: 5443: 5441: 5436: 5430: 5423: 5410: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5368: 5357: 5352:", in D. Foote, 5351: 5346: 5340: 5339: 5311: 5288: 5286: 5269: 5263: 5256: 5250: 5249:Law No. 90, 1991 5247: 5241: 5240: 5212: 5145: 5138: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5128: 5114: 5105: 5104: 5102: 5101: 5086: 5080: 5073: 5067: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5051: 5050: 5041:. Archived from 5030: 5024: 5017: 5011: 5004: 4998: 4991: 4985: 4978: 4972: 4969: 4963: 4956: 4950: 4943: 4937: 4934: 4928: 4924: 4918: 4911: 4905: 4898: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4881: 4872:. Archived from 4862: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4852: 4843:. Archived from 4836: 4830: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4802: 4797: 4795: 4787: 4775: 4769: 4762: 4756: 4749: 4743: 4736: 4730: 4723: 4717: 4710: 4704: 4697: 4688: 4680:(Oxford, 1994), 4674: 4668: 4657: 4648: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4606: 4555: 4548: 4535: 4534: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4497: 4496: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4449: 4440: 4439: 4417:Warfare in Japan 4411: 4405: 4404: 4398: 4390: 4364: 4358: 4347: 4314: 4307: 4301: 4293: 4287: 4276: 4270: 4258: 4252: 4241: 4235: 4228: 4222: 4210: 4204: 4189: 4183: 4182: 4154: 3998: 3981: 3980: 3818: 3817: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3796: 3795: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3774: 3773: 3770: 3764: 3763: 3752: 3751: 3748: 3742: 3741: 3730: 3729: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3708: 3707: 3704: 3698: 3697: 3686: 3685: 3682: 3676: 3675: 3664: 3662: 3656: 3655: 3644: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3623: 3622: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3495: 3494: 3489: 3449:Crime statistics 3374: 3373: 3368: 3174: 3170: 3087: 3074: 3061: 3048: 3035: 3032:Kabushiki kaisha 3025: 3012: 3007: 3006: 2993: 2988: 2987: 2870: 2869: 2800: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2704: 2703: 2695:), which is the 2694: 2688: 2687: 2627:family relations 2587:Book One is the 2495: 2494: 2399:Japanese Emperor 2324:The Constitution 2035:established the 1965:established the 1802:established the 1648: 1641: 1634: 1613:Japan portal 1611: 1610: 1609: 359: 329:Fukushiro Nukaga 316: 299: 199: 133: 108: 54: 29: 28: 21: 6767: 6766: 6762: 6761: 6760: 6758: 6757: 6756: 6737: 6736: 6735: 6730: 6702: 6670: 6661: 6642:Northern Cyprus 6628: 6621: 6363: 6358: 6313: 6234:Wayback Machine 6168: 6017:Carsten Rasch. 6010:Carsten Rasch. 5975:Yosiyuki Noda. 5898: 5896:Further reading 5893: 5887: 5883: 5878: 5874: 5865: 5863: 5861:The Japan Times 5853: 5849: 5840: 5838: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5819: 5817: 5815:The Irish Times 5807: 5803: 5794:Rothman, Fred. 5792: 5785: 5780:Wayback Machine 5767: 5704: 5688: 5687: 5679: 5675: 5668: 5644: 5603: 5594: 5590: 5577: 5573: 5564: 5551: 5535: 5531: 5522: 5518: 5509: 5505: 5500: 5496: 5489: 5465: 5446: 5439: 5437: 5433: 5429:24 (1990), 651. 5424: 5413: 5404: 5400: 5393: 5369: 5360: 5349: 5347: 5343: 5336: 5312: 5291: 5270: 5266: 5257: 5253: 5248: 5244: 5237: 5213: 5148: 5139: 5135: 5126: 5124: 5116: 5115: 5108: 5099: 5097: 5088: 5087: 5083: 5074: 5070: 5061: 5057: 5048: 5046: 5037: 5031: 5027: 5018: 5014: 5005: 5001: 4992: 4988: 4979: 4975: 4970: 4966: 4957: 4953: 4944: 4940: 4936:Law No. 5, 1947 4935: 4931: 4925: 4921: 4912: 4908: 4899: 4888: 4879: 4877: 4864: 4863: 4859: 4850: 4848: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4816: 4812: 4800: 4798: 4789: 4788: 4776: 4772: 4763: 4759: 4750: 4746: 4737: 4733: 4724: 4720: 4711: 4707: 4698: 4691: 4675: 4671: 4658: 4651: 4642: 4638: 4631: 4607: 4558: 4554:20 (1968): 217. 4549: 4538: 4523: 4507: 4503: 4494: 4492: 4484: 4483: 4479: 4464: 4450: 4443: 4428: 4412: 4408: 4392: 4391: 4379: 4365: 4361: 4348: 4317: 4308: 4304: 4294: 4290: 4277: 4273: 4259: 4255: 4242: 4238: 4229: 4225: 4211: 4207: 4190: 4186: 4179: 4155: 4082: 4078: 4051: 4028:Juries in Japan 4004: 3990:Country Studies 3987: 3978: 3911: 3872: 3852: 3840: 3834: 3829: 3815: 3802: 3793: 3780: 3771: 3758: 3756:Patent attorney 3749: 3736: 3727: 3724:kōnin kaikeishi 3714: 3705: 3692: 3683: 3670: 3650: 3630: 3620: 3607: 3605:Attorney at law 3592: 3581: 3572: 3553: 3532: 3512: 3506: 3504:Law enforcement 3487:fushinpan seido 3470: 3457: 3451: 3419: 3410: 3366:Shinritsu Koryo 3346: 3334:Other sentences 3296:Other sentences 3226:Other sentences 3169: 3163: 3138: 3132: 3127: 3121: 3116: 3104:Main articles: 3102: 3000: 2981: 2979:Civil Procedure 2860: 2848:general damages 2827: 2739: 2707:quasi-contracts 2692:Rechtsfähigkeit 2677: 2657:Commercial Code 2558: 2522: 2506: 2484: 2472:competition law 2460: 2455: 2391: 2332: 2326: 2313: 2289:judicial review 2265: 2136: 2131: 2063:imperial family 2022:kenka ryōseibai 2018:rakuichi rakuza 1934:Kamakura period 1918: 1871:ethics. Unlike 1796: 1769: 1767:Ritsuryō system 1693: 1688: 1652: 1623: 1619:Other countries 1607: 1605: 1600: 1599: 1586: 1578: 1545: 1087: 1069: 1057: 1038: 1028: 1027: 1004: 983: 973: 972: 971: 942: 941: 935: 933: 792: 791: 785: 783: 527: 526: 520: 495: 485: 484: 466: 452: 442: 441: 433: 409: 400: 390: 389: 388: 386: 372:Hidehisa Otsuji 344: 301: 283: 275: 274: 261: 259: 246: 239: 225: 213: 183: 173: 172: 149: 102: 92: 91: 72: 45: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6765: 6755: 6754: 6749: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6728: 6718: 6707: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6674: 6672: 6663: 6662: 6660: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6633: 6631: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6373: 6371: 6365: 6364: 6357: 6356: 6349: 6342: 6334: 6328: 6327: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6243: 6242: 6236: 6224: 6219: 6208: 6202: 6196: 6195: 6194: 6192: 6190: 6188: 6186: 6184: 6179: 6167: 6166:External links 6164: 6163: 6162: 6148: 6134: 6120: 6115:Yuji Iwasawa. 6113: 6106: 6092: 6084: 6083: 6079: 6078: 6071: 6066:Kazuo Sugeno. 6064: 6057: 6052:Luke Nottage. 6050: 6043: 6036: 6028: 6027: 6023: 6022: 6015: 6008: 5994: 5980: 5973: 5966: 5959: 5945: 5938: 5923: 5903: 5902: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5891: 5881: 5872: 5847: 5826: 5801: 5783: 5702: 5673: 5666: 5601: 5588: 5571: 5549: 5529: 5516: 5503: 5494: 5487: 5444: 5431: 5411: 5398: 5391: 5358: 5341: 5334: 5289: 5264: 5251: 5242: 5235: 5146: 5133: 5106: 5081: 5068: 5055: 5025: 5019:Ciarán Burke, 5012: 5010:(Tokyo, 1984). 4999: 4986: 4973: 4964: 4951: 4938: 4929: 4919: 4913:See Tanaka K, 4906: 4886: 4857: 4831: 4810: 4801:|journal= 4770: 4757: 4744: 4731: 4718: 4705: 4689: 4669: 4649: 4636: 4629: 4556: 4536: 4521: 4501: 4477: 4462: 4441: 4426: 4406: 4377: 4359: 4315: 4302: 4288: 4278:Masaji Chiba, 4271: 4253: 4236: 4230:Masaji Chiba, 4223: 4205: 4184: 4177: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4073: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4050: 4047: 4046: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4003: 4000: 3975: 3974: 3964: 3954: 3944: 3934: 3933: 3932: 3927: 3910: 3907: 3902: 3901: 3897: 3888: 3887: 3878: 3877: 3871: 3868: 3867: 3866: 3858: 3857: 3851: 3848: 3833: 3830: 3820: 3819: 3797: 3775: 3753: 3731: 3709: 3687: 3665: 3645: 3643:, or "gaiben") 3624: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3586: 3580: 3577: 3571: 3568: 3567: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3552: 3549: 3548: 3547: 3538: 3537: 3531: 3528: 3508:Main article: 3505: 3502: 3469: 3466: 3455:Crime in Japan 3453:Main article: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3425: 3424: 3418: 3415: 3409: 3406: 3345: 3342: 3339: 3338: 3335: 3331: 3330: 3327: 3323: 3322: 3319: 3315: 3314: 3311: 3308: 3301: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3292: 3289: 3285: 3284: 3281: 3277: 3276: 3273: 3269: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3260: 3257: 3253: 3252: 3249: 3245: 3244: 3241: 3238: 3231: 3230: 3227: 3223: 3222: 3219: 3215: 3214: 3211: 3207: 3206: 3203: 3199: 3198: 3195: 3192: 3185: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3165:Main article: 3162: 3159: 3134:Main article: 3131: 3130:Employment law 3128: 3123:Main article: 3120: 3117: 3101: 3098: 3094: 3093: 3079: 3066: 3053: 3040: 3027: 2999: 2996: 2991:Minji-soshō-hō 2980: 2977: 2971:governments). 2965:peerage system 2957:eminent domain 2950:Roppongi Hills 2859: 2856: 2826: 2823: 2821:the contract. 2738: 2735: 2697:legal capacity 2676: 2673: 2641: 2640: 2631: 2622: 2601: 2592: 2557: 2554: 2521: 2518: 2505: 2502: 2483: 2480: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2446: 2445: 2442: 2439: 2436: 2433: 2430: 2390: 2387: 2328:Main article: 2325: 2322: 2312: 2311:Sources of law 2309: 2264: 2261: 2238:House of Peers 2135: 2132: 2130: 2127: 2037:bakuhan taisei 2006:Sengoku period 1917: 1914: 1865:procedural law 1823:Japanese envoy 1800:Prince Shotoku 1768: 1765: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1674:enacted after 1654: 1653: 1651: 1650: 1643: 1636: 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9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6764: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6744: 6742: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6717: 6709: 6708: 6705: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6675: 6673: 6668: 6664: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6652:South Ossetia 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6634: 6632: 6630: 6624: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6355: 6350: 6348: 6343: 6341: 6336: 6335: 6332: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6299: 6298: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6231: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6209: 6206: 6203: 6200: 6197: 6193: 6191: 6189: 6187: 6185: 6183: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6173: 6170: 6169: 6161: 6160:0-226-70385-1 6157: 6153: 6149: 6147: 6146:0-89089-464-7 6143: 6139: 6135: 6133: 6132:0-674-00519-8 6129: 6125: 6121: 6118: 6114: 6111: 6107: 6105: 6104:0-19-509257-0 6101: 6097: 6093: 6090: 6086: 6085: 6081: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6069: 6065: 6062: 6058: 6055: 6051: 6048: 6044: 6041: 6037: 6034: 6030: 6029: 6025: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6013: 6009: 6007: 6006:0-19-924810-9 6003: 5999: 5996:Hiroshi Oda. 5995: 5993: 5992:0-19-825686-8 5989: 5985: 5981: 5978: 5974: 5971: 5967: 5964: 5960: 5958: 5957:0-295-98731-6 5954: 5950: 5946: 5943: 5940:Meryll Dean. 5939: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5904: 5900: 5899: 5885: 5876: 5862: 5858: 5851: 5836: 5830: 5816: 5812: 5805: 5797: 5790: 5788: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5772: 5768:T. Moriyama, 5765: 5763: 5761: 5759: 5757: 5755: 5753: 5751: 5749: 5747: 5745: 5743: 5741: 5739: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5723: 5721: 5719: 5717: 5715: 5713: 5711: 5709: 5707: 5698: 5692: 5684: 5677: 5669: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5650: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5606: 5598: 5592: 5585: 5581: 5575: 5568: 5562: 5560: 5558: 5556: 5554: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5533: 5526: 5520: 5513: 5507: 5498: 5490: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5471: 5463: 5461: 5459: 5457: 5455: 5453: 5451: 5449: 5435: 5428: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5408: 5402: 5394: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5375: 5367: 5365: 5363: 5355: 5345: 5337: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5318: 5310: 5308: 5306: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5294: 5285: 5284: 5278: 5274: 5268: 5261: 5255: 5246: 5238: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5219: 5211: 5209: 5207: 5205: 5203: 5201: 5199: 5197: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5181: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5173: 5171: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5157: 5155: 5153: 5151: 5143: 5137: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5111: 5095: 5091: 5085: 5078: 5072: 5065: 5059: 5045:on 2009-06-14 5044: 5040: 5035: 5032:T. Morishita 5029: 5022: 5016: 5009: 5003: 4996: 4990: 4983: 4977: 4968: 4961: 4955: 4948: 4942: 4933: 4923: 4916: 4910: 4903: 4900:Masaji Chiba 4897: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4876:on 2021-03-03 4875: 4871: 4867: 4861: 4847:on 2009-04-19 4846: 4842: 4835: 4828: 4827:0-295-98731-6 4824: 4820: 4814: 4806: 4793: 4785: 4781: 4774: 4767: 4761: 4754: 4748: 4741: 4735: 4728: 4722: 4715: 4709: 4703:(Tokyo, 1904) 4702: 4696: 4694: 4687: 4686:0-19-509257-0 4683: 4679: 4673: 4666: 4662: 4656: 4654: 4646: 4640: 4632: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4613: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4553: 4547: 4545: 4543: 4541: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4522:4-642-03378-5 4518: 4514: 4513: 4505: 4491: 4487: 4481: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4459: 4455: 4448: 4446: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4423: 4419: 4418: 4410: 4402: 4396: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4374: 4370: 4363: 4356: 4352: 4346: 4344: 4342: 4340: 4338: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4322: 4320: 4312: 4306: 4299: 4292: 4285: 4281: 4275: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4250: 4246: 4240: 4233: 4227: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4202: 4201:0-19-928270-6 4198: 4194: 4188: 4180: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4161: 4153: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4080: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4052: 4049:Specific laws 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4005: 3999: 3996: 3992: 3991: 3985: 3984:public domain 3973: 3969: 3965: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3928: 3925: 3921: 3920: 3916: 3915: 3913: 3912: 3906: 3898: 3894: 3893: 3892: 3884: 3883: 3882: 3874: 3873: 3864: 3863: 3862: 3854: 3853: 3847: 3845: 3844:Supreme Court 3839: 3828: 3823: 3813: 3801: 3798: 3791: 3779: 3776: 3769: 3757: 3754: 3747: 3735: 3732: 3725: 3713: 3710: 3703: 3691: 3688: 3681: 3680:gyōsei shoshi 3669: 3666: 3661: 3649: 3646: 3641: 3629: 3625: 3618: 3606: 3603: 3602: 3601: 3598: 3583: 3582: 3576: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3554: 3544: 3543: 3542: 3534: 3533: 3527: 3523: 3521: 3517: 3511: 3501: 3497: 3488: 3482: 3478: 3476: 3465: 3461: 3456: 3442: 3438: 3435: 3431: 3430: 3429: 3421: 3420: 3414: 3405: 3401: 3399: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3378: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3355: 3351: 3336: 3333: 3332: 3328: 3325: 3324: 3320: 3317: 3316: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3305:Drug offenses 3302: 3298: 3295: 3294: 3290: 3287: 3286: 3282: 3279: 3278: 3274: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3247: 3246: 3242: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3217: 3216: 3212: 3209: 3208: 3204: 3201: 3200: 3196: 3193: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3175: 3168: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3144: 3137: 3126: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3097: 3091: 3086: 3085: 3080: 3078: 3073: 3072: 3067: 3065: 3060: 3059: 3054: 3052: 3047: 3046: 3041: 3039: 3034: 3033: 3028: 3024: 3019: 3016: 3015: 3014: 3011: 2998:Corporate law 2995: 2992: 2976: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2885:real property 2882: 2878: 2874: 2864: 2855: 2851: 2849: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2832: 2822: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2798:Willensmangel 2794: 2789: 2787: 2782: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2752:Consideration 2747: 2744: 2734: 2732: 2727: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2698: 2693: 2681: 2672: 2668: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2646: 2638: 2637: 2632: 2629: 2628: 2623: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2602: 2599: 2598: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2585: 2584: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2563: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2535: 2534:stare decisis 2530: 2527: 2517: 2513: 2511: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2479: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2450: 2443: 2440: 2437: 2434: 2431: 2428: 2427: 2426: 2424: 2419: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2400: 2396: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2377:, unlike the 2376: 2372: 2368: 2367:Statutory law 2364: 2360: 2356: 2355:National Diet 2351: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2331: 2317: 2308: 2304: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2293:1946 election 2290: 2285: 2282:The post war 2280: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2230: 2224: 2217: 2212: 2208: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2168: 2164: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2126: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2115: 2110: 2109: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2091:neo-Confucian 2087: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2074: 2073:jiin shohatto 2070: 2069: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2051: 2046: 2045:Buke shohatto 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 1998: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1959:Hojo Yasutoki 1955: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1795: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1779: 1773: 1764: 1760: 1758: 1752: 1749: 1745: 1739: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1713: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1683: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1649: 1644: 1642: 1637: 1635: 1630: 1629: 1627: 1626: 1620: 1617: 1616: 1614: 1604: 1603: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1579: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1559:Latin America 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1546: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1201:United States 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1032: 1031: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1005: 1000: 996: 993: 991: 990: 986: 985: 982: 977: 976: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 944: 940: 936: 930: 929: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 878: 875: 873: 870: 868: 865: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 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336: 333: 332: 331: 330: 324: 323: 319: 318: 317: 315: 308: 307: 303: 302: 300: 298: 291: 290: 289:National Diet 286: 285: 279: 278: 271: 268: 266: 263: 262: 260: 257: 254: 250: 245: 237: 233: 232: 228: 227: 226: 223: 219: 211: 207: 206: 202: 201: 200: 198: 191: 190: 186: 185: 182: 177: 176: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 150: 148: 147: 141: 140: 136: 135: 134: 132: 127: 126: 119: 115: 114: 110: 109: 107: 101: 96: 95: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 74: 71: 67: 62: 61: 58: 57: 53: 49: 48: 44: 40: 39: 35: 31: 30: 27: 19: 6747:Law of Japan 6667:Dependencies 6597:Turkmenistan 6562:Saudi Arabia 6466: 6361:Law of Asia 6318: 6296: 6239:Publications 6151: 6137: 6123: 6116: 6109: 6095: 6088: 6074: 6067: 6060: 6053: 6046: 6039: 6032: 6018: 6011: 5998:Japanese Law 5997: 5983: 5976: 5969: 5962: 5948: 5941: 5926: 5911: 5884: 5875: 5864:. Retrieved 5860: 5850: 5839:. Retrieved 5837:. World Bank 5829: 5818:. Retrieved 5814: 5804: 5795: 5770: 5682: 5676: 5649:Japanese Law 5648: 5596: 5591: 5583: 5579: 5574: 5566: 5537: 5532: 5524: 5519: 5511: 5506: 5497: 5470:Japanese Law 5469: 5434: 5426: 5406: 5401: 5374:Japanese Law 5373: 5353: 5344: 5317:Japanese Law 5316: 5276: 5272: 5267: 5259: 5254: 5245: 5218:Japanese Law 5217: 5141: 5140:E. Hoshino, 5136: 5125:. Retrieved 5121: 5098:. Retrieved 5096:. 2021-08-30 5093: 5084: 5076: 5071: 5063: 5058: 5047:. Retrieved 5043:the original 5033: 5028: 5020: 5015: 5007: 5002: 4994: 4989: 4981: 4976: 4967: 4959: 4954: 4946: 4941: 4932: 4922: 4914: 4909: 4901: 4878:. Retrieved 4874:the original 4869: 4860: 4849:. Retrieved 4845:the original 4834: 4818: 4813: 4792:cite journal 4773: 4765: 4760: 4752: 4747: 4739: 4734: 4726: 4721: 4713: 4708: 4700: 4677: 4672: 4664: 4660: 4644: 4639: 4612:Japanese Law 4611: 4551: 4511: 4504: 4493:. Retrieved 4489: 4480: 4453: 4416: 4409: 4368: 4362: 4310: 4305: 4297: 4291: 4283: 4279: 4274: 4266: 4262: 4256: 4248: 4244: 4239: 4231: 4226: 4218: 4214: 4208: 4192: 4187: 4160:Japanese Law 4159: 3989: 3976: 3971: 3961: 3951: 3941: 3923: 3917: 3903: 3889: 3879: 3859: 3841: 3821: 3702:shihō shoshi 3593: 3573: 3539: 3524: 3513: 3498: 3483: 3479: 3471: 3462: 3458: 3426: 3411: 3408:Criminal law 3402: 3398:World War II 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3358: 3350:Meiji period 3347: 3329:1,791 (17%) 3321:3,490 (32%) 3313:3,894 (36%) 3304: 3234: 3188: 3161:Criminal law 3155: 3151: 3147: 3139: 3095: 3084:Yūgen kaisha 3071:Gōshi kaisha 3058:Gōmei kaisha 3001: 2982: 2961:World War II 2954: 2943:, such that 2938: 2903: 2897: 2893:registration 2880: 2877:in personam. 2876: 2875:rather than 2872: 2863:Property law 2861: 2852: 2840: 2828: 2790: 2785: 2783: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2748: 2740: 2730: 2682: 2678: 2669: 2664: 2656: 2654: 2650: 2642: 2634: 2625: 2619:contract law 2604: 2595: 2589:General Part 2588: 2572: 2568: 2566: 2559: 2551: 2538: 2533: 2531: 2525: 2523: 2514: 2509: 2507: 2498: 2487: 2485: 2476: 2461: 2447: 2420: 2414: 2410: 2404: 2392: 2375:constitution 2352: 2333: 2305: 2281: 2266: 2246: 2242: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2177: 2173: 2137: 2122: 2118: 2112: 2106: 2088: 2083: 2079: 2077: 2072: 2066: 2058: 2048: 2044: 2036: 2026: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2003: 1990: 1982: 1981:and between 1976: 1966: 1956: 1947: 1941: 1929: 1921: 1919: 1905: 1885:Daijō daijin 1884: 1877: 1848: 1845:criminal law 1840: 1837:Taika Reform 1830: 1827:Tang Dynasty 1812: 1797: 1783:Heijo Palace 1776: 1761: 1753: 1740: 1729: 1719:(China) and 1717:Confucianism 1714: 1694: 1676:World War II 1660:law of Japan 1659: 1657: 1346:Saudi Arabia 1136:South Africa 987: 938: 934: 927: 788: 784: 777: 523: 519: 470:Japanese yen 461: 456: 426: 419: 412: 404: 382: 377: 370: 363: 354: 347: 341:Banri Kaieda 339: 335:Vice Speaker 334: 327: 320: 311: 304: 294: 287: 242: 229: 216: 203: 194: 187: 144: 139:Crown Prince 137: 128: 123: 111: 100:The Monarchy 86: 69: 66:Constitution 26: 6726:Asia portal 6627:States with 6547:Philippines 6487:South Korea 6482:North Korea 6377:Afghanistan 4945:H. Shiono, 4699:N. Hozumi, 4667:(2), 71–86. 4661:SAIS Review 4552:Hastings LJ 3626:Registered 3585:confession. 3400:presented. 3348:Before the 3337:1591 (15%) 3259:1161 (11%) 3251:2084 (19%) 3243:4130 (38%) 3183:Prevalence 3045:Gōdō kaisha 3038:corporation 2910:emphyteusis 2905:superficies 2801:), such as 2756:suretyships 2731:ultra vires 2636:inheritance 2597:Real Rights 2556:Private law 2545:countries. 2340:Legislature 2253:Pacific War 2247:During the 2152:Nation Diet 2099:Curia Regis 1819:Sui Dynasty 1817:to China's 1787:Nara period 1701:Chinese law 1691:Early Japan 1531:New Zealand 1476:Netherlands 1356:South Korea 1336:Philippines 1321:North Korea 1216:Afghanistan 1083:Visa policy 989:Prefectures 282:Legislature 113:The Emperor 6741:Categories 6607:Uzbekistan 6582:Tajikistan 6497:Kyrgyzstan 6477:Kazakhstan 6397:Bangladesh 6387:Azerbaijan 5866:2020-05-31 5841:2020-05-31 5820:2020-05-31 5273:nasciturus 5127:2019-10-30 5100:2023-02-25 5049:2009-08-01 4962:12-7-1272. 4880:2019-10-30 4851:2009-08-01 4495:2020-06-01 4076:References 3870:Procedures 3836:See also: 3579:Discretion 3551:Technology 3377:Qing codes 3359:After the 3299:1064 (9%) 3229:133 (26%) 3197:103 (20%) 3119:Family law 2914:servitudes 2881:erga omnes 2775:transactio 2771:commodatum 2723:; German: 2689:; German: 2645:occupation 2543:common law 2184:Qing codes 2121:) and the 2057:(禁中並公家諸法度 2047:) and the 2029:Edo period 1946:laws (公家法 1861:family law 1778:Daigokuden 1738:to Japan. 1554:Arab world 1471:Montenegro 1261:East Timor 1236:Bangladesh 1226:Azerbaijan 557:1898 (Aug) 552:1898 (Mar) 547:1894 (Sep) 542:1894 (Mar) 463:Kazuo Ueda 265:Ministries 189:Government 6693:Hong Kong 6647:Palestine 6572:Sri Lanka 6567:Singapore 6447:Indonesia 5691:cite book 5287:doctrine. 4472:833766152 4436:988176089 4395:cite book 4387:889251193 3597:civil law 3530:Resources 3291:512 (5%) 3283:541 (5%) 3275:571 (5%) 3267:857 (8%) 3221:88 (17%) 3213:94 (18%) 3205:96 (19%) 3180:Sentence 3010:kaisha-hō 2945:landlords 2924:include: 2918:easements 2900:ownership 2844:liability 2829:Like the 2795:(German: 2741:Japanese 2737:Contracts 2562:civil law 2560:Japanese 2520:Precedent 2425:are now: 2423:Six Codes 2348:Judiciary 2344:Executive 2259:at 1945. 2244:by 1936. 2180:civil law 2148:Meiji Era 2014:bunkokuhō 1993:as well. 1957:In 1232, 1873:Roman law 1869:Confucian 1757:Shintoism 1725:Confucius 1668:civil law 1521:Australia 1461:Lithuania 1361:Sri Lanka 1351:Singapore 1331:Palestine 1276:Indonesia 1211:Venezuela 1141:Argentina 1013:Districts 995:Governors 493:Elections 475:Banknotes 398:Judiciary 365:President 256:coalition 181:Executive 6716:Category 6637:Abkhazia 6587:Thailand 6542:Pakistan 6522:Mongolia 6517:Maldives 6512:Malaysia 6412:Cambodia 6323:Archived 6230:Archived 6026:Branches 5776:Archived 5277:in utero 4531:52370917 4002:See also 3909:Case law 3768:benrishi 3746:zeirishi 3660:kōshōnin 3634:外国法事務弁護士 3617:bengoshi 3518:and the 3307:(10,766) 3237:(10,920) 2934:mortgage 2858:Property 2835:Tort law 2819:rescinds 2815:voidable 2743:contract 2611:tort law 2539:de facto 2510:tsutatsu 2458:Statutes 2297:Zaibatsu 2251:and the 2188:Ritsuryo 2142:and the 2065:and the 1952:Ritsuryo 1847:, while 1832:Ritsuryō 1808:Buddhism 1798:In 604, 1794:Ritsuryō 1721:Buddhism 1705:Ritsuryō 1486:Portugal 1436:Holy See 1371:Thailand 1326:Pakistan 1306:Mongolia 1301:Maldives 1296:Malaysia 1251:Cambodia 1186:Paraguay 1171:Colombia 1146:Barbados 1111:Ethiopia 1101:Djibouti 1065:in Japan 457:Governor 146:Fumihito 125:Naruhito 34:a series 6612:Vietnam 6527:Myanmar 6507:Lebanon 6437:Georgia 6392:Bahrain 6382:Armenia 6174:by the 5901:General 5260:Jurist, 4984:25-1-1. 4784:1551420 3806:土地家屋調査士 3784:社会保険労務士 3344:History 3235:Assault 2811:mistake 2575:of the 2371:Emperor 2218:in 1940 2103:daimyos 2043:(武家諸法度 2027:In the 2010:daimyos 2004:In the 1983:gokenin 1978:gokenin 1961:of the 1926:samurai 1922:honjohō 1890:Dajōkan 1825:to the 1744:Yamatai 1564:Oceania 1511:Ukraine 1446:Ireland 1441:Iceland 1431:Hungary 1421:Germany 1411:Denmark 1401:Croatia 1396:Belgium 1391:Austria 1386:Albania 1381:Vietnam 1311:Myanmar 1266:Georgia 1231:Bahrain 1221:Armenia 1206:Uruguay 1176:Ecuador 1151:Bolivia 1131:Somalia 1126:Nigeria 1121:Namibia 1091:Algeria 1052:history 322:Speaker 253:Komeito 231:Cabinet 6657:Taiwan 6592:Turkey 6557:Russia 6492:Kuwait 6472:Jordan 6462:Israel 6422:Cyprus 6407:Brunei 6402:Bhutan 6158: 6144: 6130: 6102: 6004: 5990: 5955: 5933: 5918: 5664: 5544: 5485: 5389: 5332: 5233: 4982:Minshū 4960:Keishū 4825: 4782: 4684: 4627: 4529: 4519: 4470: 4460: 4434: 4424: 4385: 4375: 4353: 4199: 4175: 3986:. 3648:Notary 3189:Murder 3177:Crime 3112:, and 2941:tenant 2932:, and 2930:pledge 2916:(i.e. 2873:in rem 2803:duress 2767:mutuum 2617:, and 2488:seirei 2267:After 2257:defeat 2196:French 2192:German 2123:chōnin 2114:chōnin 1954:laws. 1948:kugehō 1930:bukehō 1906:bakufu 1896:, the 1853:corvée 1815:envoys 1748:Himiko 1549:Africa 1506:Sweden 1496:Serbia 1491:Russia 1481:Poland 1456:Kosovo 1426:Greece 1416:France 1376:Turkey 1366:Taiwan 1286:Israel 1246:Brunei 1241:Bhutan 1181:Mexico 1161:Canada 1156:Brazil 1096:Angola 6698:Macau 6617:Yemen 6577:Syria 6552:Qatar 6532:Nepal 6467:Japan 6442:India 6432:Egypt 6417:China 5889:2008. 4902:Japan 4280:Japan 4263:Japan 4232:Japan 4215:Japan 3718:公認会計士 3565:guns. 3561:cars. 3493:付審判制度 3191:(514) 2986:民事訴訟法 2926:liens 2825:Torts 2807:fraud 2715:gifts 2711:wills 2573:draft 2547:Dicta 2415:roppo 2411:roppo 2229:genrō 1841:Ritsu 1732:Korea 1697:Japan 1664:Japan 1541:Tonga 1536:Palau 1501:Spain 1466:Malta 1451:Italy 1341:Qatar 1316:Nepal 1271:India 1256:China 1166:Chile 1116:Kenya 1106:Egypt 480:Coins 6537:Oman 6502:Laos 6457:Iraq 6452:Iran 6156:ISBN 6142:ISBN 6128:ISBN 6100:ISBN 6002:ISBN 5988:ISBN 5953:ISBN 5931:ISBN 5916:ISBN 5697:link 5662:ISBN 5542:ISBN 5483:ISBN 5387:ISBN 5330:ISBN 5231:ISBN 4823:ISBN 4805:help 4780:SSRN 4682:ISBN 4625:ISBN 4527:OCLC 4517:ISBN 4468:OCLC 4458:ISBN 4432:OCLC 4422:ISBN 4401:link 4383:OCLC 4373:ISBN 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