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citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals. Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.
2923:. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region. Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.
8160:
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233:
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2275:(the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.
4083:...it was part of the task of a legal theorist to explain the 'normativity' or 'authority' of law, by which they meant 'our sense that 'legal' norms provide agents with special reasons for acting, reasons they would not have if the norm were not a 'legal' one'...this may be a matter calling more for a psychological or sociological explanation, rather than a philosophical one.
2226:"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original."
2113:, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community. Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably. Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including
1978:. There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime. From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties.
3232:; groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime. Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well.
2242:
in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in
Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody
2493:
White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include
2292:
Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies. Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system, often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader. Some of
2175:
Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect crime statistics may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation. Under-reporting of crime is common, particularly
1954:
The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways. Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state. The criminality
2278:
There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all
4046:
The moral standards...which
Dworkin (in line with natural law theory) treats as capable of being morally objective & true, thus function as a direct source of law and...as already law, except when their fit with the whole set of social-fact sources in the relevant community is so weak that it
2885:
A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation. Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding
2560:
as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include
Narcotic production or
2906:
Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization". Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as
3148:
If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime.
2389:
in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of
England by applying precedent from previous rulings. Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.
2965:. Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status. In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a
2217:
beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s,
2930:. Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court. Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human
2619:. Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as
3133:
Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives.
3076:
and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering. This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of
3239:. Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions. One biological factor is the
3262:
Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and
2868:. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that
3275:
in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a "crime wave" effect.
2270:
rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of
1973:
Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law. Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to
2934:
were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly. Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s.
2366:
Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of
2894:
A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer. In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law. Victimization is associated with
2335:. Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era. The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.
2838:. Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality.
1955:
of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others. Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of
3183:, and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states. International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish
3068:
the criminal act. Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential.
2414:
in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.
3398:
3243:, as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures. Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women.
3118:
Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment. In places with widespread corruption or limited
8212:
5323:
Hipp, J. R.; Curran, P. J.; Bollen, K. A.; Bauer, D. J. (1 June 2004). "Crimes of
Opportunity or Crimes of Emotion? Testing Two Explanations of Seasonal Change in Crime".
2346:. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin.
6873:
3394:
3024:
suspected perpetrators of crimes. Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates. One common variant,
3213:. A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors, such as
2773:
2872:
of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.
6908:
6700:
3448:
2279:
valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.
2860:
Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include
2698:
Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include
4524:
Van den
Bogaard, Joop; Wiegman, Oene (1991). "Property Crime Victimization: The Effectiveness of Police Services for Victims of Residential Burglary".
962:
2029:, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in
8205:
6868:
2466:
through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as
2631:. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.
6898:
3012:
The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through
8752:
2470:, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime. Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing
2680:, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly
2342:
and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity. This idea was further popularized with the development of the
2197:
to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of
73:; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime or
8198:
4901:
See
Polinsky & Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system.
6878:
4034:
6765:
2243:
whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly,
8127:
6693:
5871:
579:
8547:
4717:
2398:
In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as
2746:, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime. Some public order crimes are considered
1941:
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4936:
8605:
5657:
3423:
3370:
3377:
8466:
3279:
As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable.
2676:. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century. In
302:
2447:. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from
9244:
6686:
5768:
Lipsey, Mark W.; Landenberger, Nana A.; Chapman, Gabrielle L. "Rehabilitation: An
Assessment of Theory and Research". In
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The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for
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Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.
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8493:
7667:
7536:
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2983:
The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law. Criminalization has significant
1992:
countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation:
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3196:
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Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include
2231:
1813:
1066:
763:
743:
307:
4047:
would be more accurate (according to
Dworkin) to say that judges who apply them are applying morality not law.
8562:
6982:
6755:
1968:
1823:
924:
919:
773:
6545:
1336:
9162:
7789:
7268:
6903:
6888:
6717:
5864:
4430:"Can we Trust Crime Predictors and Crime Categories? Expansions on the Potential Problem of Generalization"
2316:. The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.
1898:
1807:
574:
365:
8567:
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6653:
81:) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public
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9022:
8747:
7784:
6944:
6725:
5198:
3914:. William Blackstone Collection (Library of Congress). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 41.
3180:
3091:. Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening
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7759:
7258:
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5974:
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considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.
2594:
2331:
regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved
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1934:
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1145:
738:
463:
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287:
39:
8542:
5715:
Bottoms, Anthony E.; Costello, Andrew. "Understanding Repeat
Victimization: A Longitudinal Study". In
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movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.
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8598:
7842:
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Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal
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113:
35:
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Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity. Crime corresponds heavily with
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1838:
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277:
17:
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6350:
5857:
4020:
3707:
3168:
2927:
1989:
1656:
768:
603:
409:
332:
2903:. Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.
8435:
8230:
8067:
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6924:
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6658:
6462:
6452:
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3013:
2950:
2723:
2527:
2425:
2019:
1828:
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994:
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317:
31:
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include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.
100:
are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the
65:
definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a
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Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to
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4019:. 3.2 Natural law & (purely) positive law as concurrent dimensions of legal reasoning.
4014:
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2090:
1981:
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856:
851:
841:
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8:
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5892:
5697:
Davie, Neil. "Born for Evil? Biological Theories of Crime in Historical Perspective". In
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2719:
2707:
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2201:. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of
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1174:
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901:
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691:
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124:
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In the United Kingdom, for instance, the definitions provided by section 243(2) of the
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3229:
3087:
seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent
3037:
3025:
2703:
2693:
2677:
2488:
2343:
2219:
2118:
2030:
1993:
1975:
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1259:
1189:
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871:
528:
478:
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327:
202:
164:
148:
132:
4429:
3881:. Regan, Richard J., Baumgarth, William P. (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.
3845:
2047:
defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.
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9107:
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9017:
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8305:
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7769:
7607:
7350:
7345:
7298:
7223:
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7057:
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6745:
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6396:
6049:
6014:
5807:
5786:
5754:
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5674:
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5515:
5452:
5415:
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2313:
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1219:
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559:
429:
156:
66:
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355:
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Hanson, Rochelle F.; Sawyer, Genelle K.; Begle, Angela M.; Hubel, Grace S. (2010).
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Taking rights seriously : [with a new appendix, a response to critics]
3849:
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3042:
When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a
3028:, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.
2996:
2855:
2831:
2747:
2735:
2681:
2531:
2452:
2451:
behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward
2429:
2376:
2312:), and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the
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2235:
2169:
2145:
2137:
2110:
2102:
2038:
1818:
1776:
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1112:
554:
500:
177:
5384:"Sex Differences In Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?"
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9027:
9007:
8957:
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8742:
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8101:
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A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and The Internet
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4495:"Modelling Property Crime Using the British Crime Survey. What Have We Learnt?"
4445:
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3092:
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Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of
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2239:
2213:, which is the first principle of human acts". He regarded people as by nature
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2026:
1874:
1832:
1391:
1386:
1356:
1249:
650:
267:
144:
50:
8572:
5620:
On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence
2172:. Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.
180: – be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (
9343:
9042:
9012:
8912:
8857:
8737:
8402:
8032:
7991:
7877:
7857:
7829:
7779:
7744:
7718:
7713:
7706:
7657:
7597:
7437:
7427:
7385:
7308:
7303:
7233:
7192:
7116:
6678:
6332:
6230:
6034:
5984:
5610:
Polinsky, A. Mitchell. (1980). "Private versus Public Enforcement of Fines".
5456:
5407:
5344:
5273:
5222:
5031:
4617:
4453:
3863:
3797:
3731:
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3264:
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2068:
2034:
1638:
1492:
1204:
1154:
806:
638:
548:
446:
170:
Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (
109:
5836:
5254:
5237:
5214:
5142:
3962:
3896:
3789:
2754:
have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.
8514:
8488:
8164:
7914:
7882:
7837:
7575:
7570:
7541:
7454:
7432:
7400:
7333:
7313:
7207:
7147:
7137:
7089:
7047:
7025:
6968:
6770:
6640:
6575:
6180:
6069:
6054:
4837:
4510:
3999:
3929:
3221:, can increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments can
3214:
2984:
2944:
2912:
2869:
2711:
2624:
2620:
2557:
2519:
2515:
2507:
2444:
2407:
2406:
developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century. Increasing
2403:
2324:
2320:
2177:
2141:
2086:
1879:
1442:
1366:
1239:
1224:
1136:
987:
801:
360:
205:) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through
160:
152:
105:
101:
58:
8552:
6663:
5336:
3552:
3359:
Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Cane and Conoghan (editors),
2949:
Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in
8529:
8456:
8451:
8391:
8086:
8027:
8017:
7814:
7809:
7647:
7548:
7464:
7423:
7390:
7355:
7278:
7202:
7152:
7067:
6344:
6340:
6250:
5999:
5913:
4209:
3314:
3254:, while onset of crime at younger age predicts a longer criminal career.
3250:
with a small fraction of individuals re-offending many times due to high
3163:
International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as
3119:
3055:
2958:
2916:
2839:
2761:
2669:
2628:
2347:
2259:
2248:
2214:
2198:
2161:
2082:
2064:
2044:
2015:
1998:
1894:
1650:
1646:
1512:
1169:
1098:
1022:
846:
633:
538:
485:
337:
297:
220:
194:
140:
5154:
5130:
8461:
8408:
8396:
8339:
8320:
8150:
8079:
7959:
7897:
7642:
7563:
7558:
7516:
7498:
7486:
7447:
7293:
7283:
7243:
7228:
7212:
7162:
7099:
7094:
6635:
6421:
6302:
6297:
6175:
6059:
6039:
6029:
6009:
5963:
5938:
5908:
5264:
5199:"Law, language and community: some preconditions of criminal liability"
4925:"The Historical and Contemporary Prosecution and Punishment of Animals"
4077:
4060:
3854:
3296:
3251:
3108:
3088:
3059:
2954:
2865:
2795:
2777:
2600:
2556:
Blue-collar crime is any crime committed by an individual from a lower
2523:
2495:
2463:
2382:
2180:
may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population.
2157:
2010:
As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause
1985:
1915:
1801:
1753:
1608:
1603:
1437:
1229:
1209:
1199:
1179:
1131:
1051:
1004:
866:
861:
667:
172:
5623:, NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
4819:
4414:
3107:
for physical and mental ailments. Rehabilitative programs may include
2209:
wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is the
9313:
8057:
8022:
7964:
7939:
7804:
7701:
7689:
7674:
7662:
7590:
7508:
7481:
7365:
6839:
6605:
6585:
6570:
6505:
6411:
6406:
6375:
6365:
6327:
6265:
6245:
6185:
6160:
4849:
4847:
3247:
3172:
2835:
2834:
of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political
2819:
2811:
2799:
2765:
2739:
2715:
2665:
2654:
2440:
2368:
2328:
2272:
2078:
1743:
1738:
1712:
1681:
1671:
1633:
1527:
1507:
1447:
1422:
1396:
1376:
1361:
505:
441:
62:
9330:
8333:
8145:
5957:
5382:
Rowe, David C.; Vazsonyi, Alexander T.; Flannery, Daniel J. (1995).
3290:
8106:
8091:
7794:
7679:
7476:
7020:
6807:
6525:
6495:
6416:
6360:
6312:
6287:
6269:
6205:
6170:
6141:
6123:
6118:
6101:
6064:
6044:
5023:
4609:
3268:
3184:
3176:
3164:
3127:
3123:
2920:
2815:
2769:
2757:
2750:
in which no specific victim can be identified. Most nations in the
2727:
2699:
2646:
2604:
2570:
2433:
2432:, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals. The
2202:
2194:
2165:
2094:
1864:
1796:
1748:
1702:
1666:
1618:
1593:
1531:
1467:
1432:
1316:
1293:
1288:
1271:
1234:
1214:
1011:
645:
592:
232:
224:
182:
9296:
4844:
3828:
Fajnzylber, Pablo; Lederman, Daniel; Loayza, Norman (2002-07-01).
2251:, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.
8315:
8239:
7996:
7944:
7924:
7872:
7684:
7602:
7418:
7380:
7328:
6625:
6467:
6433:
6401:
6370:
6317:
6292:
6240:
6220:
6215:
6195:
6165:
6128:
6113:
6024:
5989:
5849:
3104:
3096:
3065:
2861:
2803:
2673:
2616:
2608:
2603:
against another person. Common examples of violent crime include
2574:
2539:
2503:
2106:
2022:, and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal.
1781:
1733:
1676:
1623:
1598:
1572:
1502:
1482:
1477:
1457:
1427:
1298:
1283:
1194:
1159:
1121:
979:
676:
128:
117:
5667:
Shoham, Shlomo Giora; Knepper, Paul; Kett, Martin, eds. (2010).
3187:
to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide.
3175:. As with all international law, these laws are created through
8245:
8096:
7949:
7694:
7585:
7580:
7526:
7197:
6824:
6530:
6355:
6225:
6084:
5918:
4987:
3021:
3017:
2931:
2807:
2578:
2210:
1661:
1487:
1321:
1254:
1082:
623:
247:
89:
5431:"Age, Gender, and Crime in a Stockholm Birth Cohort to Age 64"
5304:
5046:
2338:
Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with
61:, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though
30:"Criminal" and "Criminals" redirect here. For other uses, see
9238:
8583:
8037:
7981:
7887:
7728:
7531:
6255:
6200:
6150:
3942:
3567:
2846:
law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.
2650:
2566:
2499:
2351:
2255:
2136:
Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include
1517:
1462:
1412:
618:
136:
97:
82:
5280:
5118:
5070:
4975:
3475:
3267:. Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with
2402:
saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century.
1959:, but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.
8483:
8363:
7919:
7867:
7723:
7121:
7037:
6580:
6307:
5650:
An Eye for an Eye: A Global History of Crime and Punishment
5238:"Are Crimes against Humanity More Serious than War Crimes?"
5106:
4756:
3738:
2966:
2823:
2011:
1956:
1884:
1613:
1371:
198:
151:, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo
93:
5553:
Criminology: Past, Present and Future: A Critical Overview
5292:
5058:
3081:
that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment.
6991:
6874:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
5767:
5160:
5148:
5136:
5094:
5082:
4744:
4732:
4673:
4561:
4267:
3774:"Official Crime Statistics: Their use and Interpretation"
3395:
Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992
2339:
70:
5487:
5475:
3827:
6909:
International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
5363:
4192:
Roman law: linguistic, social and philosophical aspects
3659:
3649:
3647:
3622:
3620:
3618:
3591:
3516:
2599:
Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent
131:
for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are
8220:
6960:
5800:
Welsh, Brandon C.; Farrington, David P., eds. (2012).
5351:
4804:"The impact of crime victimization on quality of life"
4801:
4785:
4783:
4523:
4303:
4279:
3463:
5617:
Polinsky, A. Mitchell & Shavell, Steven. (1997).
5322:
4963:
4871:
4859:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4573:
4327:
4291:
4093:
4091:
3506:
3504:
3502:
2439:
The concept of crime underwent a period of change as
2323:
systematized law and applied their system across the
8329:
5953:
5463:
5435:
Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology
5381:
4339:
4245:
4243:
4110:
4108:
4106:
3644:
3615:
3286:
2262:, and that the state's agents used state power with
5706:O'Neill, Megan. "The Police Response to Crime". In
5574:
Crimes Against the State: From Treason to Terrorism
5429:Carlsson, Christoffer; Sivertsson, Fredrik (2021).
4883:
4780:
4768:
4697:
4351:
4315:
3909:
3603:
3487:
3413:
2780:societies or those heavily influenced by religion.
108:. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the
85:"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.
6864:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
5428:
5178:
5166:
4951:
4644:
4632:
4536:
4255:
4228:
4216:
4171:
4159:
4120:
4088:
3977:
3750:
3632:
3499:
3344:Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM
5716:
5707:
5698:
5689:
5666:
4685:
4661:
4240:
4103:
2379:, feudal justice survived into the 19th century.
27:Illegal behavior defined by existing criminal law
9341:
6894:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
6869:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
4718:"Defining Inchoate Crime: An Incomplete Attempt"
3975:
2350:developed its own system of criminal justice as
5822:
5799:
5714:
4910:See Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines
4853:
3876:
3418:(7 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6708:
5782:The Oxford Handbook of Crime and Public Policy
5614:, Vol. IX, No. 1, (January), pp. 105–127.
5509:
5124:
5076:
4993:
4981:
4482:(Report). Australian Institute of Criminology.
4403:International Journal of Conflict and Violence
3573:
3481:
2474:as a new method to prevent and analyze crime.
189:While every crime violates the law, not every
8599:
8206:
6976:
6694:
5865:
5841:
4189:
3152:
3122:, crime may be punished extralegally through
3049:
2385:first developed in England under the rule of
1935:
956:
5528:
5388:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
5310:
5298:
5286:
3271:and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends.
2742:. Public order crime is associated with the
2354:spread in the seventh and eighth centuries.
2018:. Under this definition, crime is a type of
5821:Skogan, Wesley G. "Disorder and Crime". In
5705:
5064:
5052:
4715:
2830:. Political crimes are associated with the
2443:was widely accepted in the years following
2297:. The earliest known criminal code was the
127:) has the power to severely restrict one's
8606:
8592:
8213:
8199:
6983:
6969:
6879:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
6701:
6687:
5872:
5858:
5729:Crime Victims: Theory, Policy and Practice
5591:
5112:
5100:
5088:
5008:"The Optimal Structure of Law Enforcement"
4762:
4679:
4591:
4548:
4526:Journal of Social Behavior and Personality
3744:
3708:"Whither the Sociological Study of Crime?"
2645:Common examples of property crime include
1942:
1928:
963:
949:
6899:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
5514:(7th ed.). Oxford University Press.
5510:Ashworth, Andrew; Horder, Jeremy (2013).
5446:
5263:
5253:
4918:
4916:
4827:
4474:
4076:
3947:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3853:
3771:
8128:History of the American legal profession
4427:
3355:
3353:
3346:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.
3190:
3046:to determine the penalty for the crime.
2002:to develop various common law offences.
5803:The Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention
5161:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5149:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5137:Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004
5005:
4492:
4132:
4061:"Kelsen, Hart, & legal normativity"
3984:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
3705:
3409:
3407:
3201:Criminal behavior determinants include
2293:the oldest extant writings are ancient
2183:
14:
9342:
5820:
5769:
5750:The Blackwell Companion to Criminology
5746:
5725:
5549:
5493:
5481:
5469:
5357:
5235:
4922:
4913:
4889:
4877:
4865:
4789:
4774:
4750:
4738:
4579:
4567:
4396:
4345:
4333:
4012:
3943:Hart, Herbert Lionel Adolphus (1994).
3665:
3653:
3626:
3609:
3597:
3534:
3522:
3510:
3493:
3469:
3438:
8587:
8194:
6964:
6682:
5853:
5840:
5778:
5696:
5687:
5670:International Handbook of Criminology
5529:Bantekas, Ilias; Nash, Susan (2009).
5422:
5369:
5316:
5242:European Journal of International Law
4939:from the original on 29 December 2019
4638:
4392:
4390:
4357:
4321:
4309:
3823:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3815:
3767:
3765:
3756:
3701:
3699:
3451:from the original on 27 February 2013
3350:
3337:
3335:
3031:
2969:that lasts over several generations.
2776:are commonly recognized as crimes in
2687:
2660:Examples of financial crimes include
2482:
2424:in the late-19th century. This was a
2357:
2188:
9245:
5732:(2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
5647:
5626:
5570:
5196:
5184:
5172:
4969:
4957:
4703:
4691:
4667:
4655:
4542:
4399:"Violence, Crime, and Violent Crime"
4297:
4285:
4273:
4261:
4249:
4234:
4222:
4177:
4165:
4126:
4114:
4097:
3638:
3588:, John A. Yogis, Q.C., Barrons: 2003
3404:
3257:
2842:that is carried out by the state to
2545:
4558:. Third Ed. "Employee Crime" (2008)
4434:Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy
4058:
3912:Commentaries on the laws of England
2990:
49:is an unlawful act punishable by a
24:
5879:
4722:Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law
4387:
3812:
3762:
3696:
3432:
3332:
3001:
2972:
2783:
147:to a form of reparation such as a
25:
9376:
8525:Evidence law in the United States
7112:Restitution and unjust enrichment
5832:
5717:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5708:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5699:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
5690:Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)
4397:Felson, Richard B. (2009-05-01).
3365:, Oxford University Press, 2008 (
2849:
2634:
1996:. The courts used the concept of
9322:
9305:
9288:
9271:
9254:
8753:Democratic Republic of the Congo
8332:
8159:
8158:
8144:
6473:Perverting the course of justice
5956:
5947:
5895:. Not all types are listed here.
5688:Pease, Ken. "Crime Science". In
5375:
5229:
5012:The Journal of Law and Economics
4716:Cahill, Michael T. (2011–2012).
4016:Natural Law & Natural Rights
3289:
2584:
2287:
1578:Perverting the course of justice
978:
308:Risk & actuarial criminology
231:
8123:History of the legal profession
6211:Intellectual property violation
5630:The Dynamics of Political Crime
5203:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
5190:
4999:
4904:
4895:
4795:
4709:
4585:
4517:
4486:
4468:
4421:
4363:
4183:
4052:
4037:from the original on 2019-08-06
4006:
3969:
3936:
3903:
3870:
3772:MacDonald, Ziggy (2002-02-01).
3671:
3579:
3541:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
3528:
3362:The New Oxford Companion to Law
3241:disparity between men and women
2938:
2875:
2156:, criminal sociology, criminal
2077:. Criminology is a subfield of
1473:Intellectual property violation
193:counts as a crime. Breaches of
8613:
8379:Deferred prosecution agreement
6940:International humanitarian law
6884:Special Court for Sierra Leone
4499:British Journal of Criminology
3879:On law, morality, and politics
3387:
3197:Causes and correlates of crime
2371:. In some places, such as the
2193:Justifying the state's use of
116:nations no such comprehensive
13:
1:
5823:Welsh & Farrington (2012)
5594:The Other Side of Criminology
5592:Hoefnagels, G. Peter (1973).
5503:
4059:Bix, Brian H. (August 2015).
3846:10.1016/S0014-2921(01)00096-4
3439:Easton, Mark (17 June 2010).
3399:Prevention of Crimes Act 1871
2393:
2302:
2073:The study of crime is called
2050:
1969:Legalism (Western philosophy)
212:
176:) must – with
88:The notion that acts such as
53:or other authority. The term
6904:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
6889:International Criminal Court
5779:Tonry, Michael, ed. (2011).
5612:The Journal of Legal Studies
4475:Bricknell, Samantha (2008).
4428:Connealy, Nathan T. (2020).
4194:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.
3910:Blackstone, William (1979).
3830:"What causes violent crime?"
3724:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.711
3414:Elizabeth A. Martin (2003).
3137:
3072:seeks to create a system of
2899:and a long-term decrease in
2247:saw the law as an aspect of
2005:
1808:Ignorantia juris non excusat
135:to which investigations and
7:
6945:International speech crimes
6726:Customary international law
5806:. Oxford University Press.
5785:. Oxford University Press.
5747:Sumner, Colin, ed. (2004).
5400:10.1177/0022427895032001004
4854:Bottoms & Costello 2010
4808:Journal of Traumatic Stress
3706:Sampson, Robert J. (2000).
3397:and by the Schedule to the
3282:
3246:Crime distribution shows a
2880:
2428:school of thought based in
2418:Anthropological criminology
2150:anthropological criminology
1962:
10:
9381:
7790:International legal theory
7269:International slavery laws
7264:International human rights
7259:International criminal law
6766:Convention Against Torture
6710:International criminal law
6236:Possessing stolen property
5627:Ross, Jeffrey Ian (2003).
5532:International Criminal Law
5512:Principles of Criminal Law
5448:10.1007/s40865-021-00172-w
5125:Ashworth & Horder 2013
5077:Ashworth & Horder 2013
4994:Ashworth & Horder 2013
4982:Ashworth & Horder 2013
4493:Tseloni, A. (2002-01-01).
4446:10.1007/s12061-019-09323-5
4371:"White-Collar Crime - FBI"
3712:Annual Review of Sociology
3574:Ashworth & Horder 2013
3482:Ashworth & Horder 2013
3194:
3159:International criminal law
3156:
3153:International criminal law
3141:
3053:
3050:Corrections and punishment
3035:
3005:
2994:
2976:
2942:
2853:
2787:
2691:
2638:
2595:Offence against the person
2588:
2549:
2486:
2282:
2062:
2041:over other moral beliefs.
2033:societies that prioritize
2025:In legal systems based on
1966:
1498:Possessing stolen property
1146:Offense against the person
288:Expressive function of law
40:Criminals (disambiguation)
29:
8619:
8538:
8502:
8494:Presentence investigation
8444:
8349:
8327:
8229:
8138:
8115:
8005:
7843:Administration of justice
7828:
7737:
7628:
7507:
7409:
7130:
6998:
6935:Joint criminal enterprise
6917:
6848:
6779:
6716:
6650:
6615:
6515:
6482:
6431:
6385:
6279:
6139:
5973:
5945:
5901:
5888:
5847:
5842:Articles related to crime
5648:Roth, Mitchel P. (2014).
5556:. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
5550:Fattah, Ezzat A. (1997).
5236:Frulli, M. (2001-04-01).
4592:Wertheimer, Alan (1977).
3976:Dworkin, Ronald. (1978).
3535:Lamond, G. (2007-01-01).
3020:, which are empowered to
2889:
2081:that addresses issues of
1792:Diminished responsibility
1586:Crimes against the public
36:Criminal (disambiguation)
7620:Basic structure doctrine
7470:Natural and legal rights
7351:Public international law
6855:(in order of foundation)
6335:(such as prohibition of
5596:. Springer Netherlands.
5577:. Taylor & Francis.
5535:. Taylor & Francis.
5311:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5299:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5287:Bantekas & Nash 2009
5006:Shavell, Steven (1993).
4063:. 3.3 Law and morality.
3877:Thomas, Aquinas (2002).
3834:European Economic Review
3416:Oxford Dictionary of Law
3325:
3310:Law and order (politics)
3014:law enforcement agencies
2774:invoking the name of God
2477:
2127:differential association
2058:
1721:Crimes against the state
1641:(such as prohibition of
278:Differential association
45:In ordinary language, a
7800:Principle of typicality
7274:International trade law
6990:
6793:Crimes against humanity
5197:Duff, R. (1998-06-01).
4477:Trends in violent crime
4140:"The Ur-Nammu Law Code"
3790:10.1111/1468-0297.00685
3586:Canadian Law Dictionary
3169:crimes against humanity
2327:. The initial rules of
2176:in developing nations.
1405:Crimes against property
1095:(also called violation)
333:Symbolic interactionism
8436:Statute of limitations
8231:Criminal investigation
6950:Universal jurisdiction
6925:Command responsibility
6818:Incitement to genocide
6756:United Nations Charter
6453:Miscarriage of justice
5726:Spalek, Basia (2017).
5571:Head, Michael (2016).
5018:(1, Part 2): 255–287.
4190:Daube, David. (1969).
3237:genetic cause of crime
2528:copyright infringement
2426:biological determinist
2234:(1790–1859), an early
2222:described the thesis:
1857:Other common-law areas
1690:Crimes against animals
1558:Miscarriage of justice
1540:Crimes against justice
139:must adhere. If found
32:Crime (disambiguation)
9078:Saint Kitts and Nevis
8374:Criminal jurisdiction
7795:Principle of legality
7554:Delegated legislation
7254:Intellectual property
6448:Malfeasance in office
5891:Note: Crimes vary by
5633:. SAGE Publications.
5337:10.1353/sof.2004.0074
5255:10.1093/ejil/12.2.329
5215:10.1093/ojls/18.2.189
4013:Finnis, John (2015).
3225:crime in some cases.
3203:cost–benefit analysis
3191:Causes and correlates
2897:post-traumatic stress
2744:broken windows theory
2115:social control theory
2111:preventative measures
1763:Defenses to liability
1553:Malfeasance in office
837:Biosocial criminology
544:Uniform Crime Reports
253:Biosocial criminology
143:, an offender may be
9183:United Arab Emirates
8414:Inquisitorial system
8351:Criminal prosecution
8291:Reasonable suspicion
8266:Exigent circumstance
8013:Barristers' chambers
7955:Legal representation
7893:Justice of the peace
7239:Financial regulation
6851:International courts
6751:Nuremberg principles
6541:Cybersex trafficking
6303:Censorship violation
4923:Girgen, Jen (2003).
4511:10.1093/bjc/42.1.109
4276:, p. 84, 91–94.
3778:The Economic Journal
3181:international custom
3113:vocational education
2457:centre-left politics
2205:or constructs them.
2184:Foundational systems
1982:English criminal law
1609:Censorship violation
1332:Cybersex trafficking
712:Solitary confinement
376:Alexandre Lacassagne
203:breaches of contract
191:violation of the law
57:does not, in modern
9163:Trinidad and Tobago
8431:Preliminary hearing
8048:Election commission
7760:Expressive function
7289:Landlord–tenant law
7188:Consumer protection
6798:Crime of aggression
6761:Genocide Convention
6333:Illegal consumption
6005:Criminal negligence
5825:, pp. 173–188.
5772:, pp. 211–227.
5719:, pp. 649–680.
5710:, pp. 483–510.
5151:, pp. 212–213.
5055:, pp. 485–486.
4856:, pp. 674–675.
4753:, pp. 125–126.
4741:, pp. 123–124.
4594:"Victimless Crimes"
4570:, pp. 173–174.
3553:10.1093/ojls/gqm018
3070:Retributive justice
2720:breach of the peace
2708:public intoxication
2420:was popularized by
2344:Abrahamic religions
2154:criminal psychology
1994:common law offences
1787:Defense of property
1639:Illegal consumption
1175:Criminal negligence
1075:Severity of offense
902:Radical criminology
263:Collective efficacy
8763:Dominican Republic
8359:Adversarial system
8301:Search and seizure
8271:Knock-and-announce
8222:Criminal procedure
8006:Legal institutions
7873:Lawsuit/Litigation
7863:Dispute resolution
7668:Catholic canon law
7376:State of emergency
7339:Will and testament
7063:Law of obligations
7016:Constitutional law
7006:Administrative law
6803:Crime of apartheid
6741:Geneva Conventions
6536:Child sexual abuse
6501:Wildlife smuggling
6491:Cruelty to animals
6280:Against the public
6109:Negligent homicide
6020:False imprisonment
5975:Against the person
5652:. Reaktion Books.
4929:Animal Law Journal
4409:(1): 23–39 Pages.
4288:, pp. 97–105.
4145:Schøyen Collection
4078:10.4000/revus.3984
3945:The concept of law
3537:"What is a Crime?"
3380:2016-06-04 at the
3305:Crime displacement
3235:There is no known
3230:social integration
3038:Criminal procedure
3032:Criminal procedure
3026:community policing
2704:drug-related crime
2694:Public-order crime
2688:Public order crime
2678:occupational crime
2516:labor racketeering
2489:White-collar crime
2483:White-collar crime
2358:Post-classical era
2220:William Blackstone
2189:Natural-law theory
2119:subcultural theory
2097:. It includes the
2031:liberal democratic
1976:criminal procedure
1708:Wildlife smuggling
1698:Cruelty to animals
1327:Child sexual abuse
1279:Negligent homicide
1190:False imprisonment
1087:Indictable offense
1031:Scope of criminal
178:certain exceptions
149:community sentence
9236:
9235:
9230:
9229:
8581:
8580:
8563:Wikimedia Commons
8510:Criminal defenses
8445:Charges and pleas
8369:Bill of attainder
8306:Search of persons
8188:
8187:
7848:Constitutionalism
7770:Law and economics
7608:Act of parliament
7346:Product liability
7299:Legal archaeology
7224:Environmental law
7218:Entertainment law
7058:International law
6958:
6957:
6784:international law
6746:Nuremberg Charter
6736:Hague Conventions
6676:
6675:
6659:Wikimedia Commons
6617:Inchoate offenses
6561:Indecent exposure
6050:Human trafficking
6015:Domestic violence
5701:, pp. 23–49.
5659:978-1-78023-359-8
5496:, pp. 63–64.
5484:, pp. 14–16.
5372:, pp. 44–45.
5313:, pp. 10–11.
5115:, pp. 17–18.
4996:, pp. 32–33.
4972:, pp. 23–24.
4820:10.1002/jts.20508
4765:, pp. 16–17.
4415:10.4119/IJCV-2791
4312:, pp. 23–24.
4300:, pp. 63–64.
3784:(477): F85–F106.
3747:, pp. 57–66.
3668:, pp. 36–37.
3600:, pp. 35–36.
3525:, pp. 31–35.
3472:, pp. 30–37.
3425:978-0-19-860756-4
3371:978-0-19-929054-3
3258:Public perception
3219:income inequality
2909:domestic violence
2828:unlawful assembly
2748:victimless crimes
2732:street harassment
2552:Blue-collar crime
2546:Blue-collar crime
2412:industrialization
2314:Code of Hammurabi
2105:of crime and its
1952:
1951:
1352:Indecent exposure
1220:Human trafficking
1185:Domestic violence
1113:Inchoate offenses
973:
972:
719:
718:
656:Prisoners' rights
560:Positivist school
157:life imprisonment
104:of each relevant
16:(Redirected from
9372:
9335:
9327:
9326:
9325:
9318:
9310:
9309:
9308:
9301:
9293:
9292:
9291:
9284:
9276:
9275:
9274:
9267:
9259:
9258:
9257:
9247:
9033:Papua New Guinea
8608:
8601:
8594:
8585:
8584:
8342:
8337:
8336:
8296:Right to silence
8215:
8208:
8201:
8192:
8191:
8163:
8162:
8161:
8149:
8148:
7972:Question of fact
7853:Criminal justice
7183:Construction law
7178:Conflict of laws
7143:Agricultural law
6985:
6978:
6971:
6962:
6961:
6918:Related concepts
6856:
6813:Genocidal intent
6703:
6696:
6689:
6680:
6679:
6323:Ethnic cleansing
6261:Trespass to land
6156:Arms trafficking
5966:
5961:
5960:
5951:
5874:
5867:
5860:
5851:
5850:
5838:
5837:
5826:
5817:
5796:
5773:
5764:
5743:
5720:
5711:
5702:
5693:
5692:, pp. 3–22.
5684:
5663:
5644:
5607:
5588:
5567:
5546:
5525:
5497:
5491:
5485:
5479:
5473:
5467:
5461:
5460:
5450:
5426:
5420:
5419:
5379:
5373:
5367:
5361:
5355:
5349:
5348:
5331:(4): 1333–1372.
5320:
5314:
5308:
5302:
5296:
5290:
5284:
5278:
5277:
5267:
5257:
5233:
5227:
5226:
5194:
5188:
5182:
5176:
5170:
5164:
5158:
5152:
5146:
5140:
5134:
5128:
5122:
5116:
5110:
5104:
5098:
5092:
5086:
5080:
5074:
5068:
5062:
5056:
5050:
5044:
5043:
5003:
4997:
4991:
4985:
4979:
4973:
4967:
4961:
4955:
4949:
4948:
4946:
4944:
4920:
4911:
4908:
4902:
4899:
4893:
4887:
4881:
4875:
4869:
4863:
4857:
4851:
4842:
4841:
4831:
4799:
4793:
4787:
4778:
4772:
4766:
4760:
4754:
4748:
4742:
4736:
4730:
4729:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4671:
4665:
4659:
4653:
4642:
4636:
4630:
4629:
4589:
4583:
4577:
4571:
4565:
4559:
4552:
4546:
4540:
4534:
4533:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4490:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4472:
4466:
4465:
4425:
4419:
4418:
4394:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4381:
4367:
4361:
4355:
4349:
4343:
4337:
4331:
4325:
4319:
4313:
4307:
4301:
4295:
4289:
4283:
4277:
4271:
4265:
4259:
4253:
4247:
4238:
4232:
4226:
4220:
4214:
4213:
4187:
4181:
4175:
4169:
4163:
4157:
4156:
4154:
4152:
4136:
4130:
4124:
4118:
4112:
4101:
4095:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4043:
4042:
4010:
4004:
4003:
3983:
3973:
3967:
3966:
3940:
3934:
3933:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3874:
3868:
3867:
3857:
3840:(7): 1323–1357.
3825:
3810:
3809:
3769:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3742:
3736:
3735:
3703:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3690:
3675:
3669:
3663:
3657:
3651:
3642:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3613:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3589:
3583:
3577:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3532:
3526:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3497:
3491:
3485:
3479:
3473:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3441:"What is crime?"
3436:
3430:
3429:
3411:
3402:
3391:
3385:
3357:
3348:
3347:
3339:
3299:
3294:
3293:
3211:crime of passion
3103:, and providing
2997:Criminal justice
2991:Criminal justice
2856:Inchoate offense
2832:political agenda
2532:money laundering
2453:social democracy
2430:social darwinism
2377:Kingdom of Italy
2311:
2307:
2304:
2299:Code of Ur-Nammu
2170:forensic science
2146:crime statistics
2138:crime prevention
2039:multiculturalism
2020:social construct
1984:and the related
1944:
1937:
1930:
1901:
1772:Actual innocence
1629:Ethnic cleansing
1523:Trespass to land
1418:Arms trafficking
982:
975:
974:
965:
958:
951:
598:
597:
555:Crime statistics
481:
235:
217:
216:
79:criminal offence
21:
9380:
9379:
9375:
9374:
9373:
9371:
9370:
9369:
9340:
9339:
9338:
9328:
9323:
9321:
9317:from Wikivoyage
9311:
9306:
9304:
9294:
9289:
9287:
9277:
9272:
9270:
9266:from Wiktionary
9260:
9255:
9253:
9250:
9246:sister projects
9243:at Knowledge's
9237:
9232:
9231:
9226:
8615:
8612:
8582:
8577:
8534:
8498:
8479:Peremptory plea
8473:Nolo contendere
8440:
8345:
8338:
8331:
8325:
8281:Pretextual stop
8276:Miranda warning
8225:
8224:(investigation)
8219:
8189:
8184:
8157:
8143:
8134:
8111:
8102:Political party
8075:Legal education
8063:Law enforcement
8043:Court of equity
8001:
7977:Question of law
7930:Practice of law
7910:Judicial review
7824:
7775:Legal formalism
7755:Comparative law
7750:Contract theory
7733:
7653:Legal pluralism
7624:
7613:Act of Congress
7537:Executive order
7503:
7405:
7324:Nationality law
7249:Immigration law
7173:Competition law
7126:
6994:
6989:
6959:
6954:
6930:Superior orders
6913:
6857:
6854:
6853:
6844:
6786:
6783:
6775:
6731:Peremptory norm
6712:
6707:
6677:
6672:
6646:
6645:
6644:
6611:
6610:
6609:
6591:Sex trafficking
6517:Sexual offenses
6511:
6510:
6509:
6483:Against animals
6478:
6477:
6476:
6427:
6426:
6425:
6381:
6380:
6379:
6275:
6274:
6273:
6191:False pretenses
6135:
6134:
6133:
6097:Preterintention
5969:
5962:
5955:
5952:
5943:
5897:
5884:
5878:
5843:
5835:
5814:
5793:
5761:
5740:
5681:
5660:
5641:
5604:
5585:
5564:
5543:
5522:
5506:
5501:
5500:
5492:
5488:
5480:
5476:
5468:
5464:
5427:
5423:
5380:
5376:
5368:
5364:
5360:, pp. 5–6.
5356:
5352:
5321:
5317:
5309:
5305:
5297:
5293:
5289:, pp. 2–3.
5285:
5281:
5234:
5230:
5195:
5191:
5183:
5179:
5171:
5167:
5159:
5155:
5147:
5143:
5135:
5131:
5123:
5119:
5113:Hoefnagels 1973
5111:
5107:
5101:Hoefnagels 1973
5099:
5095:
5089:Hoefnagels 1973
5087:
5083:
5075:
5071:
5063:
5059:
5051:
5047:
5004:
5000:
4992:
4988:
4980:
4976:
4968:
4964:
4956:
4952:
4942:
4940:
4921:
4914:
4909:
4905:
4900:
4896:
4888:
4884:
4876:
4872:
4864:
4860:
4852:
4845:
4800:
4796:
4788:
4781:
4773:
4769:
4763:Hoefnagels 1973
4761:
4757:
4749:
4745:
4737:
4733:
4714:
4710:
4706:, pp. 3–4.
4702:
4698:
4690:
4686:
4680:Hoefnagels 1973
4678:
4674:
4666:
4662:
4654:
4645:
4637:
4633:
4590:
4586:
4578:
4574:
4566:
4562:
4553:
4549:
4541:
4537:
4522:
4518:
4491:
4487:
4479:
4473:
4469:
4426:
4422:
4395:
4388:
4379:
4377:
4369:
4368:
4364:
4356:
4352:
4344:
4340:
4336:, pp. 4–5.
4332:
4328:
4320:
4316:
4308:
4304:
4296:
4292:
4284:
4280:
4272:
4268:
4260:
4256:
4248:
4241:
4233:
4229:
4221:
4217:
4202:
4188:
4184:
4176:
4172:
4164:
4160:
4150:
4148:
4138:
4137:
4133:
4125:
4121:
4113:
4104:
4096:
4089:
4057:
4053:
4040:
4038:
4031:
4011:
4007:
3992:
3974:
3970:
3955:
3941:
3937:
3922:
3908:
3904:
3889:
3875:
3871:
3826:
3813:
3770:
3763:
3755:
3751:
3745:Hoefnagels 1973
3743:
3739:
3704:
3697:
3688:
3686:
3677:
3676:
3672:
3664:
3660:
3652:
3645:
3637:
3633:
3625:
3616:
3608:
3604:
3596:
3592:
3584:
3580:
3576:, pp. 1–2.
3572:
3568:
3533:
3529:
3521:
3517:
3509:
3500:
3492:
3488:
3484:, pp. 2–3.
3480:
3476:
3468:
3464:
3454:
3452:
3437:
3433:
3426:
3412:
3405:
3392:
3388:
3382:Wayback Machine
3358:
3351:
3341:
3340:
3333:
3328:
3320:Organized crime
3295:
3288:
3285:
3260:
3199:
3193:
3161:
3155:
3146:
3144:Legal liability
3140:
3093:social networks
3062:
3054:Main articles:
3052:
3040:
3034:
3010:
3008:Law enforcement
3004:
3002:Law enforcement
2999:
2993:
2981:
2979:Criminalization
2975:
2973:Criminalization
2947:
2941:
2901:quality of life
2892:
2883:
2878:
2858:
2852:
2792:
2790:Political crime
2786:
2784:Political crime
2736:excessive noise
2696:
2690:
2643:
2637:
2597:
2589:Main articles:
2587:
2554:
2548:
2512:insider trading
2491:
2485:
2480:
2422:Cesare Lombroso
2396:
2360:
2309:
2305:
2290:
2285:
2191:
2186:
2131:labeling theory
2071:
2063:Main articles:
2061:
2053:
2008:
1971:
1965:
1948:
1889:
1453:False pretenses
1382:Sex trafficking
1308:Sexual offenses
1267:Preterintention
1103:Summary offense
969:
940:
939:
915:
907:
906:
832:Anthropological
822:
814:
813:
729:
721:
720:
595:
585:
584:
534:Critical theory
519:
511:
510:
491:State-corporate
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381:Cesare Lombroso
371:Michel Foucault
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5189:
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5057:
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4604:(4): 302–318.
4584:
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9146:
9144:
9141:
9139:
9136:
9134:
9131:
9129:
9126:
9124:
9121:
9119:
9116:
9114:
9111:
9109:
9106:
9104:
9101:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9091:
9089:
9086:
9084:
9081:
9079:
9076:
9074:
9071:
9069:
9066:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9049:
9046:
9044:
9041:
9039:
9036:
9034:
9031:
9029:
9026:
9024:
9021:
9019:
9016:
9014:
9011:
9009:
9006:
9004:
9001:
8999:
8996:
8994:
8991:
8989:
8986:
8984:
8981:
8979:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8969:
8966:
8964:
8961:
8959:
8956:
8954:
8951:
8949:
8946:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8926:
8924:
8921:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8879:
8876:
8874:
8871:
8869:
8866:
8864:
8861:
8859:
8856:
8854:
8851:
8849:
8846:
8844:
8841:
8839:
8836:
8834:
8831:
8829:
8826:
8824:
8821:
8819:
8816:
8814:
8811:
8809:
8806:
8804:
8801:
8799:
8796:
8794:
8791:
8789:
8786:
8784:
8781:
8779:
8776:
8774:
8771:
8769:
8766:
8764:
8761:
8759:
8756:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8739:
8736:
8734:
8731:
8729:
8726:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8704:
8701:
8699:
8696:
8694:
8691:
8689:
8686:
8684:
8681:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8671:
8669:
8666:
8664:
8661:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8621:
8618:
8609:
8604:
8602:
8597:
8595:
8590:
8589:
8586:
8574:
8571:
8569:
8566:
8564:
8561:
8559:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8549:
8546:
8544:
8541:
8540:
8537:
8531:
8528:
8526:
8523:
8521:
8518:
8516:
8513:
8511:
8508:
8507:
8505:
8503:Related areas
8501:
8495:
8492:
8490:
8487:
8485:
8482:
8480:
8477:
8475:
8474:
8470:
8468:
8465:
8463:
8460:
8458:
8455:
8453:
8450:
8449:
8447:
8443:
8437:
8434:
8432:
8429:
8427:
8424:
8422:
8421:
8417:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8404:
8403:Habeas corpus
8400:
8398:
8395:
8393:
8390:
8388:
8386:
8385:Ex post facto
8382:
8380:
8377:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8356:
8354:
8352:
8348:
8341:
8335:
8330:
8322:
8319:
8317:
8314:
8312:
8309:
8307:
8304:
8302:
8299:
8297:
8294:
8292:
8289:
8287:
8284:
8282:
8279:
8277:
8274:
8272:
8269:
8267:
8264:
8262:
8259:
8257:
8254:
8252:
8249:
8247:
8244:
8242:
8241:
8237:
8236:
8234:
8232:
8228:
8223:
8216:
8211:
8209:
8204:
8202:
8197:
8196:
8193:
8181:
8180:
8176:
8174:
8173:
8169:
8167:
8166:
8155:
8153:
8152:
8147:
8141:
8140:
8137:
8129:
8126:
8125:
8124:
8121:
8120:
8118:
8114:
8108:
8105:
8103:
8100:
8098:
8095:
8093:
8090:
8088:
8085:
8081:
8078:
8077:
8076:
8073:
8069:
8066:
8065:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8051:
8049:
8046:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8036:
8034:
8033:Civil society
8031:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8016:
8014:
8011:
8010:
8008:
8004:
7998:
7995:
7993:
7992:Trier of fact
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7973:
7970:
7966:
7963:
7961:
7958:
7956:
7953:
7951:
7948:
7946:
7943:
7941:
7938:
7936:
7933:
7932:
7931:
7928:
7926:
7923:
7921:
7918:
7916:
7913:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7903:
7899:
7896:
7894:
7891:
7890:
7889:
7886:
7884:
7881:
7879:
7878:Legal opinion
7876:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7866:
7864:
7861:
7859:
7858:Court-martial
7856:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7844:
7841:
7839:
7836:
7835:
7833:
7831:
7830:Jurisprudence
7827:
7821:
7818:
7816:
7813:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7783:
7781:
7778:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7756:
7753:
7751:
7748:
7746:
7743:
7742:
7740:
7736:
7730:
7727:
7725:
7722:
7720:
7719:Statutory law
7717:
7715:
7714:Socialist law
7712:
7708:
7707:Byzantine law
7705:
7704:
7703:
7700:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7669:
7666:
7665:
7664:
7661:
7660:
7659:
7658:Religious law
7656:
7654:
7651:
7649:
7646:
7644:
7641:
7639:
7636:
7635:
7633:
7631:
7630:Legal systems
7627:
7621:
7618:
7614:
7611:
7609:
7606:
7604:
7601:
7600:
7599:
7598:Statutory law
7596:
7592:
7589:
7588:
7587:
7584:
7582:
7579:
7577:
7574:
7572:
7569:
7565:
7562:
7560:
7557:
7555:
7552:
7551:
7550:
7547:
7543:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7529:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7514:
7512:
7510:
7506:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7492:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7479:
7478:
7475:
7471:
7468:
7467:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7449:
7446:
7445:
7444:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7428:Statutory law
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7416:
7414:
7412:
7408:
7402:
7399:
7397:
7394:
7392:
7389:
7387:
7386:Transport law
7384:
7382:
7379:
7377:
7374:
7372:
7369:
7367:
7364:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7349:
7347:
7344:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7331:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7304:Legal fiction
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7234:Financial law
7232:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7222:
7219:
7216:
7214:
7211:
7209:
7206:
7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7193:Corporate law
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7139:
7136:
7135:
7133:
7129:
7123:
7120:
7118:
7117:Statutory law
7115:
7113:
7110:
7106:
7103:
7102:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7075:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7032:
7029:
7028:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7003:
7001:
6999:Core subjects
6997:
6993:
6986:
6981:
6979:
6974:
6972:
6967:
6966:
6963:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6931:
6928:
6926:
6923:
6922:
6920:
6916:
6910:
6907:
6905:
6902:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6861:
6859:
6852:
6847:
6841:
6838:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6830:Slave trading
6828:
6826:
6823:
6819:
6816:
6814:
6811:
6810:
6809:
6806:
6804:
6801:
6799:
6796:
6794:
6791:
6790:
6788:
6785:
6778:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6723:
6721:
6719:
6715:
6711:
6704:
6699:
6697:
6692:
6690:
6685:
6684:
6681:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6649:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6620:
6618:
6614:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6559:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6551:Homosexuality
6549:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6539:
6537:
6534:
6532:
6529:
6527:
6524:
6520:
6518:
6514:
6507:
6504:
6502:
6499:
6497:
6494:
6492:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6474:
6471:
6469:
6466:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6437:
6435:
6430:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6391:
6389:
6384:
6377:
6374:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6351:Miscegenation
6349:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6271:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6231:Pickpocketing
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6145:
6143:
6138:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6103:
6100:
6099:
6098:
6095:
6091:
6088:
6087:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6075:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6035:Home invasion
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5985:Assassination
5983:
5982:
5978:
5976:
5972:
5965:
5959:
5954:
5950:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5906:
5904:
5900:
5896:
5894:
5887:
5883:
5875:
5870:
5868:
5863:
5861:
5856:
5855:
5852:
5846:
5839:
5824:
5819:
5818:
5815:
5813:9780199940783
5809:
5805:
5804:
5798:
5794:
5792:9780199940264
5788:
5784:
5783:
5777:
5771:
5770:Sumner (2004)
5766:
5765:
5762:
5760:9780631220923
5756:
5752:
5751:
5745:
5741:
5739:9781137505330
5735:
5731:
5730:
5724:
5718:
5713:
5709:
5704:
5700:
5695:
5691:
5686:
5685:
5682:
5680:9781420085525
5676:
5673:. CRC Press.
5672:
5671:
5665:
5661:
5655:
5651:
5646:
5642:
5640:9780803970458
5636:
5632:
5631:
5625:
5622:
5621:
5616:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5603:9789026806698
5599:
5595:
5590:
5586:
5584:9781317157939
5580:
5576:
5575:
5569:
5565:
5563:9781349258383
5559:
5555:
5554:
5548:
5544:
5542:9781135241803
5538:
5534:
5533:
5527:
5523:
5521:9780199672684
5517:
5513:
5508:
5507:
5495:
5490:
5483:
5478:
5471:
5466:
5458:
5454:
5449:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5425:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5394:(1): 84–100.
5393:
5389:
5385:
5378:
5371:
5366:
5359:
5354:
5346:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5325:Social Forces
5319:
5312:
5307:
5300:
5295:
5288:
5283:
5275:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5232:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5193:
5187:, p. 23.
5186:
5181:
5175:, p. 24.
5174:
5169:
5162:
5157:
5150:
5145:
5138:
5133:
5127:, p. 16.
5126:
5121:
5114:
5109:
5102:
5097:
5090:
5085:
5079:, p. 18.
5078:
5073:
5066:
5061:
5054:
5049:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5009:
5002:
4995:
4990:
4984:, p. 22.
4983:
4978:
4971:
4966:
4960:, p. 48.
4959:
4954:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4919:
4917:
4907:
4898:
4891:
4886:
4879:
4874:
4867:
4862:
4855:
4850:
4848:
4839:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4798:
4791:
4786:
4784:
4776:
4771:
4764:
4759:
4752:
4747:
4740:
4735:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4712:
4705:
4700:
4693:
4688:
4681:
4676:
4669:
4664:
4658:, p. 11.
4657:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4640:
4635:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4588:
4581:
4576:
4569:
4564:
4557:
4551:
4545:, p. 13.
4544:
4539:
4532:(6): 329–362.
4531:
4527:
4520:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4489:
4478:
4471:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4424:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4393:
4391:
4376:
4372:
4366:
4360:, p. 43.
4359:
4354:
4348:, p. 14.
4347:
4342:
4335:
4330:
4324:, p. 38.
4323:
4318:
4311:
4306:
4299:
4294:
4287:
4282:
4275:
4270:
4264:, p. 64.
4263:
4258:
4251:
4246:
4244:
4237:, p. 36.
4236:
4231:
4225:, p. 42.
4224:
4219:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4197:
4193:
4186:
4180:, p. 47.
4179:
4174:
4168:, p. 26.
4167:
4162:
4147:
4146:
4141:
4135:
4129:, p. 46.
4128:
4123:
4116:
4111:
4109:
4107:
4100:, p. 18.
4099:
4094:
4092:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4055:
4048:
4036:
4032:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4017:
4009:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3987:
3982:
3981:
3972:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3950:
3946:
3939:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3917:
3913:
3906:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3884:
3880:
3873:
3865:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3824:
3822:
3820:
3818:
3816:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3768:
3766:
3758:
3753:
3746:
3741:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3702:
3700:
3684:
3680:
3679:"Criminology"
3674:
3667:
3662:
3656:, p. 38.
3655:
3650:
3648:
3641:, p. 10.
3640:
3635:
3629:, p. 29.
3628:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3611:
3606:
3599:
3594:
3587:
3582:
3575:
3570:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3531:
3524:
3519:
3512:
3507:
3505:
3503:
3496:, p. 49.
3495:
3490:
3483:
3478:
3471:
3466:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3435:
3427:
3421:
3417:
3410:
3408:
3400:
3396:
3390:
3383:
3379:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3363:
3356:
3354:
3345:
3338:
3336:
3331:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3292:
3287:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3265:crime fiction
3255:
3253:
3249:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3233:
3231:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3198:
3188:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3160:
3150:
3145:
3135:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3080:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3057:
3047:
3045:
3039:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3009:
2998:
2988:
2986:
2980:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2963:socialist law
2960:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2936:
2933:
2929:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2902:
2898:
2887:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2857:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2791:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2753:
2752:Western world
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2695:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2596:
2592:
2591:Violent crime
2585:Violent crime
2582:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2508:Ponzi schemes
2505:
2501:
2497:
2490:
2475:
2473:
2472:DNA profiling
2469:
2465:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2400:Thomas Hobbes
2391:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2365:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2315:
2300:
2296:
2288:Early history
2280:
2276:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2250:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2181:
2179:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2123:strain theory
2120:
2116:
2112:
2109:, as well as
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2070:
2069:Crime science
2066:
2056:
2048:
2046:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2035:individualism
2032:
2028:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1977:
1970:
1960:
1958:
1945:
1940:
1938:
1933:
1931:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1824:Justification
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1695:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1657:Miscegenation
1655:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1493:Pickpocketing
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1403:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1342:Homosexuality
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1205:Home invasion
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1155:Assassination
1153:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1104:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1007:
1006:
1002:
1001:
1000:
999:
996:
993:
992:
989:
986:
985:
981:
977:
976:
966:
961:
959:
954:
952:
947:
946:
944:
943:
936:
933:
931:
930:Organizations
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
917:
911:
910:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
878:
877:Environmental
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
838:
835:
833:
830:
828:
825:
824:
818:
817:
808:
805:
803:
800:
799:
797:
795:
794:Postmodernist
792:
790:
787:
785:
784:Neo-classical
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
759:Environmental
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
731:
725:
724:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
687:Participatory
685:
684:
683:
682:
678:
675:
674:
669:
666:
664:
661:
657:
654:
652:
649:
648:
647:
644:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
626:
625:
622:
620:
617:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
601:
600:
599:
594:
589:
588:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
550:
549:Crime mapping
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
521:
515:
514:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
496:Transnational
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
464:International
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
448:
445:
444:
443:
440:
436:
433:
431:
428:
427:
425:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
407:
405:
404:
401:
395:
394:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
353:
347:
346:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
245:
239:
238:
234:
230:
229:
226:
222:
219:
218:
210:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
187:
185:
184:
179:
175:
174:
168:
166:
162:
161:jurisdictions
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
119:
115:
111:
110:criminal code
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
41:
37:
33:
19:
9355:Criminal law
9329:
9312:
9295:
9283:from Commons
9278:
9261:
9240:
9198:Vatican City
9113:South Africa
9088:Saudi Arabia
8515:Criminal law
8489:Plea bargain
8471:
8426:Precognition
8418:
8401:
8384:
8238:
8177:
8170:
8156:
8142:
7915:Jurisdiction
7883:Legal remedy
7838:Adjudication
7738:Legal theory
7576:Ratification
7571:Promulgation
7542:Proclamation
7522:Codification
7455:Human rights
7443:Divine right
7433:Constitution
7401:Women in law
7319:Military law
7314:Marriage law
7309:Maritime law
7208:Election law
7148:Aviation law
7138:Abortion law
7090:Property law
7030:
7026:Criminal law
6771:Rome Statute
6641:Solicitation
6576:Prostitution
6566:Masturbation
6397:Lèse-majesté
6386:Against the
6181:Embezzlement
6070:Manslaughter
6055:Intimidation
5893:jurisdiction
5890:
5881:
5802:
5781:
5749:
5728:
5669:
5649:
5629:
5618:
5611:
5593:
5573:
5552:
5531:
5511:
5489:
5477:
5472:, p. 4.
5465:
5438:
5434:
5424:
5391:
5387:
5377:
5365:
5353:
5328:
5324:
5318:
5306:
5301:, p. 6.
5294:
5282:
5245:
5241:
5231:
5206:
5202:
5192:
5180:
5168:
5156:
5144:
5132:
5120:
5108:
5096:
5084:
5072:
5065:O'Neill 2010
5060:
5053:O'Neill 2010
5048:
5015:
5011:
5001:
4989:
4977:
4965:
4953:
4941:. Retrieved
4932:
4928:
4906:
4897:
4892:, p. 2.
4885:
4873:
4861:
4811:
4807:
4797:
4792:, p. 3.
4777:, p. 4.
4770:
4758:
4746:
4734:
4725:
4721:
4711:
4699:
4694:, p. 2.
4687:
4675:
4670:, p. 1.
4663:
4641:, p. 3.
4634:
4601:
4597:
4587:
4575:
4563:
4555:
4554:Sara Baase,
4550:
4538:
4529:
4525:
4519:
4502:
4498:
4488:
4470:
4437:
4433:
4423:
4406:
4402:
4378:. Retrieved
4374:
4365:
4353:
4341:
4329:
4317:
4305:
4293:
4281:
4269:
4257:
4252:, p. 8.
4230:
4218:
4191:
4185:
4173:
4161:
4149:. Retrieved
4143:
4134:
4122:
4117:, p. 9.
4082:
4068:
4064:
4054:
4045:
4039:. Retrieved
4015:
4008:
3979:
3971:
3944:
3938:
3911:
3905:
3878:
3872:
3837:
3833:
3781:
3777:
3759:, p. 7.
3752:
3740:
3715:
3711:
3687:. Retrieved
3685:. 2021-07-27
3682:
3673:
3661:
3634:
3612:, p. 3.
3605:
3593:
3585:
3581:
3569:
3544:
3540:
3530:
3518:
3513:, p. 5.
3489:
3477:
3465:
3453:. Retrieved
3444:
3434:
3415:
3389:
3375:Google Books
3360:
3343:
3278:
3261:
3245:
3234:
3227:
3215:unemployment
3200:
3162:
3147:
3132:
3117:
3083:
3063:
3041:
3011:
2985:human rights
2982:
2948:
2945:Criminal law
2939:Criminal law
2925:
2913:embezzlement
2905:
2893:
2884:
2876:Participants
2870:renunciation
2859:
2793:
2756:
2712:prostitution
2697:
2659:
2644:
2625:use of force
2621:self-defense
2598:
2558:social class
2555:
2520:embezzlement
2492:
2461:
2445:World War II
2438:
2416:
2408:urbanization
2404:Imprisonment
2397:
2381:
2361:
2337:
2332:
2325:Roman Empire
2318:
2291:
2277:
2253:
2229:
2192:
2174:
2142:criminal law
2135:
2107:perpetrators
2103:consequences
2087:social order
2083:social norms
2074:
2072:
2054:
2043:
2024:
2016:social norms
2014:and violate
2009:
1997:
1990:Commonwealth
1980:
1972:
1953:
1849:Self-defense
1806:
1729:Lèse-majesté
1443:Embezzlement
1367:Prostitution
1357:Masturbation
1240:Manslaughter
1225:Intimidation
1137:Solicitation
1010:
1003:
988:Criminal law
882:Experimental
604:Denunciation
570:Quantitative
480:Public-order
435:White-collar
399:
366:Enrico Ferri
361:Hans Eysenck
188:
181:
171:
169:
159:or, in some
153:imprisonment
122:
106:jurisdiction
102:criminal law
87:
78:
74:
59:criminal law
54:
46:
44:
9360:Criminology
9263:Definitions
9143:Switzerland
9118:South Korea
9083:Saint Lucia
9048:Philippines
9003:North Korea
8993:New Zealand
8873:Ivory Coast
8778:El Salvador
8623:Afghanistan
8573:Wikiversity
8530:Legal abuse
8467:Information
8457:Arraignment
8452:Alford plea
8392:Extradition
8087:Legislature
8018:Bureaucracy
7815:Rule of man
7810:Rule of law
7785:Libertarian
7648:Chinese law
7549:Legislation
7499:Regulations
7487:Law reports
7465:Natural law
7361:Reparations
7356:Refugee law
7279:Jurimetrics
7220:(Media law)
7158:Banking law
7153:Amnesty law
7131:Disciplines
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6463:Obstruction
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6251:Tax evasion
6000:Child abuse
5914:Misdemeanor
5494:Fattah 1997
5482:Fattah 1997
5470:Fattah 1997
5358:Sumner 2004
5265:2158/209025
4890:Spalek 2017
4878:Fattah 1997
4866:Fattah 1997
4790:Spalek 2017
4775:Spalek 2017
4751:Fattah 1997
4739:Fattah 1997
4580:Skogan 2012
4568:Skogan 2012
4346:Fattah 1997
4334:Sumner 2004
3855:10438/12228
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3315:Rule of law
3207:opportunity
3120:rule of law
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3056:Corrections
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2840:State crime
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2724:panhandling
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2306: 2100
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4639:Tonry 2011
4380:2024-08-03
4358:Davie 2010
4322:Davie 2010
4310:Davie 2010
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3991:0674867114
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3888:0872206637
3757:Pease 2010
3689:2023-07-03
3297:Law portal
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3060:Punishment
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2955:common law
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1127:Conspiracy
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1005:Actus reus
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