1704:
and connect with sensory structures, though each clade has slightly different structures. These sensory structures, usually called rhopalia, can generate signals in response to various types of stimuli such as light, pressure, chemical changes, and much more. Medusa usually have several of them around the margin of the bell that work together to control the motor nerve net, that directly innervates the swimming muscles. Most cnidarians also have a parallel system. In scyphozoans, this takes the form of a diffuse nerve net, which has modulatory effects on the nervous system. As well as forming the "signal cables" between sensory neurons and motoneurons, intermediate neurons in the nerve net can also form ganglia that act as local coordination centers. Communication between nerve cells can occur by chemical synapses or gap junctions in hydrozoans, though gap junctions are not present in all groups. Cnidarians have many of the same neurotransmitters as bilaterians, including chemicals such as glutamate, GABA, and glycine. Serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, octopamine, histamine, and acetylcholine, on the other hand, are absent.
1811:. The "smell" of fluids from wounded prey makes the tentacles fold inwards and wipe the prey off into the mouth. In medusae the tentacles round the edge of the bell are often short and most of the prey capture is done by "oral arms", which are extensions of the edge of the mouth and are often frilled and sometimes branched to increase their surface area. These "oral arms" aid in Cnidarians ability to move prey towards their mouth once it has been poisoned and entangled. Medusae often trap prey or suspended food particles by swimming upwards, spreading their tentacles and oral arms and then sinking. In species for which suspended food particles are important, the tentacles and oral arms often have rows of
2805:
2757:
1117:
2869:
2891:
7178:
7133:
7094:
3129:
2848:
176:
2711:
2783:
1656:
2731:
1993:
1914:
1124:
3353:
3538:
3531:
2827:
3145:
9930:
120:
371:
2109:) have no medusae. In some species, the medusae remain attached to the polyp and are responsible for sexual reproduction; in extreme cases these reproductive zooids may not look much like medusae. Meanwhile, life cycle reversal, in which polyps are formed directly from medusae without the involvement of sexual reproduction process, was observed in both Hydrozoa (
3481:
2690:
3383:("hollow guts"), because Cnidaria and Ctenophora both rely on the flow of water in and out of a single cavity for feeding, excretion and respiration. In 1881, it was proposed that Ctenophora and Bilateria were more closely related to each other, since they shared features that Cnidaria lack, for example muscles in the middle layer (
1465:
1661:
1660:
1657:
1662:
1538:
1830:
release enzymes that reduce the prey to slurry, usually within a few hours. This circulates through the digestive cavity and, in colonial cnidarians, through the connecting tunnels, so that gastroderm cells can absorb the nutrients. Absorption may take a few hours, and digestion within the cells may
1676:
Medusae swim by a form of jet propulsion: muscles, especially inside the rim of the bell, squeeze water out of the cavity inside the bell, and the springiness of the mesoglea powers the recovery stroke. Since the tissue layers are very thin, they provide too little power to swim against currents and
3391:
in
Bilateria). However more recent analyses indicate that these similarities are rather vague, and the current view, based on molecular phylogenetics, is that Cnidaria and Bilateria are more closely related to each other than either is to Ctenophora. This grouping of Cnidaria and Bilateria has been
3619:
and
Southeast Asia. In parts of the range, fishing industry is restricted to daylight hours and calm conditions in two short seasons, from March to May and August to November. The commercial value of jellyfish food products depends on the skill with which they are prepared, and "Jellyfish Masters"
2561:
animals. More recent research demonstrates that the previous identification of bilaterian genes reflected contamination of the
Myxozoan samples by material from their host organism, and they are now firmly identified as heavily derived cnidarians, and more closely related to Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa
1703:
Cnidarians are generally thought to have no brains or even central nervous systems. However, they do have integrative areas of neural tissue that could be considered some form of centralization. Most of their bodies are innervated by decentralized nerve nets that control their swimming musculature
1646:
cells detect chemicals in the water, and their cilia respond to contact. This combination prevents them from firing at distant or non-living objects. Groups of cnidocytes are usually connected by nerves and, if one fires, the rest of the group requires a weaker minimum stimulus than the cells that
3575:
and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen. Tourism centered on reefs provides much of the income of some tropical islands, attracting photographers, divers and sports fishermen. However, human activities damage reefs in several ways: mining for construction materials;
1659:
887:-like structures that are mainly used to capture prey. In some species, cnidocytes can also be used as anchors. Cnidarians are also distinguished by the fact that they have only one opening in their body for ingestion and excretion i.e. they do not have a separate mouth and anus.
1573:
A tube-like extension of the wall of the cnida that points into the cnida, like the finger of a rubber glove pushed inwards. When a cnidocyte fires, the finger pops out. If the cell is a venomous nematocyte, the "finger"'s tip reveals a set of barbs that anchor it in the
1722:, chambers lined with hairs which detect the movements of internal mineral grains called statoliths. If the body tilts in the wrong direction, the animal rights itself by increasing the strength of the swimming movements on the side that is too low. Most species have
1242:
gives support and some protection to the connecting sections and to the lower parts of individual polyps. A few polyps collect materials such as sand grains and shell fragments, which they attach to their outsides. Some colonial sea anemones stiffen the mesoglea with
2197:
that help to feed them. Since the parents are immobile, these feeding capabilities extend the larvae's range and avoid overcrowding of sites. Scyphozoan and hydrozoan larvae have little yolk and most lack endosymbiotic algae, and therefore have to settle quickly and
3558:
Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries. Reefs are an important food source for low-technology fishing, both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas. However, despite their great
7270:
3078:
form some of the world's most productive ecosystems. Common coral reef cnidarians include both
Anthozoans (hard corals, octocorals, anemones) and Hydrozoans (fire corals, lace corals). The endosymbiotic algae of many cnidarian species are very effective
3518:
have long been economically important as providers of fishing grounds, protectors of shore buildings against currents and tides, and more recently as centers of tourism. However, they are vulnerable to over-fishing, mining for construction materials,
2226:
can split horizontally just above the base. Asexual reproduction makes the daughter cnidarian a clone of the adult. The ability of
Cnidarians to asexually reproduce ensures a greater number of mature medusa that can mature to reproduce sexually.
1831:
take a few days. The circulation of nutrients is driven by water currents produced by cilia in the gastroderm or by muscular movements or both, so that nutrients reach all parts of the digestive cavity. Nutrients reach the outer cell layer by
1172:
of polyps is usually thin and often soft, but that of medusae is usually thick and springy, so that it returns to its original shape after muscles around the edge have contracted to squeeze water out, enabling medusae to swim by a sort of
1862:
have ciliated grooves on their tentacles, allowing them to pump water out of and into the digestive cavity without opening the mouth. This improves respiration after feeding and allows these animals, which use the cavity as a
2923:
for much of their nutrients. The life cycles of most have polyp stages, which are limited to locations that offer stable substrates. Nevertheless, major cnidarian groups contain species that have escaped these limitations.
7267:
3379:(all the more complex animals) than they are to the other groups of sponges. In 1866 it was proposed that Cnidaria and Ctenophora were more closely related to each other than to Bilateria and formed a group called
1901:. Medusae have limited ability to regenerate, but polyps can do so from small pieces or even collections of separated cells. This enables corals to recover even after apparently being destroyed by predators.
2064:
swims until it finds a good site, and then becomes a polyp. This grows normally but then absorbs its tentacles and splits horizontally into a series of disks that become juvenile medusae, a process called
1658:
3091:
ones that other organisms can use, and their coral hosts use these organic chemicals very efficiently. In addition, reefs provide complex and varied habitats that support a wide range of other organisms.
3645:
has been described as the world's most venomous jellyfish and is held responsible for 67 deaths, although it is difficult to identify the animal as it is almost transparent. Most stingings by
2132:. Many species of Cnidaria may spawn simultaneously in the same location, so that there are too many ova and sperm for predators to eat more than a tiny percentage — one famous example is the
3120:. This additional level of variety in the environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals, which for example may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.
1707:
This structure ensures that the musculature is excited rapidly and simultaneously, and can be directly stimulated from any point on the body, and it also is better able to recover after injury.
2524:
cnidarians with stalks and no medusa stage, have traditionally been classified as members of the
Scyphozoa, but recent research suggests they should be regarded as a separate class, Staurozoa.
1407:
refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals within the same organism. It is a characteristic feature of
Cnidarians, particularly the
1913:
1519:
are not used for prey capture — instead the threads of discharged ptychocysts are used for building protective tubes in which their owners live. Ptychocysts are found only in the
2973:-building corals are limited to tropical seas between 30°N and 30°S with a maximum depth of 46 m (151 ft), temperatures between 20 and 28 °C (68 and 82 °F), high
2128:
Spawning is generally driven by environmental factors such as changes in the water temperature, and their release is triggered by lighting conditions such as sunrise, sunset or the
3181:
can only be dated approximately. The identification of some of these as embryos of animals has been contested, but other fossils from these rocks strongly resemble tubes and other
3028:, mainly on jellyfish but a few are major pests of fish. Others obtain most of their nourishment from endosymbiotic algae or dissolved nutrients. Predators of cnidarians include:
1577:
The thread, which is an extension of the "finger" and coils round it until the cnidocyte fires. The thread is usually hollow and delivers chemicals from the cnida to the target.
2179:. They are cigar-shaped but slightly broader at the "front" end, which is the aboral, vegetal-pole end and eventually attaches to a substrate if the species has a polyp stage.
1642:. Used cnidocytes have to be replaced, which takes about 48 hours. To minimise wasteful firing, two types of stimulus are generally required to trigger cnidocytes: nearby
1373:
Interstitial cells, which are unspecialized and can replace lost or damaged cells by transforming into the appropriate types. These are found between the bases of muscle cells.
3979:
Park E, Hwang D, Lee J, et al. (January 2012). "Estimation of divergence times in cnidarian evolution based on mitochondrial protein-coding genes and the fossil record".
3657:, which takes about 30 minutes to develop, and from a few hours to two weeks to disappear. Hospital treatment is usually required, and there have been a few deaths.
1858:
into the surrounding water. When the water in the digestive cavity becomes stale it must be replaced, and nutrients that have not been absorbed will be expelled with it. Some
2148:, some of which can settle and form polyps, but it is not known how long these can survive. In some species the ova release chemicals that attract sperm of the same species.
1742:. Although the eyes probably do not form images, Cubozoa can clearly distinguish the direction from which light is coming as well as negotiate around solid-colored objects.
859:, which include almost all other animals. Both cnidarians and ctenophores are more complex than sponges as they have: cells bound by inter-cell connections and carpet-like
1157:, like a wheel and a tube respectively. Since these animals have no heads, their ends are described as "oral" (nearest the mouth) and "aboral" (furthest from the mouth).
2092:
medusa or a sessile polyp that reproduces sexually) is sometimes called "alternation of asexual and sexual phases" or "metagenesis", but should not be confused with the
3502:
Jellyfish stings killed about 1,500 people in the 20th century, and cubozoans are particularly dangerous. On the other hand, some large jellyfish are considered a
3472:
The mitochondrial genome in the medusozoan cnidarians, unlike those in other animals, is linear with fragmented genes. The reason for this difference is unknown.
2099:
Shortened forms of this life cycle are common, for example some oceanic scyphozoans omit the polyp stage completely, and cubozoan polyps produce only one medusa.
6835:"Acquired Protective Immunity in Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar against the Myxozoan Kudoa thyrsites Involves Induction of MHIIβ + CD83 + Antigen-Presenting Cells"
3411:
form medusae by budding from the side of the polyp while the other
Medusozoa do so by splitting them off from the tip of the polyp. The traditional grouping of
2251:, and these repair pathways facilitate unhindered reproduction. The identification of these pathways in hydra is based, in part, on the presence in the hydra
606:, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Cnidarians are classified into four main groups: the almost wholly
4777:
De Vito; et al. (2006). "Evidence of reverse development in
Leptomedusae (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa): the case of Laodicea undulata (Forbes and Goodsir 1851)".
7200:"The interrelationships of metazoan parasites: a review of phylum- and higher-level hypotheses from recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses"
6196:"The unique skeleton of siliceous sponges (Porifera; Hexactinellida and Demospongiae) that evolved first from the Urmetazoa during the Proterozoic: a review"
3403:
Within the
Cnidaria, the Anthozoa (sea anemones and corals) are regarded as the sister-group of the rest, which suggests that the earliest cnidarians were
6894:
1591:
It is difficult to study the firing mechanisms of cnidocytes as these structures are small but very complex. At least four hypotheses have been proposed:
595:
polyp stages and sexual medusae stages. Some, however, omit either the polyp or the medusa stage, and the parasitic classes evolved to have neither form.
7032:
Begr. von Kaestner. 2 Bde. Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena. 1954, 1980, 1984, Spektrum Akad. Verl., Heidelberg-Berlin, 1993. 5th edition.
6403:"First Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence from a Box Jellyfish Reveals a Highly Fragmented Linear Architecture and Insights into Telomere Evolution"
3442:. They did not commit themselves on whether bilaterians evolved from early cnidarians or from the hypothesized triploblastic ancestors of cnidarians.
2271:, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Modern cnidarians are generally classified into four main
8495:
2756:
10333:
8500:
2255:
of genes homologous to genes in other genetically well studied species that have been demonstrated to play key roles in these DNA repair pathways.
6228:
2069:. The juveniles swim off and slowly grow to maturity, while the polyp re-grows and may continue strobilating periodically. The adult medusae have
10977:
5495:. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences (22nd Annual Scientific Diving Symposium). Archived from the original on 2011-01-06
890:
Like sponges and ctenophores, cnidarians have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly-like material, which is called the
714:. While reef-forming corals are almost entirely restricted to warm and shallow marine waters, other cnidarians can be found at great depths, in
8358:
6366:
Technau, U.; Rudd, S. & Maxwell, P (December 2005). "Maintenance of ancestral complexity and non-metazoan genes in two basal cnidarians".
1437:; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the
1326:
fibers in parallel rows. The fibers of the outward-facing cell layer generally run at right angles to the fibers of the inward-facing one. In
11003:
7250:
5742:
5589:
2804:
4486:
Dunn, Casey W.; Wagner, Günter P. (16 September 2006). "The evolution of colony-level development in the Siphonophora (Cnidaria:Hydrozoa)".
6039:
1778:
1516:
3445:
In molecular phylogenetics analyses from 2005 onwards, important groups of developmental genes show the same variety in cnidarians as in
1510:
3785:
2890:
641:(a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and which has both sessile members, such as
7123:
3282:
1164:
around their edges, and medusae generally have an inner ring of tentacles around the mouth. Some hydroids may consist of colonies of
898:
have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly-like layer. Hence, cnidarians and ctenophores have traditionally been labelled
2159:) and eventually becomes the digestive cavity. However, in cnidarians the depression forms at the end further from the yolk (at the
11120:
10951:
2868:
1396:-like cells, and muscle cells in some species. However, the number of middle-layer cells and types are much lower than in sponges.
5556:
10990:
10039:
3717:
2730:
2303:, a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and has both sessile members such as
6331:
Miller, D.J.; Ball, E.E. & Technau, U. (October 2005). "Cnidarians and ancestral genetic complexity in the animal kingdom".
4742:
485:. Their distinguishing features are a decentralized nervous system distributed throughout a gelatinous body and the presence of
4990:
4713:
809:“nettle”), signifying the coiled thread reminiscent of cnidocytes. The word was first coined in 1766 by the Swedish naturalist
6703:
6539:
6503:
6461:
5601:
5566:
5536:
5369:
5336:
5300:
4330:
4259:
4165:
3530:
3255:
1389:. In some species it also contains low concentrations of cnidocytes, which are used to subdue prey that is still struggling.
7279:
6602:
Omori, M.; Kitamura, M. (2004). "Taxonomic review of three Japanese species of edible jellyfish (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae)".
2088:
This phenomenon of succession of differently organized generations (one asexually reproducing, sessile polyp, followed by a
11115:
10995:
3844:
2710:
7306:
5488:
3430:
However, in 2005 Katja Seipel and Volker Schmid suggested that cnidarians and ctenophores are simplified descendants of
9882:
8596:
6451:
5273:
4434:
6833:
Braden, Laura M.; Rasmussen, Karina J.; Purcell, Sara L.; et al. (December 19, 2017). Appleton, Judith A. (ed.).
3592:; and tourist damage caused by boat anchors and the cumulative effect of walking on the reefs. Coral, mainly from the
7037:
7022:
7007:
6982:
6967:
6952:
6937:
4725:
2847:
2782:
2689:
428:
5326:
1842:
Indigestible remains of prey are expelled through the mouth. The main waste product of cells' internal processes is
11062:
10930:
8633:
7340:
6529:
2577:
1638:
Cnidocytes can only fire once, and about 25% of a hydra's nematocysts are lost from its tentacles when capturing a
3112:
the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and seagrass protect the coral from large influxes of
3108:
in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or
3044:
into their own bodies for self-defense (nematocysts used by cnidarian predators are referred to as kleptocnidae);
1773:
within their cells, and parasitism. Most obtain the majority of their food from predation but some, including the
11008:
10943:
8628:
7335:
5359:
3333:(all the more complex animals) make comparisons difficult. Hence reconstructions now rely largely or entirely on
1584:(lid) over the end of the cnida. The lid may be a single hinged flap or three flaps arranged like slices of pie.
4642:
Kass-Simon, G.; Pierobon, Paola (1 January 2007). "Cnidarian chemical neurotransmission, an updated overview".
5071:, and the origin of the Bilateria: The phylogenetic position of "Endocnidozoa" in light of the rediscovery of
8712:
8702:
8685:
7419:
7409:
7392:
5513:
3024:
Prey of cnidarians ranges from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves. Some cnidarians are
3423:(box jellies) than to other "Scyphozoa". Similarities in the double body walls of Staurozoa and the extinct
6137:"Evaluating hypotheses of basal animal phylogeny using complete sequences of large and small subunit rRNA"
5392:
3407:
polyps with no medusa stage. However, it is unclear how the other groups acquired the medusa stage, since
2151:
The fertilized eggs develop into larvae by dividing until there are enough cells to form a hollow sphere (
1513:
do not penetrate the victim or inject venom, but entangle it by means of small sticky hairs on the thread.
535:
that bear cnidocytes, which are specialized stinging cells used to capture prey. Both forms have a single
11105:
10886:
10873:
10032:
5290:
4395:
Comparative Proteomics of Octocoral and Scleractinian Skeletomes and the Evolution of Coral Calcification
2000:
584:
1687:
can move slowly over rocks and sea or stream beds by various means: creeping like snails, crawling like
1622:
forces water in very rapidly to dilute it. This mechanism has been observed in nematocysts of the class
678:
to animals several times larger than themselves, but many obtain much of their nutrition from symbiotic
6195:
4676:
3170:
The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are rather modern-looking cnidarians, possibly from around
2240:
2093:
1154:
571:, which are involved in gravity sensing and sometimes chemoreception. Several free-swimming species of
6694:
Greenberg, M.I.; Hendrickson, R.G.; Silverberg, M.; et al. (2004). "Box Jellyfish Envenomation".
2826:
1507:
into prey, and usually have barbs to keep them embedded in the victims. Most species have nematocysts.
11018:
10176:
7254:
6247:"The phylogenetic position of the comb jellies (Ctenophora) and the importance of taxonomic sampling"
4599:
Satterlie, Richard A (2002-10-01). "Neuronal control of swimming in jellyfish: a comparative story".
4394:
3817:
3021:, which may exceed 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in diameter and 75 m (246 ft) in length.
175:
17:
10891:
7177:
7132:
7093:
5773:
4472:
513:
thick. Cnidarians are also some of the only animals that can reproduce both sexually and asexually.
11095:
11067:
4405:
3049:
3018:
2310:
1427:, colonial individuals arising from individual zooids will take on separate tasks. For example, in
648:
544:
6295:
2993:
waters. Cnidarians range in size from a mere handful of cells for the parasitic myxozoans through
1634:
air tanks, and fully extending the thread in as little as 2 milliseconds (0.002 second).
11110:
10261:
8717:
7424:
7299:
6563:"Synopsis of edible jellyfishes collected from Southeast Asia, with notes on jellyfish fisheries"
6017:
5393:"Organelle survival in a foreign organism: Hydra nematocysts in the flatworm Microstomum lineare"
3822:
3633:
3419:, but morphology and molecular phylogenetics indicate that Staurozoa are more closely related to
3334:
3072:
live among the tentacles of sea anemones, and each partner protects the other against predators.
2898:
1559:(fine hair) which projects above the surface and acts as a trigger. Spirocysts do not have cilia.
7192:
7165:
7147:
7113:
7081:
7063:
6062:
5743:"Precambrian Animal Life: Probable Developmental and Adult Cnidarian Forms from Southwest China"
1322:
Epitheliomuscular cells whose bodies form part of the epithelium but whose bases extend to form
10813:
10025:
9875:
8589:
3545:
1894:
1692:
1607:(the "sea wasp"), chemical changes in the cnida's contents may cause them to expand rapidly by
1404:
806:
11044:
7259:
6495:
2965:
live in deep, cold waters, and some sea anemones inhabit polar seabeds while others live near
11100:
11039:
10489:
10139:
9978:
8680:
7387:
6058:
5507:
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3789:
3700:
in 2013 and four fish farms collectively lost tens of thousands of salmon in September 2017.
2854:
2696:
2541:
1527:
11054:
11031:
5048:Štolc, A. (1899). "Actinomyxidies, nouveau groupe de Mesozoaires parent des Myxosporidies".
4968:"Animal biodiversity: An introduction to higher-level classification and taxonomic richness"
4691:
1566:, which houses the thread, its payload and a mixture of chemicals that may include venom or
10899:
10860:
10154:
6210:
6148:
5983:
5841:
5695:
5636:
5443:
5180:
5125:
4833:
4786:
4035:
3988:
3937:
3881:
3314:
3178:
3080:
2876:
2833:
2426:
2244:
2211:
1898:
1864:
1204:
721:
Cnidarians are a very ancient phylum, with fossils having been found in rocks formed about
592:
528:
521:
374:
160:
152:
136:
10982:
7172:
7120:
7088:
6693:
5917:
5797:
Donovan, Stephen K.; Lewis, David N. (2001). "Fossils explained 35. The Ediacaran biota".
4352:
The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology
4251:
4245:
659:
in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the highly derived parasitic
8:
11090:
8202:
7986:
5226:
3404:
2986:
2942:
2521:
2041:
1239:
1140:
1116:
607:
588:
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6214:
6152:
5987:
5953:
5845:
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5640:
5489:"Predator Suites and Flabellinid Nudibranch Nematocyst Complements in the Gulf of Maine"
5447:
5184:
5129:
5006:
4837:
4790:
4039:
3992:
3941:
3885:
2329:
are now recognized as highly derived cnidarians rather than more closely related to the
1294:
animals; in other words, they have two main cell layers, while more complex animals are
10851:
10484:
10166:
9145:
8697:
8675:
8663:
8638:
8212:
7404:
7382:
7370:
7345:
7292:
6867:
6834:
6798:
Grady J, Burnett J (December 2003). "Irukandji-like syndrome in South Florida divers".
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5898:
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2764:
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1668:
1581:
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810:
736:
462:
170:
7070:
Class-level relationships in the phylum Cnidaria—Molecular and morphological evidence.
6811:
5167:
Chang, E. Sally; Neuhof, Moran; Rubinstein, Nimrod D.; et al. (1 December 2015).
4939:
4644:
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology
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7746:
7414:
7377:
7365:
7355:
7221:
7188:
7161:
7143:
7109:
7077:
7059:
7033:
7018:
7003:
6978:
6963:
6948:
6933:
6872:
6854:
6815:
6780:
6745:
6699:
6584:
6535:
6499:
6457:
6432:
6383:
6348:
6268:
6263:
6246:
6176:
6171:
6136:
6109:
6104:
6087:
6085:
5893:
5876:
5861:
5818:
5810:
5765:
5723:
5718:
5683:
5664:
5659:
5624:
5597:
5562:
5532:
5469:
5412:
5365:
5332:
5296:
5269:
5208:
5141:
5116:
5096:
5030:
4915:
4861:
4753:
4721:
4659:
4616:
4578:
4570:
4503:
4452:
4440:
4430:
4369:
4326:
4303:
4255:
4161:
4063:
4004:
3953:
3928:
3899:
3761:
3744:
3674:
3641:
3550:
3365:
3182:
2966:
2812:
2738:
2222:
polyps can both bud and split down the middle. In addition to both of these methods,
1815:
whose beating creates currents that flow towards the mouth, and some produce nets of
1627:
1303:
1218:
860:
470:
348:
316:
235:
6680:
6280:
6121:
6003:
5902:
4967:
4806:
4628:
4381:
3811:
3770:
3211:
and modern cnidarians has cast doubt on this hypothesis, leaving the Canadian polyp
2125:
have no medusa stage at all and the polyps are responsible for sexual reproduction.
1168:
that serve different purposes, such as defense, reproduction and catching prey. The
10552:
10431:
10323:
10266:
10206:
10201:
10129:
10114:
8622:
8518:
8464:
8218:
7664:
7329:
7211:
7052:
Mitochondrial DNA structure and the molecular phylogeny of recent cnidaria classes.
6958:
Barnes, R.S.K., P. Calow, P. J. W. Olive, D. W. Golding & J. I. Spicer (2001).
6862:
6846:
6807:
6772:
6735:
6668:
6645:
6633:
6574:
6449:
6422:
6414:
6375:
6340:
6307:
6258:
6244:
6218:
6166:
6156:
6099:
6054:
5991:
5888:
5849:
5806:
5757:
5713:
5703:
5654:
5644:
5459:
5451:
5404:
5261:
5198:
5188:
5153:
5133:
5084:
5020:
4982:
4905:
4895:
4851:
4841:
4794:
4651:
4608:
4560:
4495:
4422:
4359:
4293:
4053:
4043:
3996:
3965:
3945:
3889:
3756:
3088:
2790:
2145:
2049:
1854:
There are no respiratory organs, and both cell layers absorb oxygen from and expel
1619:
1136:
1027:
1016:
975:
876:
548:
517:
390:
8841:
8150:
5455:
4515:
2218:
polyps only bud, while the medusae of some hydrozoans can divide down the middle.
2202:
into polyps. Instead, these species rely on their medusae to extend their ranges.
2144:
produce enough gametes to turn the water cloudy. These mass spawnings may produce
1377:
In addition to epitheliomuscular, nerve and interstitial cells, the inward-facing
1366:
cells, which lie mostly between the bases of the muscle cells. Some form a simple
1358:
cells appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells, and communicate via
914:, and it has been suggested that cnidarians evolved from triploblastic ancestors.
10865:
10725:
10630:
10592:
10547:
10479:
10236:
10196:
10181:
10074:
9848:
9754:
9605:
9508:
9365:
8898:
8391:
7566:
7274:
7127:
6134:
4846:
4048:
3486:
3435:
3368:
3137:
3105:
2318:
2272:
2045:
1878:
1867:, to control the water pressure in the cavity without expelling undigested food.
1520:
1408:
1143:
982:
747:
732:
656:
524:
10878:
5832:
Antcliffe, J.B.; Brasier, M. D. (2007). "Charnia and sea pens are poles apart".
4298:
4281:
4000:
3128:
1730:
are unique among Medusae because they possess four kinds of true eyes that have
1348:
Cnidaria its name. These appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells.
10938:
10925:
10785:
10730:
10720:
10562:
10376:
10328:
10241:
10216:
10211:
10191:
10186:
10089:
10079:
9513:
9491:
9309:
9221:
9199:
9162:
8653:
8487:
8477:
8441:
8416:
8105:
7896:
7797:
7719:
7528:
7360:
7017:
Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer. Spektrum Akademischer Verl., Heidelberg, 2004.
6659:
Y-H. Peggy Hsieh; Fui-Ming Leong; Jack Rudloe (May 2001). "Jellyfish as food".
5408:
4655:
3894:
3869:
3568:
3564:
3511:
3053:
2978:
1871:
1855:
1793:
1759:
1755:
1739:
1643:
1608:
1595:
Rapid contraction of fibers round the cnida may increase its internal pressure.
1393:
1355:
1279:
1174:
868:
679:
564:
510:
454:
338:
144:
7244:
7239:
6672:
6637:
6379:
6344:
5853:
4986:
4940:"Microscopic parasitic jellyfish defy everything we know, astonish scientists"
4900:
4798:
4499:
4345:
3236:
902:, along with sponges. However, both cnidarians and ctenophores have a type of
11084:
10509:
10494:
10456:
10381:
10317:
10303:
10251:
10246:
10160:
10149:
10144:
10124:
10119:
10094:
9970:
9946:
9658:
9562:
9061:
8523:
8322:
8314:
8144:
8065:
8005:
7916:
7890:
7619:
6858:
6588:
4620:
4574:
3593:
3491:
3431:
3093:
2982:
2930:
2917:
2392:
2305:
2248:
2191:
2105:
2089:
1727:
1688:
1680:
1615:
1570:
or both. ("cnida" is derived from the Greek word κνίδη, which means "nettle")
1542:
1464:
1275:
1267:
1191:
911:
798:
711:
643:
320:
305:
73:
6721:
6135:
Medina, M.; Collins, A.G.; Silberman, J.D. & Sogin, M.L. (August 2001).
5974:
Copper, P. (January 1994). "Ancient reef ecosystem expansion and collapse".
5265:
5193:
5137:
5007:
Collins, A.G.; Cartwright, P.; McFadden, C.S. & Schierwater, B. (2005).
4156:
Hinde, R.T. (1998). "The Cnidaria and Ctenophora". In Anderson, D.T. (ed.).
3949:
3337:, which groups organisms according to similarities and differences in their
10836:
10705:
10700:
10675:
10650:
10640:
10567:
10436:
10310:
10271:
10256:
10231:
10226:
10171:
10104:
10001:
9919:
9914:
9909:
9764:
9759:
9647:
9503:
9389:
9275:
9178:
9157:
9027:
8978:
8934:
8915:
8556:
8383:
8363:
8303:
8207:
8180:
8127:
8085:
8052:
7827:
7605:
7544:
7284:
7225:
6988:
6876:
6819:
6784:
6749:
6740:
6723:
6624:
Omori, M.; Nakano, E. (May 2001). "Jellyfish fisheries in southeast Asia".
6436:
6387:
6352:
6272:
6180:
6161:
6113:
5769:
5761:
5727:
5708:
5668:
5649:
5473:
5416:
5212:
5145:
5034:
5025:
5008:
4919:
4865:
4663:
4582:
4507:
4426:
4373:
4307:
4081:
4067:
4008:
3957:
3903:
3697:
3621:
3608:
3380:
3338:
3292:
3219:
2951:
2859:
2773:
2747:
2743:
2721:
2701:
2656:
2642:— hydrozoans (fire corals, hydroids, hydroid jellyfishes, siphonophores...)
2614:
2604:
2594:
2397:
2326:
2321:
in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the parasitic
2268:
2199:
2168:
2156:
2141:
2074:
2066:
2023:
1827:
1789:
1715:
1711:
1639:
1523:
1378:
1291:
1259:
1255:
1128:
899:
778:
770:
751:
715:
703:
664:
603:
536:
494:
327:
278:
272:
266:
9860:
6223:
6193:
5740:
5587:
5527:
Choat, J.H.; Bellwood, D.R. (1998). Paxton, J.R.; Eschmeyer, W.N. (eds.).
5169:"Genomic insights into the evolutionary origin of Myxozoa within Cnidaria"
4444:
1792:
and on absorbing dissolved nutrients. Cnidaria give their symbiotic algae
1598:
The thread may be like a coiled spring that extends rapidly when released.
1454:
1221:
10964:
10845:
10760:
10735:
10680:
10655:
10577:
10572:
10537:
10527:
10221:
10134:
9725:
9696:
9682:
9672:
9257:
9073:
8986:
8768:
8447:
8373:
8225:
8189:
8169:
8117:
8091:
7981:
7929:
7902:
7884:
7857:
7624:
7493:
7482:
7216:
7199:
6900:
6850:
6658:
6418:
4024:"Phylogenomic Analyses Support Traditional Relationships within Cnidaria"
3689:
3625:
3581:
3424:
3057:
2569:
as cnidarians, while others propose that they form a completely separate
2566:
2412:
2280:
2160:
2129:
1882:
1784:
1684:
1434:
1363:
1295:
1251:
1196:
755:
614:
474:
458:
260:
220:
48:
6453:
Venomous and Poisonous Marine Animals: A Medical and Biological Handbook
4282:"Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and the origin of triploblasty"
3434:
animals, since ctenophores and the medusa stage of some cnidarians have
2103:
have a variety of life cycles. Some have no polyp stages and some (e.g.
10793:
10755:
10685:
10665:
10660:
10645:
10615:
10587:
10542:
10532:
10504:
10499:
10441:
10416:
10109:
10084:
10006:
9822:
9807:
9802:
9783:
9778:
9706:
9653:
9623:
9615:
9557:
9431:
9423:
9406:
9186:
9098:
9051:
8991:
8953:
8927:
8773:
8758:
8528:
8352:
8343:
8328:
8196:
8133:
7992:
7953:
7948:
7834:
7751:
7646:
7558:
7050:
D. Bridge, B. Schierwater, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle R, L. W. Buss:
6945:
Das System der Metazoa I. Ein Lehrbuch der phylogenetischen Systematik.
6450:
Williamson, J.A.; Fenner, P.J.; Burnett, J.W. & Rifkin, J. (1996).
6245:
Wallberg, A.; Thollesson, M.; Farris, J.S. & Jondelius, U. (2004).
5995:
4565:
4548:
3696:. A loss valued at £1 million struck in November 2007, 20,000 died off
3572:
3515:
3393:
3372:
3322:
3251:
3075:
3041:
3037:
3029:
2769:
2456:
2264:
2236:
2164:
1804:
1726:("simple eyes"), which can detect sources of light. However, the agile
1500:
1457:
remain connected to the bodies of the cells by threads. Three types of
1314:
that separates the layers. The layer that faces outwards, known as the
1271:
959:
931:
852:
826:
707:
691:
683:
599:
556:
506:
505:, a non-living, jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of
360:
294:
93:
58:
8574:
6579:
6562:
6086:
Borchiellini, C.; Manuel, M.; Alivon, E.; et al. (January 2001).
5625:"Putative phosphatized embryos from the Doushantuo Formation of China"
3396:" because it suggests that the earliest Bilateria were similar to the
2214:
by various means, in addition to regenerating after being fragmented.
1537:
1298:
having three main layers. The two main cell layers of cnidarians form
1254:
made of calcium carbonate is found in subphylum Anthozoa in the order
879:
organs. Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having
739:. Other fossils show that corals may have been present shortly before
10969:
10912:
10710:
10690:
10582:
10461:
10396:
10386:
10371:
10366:
10347:
10099:
9962:
9938:
9788:
9735:
9730:
9701:
9690:
9639:
9634:
9586:
9498:
9285:
9280:
9242:
9091:
9083:
9012:
8964:
8885:
8872:
8853:
8848:
8807:
8427:
8368:
8076:
8041:
7999:
7976:
7958:
7845:
7781:
7656:
7533:
7476:
7463:
7315:
7251:
Cnidaria - Guide to the Marine Zooplankton of south eastern Australia
6722:
Little, M.; Pereira, P.; Carrette, T. & Seymour, J. (June 2006).
5292:
Small-scale Freshwater Toxicity Investigations: Toxicity Test Methods
5109:
4364:
4347:
3669:
3604:
3597:
3577:
3520:
3507:
3416:
3412:
3376:
3330:
3317:(their shapes and structures), because the large differences between
3310:
3304:
3281:
bivalves were the main reef-builders, but they were wiped out in the
3260:
3228:
3200:
3190:
3172:
3150:
3117:
3084:
3069:
3065:
2925:
2916:
Many cnidarians are limited to shallow waters because they depend on
2903:
2881:
2717:
2676:
2666:
2558:
2460:
2407:
2402:
2346:
2330:
2314:
2292:
2219:
2053:
2004:
1992:
1832:
1800:
1767:
1763:
1751:
1719:
1631:
1458:
1367:
1341:
1331:
1299:
1209:
1161:
1123:
943:
936:
880:
856:
830:
782:
774:
760:
741:
729:
723:
652:
630:
626:
580:
576:
568:
560:
540:
486:
466:
344:
334:
290:
286:
207:
187:
109:
98:
42:
10807:
6895:"Stinger jellyfish swarms wipe out farmed salmon in west of Ireland"
5110:
E. Jímenez-Guri; Philippe, H; Okamura, B; Holland, PW (July 2007). "
4612:
3352:
3286:
1877:
may have the opposite problem, an excess of oxygen, which may prove
1819:
to trap particles. Their digestion is both intra and extracellular.
10917:
10830:
10765:
10745:
10740:
10715:
10695:
10670:
10635:
10620:
10451:
10426:
10406:
10066:
9954:
9901:
9812:
9796:
9719:
9711:
9666:
9629:
9610:
9599:
9581:
9436:
9377:
9353:
9250:
9131:
9020:
8904:
8786:
8692:
8434:
8396:
8297:
8274:
7821:
7816:
7808:
7738:
7613:
7488:
7471:
7449:
7399:
5925:
4882:
Barve, A.; Galande, A. A.; Ghaskadbi, S. S.; Ghaskadbi, S. (2021).
3745:"Phylogeny of Medusozoa and the Evolution of Cnidarian Life Cycles"
3679:
3665:
3589:
3585:
3503:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3439:
3408:
3388:
3384:
3361:
3326:
3318:
3274:
3247:
3232:
3155:
3133:
3101:
3045:
3033:
3025:
2974:
2962:
2947:
2817:
2636:
2585:
2550:
2536:
2532:
2435:
2356:
2341:
2300:
2276:
2223:
2215:
2187:
2152:
2122:
2100:
1874:
1859:
1836:
1623:
1603:
1567:
1424:
1420:
1335:
1327:
1318:("outside skin"), generally contains the following types of cells:
1315:
1311:
1263:
1244:
1186:
1169:
1147:
907:
891:
834:
822:
766:
687:
675:
671:
638:
610:
532:
502:
490:
482:
312:
252:
88:
83:
68:
63:
53:
10956:
5796:
4346:
Exposito, J-Y.; Cluzel, C.; Garrone, R. & Lethias, C. (2002).
4243:
3223:
as the only recognized cnidarian body fossils from the Ediacaran.
10770:
10750:
10446:
10421:
10411:
10401:
10357:
10294:
9993:
9772:
9748:
9740:
9677:
9591:
9411:
9398:
9331:
9322:
9267:
9192:
8550:
8285:
8122:
7968:
7875:
7864:
7728:
7634:
7590:
7498:
6330:
4944:
3868:
Dunn, Casey W.; Leys, Sally P.; Haddock, Steven H.D. (May 2015).
3693:
3661:
3650:
3458:
3453:(sea anemones and corals), retain some genes that are present in
3420:
3397:
3213:
3204:
3195:
3109:
2958:
2838:
2795:
2646:
2626:
2528:
2420:
2361:
2351:
2322:
2296:
2288:
2172:
2057:
1843:
1731:
1450:
1438:
1412:
1359:
1307:
1225:
1214:
1098:
884:
660:
634:
622:
572:
450:
356:
301:
103:
78:
6401:
Smith, D. R.; Kayal, E.; Yanagihara, A. A.; et al. (2011).
5060:
3537:
1846:, which is removed by the external and internal water currents.
1614:
Chemical changes in the liquid in the cnida make it a much more
551:
that are single organisms composed of medusa-like or polyp-like
10610:
10602:
10471:
9817:
9551:
8751:
8738:
8609:
8606:
8143:
7940:
7670:
7572:
7514:
7158:
Zeitschrift für zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung.
7056:
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
7013:
Schäfer, W. (1997). Cnidaria, Nesseltiere. In Rieger, W. (ed.)
4743:"Bi-directional conversion in Turritopsis nutricula (Hydrozoa)"
3466:
3278:
3266:
3159:
3061:
2990:
2936:
2570:
2252:
1808:
1735:
1723:
1556:
1429:
1416:
1386:
1345:
1323:
1236:
1229:
1083:
923:
903:
895:
864:
848:
844:
840:
710:—possess polyps that are filled with symbiotic photo-synthetic
699:
446:
442:
197:
6763:
Barnes, J. (1964). "Cause and effect in Irukandji stingings".
5741:
Chen, J.-Y.; Oliveri, P.; Gao, F.; et al. (August 2002).
4881:
4406:
Evolution of Calcium-carbonate Skeletons in the Hydractiniidae
3064:, which eat jellyfish. Some sea anemones and jellyfish have a
1302:
that are mostly one cell thick, and are attached to a fibrous
1282:(the latter with a mix of calcified and uncalcified species).
910:. As a result, some recent text books classify ctenophores as
405:
370:
10904:
10519:
10391:
8510:
6365:
5623:
Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW; et al. (25 April 2000).
5328:
Voyage of the Turtle: In Pursuit of the Earth's Last Dinosaur
4421:. Vol. 164. London: Faber & Faber. pp. 350–61.
4321:
Bergquist, P.R. (1998). "Porifera". In Anderson, D.T. (ed.).
3632:, but cheap preparation can introduce undesirable amounts of
3629:
3616:
3612:
3462:
3243:
3193:
lineages had already diverged. Although the Ediacaran fossil
3186:
2954:
2920:
2416:
2284:
2194:
2176:
2137:
2082:
2070:
2061:
1823:
1816:
1812:
1774:
1770:
1563:
1504:
1382:
1351:
1200:
1165:
618:
559:). Cnidarians' activities are coordinated by a decentralized
552:
478:
256:
6194:
Müller, W.E.G.; Li, J.; Schröder, H.C.; et al. (2007).
5594:
Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review: Volume 27
5588:
Hatcher, B.G.; Johannes, R.E. & Robertson, A.J. (1989).
5166:
3563:, reefs are vulnerable to over-fishing, because much of the
3144:
2553:, is closely related to the Myxozoa and suggested that both
1055:
Cells in outer layers can move inwards and change functions
777:
of cnidarians, as well as the position of cnidarians as the
10557:
10049:
9929:
7767:
7173:
The behavioral and developmental physiology of nematocysts.
7015:
Spezielle Zoologie. Teil 1. Einzeller und Wirbellose Tiere.
6832:
6400:
5681:
5432:"Acquisition and Use of Nematocysts by Cnidarian Predators"
4822:"Life Cycle Reversal in Aurelia sp.1 (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa)"
3480:
3270:
3113:
3097:
2970:
2946:
can form large shoals near the surface in mid-ocean. Among
2183:
2078:
1835:
or, for animals or zooids such as medusae which have thick
1207:, rather like a water-filled balloon. Other polyps such as
695:
498:
420:
411:
408:
119:
6293:
5877:"Charnia At 50: Developmental Models For Ediacaran Fronds"
5684:"Eumetazoan fossils in terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?"
3356:
Illustrated tree of cnidarians and their closest relatives
1015:
cell-adhesion molecules, but no basement membranes except
10047:
7105:
6296:"Cladistic analysis of Medusozoa and cnidarian evolution"
5526:
3346:
3342:
2985:, although usually classified as jellyfish, are stalked,
2557:
and the Myxozoa were intermediate between cnidarians and
1666:
A swimming sea nettle known as the purple-striped jelly (
396:
5682:
Xiao, S.; Yuan, X. & Knoll, A.H. (5 December 2000).
5554:
3100:
level also have a mutually beneficial relationship with
1897:, allowing them to recover from injury and to reproduce
9541:
5009:"Phylogenetic Context and Basal Metazoan Model Systems"
4677:
What is a neuron? (Ctenophores, sponges and placozoans)
4021:
3309:
It is difficult to reconstruct the early stages in the
7076:
Oxford University Press, Oxford 12.1995, p. 679.
5874:
5831:
5288:
1199:
close their mouths when they are not feeding, and the
1150:
species are known to alternate between the two forms.
516:
Cnidarians mostly have two basic body forms: swimming
7068:
D. Bridge, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle, L. W. Buss:
6977:
Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. 2nd edition .
6601:
6560:
4485:
2940:
appears in the coastal waters of all the oceans; and
1135:
Most adult cnidarians appear as either free-swimming
429:
417:
393:
6047:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
4528:
4279:
4244:
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).
1803:
to poison or entangle prey, and those with venomous
1796:, some nutrients, and protection against predators.
1468:
Firing sequence of the cnida in a hydra's nematocyst
402:
5066:
1839:, are transported by mobile cells in the mesoglea.
1695:. A few can swim clumsily by waggling their bases.
667:were firmly recognized as cnidarians only in 2007.
399:
7028:Werner, B. 4. Stamm Cnidaria. In: V. Gruner (ed.)
6698:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 875.
6487:
5918:"Ancient fossil is earliest known animal predator"
4641:
4022:Zapata F, Goetz FE, Smith SA, et al. (2015).
3810:
3809:
3291:, and since then the main reef-builders have been
2969:over 10 km (33,000 ft) below sea-level.
1587:The cell body, which produces all the other parts.
7187:Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1772. (PDF, online)
7142:Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1649. (PDF, online)
6020:. University of California Museum of Paleontology
5956:. University of California Museum of Paleontology
5622:
5590:"Conservation of Shallow-water Marine Ecosystems"
5229:. University of California Museum of Paleontology
1677:just enough to control movement within currents.
1258:(stony corals; class Hexacorallia) and the class
1185:In medusae, the only supporting structure is the
489:or cnidoblasts, specialized cells with ejectable
11082:
10334:Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms
6947:Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer.
5256:Shostak, S. (2006). "Cnidaria (Coelenterates)".
4711:
3978:
3231:. Few fossils of cnidarians without mineralized
3189:. Their presence implies that the cnidarian and
1344:, the harpoon-like "nettle cells" that give the
706:corals—which form the structural foundation for
686:. Many are preyed on by other animals including
8463:
7255:Tasmanian Aquaculture & Fisheries Institute
6141:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5688:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5629:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5531:. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 209–211.
5173:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4320:
3921:
3870:"The hidden biology of sponges and ctenophores"
3867:
3588:to stun fish and the capture of young fish for
3580:, including large influxes of fresh water from
1626:, sometimes producing pressures as high as 140
1362:(gaps across which chemical signals flow) with
1213:use columns of water-filled cells for support.
906:that, in more complex animals, arises from the
591:, but many species have complex life cycles of
7247:Defensive and feeding behaviour of sea anemone
6892:
6724:"Jellyfish Responsible for Irukandji Syndrome"
6037:
5067:Zrzavý, J.; Hypša, V. (April 2003). "Myxozoa,
4884:"DNA Repair Repertoire of the Enigmatic Hydra"
3788:. Universal Taxonomic Services. Archived from
2044:often involves a complex life cycle with both
1710:Medusae and complex swimming colonies such as
769:period, as well as before any fossils. Recent
10033:
9876:
8590:
7300:
6888:
6886:
5493:In: SF Norton (Ed). Diving for Science...2003
4151:
4149:
4147:
4145:
4143:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4133:
4131:
4129:
4127:
4125:
4123:
4121:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4113:
4111:
3742:
2263:Cnidarians were for a long time grouped with
1160:Most have fringes of tentacles equipped with
7314:
7160:Paray, Hamburg-Berlin 31.1993, p. 161.
6797:
6696:Greenberg's Text-atlas of Emergency Medicine
6619:
6617:
6527:
6088:"Sponge paraphyly and the origin of Metazoa"
5875:Antcliffe, J.B.; Brasier, Martin D. (2007).
4965:
4877:
4875:
4549:"Do jellyfish have central nervous systems?"
4109:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4095:
4093:
4091:
3254:. These corals, which were wiped out in the
3250:period, and corals diversified in the Early
3235:are known from more recent rocks, except in
1698:
602:, also known as comb jellies, in the phylum
9890:
8977:
8179:
6623:
6531:Marine Minerals in Exclusive Economic Zones
6485:
5255:
4740:
4325:. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–27.
4239:
4237:
4235:
4233:
4231:
4229:
4227:
4225:
4223:
4221:
4219:
4217:
4215:
4213:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4205:
4203:
4201:
4199:
4197:
4160:. Oxford University Press. pp. 28–57.
4155:
3922:E. Jímenez-Guri; et al. (July 2007). "
3584:; commercial fishing, including the use of
3265:, did not dominate reef construction since
1807:may start digestion by injecting digestive
1762:food particles out of the water, obtaining
1022:inter-cell connections; basement membranes
746:and diversified a few million years later.
10040:
10026:
9883:
9869:
8951:
8597:
8583:
7307:
7293:
6883:
6762:
5973:
5561:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 217–227.
5324:
5251:
5249:
5247:
5245:
5243:
4933:
4931:
4929:
4594:
4592:
4542:
4540:
4195:
4193:
4191:
4189:
4187:
4185:
4183:
4181:
4179:
4177:
3845:"WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species"
3786:"The Taxonomicon – Taxon: Phylum Cnidaria"
3718:"ITIS Report – Taxon: Subphylum Medusozoa"
3536:
3475:
3207:, more recent study of growth patterns in
2155:) and then a depression forms at one end (
1991:
1881:. The animals produce large quantities of
1822:Once the food is in the digestive cavity,
816:
118:
9144:
7557:
7215:
7197:
6866:
6739:
6717:
6715:
6614:
6578:
6426:
6262:
6222:
6170:
6160:
6103:
5892:
5717:
5707:
5658:
5648:
5550:
5548:
5463:
5429:
5357:
5320:
5318:
5202:
5192:
5047:
5024:
4909:
4899:
4872:
4855:
4845:
4598:
4564:
4546:
4363:
4297:
4275:
4273:
4271:
4088:
4057:
4047:
3893:
3783:Subphyla Anthozoa and Medusozoa based on
3760:
3738:
3736:
3734:
3688:– have caused repeated mass mortality in
3571:by organisms at the middle levels of the
3068:relationship with some fish; for example
754:genes suggests an even older age for the
9011:
8935:Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives)
8883:
7462:
7058:Philadelphia USA 89.1992, p. 8750.
7002:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
6490:Coastal Seas: The Conservation Challenge
6481:
6479:
6059:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130124
5486:
4937:
4529:Trumble, W.; Brown, L. (2002). "Cnida".
3664:are commercially important pathogens in
3600:, and demand rose sharply in the 1980s.
3479:
3371:) are more closely related to Cnidaria,
3351:
3242:A few mineralized fossils that resemble
3143:
3127:
2576:Current classification according to the
1745:
1718:sense tilt and acceleration by means of
1654:
1536:
1534:The main components of a cnidocyte are:
1463:
1419:within colonial organisms like those in
1122:
1115:
1041:Number of cells in middle "jelly" layer
998:Two, with jelly-like layer between them
369:
10065:
8736:
8604:
7447:
6993:Food in the Ancient World: from A to Z.
5948:
5946:
5944:
5942:
5240:
4926:
4776:
4686:
4684:
4589:
4547:Satterlie, Richard A. (15 April 2011).
4537:
4174:
3981:Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution
3438:, which in bilaterians arises from the
3427:suggest that they are closely related.
3123:
2085:into the water in the breeding season.
1392:The mesoglea contains small numbers of
1203:in the digestive cavity then acts as a
27:Aquatic animal phylum having cnydocytes
14:
11083:
10293:
8929:Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)
8899:Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives)
8565:denotes groups with over 1,000 species
7170:G. Kass-Simon, A. A. Scappaticci Jr.:
7154:Phylogenetic analysis of the Cnidaria.
6712:
5545:
5390:
5315:
4268:
4250:(7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
3731:
3649:cause only mild symptoms. Seven other
2928:have a worldwide range: some, such as
2565:Some researchers classify the extinct
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1919:
1262:, and in subphylum Medusozoa in three
855:(comb jellies), and less complex than
765:, almost 200 million years before the
598:Cnidarians were formerly grouped with
465:(predominantly the latter), including
10812:
10811:
10021:
9864:
8870:
8578:
7288:
7000:An Introduction to the Invertebrates.
6476:
6294:Marques, A.C.; Collins, A.G. (2004).
5364:(3 ed.). Blackwell. p. 54.
3449:. In fact cnidarians, and especially
3360:It is now generally thought that the
3283:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
3273:also played a major part. During the
2500:Number of medusae produced per polyp
1984:
1969:
1944:
1939:
1924:
647:, and colonial swimmers (such as the
11019:6e5a7c0d-bd28-48cb-ade4-c4904cbf0b66
10944:bad6d16c-dadc-4f71-b3cd-f660d01482ab
9200:Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms)
7104:Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1735. (
5939:
5915:
4820:He; et al. (21 December 2015).
4694:. www.livescience.com. April 1, 2007
4681:
4416:
4280:Seipel, K.; Schmid, V. (June 2005).
3917:
3915:
3913:
3831:participating institution membership
3624:carefully. Jellyfish is very low in
3313:"family tree" of animals using only
3239:that preserved soft-bodied animals.
1979:
1974:
1934:
1929:
1788:, depend almost completely on their
7044:
6777:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1964.tb114424.x
5555:Barnes, R.S.K.; Mann, K.H. (1991).
5013:Integrative and Comparative Biology
4938:Schuster, Ruth (20 November 2015).
3653:can cause a set of symptoms called
2317:have recently been recognised as a
2182:Anthozoan larvae either have large
1433:there are feeding individuals, the
1310:. They also secrete the jelly-like
1285:
1111:
1012:Cells in each layer bound together
655:have recently been recognised as a
24:
9234:
9040:
8797:Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)
6973:Brusca, R.C., G.J. Brusca (2003).
6930:A Functional Biology of Scyphozoa.
6917:
6312:10.1111/j.1744-7410.2004.tb00139.x
6040:"The New View of Animal Phylogeny"
5089:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2003.tb00305.x
4819:
3246:have been found in rocks from the
2309:and colonial swimmers such as the
702:, and even other cnidarians. Many
539:and body cavity that are used for
25:
11132:
7233:
7030:Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie.
6962:Oxford: Blackwell. 3rd edition .
5834:Journal of the Geological Society
5289:Blaise, C.; Férard, J-F. (2005).
4741:Bavestrello; et al. (1992).
4531:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
3910:
3874:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3256:Permian–Triassic extinction event
2258:
2210:All known cnidaria can reproduce
1885:to neutralize the excess oxygen.
1750:Cnidarians feed in several ways:
1449:These "nettle cells" function as
547:. Many cnidarian species produce
9928:
9841:Phyla with ≥1000 extant species
7176:
7131:
7121:What's new in cnidarian biology?
7092:
7074:Molecular biology and evolution.
6893:O'Sullivan, Kevin (2017-10-06).
6561:Kitamura, M.; Omori, M. (2010).
6264:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00041.x
6234:from the original on 2018-07-26.
6105:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00244.x
6038:Halanych, K.M. (December 2004).
5894:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00738.x
5811:10.1046/j.0266-6979.2001.00285.x
5397:European Journal of Cell Biology
4996:from the original on 2012-01-12.
4718:Sessile animals of the sea shore
4692:"Jellyfish Have Human-Like Eyes"
3762:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00403.x
3529:
3523:, and damage caused by tourism.
3165:
2889:
2867:
2846:
2825:
2803:
2781:
2755:
2729:
2709:
2688:
2578:World Register of Marine Species
1912:
1338:also contains some muscle cells.
758:of cnidarians, estimated around
481:and some of the smallest marine
389:
174:
46:
11121:Taxa named by Berthold Hatschek
6826:
6791:
6756:
6687:
6652:
6595:
6554:
6521:
6443:
6394:
6359:
6324:
6287:
6238:
6187:
6128:
6092:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
6079:
6031:
6010:
5967:
5916:Amos, Jonathan (25 July 2022).
5909:
5868:
5825:
5790:
5734:
5675:
5616:
5581:
5558:Fundamentals of Aquatic Ecology
5520:
5480:
5423:
5384:
5351:
5282:
5219:
5160:
5103:
5041:
5000:
4959:
4813:
4770:
4734:
4705:
4670:
4635:
4553:Journal of Experimental Biology
4522:
4488:Development Genes and Evolution
4479:
4410:
4399:
4388:
4339:
4314:
4074:
3749:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
3611:order are commonly consumed in
3104:forests at high-tide level and
3083:, in other words converters of
3060:, which eat corals; and marine
1904:
1888:
1399:
9028:Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)
8044:
8040:
7800:
7796:
6960:The invertebrates—a synthesis.
6456:. UNSW Press. pp. 65–68.
5050:Bull. Int. l'Acad. Sci. Bohème
4015:
3972:
3861:
3837:
3803:
3777:
3720:. Universal Taxonomic Services
3715:Classes in Medusozoa based on
3709:
3490:, one of the known species of
3298:
3052:, which can devastate corals;
1849:
1478:"Finger" that turns inside out
1106:
13:
1:
8871:
6932:London: Chapman & Hall .
6812:10.1016/S0196-0644(03)00513-4
6567:Plankton and Benthos Research
5456:10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.02.029
5258:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
3227:is the earliest known animal
2989:animals that live in cool to
2230:
2186:or are capable of feeding on
1650:
1545:'s nematocyst, before firing.
1444:
1385:cells that secrete digestive
1330:(anemones, corals, etc.) and
9640:Echinozoans inc. sea urchins
7185:Canadian Journal of Zoology.
7140:Canadian Journal of Zoology.
7102:Canadian Journal of Zoology.
6800:Annals of Emergency Medicine
6765:Medical Journal of Australia
6534:. Springer. pp. 63–65.
6407:Genome Biology and Evolution
4847:10.1371/journal.pone.0145314
4049:10.1371/journal.pone.0139068
3177:, although fossils from the
2175:, swim or crawl by means of
1799:Predatory species use their
1180:
894:in cnidarians; more complex
788:
7:
11116:Ediacaran first appearances
9697:Chelicerates inc. arachnids
9437:Phoronida (horseshoe worms)
9252:Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
9163:Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)
9052:Loricifera (corset animals)
7280:Hexacorallians of the World
7245:YouTube:My Anemone Eat Meat
7240:YouTube: Nematocysts Firing
4601:Canadian Journal of Zoology
4299:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032
4082:"Cnidaria - etymonline.com"
4001:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.10.008
3567:they produce is exhaled as
3199:used to be classified as a
2680:Marques & Collins, 2004
2539:. Research then found that
2535:, were first classified as
2481:Medusa phase in life cycle
2167:it forms at the other end (
1235:In some colonial polyps, a
995:Number of main cell layers
847:that are more complex than
127:Four examples of cnidaria (
10:
11137:
9587:Medusozoans inc. jellyfish
9333:Annelida (segmented worms)
9158:Chaetognatha (arrow worms)
9074:Onychophora (velvet worms)
7268:Fossil Gallery: Cnidarians
5596:. Routledge. p. 320.
5409:10.1016/j.ejcb.2018.04.002
5331:. Macmillan. p. 154.
4656:10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.09.008
4533:. Oxford University Press.
3895:10.1016/j.tree.2015.03.003
3743:Collins, A.G. (May 2002).
3660:A number of the parasitic
3302:
3132:Stranded scyphozoans on a
2997:s length of 5–20 mm (
2911:
2620:— soft corals and sea fans
2545:, a non-Myxozoan parasite
2241:nucleotide excision repair
2205:
2094:alternation of generations
1381:("stomach skin") contains
1217:stiffen the mesoglea with
820:
555:, or both (hence they are
531:with mouths surrounded by
501:. Their bodies consist of
10820:
10783:
10601:
10518:
10470:
10355:
10346:
10289:
10061:
10057:
10052:phyla/divisions by domain
9992:
9937:
9926:
9900:
9837:
9635:Asterozoans inc. starfish
9537:
9530:
9481:
9432:Brachiopoda (lamp shells)
9422:
9413:Ectoprocta (moss animals)
9397:
9388:
9373:
9364:
9349:
9342:
9318:
9307:
9266:
9258:Gastrotricha (hairybacks)
9241:
9230:
9219:
9171:
9153:
9140:
9129:
9082:
9069:
9060:
9047:
9036:
9004:
8987:Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)
8973:
8962:
8947:
8923:
8914:
8894:
8879:
8866:
8831:
8806:
8782:
8767:
8759:Ctenophora (comb jellies)
8747:
8732:
8616:
8541:
8509:
8486:
8413:
8382:
8342:
8313:
8293:
8284:
8272:
8268:
8113:
8104:
8075:
8060:
8051:
8038:
8034:
7967:
7939:
7924:
7915:
7874:
7853:
7844:
7807:
7794:
7790:
7777:
7764:
7760:
7737:
7717:
7713:
7709:
7655:
7642:
7633:
7600:
7587:
7553:
7542:
7524:
7511:
7458:
7443:
7439:
7323:
6380:10.1016/j.tig.2005.09.007
6345:10.1016/j.tig.2005.08.002
5954:"Cnidaria: Fossil Record"
5854:10.1144/0016-76492006-080
5512:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
5430:Greenwood, P. G. (2009).
5295:. Springer. p. 398.
5260:. John Wiley & Sons.
4987:10.11646/zootaxa.3148.1.3
4901:10.3389/fgene.2021.670695
4799:10.1007/s00227-005-0182-3
4720:. Springer. p. 223.
4712:Vernon A. Harris (1990).
4500:10.1007/s00427-006-0101-8
3818:Oxford English Dictionary
3548:The dangerous "sea wasp"
3321:(sponges), Cnidaria plus
2035:
1699:Nervous system and senses
1074:
1060:
1046:
1035:
1021:
986:
963:
953:
248:
243:
171:Scientific classification
169:
126:
117:
34:
9193:Rotifera (wheel animals)
8992:Priapulida (penis worms)
7770:
7766:
7089:Reproduction of Cnidaria
6922:
6516:Coral Reef productivity.
4348:"Evolution of collagens"
3703:
3469:but not in bilaterians.
3050:crown of thorns starfish
3040:, which can incorporate
2600:— Tube-dwelling anemones
2190:, and some already have
2140:and a few non-cnidarian
2052:stages. For example, in
1091:Mostly epitheliomuscular
670:Most cnidarians prey on
579:possess balance-sensing
129:clockwise, from top left
10262:Thermodesulfobacteriota
9407:Entoprocta or Kamptozoa
9379:Nemertea (ribbon worms)
9100:Tardigrada (waterbears)
9093:Arthropoda (arthropods)
6673:10.1023/A:1011875720415
6638:10.1023/A:1011879821323
5266:10.1038/npg.els.0004117
5194:10.1073/pnas.1511468112
5138:10.1126/science.1142024
3950:10.1126/science.1142024
3823:Oxford University Press
3476:Interaction with humans
3335:molecular phylogenetics
3289: million years ago
3263: million years ago
3175: million years ago
2899:Haliclystus antarcticus
2012:Larva searches for site
817:Distinguishing features
763: million years ago
744: million years ago
726: million years ago
567:. Cnidarians also have
449:containing over 11,000
9582:Anthozoans inc. corals
9281:Dicyemida or Rhombozoa
6839:Infection and Immunity
6494:. Blackwell. pp.
6162:10.1073/pnas.171316998
5762:10.1006/dbio.2002.0714
5709:10.1073/pnas.250491697
5650:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457
5529:Encyclopedia of Fishes
5391:Krohne, Georg (2018).
5114:is a cnidarian worm".
4427:10.1098/rspb.1966.0037
3926:is a cnidarian worm".
3692:over the years around
3596:has long been used in
3499:
3357:
3162:
3141:
2934:, live in freshwater;
2171:). The larvae, called
1754:, absorbing dissolved
1673:
1551:
1496:
1132:
1120:
851:, about as complex as
381:
11040:Paleobiology Database
10490:Neocallimastigomycota
9712:Hexapods inc. insects
9022:Nematoda (roundworms)
6528:Cronan, D.S. (1991).
6224:10.5194/bg-4-219-2007
5750:Developmental Biology
4966:Zhang, Z.-Q. (2011).
4888:Frontiers in Genetics
4286:Developmental Biology
3849:www.marinespecies.org
3483:
3355:
3303:Further information:
3147:
3131:
3019:Lion's mane jellyfish
2855:Polypodium hydriforme
2697:Cerianthus filiformis
2682:— stalked jellyfishes
2542:Polypodium hydriforme
2520:Stauromedusae, small
2311:Portuguese Man o' War
2136:, where at least 110
1746:Feeding and excretion
1665:
1630:, similar to that of
1562:A tough capsule, the
1540:
1467:
1126:
1119:
821:Further information:
718:, and in freshwater.
674:ranging in size from
649:Portuguese man o' war
587:. Not all cnidarians
373:
244:Subphyla and classes
10939:Fauna Europaea (new)
10155:Coprothermobacterota
8905:Chordata (chordates)
7217:10.14411/fp.2001.013
7204:Folia Parasitologica
6851:10.1128/IAI.00556-17
6741:10.1093/qjmed/hcl057
6486:Clark, J.R. (1998).
6300:Invertebrate Biology
5026:10.1093/icb/45.4.585
4419:Genetic polymorphism
4323:Invertebrate Zoology
4247:Invertebrate Zoology
4158:Invertebrate Zoology
3400:larvae of Cnidaria.
3179:Doushantuo Formation
3124:Evolutionary history
2877:Phyllorhiza punctata
2834:Myxobolus cerebralis
2672:— "true" jellyfishes
2662:— (uncertain status)
2652:— obligate parasites
2427:Myxobolus cerebralis
2245:base excision repair
2096:as found in plants.
2077:, and these release
1870:Cnidaria that carry
1865:hydrostatic skeleton
1205:hydrostatic skeleton
1155:radially symmetrical
1094:Mostly myoepithelial
529:radially symmetrical
527:, both of which are
509:that are mostly one
379:Chrysaora fuscescens
161:Acropora cervicornis
153:Nemanthus annamensis
137:Chrysaora melanaster
9973:(stalked jellyfish)
9355:Mollusca (molluscs)
8840:of the animal root
8442:Gunflint microbiota
8203:Klebsormidiophyceae
7987:Hyphochytriomycetes
6928:Arai, M.N. (1997).
6604:Plankton Biol. Ecol
6215:2007BGeo....4..219M
6153:2001PNAS...98.9707M
5988:1994CorRe..13....3C
5846:2007JGSoc.164...49A
5700:2000PNAS...9713684X
5694:(25): 13684–13689.
5641:2000PNAS...97.4457C
5448:2009Txcn...54.1065G
5325:Safina, C. (2007).
5185:2015PNAS..11214912C
5179:(48): 14912–14917.
5130:2007Sci...317..116J
4838:2015PLoSO..1045314H
4791:2006MarBi.149..339D
4417:Ford, E.B. (1965).
4040:2015PLoSO..1039068Z
3993:2012MolPE..62..329P
3942:2007Sci...317..116J
3886:2015TEcoE..30..282D
3821:(Online ed.).
3375:(comb jellies) and
3341:, usually in their
3185:structures made by
2299:(box jellies); and
2111:Turritopsis dohrnii
2042:sexual reproduction
1893:All cnidarians can
637:(box jellies); and
463:marine environments
375:Pacific sea nettles
11106:Freshwater animals
10485:Blastocladiomycota
9568:Calcareous sponges
8753:Porifera (sponges)
8213:Coleochaetophyceae
7593:
7589:
7517:
7513:
7273:2007-10-24 at the
7198:J. Zrzavý (2001).
7126:2019-02-18 at the
6995:London: Routledge.
6419:10.1093/gbe/evr127
6368:Trends in Genetics
6333:Trends in Genetics
5996:10.1007/BF00426428
5358:Cowen, R. (2000).
4566:10.1242/jeb.043687
3685:Muggiaea atlantica
3655:Irukandji syndrome
3500:
3496:Irukandji syndrome
3358:
3163:
3142:
3116:, fresh water and
3017: in), to the
2967:hydrothermal vents
2765:Gorgonia ventalina
2562:than to Anthozoa.
2368:Number of species
2134:Great Barrier Reef
1674:
1669:Chrysaora colorata
1618:solution, so that
1552:
1497:
1266:families in order
1224:and tough fibrous
1133:
1121:
1078:Simple to complex
861:basement membranes
839:Cnidarians form a
811:Peter Simon Pallas
737:Cambrian Explosion
589:reproduce sexually
382:
11078:
11077:
11027:Open Tree of Life
10814:Taxon identifiers
10805:
10804:
10801:
10800:
10779:
10778:
10342:
10341:
10285:
10284:
10277:Verrucomicrobiota
10015:
10014:
9858:
9857:
9833:
9832:
9526:
9525:
9522:
9521:
9477:
9476:
9473:
9472:
9469:
9468:
9465:
9464:
9461:
9460:
9457:
9456:
9453:
9452:
9449:
9448:
9445:
9444:
9303:
9302:
9299:
9298:
9215:
9214:
9211:
9210:
9125:
9124:
9121:
9120:
9117:
9116:
9113:
9112:
9109:
9108:
9000:
8999:
8943:
8942:
8862:
8861:
8827:
8826:
8823:
8822:
8572:
8571:
8537:
8536:
8473:Spironematellidae
8454:Meteora sporadica
8409:
8408:
8405:
8404:
8338:
8337:
8264:
8263:
8260:
8259:
8256:
8255:
8252:
8251:
8248:
8247:
8244:
8243:
8240:
8239:
8236:
8235:
8164:Prasinodermophyta
8100:
8099:
8030:
8029:
8026:
8025:
8022:
8021:
8018:
8017:
8014:
8013:
7911:
7910:
7747:Centroplasthelida
7705:
7704:
7701:
7700:
7697:
7696:
7693:
7692:
7689:
7688:
7685:
7684:
7681:
7680:
7583:
7582:
7507:
7506:
7260:Cnidaria page at
6998:Moore, J.(2001).
6705:978-0-7817-4586-4
6580:10.3800/pbr.5.106
6541:978-0-412-29270-5
6505:978-0-632-04955-4
6463:978-0-86840-279-6
6147:(17): 9707–9712.
5603:978-0-08-037718-6
5568:978-0-632-02983-9
5538:978-0-12-547665-2
5487:Frick, K (2003).
5371:978-0-632-04444-3
5338:978-0-8050-8318-7
5302:978-1-4020-3119-9
5227:"The Conulariida"
4607:(10): 1654–1669.
4332:978-0-19-551368-4
4261:978-0-03-025982-1
4167:978-0-19-551368-4
3829:(Subscription or
3675:Pelagia noctiluca
3642:Chironex fleckeri
3551:Chironex fleckeri
3366:calcium carbonate
3148:The fossil coral
3081:primary producers
2813:Physalia physalis
2739:Acropora muricata
2681:
2671:
2661:
2651:
2641:
2631:
2619:
2609:
2599:
2590:
2549:the egg cells of
2518:
2517:
2247:, are present in
2130:phase of the moon
2117:) and Scyphozoa (
2115:Laodicea undulata
1663:
1334:(jellyfish), the
1304:basement membrane
1219:calcium carbonate
1104:
1103:
1064:(Not applicable)
1050:(Not applicable)
908:middle cell layer
797:derives from the
773:analyses support
368:
367:
349:stalked jellyfish
239:
16:(Redirected from
11128:
11071:
11070:
11058:
11057:
11048:
11047:
11035:
11034:
11022:
11021:
11012:
11011:
10999:
10998:
10986:
10985:
10973:
10972:
10960:
10959:
10947:
10946:
10934:
10933:
10921:
10920:
10908:
10907:
10895:
10894:
10882:
10881:
10869:
10868:
10856:
10855:
10854:
10841:
10840:
10839:
10809:
10808:
10553:Anthocerotophyta
10432:Hemimastigophora
10353:
10352:
10324:Nitrososphaerota
10291:
10290:
10267:Thermomicrobiota
10207:Kiritimatiellota
10202:Ignavibacteriota
10167:Deferribacterota
10130:Campylobacterota
10115:Bdellovibrionota
10063:
10062:
10059:
10058:
10042:
10035:
10028:
10019:
10018:
9983:
9974:
9966:
9965:(true jellyfish)
9958:
9950:
9932:
9885:
9878:
9871:
9862:
9861:
9539:
9538:
9495:
9395:
9394:
9371:
9370:
9347:
9346:
9316:
9315:
9312:
9239:
9238:
9232:
9231:
9228:
9227:
9224:
9151:
9150:
9142:
9141:
9138:
9137:
9134:
9067:
9066:
9045:
9044:
9038:
9037:
9009:
9008:
8975:
8974:
8971:
8970:
8967:
8960:
8959:
8956:
8949:
8948:
8921:
8920:
8892:
8891:
8888:
8881:
8880:
8868:
8867:
8845:
8780:
8779:
8745:
8744:
8741:
8734:
8733:
8645:
8625:
8599:
8592:
8585:
8576:
8575:
8519:Collodictyonidae
8465:Hemimastigophora
8461:
8460:
8420:
8291:
8290:
8282:
8281:
8278:
8270:
8269:
8219:Zygnematophyceae
8177:
8176:
8157:
8141:
8140:
8111:
8110:
8058:
8057:
8049:
8048:
8045:
8036:
8035:
7922:
7921:
7851:
7850:
7805:
7804:
7801:
7792:
7791:
7775:
7774:
7771:
7762:
7761:
7735:
7734:
7722:
7715:
7714:
7711:
7710:
7665:Choanoflagellata
7640:
7639:
7598:
7597:
7594:
7555:
7554:
7551:
7550:
7547:
7522:
7521:
7518:
7460:
7459:
7456:
7455:
7452:
7445:
7444:
7441:
7440:
7352:
7332:
7309:
7302:
7295:
7286:
7285:
7229:
7219:
7181:
7180:
7136:
7135:
7097:
7096:
7045:Journal articles
6912:
6911:
6909:
6908:
6890:
6881:
6880:
6870:
6845:(1): e00556–17.
6830:
6824:
6823:
6795:
6789:
6788:
6760:
6754:
6753:
6743:
6719:
6710:
6709:
6691:
6685:
6684:
6656:
6650:
6649:
6621:
6612:
6611:
6599:
6593:
6592:
6582:
6558:
6552:
6551:
6549:
6548:
6525:
6519:
6518:
6513:
6512:
6493:
6483:
6474:
6473:
6471:
6470:
6447:
6441:
6440:
6430:
6398:
6392:
6391:
6363:
6357:
6356:
6328:
6322:
6321:
6319:
6318:
6291:
6285:
6284:
6266:
6242:
6236:
6235:
6233:
6226:
6200:
6191:
6185:
6184:
6174:
6164:
6132:
6126:
6125:
6107:
6083:
6077:
6076:
6074:
6073:
6067:
6061:. Archived from
6044:
6035:
6029:
6028:
6026:
6025:
6014:
6008:
6007:
5971:
5965:
5964:
5962:
5961:
5950:
5937:
5936:
5934:
5932:
5913:
5907:
5906:
5896:
5872:
5866:
5865:
5829:
5823:
5822:
5794:
5788:
5787:
5785:
5784:
5778:
5772:. Archived from
5747:
5738:
5732:
5731:
5721:
5711:
5679:
5673:
5672:
5662:
5652:
5635:(9): 4457–4462.
5620:
5614:
5613:
5611:
5610:
5585:
5579:
5578:
5576:
5575:
5552:
5543:
5542:
5524:
5518:
5517:
5511:
5503:
5501:
5500:
5484:
5478:
5477:
5467:
5442:(8): 1065–1070.
5427:
5421:
5420:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5379:
5378:
5355:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5345:
5322:
5313:
5312:
5310:
5309:
5286:
5280:
5279:
5253:
5238:
5237:
5235:
5234:
5223:
5217:
5216:
5206:
5196:
5164:
5158:
5157:
5124:(116): 116–118.
5107:
5101:
5100:
5064:
5058:
5057:
5045:
5039:
5038:
5028:
5004:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4972:
4963:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4952:
4935:
4924:
4923:
4913:
4903:
4879:
4870:
4869:
4859:
4849:
4832:(12): e0145314.
4817:
4811:
4810:
4774:
4768:
4767:
4765:
4764:
4758:
4752:. Archived from
4747:
4738:
4732:
4731:
4709:
4703:
4702:
4700:
4699:
4688:
4679:
4674:
4668:
4667:
4639:
4633:
4632:
4596:
4587:
4586:
4568:
4559:(8): 1215–1223.
4544:
4535:
4534:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4483:
4477:
4476:
4470:
4466:
4464:
4456:
4414:
4408:
4403:
4397:
4392:
4386:
4385:
4367:
4365:10.1002/ar.10162
4343:
4337:
4336:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4301:
4277:
4266:
4265:
4241:
4172:
4171:
4153:
4086:
4085:
4078:
4072:
4071:
4061:
4051:
4034:(10): e0139068.
4019:
4013:
4012:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3936:(116): 116–118.
3919:
3908:
3907:
3897:
3865:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3855:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3826:
3814:
3807:
3801:
3800:
3798:
3797:
3781:
3775:
3774:
3764:
3740:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3725:
3713:
3540:
3533:
3494:which can cause
3325:(comb jellies),
3290:
3264:
3217:and the British
3176:
3106:seagrass meadows
3016:
3015:
3011:
3006:
3005:
3001:
2893:
2871:
2850:
2829:
2807:
2791:Carybdea branchi
2785:
2759:
2733:
2713:
2692:
2679:
2669:
2659:
2649:
2639:
2629:
2617:
2607:
2597:
2588:
2512:(not applicable)
2336:
2335:
2295:(jellyfish) and
2060:(box jellies) a
2056:(jellyfish) and
2003:Life cycle of a
1995:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1916:
1664:
1620:osmotic pressure
1550:"trigger" cilium
1549:
1495:Victim's tissues
1494:
1489:
1484:
1477:
1472:
1286:Main cell layers
1112:Basic body forms
1017:Homoscleromorpha
917:
916:
764:
745:
735:, preceding the
727:
682:, and a few are
583:, and some have
565:simple receptors
493:used mainly for
437:
433:
427:
426:
423:
422:
419:
414:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
398:
395:
234:
179:
178:
122:
108:
45:
38:Temporal range:
32:
31:
21:
11136:
11135:
11131:
11130:
11129:
11127:
11126:
11125:
11096:Aquatic animals
11081:
11080:
11079:
11074:
11066:
11061:
11053:
11051:
11043:
11038:
11030:
11025:
11017:
11015:
11007:
11002:
10994:
10989:
10981:
10976:
10968:
10963:
10955:
10950:
10942:
10937:
10929:
10924:
10916:
10911:
10903:
10898:
10890:
10885:
10877:
10872:
10864:
10859:
10850:
10849:
10844:
10835:
10834:
10829:
10816:
10806:
10797:
10775:
10726:Gnathostomulida
10631:Xenacoelomorpha
10597:
10593:Flowering plant
10548:Marchantiophyta
10514:
10480:Chytridiomycota
10466:
10338:
10281:
10237:Planctomycetota
10197:Gemmatimonadota
10182:Elusimicrobiota
10075:Acidobacteriota
10053:
10046:
10016:
10011:
9988:
9981:
9972:
9964:
9956:
9949:(box jellyfish)
9948:
9933:
9924:
9896:
9889:
9859:
9854:
9829:
9755:Phylactolaemata
9543:
9533:
9532:
9518:
9509:Xenambulacraria
9485:
9441:
9418:
9384:
9366:Kryptotrochozoa
9360:
9338:
9308:
9295:
9286:Monoblastozoa (
9262:
9220:
9207:
9179:Micrognathozoa
9167:
9130:
9105:
9078:
9056:
9032:
8996:
8963:
8952:
8939:
8910:
8884:
8875:
8858:
8835:
8819:
8802:
8771:
8763:
8737:
8728:
8727:
8643:
8621:
8612:
8603:
8573:
8568:
8533:
8505:
8496:Ancyromonadidae
8482:
8459:
8414:
8401:
8392:Malawimonadidae
8378:
8334:
8309:
8273:
8232:
8175:
8148:
8147:
8139:
8096:
8071:
8039:
8010:
7963:
7935:
7907:
7870:
7840:
7795:
7786:
7765:
7756:
7733:
7718:
7677:
7651:
7629:
7588:
7579:
7543:
7538:
7512:
7503:
7448:
7435:
7434:
7350:
7328:
7319:
7313:
7275:Wayback Machine
7236:
7175:
7130:
7128:Wayback Machine
7091:
7047:
6943:Ax, P. (1999).
6925:
6920:
6918:Further reading
6915:
6906:
6904:
6891:
6884:
6831:
6827:
6796:
6792:
6771:(24): 897–904.
6761:
6757:
6720:
6713:
6706:
6692:
6688:
6657:
6653:
6622:
6615:
6600:
6596:
6559:
6555:
6546:
6544:
6542:
6526:
6522:
6510:
6508:
6506:
6484:
6477:
6468:
6466:
6464:
6448:
6444:
6399:
6395:
6374:(12): 633–639.
6364:
6360:
6339:(10): 536–539.
6329:
6325:
6316:
6314:
6292:
6288:
6243:
6239:
6231:
6198:
6192:
6188:
6133:
6129:
6084:
6080:
6071:
6069:
6065:
6042:
6036:
6032:
6023:
6021:
6016:
6015:
6011:
5972:
5968:
5959:
5957:
5952:
5951:
5940:
5930:
5928:
5914:
5910:
5873:
5869:
5830:
5826:
5795:
5791:
5782:
5780:
5776:
5745:
5739:
5735:
5680:
5676:
5621:
5617:
5608:
5606:
5604:
5586:
5582:
5573:
5571:
5569:
5553:
5546:
5539:
5525:
5521:
5505:
5504:
5498:
5496:
5485:
5481:
5428:
5424:
5389:
5385:
5376:
5374:
5372:
5361:History of Life
5356:
5352:
5343:
5341:
5339:
5323:
5316:
5307:
5305:
5303:
5287:
5283:
5276:
5254:
5241:
5232:
5230:
5225:
5224:
5220:
5165:
5161:
5108:
5104:
5065:
5061:
5046:
5042:
5005:
5001:
4993:
4970:
4964:
4960:
4950:
4948:
4936:
4927:
4880:
4873:
4818:
4814:
4775:
4771:
4762:
4760:
4756:
4750:Scientia Marina
4745:
4739:
4735:
4728:
4710:
4706:
4697:
4695:
4690:
4689:
4682:
4675:
4671:
4640:
4636:
4613:10.1139/z02-132
4597:
4590:
4545:
4538:
4527:
4523:
4494:(12): 743–754.
4484:
4480:
4468:
4467:
4458:
4457:
4437:
4415:
4411:
4404:
4400:
4393:
4389:
4344:
4340:
4333:
4319:
4315:
4278:
4269:
4262:
4242:
4175:
4168:
4154:
4089:
4080:
4079:
4075:
4020:
4016:
3977:
3973:
3920:
3911:
3866:
3862:
3853:
3851:
3843:
3842:
3838:
3828:
3808:
3804:
3795:
3793:
3784:
3782:
3778:
3741:
3732:
3723:
3721:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3668:aquaculture. A
3639:The "sea wasp"
3607:species of the
3556:
3555:
3554:
3547:
3542:
3541:
3534:
3487:Carukia barnesi
3478:
3436:striated muscle
3387:in Ctenophora,
3307:
3301:
3285:
3259:
3171:
3168:
3138:Blackberry Hill
3126:
3096:just below low-
3087:chemicals into
3013:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2998:
2914:
2907:
2894:
2885:
2872:
2863:
2851:
2842:
2830:
2821:
2808:
2799:
2786:
2777:
2760:
2751:
2734:
2725:
2714:
2705:
2693:
2589:Ehrenberg, 1834
2484:In some species
2434:Cells found in
2261:
2233:
2208:
2038:
2033:
2032:
2031:
2026:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2002:
1997:
1996:
1989:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1907:
1891:
1852:
1748:
1701:
1655:
1653:
1601:In the case of
1547:
1546:
1492:
1491:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1473:Operculum (lid)
1470:
1469:
1447:
1402:
1288:
1183:
1114:
1109:
1069:Nervous system
869:nervous systems
837:
819:
791:
759:
748:Molecular clock
740:
722:
680:dinoflagellates
455:aquatic animals
435:
431:
416:
392:
388:
233:
173:
113:
107:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
40:
39:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
11134:
11124:
11123:
11118:
11113:
11111:Marine animals
11108:
11103:
11098:
11093:
11076:
11075:
11073:
11072:
11059:
11049:
11036:
11023:
11013:
11000:
10987:
10974:
10961:
10948:
10935:
10926:Fauna Europaea
10922:
10909:
10896:
10883:
10870:
10857:
10842:
10826:
10824:
10818:
10817:
10803:
10802:
10799:
10798:
10791:
10789:
10786:Incertae sedis
10781:
10780:
10777:
10776:
10774:
10773:
10768:
10763:
10758:
10753:
10748:
10743:
10738:
10733:
10731:Micrognathozoa
10728:
10723:
10721:Acanthocephala
10718:
10713:
10708:
10703:
10698:
10693:
10688:
10683:
10678:
10673:
10668:
10663:
10658:
10653:
10648:
10643:
10638:
10633:
10628:
10623:
10618:
10613:
10607:
10605:
10599:
10598:
10596:
10595:
10590:
10585:
10580:
10575:
10570:
10565:
10563:Lycopodiophyta
10560:
10555:
10550:
10545:
10540:
10535:
10530:
10524:
10522:
10516:
10515:
10513:
10512:
10507:
10502:
10497:
10492:
10487:
10482:
10476:
10474:
10468:
10467:
10465:
10464:
10459:
10454:
10449:
10444:
10439:
10434:
10429:
10424:
10419:
10414:
10409:
10404:
10399:
10394:
10389:
10384:
10379:
10377:Ancyromonadida
10374:
10369:
10363:
10361:
10350:
10344:
10343:
10340:
10339:
10337:
10336:
10331:
10329:Thermoproteota
10326:
10321:
10314:
10307:
10299:
10297:
10287:
10286:
10283:
10282:
10280:
10279:
10274:
10269:
10264:
10259:
10254:
10249:
10244:
10242:Pseudomonadota
10239:
10234:
10229:
10224:
10219:
10217:Mycoplasmatota
10214:
10212:Lentisphaerota
10209:
10204:
10199:
10194:
10192:Fusobacteriota
10189:
10187:Fibrobacterota
10184:
10179:
10174:
10169:
10164:
10157:
10152:
10147:
10142:
10137:
10132:
10127:
10122:
10117:
10112:
10107:
10102:
10097:
10092:
10090:Armatimonadota
10087:
10082:
10080:Actinomycetota
10077:
10071:
10069:
10055:
10054:
10045:
10044:
10037:
10030:
10022:
10013:
10012:
10010:
10009:
10004:
9998:
9996:
9990:
9989:
9987:
9986:
9976:
9968:
9960:
9952:
9943:
9941:
9935:
9934:
9927:
9925:
9923:
9922:
9917:
9912:
9906:
9904:
9898:
9897:
9888:
9887:
9880:
9873:
9865:
9856:
9855:
9853:
9852:
9845:
9838:
9835:
9834:
9831:
9830:
9828:
9827:
9826:
9825:
9820:
9815:
9810:
9805:
9793:
9792:
9791:
9786:
9781:
9769:
9768:
9767:
9762:
9757:
9745:
9744:
9743:
9738:
9733:
9728:
9720:Platyhelminths
9716:
9715:
9714:
9709:
9704:
9699:
9687:
9686:
9685:
9680:
9675:
9663:
9662:
9661:
9656:
9644:
9643:
9642:
9637:
9632:
9620:
9619:
9618:
9613:
9608:
9596:
9595:
9594:
9589:
9584:
9572:
9571:
9570:
9565:
9560:
9547:
9545:
9535:
9534:
9531:
9528:
9527:
9524:
9523:
9520:
9519:
9517:
9516:
9514:Centroneuralia
9511:
9506:
9501:
9496:
9482:
9479:
9478:
9475:
9474:
9471:
9470:
9467:
9466:
9463:
9462:
9459:
9458:
9455:
9454:
9451:
9450:
9447:
9446:
9443:
9442:
9440:
9439:
9434:
9428:
9426:
9420:
9419:
9417:
9416:
9409:
9403:
9401:
9392:
9386:
9385:
9383:
9382:
9374:
9368:
9362:
9361:
9359:
9358:
9350:
9344:
9340:
9339:
9337:
9336:
9329:
9319:
9313:
9310:Lophotrochozoa
9305:
9304:
9301:
9300:
9297:
9296:
9294:
9293:
9283:
9278:
9272:
9270:
9264:
9263:
9261:
9260:
9255:
9247:
9245:
9236:
9225:
9222:Platytrochozoa
9217:
9216:
9213:
9212:
9209:
9208:
9206:
9205:
9204:
9203:
9196:
9184:
9181:(Limnognathia)
9175:
9173:
9169:
9168:
9166:
9165:
9160:
9154:
9148:
9135:
9127:
9126:
9123:
9122:
9119:
9118:
9115:
9114:
9111:
9110:
9107:
9106:
9104:
9103:
9096:
9088:
9086:
9080:
9079:
9077:
9076:
9070:
9064:
9058:
9057:
9055:
9054:
9048:
9042:
9034:
9033:
9031:
9030:
9025:
9017:
9015:
9006:
9002:
9001:
8998:
8997:
8995:
8994:
8989:
8983:
8981:
8968:
8957:
8945:
8944:
8941:
8940:
8938:
8937:
8932:
8924:
8918:
8912:
8911:
8909:
8908:
8901:
8895:
8889:
8877:
8876:
8864:
8863:
8860:
8859:
8857:
8856:
8851:
8846:
8832:
8829:
8828:
8825:
8824:
8821:
8820:
8818:
8817:
8813:
8811:
8810:(Triploblasts)
8804:
8803:
8801:
8800:
8793:
8791:and relatives)
8783:
8777:
8765:
8764:
8762:
8761:
8756:
8748:
8742:
8730:
8729:
8726:
8725:
8724:
8723:
8722:
8721:
8718:Mesomycetozoea
8715:
8710:
8700:
8690:
8689:
8688:
8683:
8678:
8673:
8668:
8667:
8666:
8654:Diaphoretickes
8651:
8646:
8641:
8636:
8631:
8626:
8618:
8617:
8614:
8613:
8602:
8601:
8594:
8587:
8579:
8570:
8569:
8567:
8566:
8560:
8553:
8549:excluded from
8542:
8539:
8538:
8535:
8534:
8532:
8531:
8526:
8521:
8515:
8513:
8507:
8506:
8504:
8503:
8501:Planomonadidae
8498:
8492:
8490:
8488:Ancyromonadida
8484:
8483:
8481:
8480:
8478:Paramastigidae
8475:
8469:
8467:
8458:
8457:
8450:
8444:
8438:
8430:
8423:
8421:
8417:Incertae sedis
8411:
8410:
8407:
8406:
8403:
8402:
8400:
8399:
8394:
8388:
8386:
8380:
8379:
8377:
8376:
8371:
8366:
8361:
8356:
8348:
8346:
8340:
8339:
8336:
8335:
8333:
8332:
8325:
8319:
8317:
8311:
8310:
8308:
8307:
8300:
8294:
8288:
8279:
8266:
8265:
8262:
8261:
8258:
8257:
8254:
8253:
8250:
8249:
8246:
8245:
8242:
8241:
8238:
8237:
8234:
8233:
8231:
8230:
8222:
8215:
8210:
8205:
8200:
8193:
8185:
8183:
8174:
8173:
8166:
8160:
8158:
8138:
8137:
8130:
8125:
8120:
8114:
8108:
8106:Archaeplastida
8102:
8101:
8098:
8097:
8095:
8094:
8089:
8081:
8079:
8073:
8072:
8070:
8069:
8061:
8055:
8046:
8032:
8031:
8028:
8027:
8024:
8023:
8020:
8019:
8016:
8015:
8012:
8011:
8009:
8008:
8003:
7996:
7989:
7984:
7979:
7973:
7971:
7965:
7964:
7962:
7961:
7956:
7951:
7945:
7943:
7937:
7936:
7934:
7933:
7925:
7919:
7913:
7912:
7909:
7908:
7906:
7905:
7900:
7897:Dinoflagellata
7893:
7891:Chrompodellida
7888:
7880:
7878:
7872:
7871:
7869:
7868:
7861:
7854:
7848:
7842:
7841:
7839:
7838:
7831:
7824:
7819:
7813:
7811:
7802:
7788:
7787:
7785:
7784:
7778:
7772:
7758:
7757:
7755:
7754:
7749:
7743:
7741:
7732:
7731:
7725:
7723:
7720:Diaphoretickes
7707:
7706:
7703:
7702:
7699:
7698:
7695:
7694:
7691:
7690:
7687:
7686:
7683:
7682:
7679:
7678:
7676:
7675:
7667:
7661:
7659:
7653:
7652:
7650:
7649:
7643:
7637:
7631:
7630:
7628:
7627:
7622:
7617:
7609:
7601:
7595:
7585:
7584:
7581:
7580:
7578:
7577:
7569:
7563:
7561:
7548:
7540:
7539:
7537:
7536:
7531:
7525:
7519:
7509:
7508:
7505:
7504:
7502:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7486:
7479:
7474:
7468:
7466:
7453:
7437:
7436:
7433:
7432:
7431:
7430:
7429:
7428:
7425:Mesomycetozoea
7422:
7417:
7407:
7397:
7396:
7395:
7390:
7385:
7380:
7375:
7374:
7373:
7361:Diaphoretickes
7358:
7353:
7348:
7343:
7338:
7333:
7325:
7324:
7321:
7320:
7318:classification
7312:
7311:
7304:
7297:
7289:
7283:
7282:
7277:
7265:
7257:
7248:
7242:
7235:
7234:External links
7232:
7231:
7230:
7195:
7168:
7152:P. Schuchert:
7150:
7118:G. O. Mackie:
7116:
7086:D. G. Fautin:
7084:
7066:
7046:
7043:
7042:
7041:
7026:
7011:
6996:
6986:
6975:Invertebrates.
6971:
6956:
6941:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6914:
6913:
6882:
6825:
6790:
6755:
6734:(6): 425–427.
6711:
6704:
6686:
6667:(1–3): 11–17.
6651:
6613:
6594:
6573:(3): 106–118.
6553:
6540:
6520:
6504:
6475:
6462:
6442:
6393:
6358:
6323:
6286:
6257:(6): 558–578.
6237:
6209:(2): 219–232.
6203:Biogeosciences
6186:
6127:
6098:(1): 171–179.
6078:
6030:
6009:
5966:
5938:
5908:
5867:
5824:
5805:(3): 115–120.
5789:
5756:(1): 182–196.
5733:
5674:
5615:
5602:
5580:
5567:
5544:
5537:
5519:
5479:
5422:
5403:(4): 289–299.
5383:
5370:
5350:
5337:
5314:
5301:
5281:
5275:978-0470016176
5274:
5239:
5218:
5159:
5102:
5083:(2): 164–169.
5059:
5040:
5019:(4): 585–594.
4999:
4958:
4925:
4871:
4812:
4785:(2): 339–346.
4779:Marine Biology
4769:
4733:
4726:
4704:
4680:
4669:
4634:
4588:
4536:
4521:
4478:
4469:|journal=
4436:978-0262060127
4435:
4409:
4398:
4387:
4358:(3): 302–316.
4338:
4331:
4313:
4267:
4260:
4173:
4166:
4087:
4073:
4014:
3971:
3909:
3880:(5): 282–291.
3860:
3836:
3802:
3776:
3755:(3): 418–432.
3730:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3569:carbon dioxide
3565:organic carbon
3544:
3543:
3535:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3525:
3512:Southeast Asia
3484:The dangerous
3477:
3474:
3364:(sponges with
3300:
3297:
3167:
3164:
3136:tidal flat in
3125:
3122:
3094:Fringing reefs
3054:butterfly fish
3048:, notably the
2979:carbon dioxide
2913:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2896:Stalked jelly
2895:
2888:
2886:
2873:
2866:
2864:
2852:
2845:
2843:
2831:
2824:
2822:
2809:
2802:
2800:
2788:Box jellyfish
2787:
2780:
2778:
2761:
2754:
2752:
2735:
2728:
2726:
2716:Sea anemones (
2715:
2708:
2706:
2694:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2673:
2663:
2653:
2643:
2633:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2611:
2610:— stony corals
2601:
2531:, microscopic
2516:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2431:
2430:
2423:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2389:
2385:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2267:in the phylum
2260:
2259:Classification
2257:
2235:Two classical
2232:
2229:
2207:
2204:
2037:
2034:
1999:
1998:
1990:
1986: 14
1981: 13
1976: 12
1971: 11
1966: 10
1918:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1890:
1887:
1872:photosynthetic
1856:carbon dioxide
1851:
1848:
1794:carbon dioxide
1747:
1744:
1700:
1697:
1652:
1649:
1636:
1635:
1612:
1609:polymerization
1599:
1596:
1589:
1588:
1585:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1560:
1532:
1531:
1514:
1508:
1453:, since their
1446:
1443:
1401:
1398:
1375:
1374:
1371:
1349:
1339:
1287:
1284:
1280:Hydractiniidae
1250:A mineralized
1228:, rather like
1182:
1179:
1175:jet propulsion
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1101:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1024:
1023:
1020:
1013:
1009:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
992:
991:
988:
985:
972:
971:
968:
965:
962:
956:
955:
952:
949:
946:
940:
939:
934:
929:
926:
921:
818:
815:
790:
787:
497:and capturing
457:found both in
445:under kingdom
366:
365:
364:
363:
353:
352:
351:
341:
339:true jellyfish
331:
324:
309:
283:
282:
281:
275:
269:
246:
245:
241:
240:
228:
224:
223:
218:
211:
210:
205:
201:
200:
195:
191:
190:
185:
181:
180:
167:
166:
165:
164:
158:A stony coral
156:
150:A sea anemone
148:
145:Annella mollis
140:
124:
123:
115:
114:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
37:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11133:
11122:
11119:
11117:
11114:
11112:
11109:
11107:
11104:
11102:
11099:
11097:
11094:
11092:
11089:
11088:
11086:
11069:
11064:
11060:
11056:
11050:
11046:
11041:
11037:
11033:
11028:
11024:
11020:
11014:
11010:
11005:
11001:
10997:
10992:
10988:
10984:
10979:
10975:
10971:
10966:
10962:
10958:
10953:
10949:
10945:
10940:
10936:
10932:
10927:
10923:
10919:
10914:
10910:
10906:
10901:
10897:
10893:
10888:
10884:
10880:
10875:
10871:
10867:
10862:
10858:
10853:
10847:
10843:
10838:
10832:
10828:
10827:
10825:
10823:
10819:
10815:
10810:
10796:
10795:
10790:
10788:
10787:
10782:
10772:
10769:
10767:
10764:
10762:
10759:
10757:
10754:
10752:
10749:
10747:
10744:
10742:
10739:
10737:
10734:
10732:
10729:
10727:
10724:
10722:
10719:
10717:
10714:
10712:
10709:
10707:
10704:
10702:
10699:
10697:
10694:
10692:
10689:
10687:
10684:
10682:
10679:
10677:
10674:
10672:
10669:
10667:
10664:
10662:
10659:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10649:
10647:
10644:
10642:
10639:
10637:
10634:
10632:
10629:
10627:
10624:
10622:
10619:
10617:
10614:
10612:
10609:
10608:
10606:
10604:
10600:
10594:
10591:
10589:
10586:
10584:
10581:
10579:
10576:
10574:
10571:
10569:
10566:
10564:
10561:
10559:
10556:
10554:
10551:
10549:
10546:
10544:
10541:
10539:
10536:
10534:
10531:
10529:
10526:
10525:
10523:
10521:
10517:
10511:
10510:Basidiomycota
10508:
10506:
10503:
10501:
10498:
10496:
10495:Glomeromycota
10493:
10491:
10488:
10486:
10483:
10481:
10478:
10477:
10475:
10473:
10469:
10463:
10460:
10458:
10457:Stramenopiles
10455:
10453:
10450:
10448:
10445:
10443:
10440:
10438:
10435:
10433:
10430:
10428:
10425:
10423:
10420:
10418:
10415:
10413:
10410:
10408:
10405:
10403:
10400:
10398:
10395:
10393:
10390:
10388:
10385:
10383:
10382:Apusomonadida
10380:
10378:
10375:
10373:
10370:
10368:
10365:
10364:
10362:
10359:
10354:
10351:
10349:
10345:
10335:
10332:
10330:
10327:
10325:
10322:
10319:
10318:Nanoarchaeota
10315:
10312:
10308:
10305:
10304:Euryarchaeota
10301:
10300:
10298:
10296:
10292:
10288:
10278:
10275:
10273:
10270:
10268:
10265:
10263:
10260:
10258:
10255:
10253:
10252:Spirochaetota
10250:
10248:
10247:Rhodothermota
10245:
10243:
10240:
10238:
10235:
10233:
10230:
10228:
10225:
10223:
10220:
10218:
10215:
10213:
10210:
10208:
10205:
10203:
10200:
10198:
10195:
10193:
10190:
10188:
10185:
10183:
10180:
10178:
10177:Dictyoglomota
10175:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10162:
10161:Cyanobacteria
10158:
10156:
10153:
10151:
10150:Chrysiogenota
10148:
10146:
10145:Chloroflexota
10143:
10141:
10138:
10136:
10133:
10131:
10128:
10126:
10125:Calditrichota
10123:
10121:
10120:Caldisericota
10118:
10116:
10113:
10111:
10108:
10106:
10103:
10101:
10098:
10096:
10095:Atribacterota
10093:
10091:
10088:
10086:
10083:
10081:
10078:
10076:
10073:
10072:
10070:
10068:
10064:
10060:
10056:
10051:
10043:
10038:
10036:
10031:
10029:
10024:
10023:
10020:
10008:
10005:
10003:
10000:
9999:
9997:
9995:
9991:
9985:
9984:
9979:Polypodiozoa
9977:
9975:
9969:
9967:
9961:
9959:
9953:
9951:
9945:
9944:
9942:
9940:
9936:
9931:
9921:
9918:
9916:
9913:
9911:
9908:
9907:
9905:
9903:
9899:
9894:
9886:
9881:
9879:
9874:
9872:
9867:
9866:
9863:
9850:
9849:dubious phyla
9846:
9844:
9840:
9839:
9836:
9824:
9821:
9819:
9816:
9814:
9811:
9809:
9806:
9804:
9801:
9800:
9799:
9798:
9794:
9790:
9787:
9785:
9782:
9780:
9777:
9776:
9775:
9774:
9770:
9766:
9763:
9761:
9758:
9756:
9753:
9752:
9751:
9750:
9746:
9742:
9739:
9737:
9734:
9732:
9729:
9727:
9724:
9723:
9722:
9721:
9717:
9713:
9710:
9708:
9705:
9703:
9700:
9698:
9695:
9694:
9693:
9692:
9688:
9684:
9681:
9679:
9676:
9674:
9671:
9670:
9669:
9668:
9664:
9660:
9657:
9655:
9652:
9651:
9650:
9649:
9648:Hemichordates
9645:
9641:
9638:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9627:
9626:
9625:
9621:
9617:
9614:
9612:
9609:
9607:
9604:
9603:
9602:
9601:
9597:
9593:
9590:
9588:
9585:
9583:
9580:
9579:
9578:
9577:
9573:
9569:
9566:
9564:
9563:Glass sponges
9561:
9559:
9556:
9555:
9554:
9553:
9549:
9548:
9546:
9540:
9536:
9529:
9515:
9512:
9510:
9507:
9505:
9504:Deuterostomia
9502:
9500:
9497:
9493:
9490:of Bilateria
9489:
9484:
9483:
9480:
9438:
9435:
9433:
9430:
9429:
9427:
9425:
9421:
9415:
9414:
9410:
9408:
9405:
9404:
9402:
9400:
9396:
9393:
9391:
9387:
9381:
9380:
9376:
9375:
9372:
9369:
9367:
9363:
9357:
9356:
9352:
9351:
9348:
9345:
9341:
9335:
9334:
9330:
9328:
9326:
9323:Cycliophora (
9321:
9320:
9317:
9314:
9311:
9306:
9291:
9289:
9284:
9282:
9279:
9277:
9274:
9273:
9271:
9269:
9265:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9253:
9249:
9248:
9246:
9244:
9240:
9237:
9233:
9229:
9226:
9223:
9218:
9202:
9201:
9197:
9195:
9194:
9190:
9189:
9188:
9185:
9183:
9182:
9177:
9176:
9174:
9170:
9164:
9161:
9159:
9156:
9155:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9143:
9139:
9136:
9133:
9128:
9102:
9101:
9097:
9095:
9094:
9090:
9089:
9087:
9085:
9081:
9075:
9072:
9071:
9068:
9065:
9063:
9062:Panarthropoda
9059:
9053:
9050:
9049:
9046:
9043:
9039:
9035:
9029:
9026:
9024:
9023:
9019:
9018:
9016:
9014:
9010:
9007:
9003:
8993:
8990:
8988:
8985:
8984:
8982:
8980:
8976:
8972:
8969:
8966:
8961:
8958:
8955:
8950:
8946:
8936:
8933:
8931:
8930:
8926:
8925:
8922:
8919:
8917:
8913:
8907:
8906:
8902:
8900:
8897:
8896:
8893:
8890:
8887:
8882:
8878:
8874:
8869:
8865:
8855:
8852:
8850:
8847:
8843:
8839:
8834:
8833:
8830:
8815:
8814:
8812:
8809:
8805:
8799:
8798:
8794:
8792:
8790:
8785:
8784:
8781:
8778:
8775:
8770:
8766:
8760:
8757:
8755:
8754:
8750:
8749:
8746:
8743:
8740:
8735:
8731:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8705:
8704:
8701:
8699:
8696:
8695:
8694:
8691:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8681:Stramenopiles
8679:
8677:
8674:
8672:
8669:
8665:
8662:
8661:
8660:
8657:
8656:
8655:
8652:
8650:
8647:
8644:(major groups
8642:
8640:
8637:
8635:
8632:
8630:
8627:
8624:
8620:
8619:
8615:
8611:
8608:
8600:
8595:
8593:
8588:
8586:
8581:
8580:
8577:
8564:
8561:
8558:
8554:
8552:
8548:
8545:¹traditional
8544:
8543:
8540:
8530:
8527:
8525:
8524:Mantamonadida
8522:
8520:
8517:
8516:
8514:
8512:
8508:
8502:
8499:
8497:
8494:
8493:
8491:
8489:
8485:
8479:
8476:
8474:
8471:
8470:
8468:
8466:
8462:
8456:
8455:
8451:
8449:
8445:
8443:
8439:
8437:
8436:
8431:
8429:
8425:
8424:
8422:
8419:
8418:
8412:
8398:
8395:
8393:
8390:
8389:
8387:
8385:
8381:
8375:
8372:
8370:
8367:
8365:
8362:
8360:
8357:
8355:
8354:
8350:
8349:
8347:
8345:
8341:
8331:
8330:
8326:
8324:
8323:Heterolobosea
8321:
8320:
8318:
8316:
8315:Discicristata
8312:
8306:
8305:
8301:
8299:
8296:
8295:
8292:
8289:
8287:
8283:
8280:
8276:
8271:
8267:
8228:
8227:
8223:
8221:
8220:
8216:
8214:
8211:
8209:
8206:
8204:
8201:
8199:
8198:
8194:
8192:
8191:
8187:
8186:
8184:
8182:
8178:
8172:
8171:
8167:
8165:
8162:
8161:
8159:
8155:
8154:
8146:
8145:Viridiplantae
8142:
8136:
8135:
8131:
8129:
8126:
8124:
8121:
8119:
8116:
8115:
8112:
8109:
8107:
8103:
8093:
8090:
8088:
8087:
8083:
8082:
8080:
8078:
8074:
8068:
8067:
8066:Microheliella
8063:
8062:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8050:
8047:
8043:
8037:
8033:
8007:
8006:Actinophryida
8004:
8002:
8001:
7997:
7995:
7994:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7974:
7972:
7970:
7966:
7960:
7957:
7955:
7952:
7950:
7947:
7946:
7944:
7942:
7938:
7932:
7931:
7927:
7926:
7923:
7920:
7918:
7917:Stramenopiles
7914:
7904:
7901:
7899:
7898:
7894:
7892:
7889:
7887:
7886:
7882:
7881:
7879:
7877:
7873:
7867:
7866:
7862:
7859:
7856:
7855:
7852:
7849:
7847:
7843:
7837:
7836:
7832:
7830:
7829:
7825:
7823:
7820:
7818:
7815:
7814:
7812:
7810:
7806:
7803:
7799:
7793:
7789:
7783:
7780:
7779:
7776:
7773:
7769:
7763:
7759:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7744:
7742:
7740:
7736:
7730:
7727:
7726:
7724:
7721:
7716:
7712:
7708:
7673:
7672:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7662:
7660:
7658:
7654:
7648:
7645:
7644:
7641:
7638:
7636:
7632:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7620:Ichthyosporea
7618:
7616:
7615:
7610:
7608:
7607:
7603:
7602:
7599:
7596:
7592:
7586:
7575:
7574:
7570:
7568:
7567:Rotosphaerida
7565:
7564:
7562:
7560:
7556:
7552:
7549:
7546:
7541:
7535:
7532:
7530:
7529:Apusomonadida
7527:
7526:
7523:
7520:
7516:
7510:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7484:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7473:
7470:
7469:
7467:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7454:
7451:
7446:
7442:
7438:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7411:
7408:
7406:
7403:
7402:
7401:
7398:
7394:
7391:
7389:
7388:Stramenopiles
7386:
7384:
7381:
7379:
7376:
7372:
7369:
7368:
7367:
7364:
7363:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7351:(major groups
7349:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7339:
7337:
7334:
7331:
7327:
7326:
7322:
7317:
7310:
7305:
7303:
7298:
7296:
7291:
7290:
7287:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7272:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7263:
7258:
7256:
7252:
7249:
7246:
7243:
7241:
7238:
7237:
7227:
7223:
7218:
7213:
7210:(2): 81–103.
7209:
7205:
7201:
7196:
7194:
7190:
7186:
7182:
7179:
7174:
7169:
7167:
7163:
7159:
7155:
7151:
7149:
7145:
7141:
7137:
7134:
7129:
7125:
7122:
7117:
7115:
7111:
7107:
7103:
7099:
7095:
7090:
7085:
7083:
7079:
7075:
7071:
7067:
7065:
7061:
7057:
7053:
7049:
7048:
7039:
7038:3-334-60474-8
7035:
7031:
7027:
7024:
7023:3-8274-1482-2
7020:
7016:
7012:
7009:
7008:0-521-77914-6
7005:
7001:
6997:
6994:
6990:
6987:
6984:
6983:0-87893-097-3
6980:
6976:
6972:
6969:
6968:0-632-04761-5
6965:
6961:
6957:
6954:
6953:3-437-30803-3
6950:
6946:
6942:
6939:
6938:0-412-45110-7
6935:
6931:
6927:
6926:
6903:
6902:
6896:
6889:
6887:
6878:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6860:
6856:
6852:
6848:
6844:
6840:
6836:
6829:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6794:
6786:
6782:
6778:
6774:
6770:
6766:
6759:
6751:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6733:
6729:
6725:
6718:
6716:
6707:
6701:
6697:
6690:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6670:
6666:
6662:
6661:Hydrobiologia
6655:
6647:
6643:
6639:
6635:
6631:
6627:
6626:Hydrobiologia
6620:
6618:
6609:
6605:
6598:
6590:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6557:
6543:
6537:
6533:
6532:
6524:
6517:
6507:
6501:
6497:
6492:
6491:
6482:
6480:
6465:
6459:
6455:
6454:
6446:
6438:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6420:
6416:
6412:
6408:
6404:
6397:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6362:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6327:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6290:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6241:
6230:
6225:
6220:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6197:
6190:
6182:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6142:
6138:
6131:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6082:
6068:on 2008-10-07
6064:
6060:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6041:
6034:
6019:
6018:"The Rudists"
6013:
6005:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5970:
5955:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5943:
5927:
5923:
5919:
5912:
5904:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5886:
5882:
5881:Palaeontology
5878:
5871:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5828:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5800:
5799:Geology Today
5793:
5779:on 2008-09-11
5775:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5744:
5737:
5729:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5678:
5670:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5651:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5619:
5605:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5584:
5570:
5564:
5560:
5559:
5551:
5549:
5540:
5534:
5530:
5523:
5515:
5509:
5494:
5490:
5483:
5475:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5445:
5441:
5437:
5433:
5426:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5387:
5373:
5367:
5363:
5362:
5354:
5340:
5334:
5330:
5329:
5321:
5319:
5304:
5298:
5294:
5293:
5285:
5277:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5252:
5250:
5248:
5246:
5244:
5228:
5222:
5214:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5163:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5118:
5113:
5112:Buddenbrockia
5106:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5074:
5073:Buddenbrockia
5070:
5063:
5055:
5051:
5044:
5036:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5003:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4969:
4962:
4947:
4946:
4941:
4934:
4932:
4930:
4921:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4878:
4876:
4867:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4816:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4773:
4759:on 2014-12-14
4755:
4751:
4744:
4737:
4729:
4727:9780412337604
4723:
4719:
4715:
4708:
4693:
4687:
4685:
4678:
4673:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4638:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4595:
4593:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4541:
4532:
4525:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4482:
4474:
4462:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4413:
4407:
4402:
4396:
4391:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4342:
4334:
4328:
4324:
4317:
4309:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4276:
4274:
4272:
4263:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4248:
4240:
4238:
4236:
4234:
4232:
4230:
4228:
4226:
4224:
4222:
4220:
4218:
4216:
4214:
4212:
4210:
4208:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4200:
4198:
4196:
4194:
4192:
4190:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4182:
4180:
4178:
4169:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4150:
4148:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4132:
4130:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4116:
4114:
4112:
4110:
4108:
4106:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4098:
4096:
4094:
4092:
4083:
4077:
4069:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4018:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3987:(1): 329–45.
3986:
3982:
3975:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3930:
3925:
3924:Buddenbrockia
3918:
3916:
3914:
3905:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3864:
3850:
3846:
3840:
3832:
3824:
3820:
3819:
3813:
3806:
3792:on 2007-09-29
3791:
3787:
3780:
3772:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3739:
3737:
3735:
3719:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3686:
3681:
3677:
3676:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3643:
3637:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3622:trade secrets
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3594:Pacific Ocean
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3553:
3552:
3546:
3539:
3532:
3524:
3522:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3497:
3493:
3492:box jellyfish
3489:
3488:
3482:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3432:triploblastic
3428:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3415:included the
3414:
3410:
3406:
3401:
3399:
3395:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3367:
3363:
3354:
3350:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3306:
3296:
3294:
3293:scleractinian
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3262:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3215:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3174:
3166:Fossil record
3161:
3157:
3153:
3152:
3146:
3139:
3135:
3130:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3022:
3020:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2983:Stauromedusae
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2952:scleractinian
2949:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2919:
2918:endosymbiotic
2905:
2901:
2900:
2892:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2878:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2856:
2849:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2835:
2828:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2814:
2810:Siphonophore
2806:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2784:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2766:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2740:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2698:
2691:
2686:
2685:
2678:
2674:
2668:
2664:
2660:Raikova, 1994
2658:
2654:
2648:
2644:
2638:
2634:
2632:— box jellies
2628:
2624:
2618:Haeckel, 1866
2616:
2612:
2608:Haeckel, 1896
2606:
2602:
2598:Perrier, 1893
2596:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2398:siphonophores
2395:
2394:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2201:
2196:
2193:
2192:endosymbiotic
2189:
2185:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2142:invertebrates
2139:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2090:free-swimming
2086:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1994:
1961: 9
1956: 8
1951: 7
1946: 6
1941: 5
1936: 4
1931: 3
1926: 2
1921: 1
1915:
1902:
1900:
1896:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1868:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1845:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1826:cells in the
1825:
1820:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1790:endosymbionts
1787:
1786:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1728:box jellyfish
1725:
1721:
1717:
1716:chondrophores
1713:
1712:siphonophores
1708:
1705:
1696:
1694:
1693:somersaulting
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1671:
1670:
1648:
1645:
1641:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1593:
1592:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1558:
1554:
1553:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1529:
1528:tube anemones
1525:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1490:Victim's skin
1466:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1415:forms, or of
1414:
1410:
1406:
1397:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1306:, which they
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1290:Cnidaria are
1283:
1281:
1277:
1276:Stylasteridae
1273:
1269:
1268:Anthoathecata
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1248:
1246:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1188:
1178:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1130:
1125:
1118:
1100:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1018:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1006:
1003:
1000:
997:
994:
993:
989:
984:
981:
977:
974:
973:
969:
966:
961:
958:
957:
950:
947:
945:
942:
941:
938:
935:
933:
930:
927:
925:
922:
919:
918:
915:
913:
912:triploblastic
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
888:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
836:
832:
828:
824:
814:
812:
808:
804:
800:
799:Ancient Greek
796:
786:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
762:
757:
753:
752:mitochondrial
749:
743:
738:
734:
731:
725:
719:
717:
716:polar regions
713:
712:zooxanthellae
709:
705:
704:scleractinian
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
645:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
609:
605:
601:
596:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
523:
519:
514:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
439:
425:
386:
380:
376:
372:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
340:
336:
332:
329:
325:
323:-like animals
322:
318:
314:
310:
307:
306:box jellyfish
303:
299:
298:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
274:
270:
268:
264:
263:
262:
258:
254:
250:
249:
247:
242:
237:
232:
229:
226:
225:
222:
219:
216:
213:
212:
209:
206:
203:
202:
199:
196:
193:
192:
189:
186:
183:
182:
177:
172:
168:
163:
162:
157:
155:
154:
149:
147:
146:
141:
139:
138:
133:
132:
130:
125:
121:
116:
111:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
44:
33:
30:
19:
11101:Animal phyla
10821:
10792:
10784:
10706:Orthonectida
10701:Gastrotricha
10676:Nematomorpha
10651:Chaetognatha
10641:Hemichordate
10625:
10568:Pteridophyta
10437:Malawimonada
10311:Korarchaeota
10272:Thermotogota
10257:Synergistota
10232:Nitrospirota
10227:Nitrospinota
10172:Deinococcota
10105:Bacteroidota
10002:Malacosporea
9982:(Polypodium)
9980:
9957:(hydrozoans)
9920:Ceriantharia
9915:Hexacorallia
9910:Octocorallia
9892:
9847:Potentially
9842:
9795:
9771:
9765:Gymnolaemata
9760:Stenolaemata
9749:Ectoproctans
9747:
9718:
9689:
9665:
9659:Pterobranchs
9646:
9622:
9598:
9575:
9574:
9550:
9544:within phyla
9542:Major groups
9412:
9399:Bryozoa s.l.
9390:Lophophorata
9378:
9354:
9332:
9324:
9287:
9276:Orthonectida
9251:
9198:
9191:
9180:
9099:
9092:
9021:
8979:Scalidophora
8928:
8916:Ambulacraria
8903:
8816:(see below↓)
8796:
8795:
8788:
8752:
8703:Opisthokonta
8562:
8557:paraphyletic
8452:
8433:
8415:
8384:Malawimonada
8364:Anaeromonada
8359:Anaeramoebae
8351:
8327:
8304:Tsukubamonas
8302:
8224:
8217:
8208:Charophyceae
8195:
8188:
8181:Streptophyta
8168:
8152:
8132:
8128:Rhodelphidia
8086:Palpitomonas
8084:
8064:
8053:Pancryptista
7998:
7991:
7928:
7895:
7883:
7863:
7833:
7828:Foraminifera
7826:
7669:
7612:
7606:Tunicaraptor
7604:
7571:
7545:Opisthokonta
7481:
7410:Opisthokonta
7262:Tree of Life
7261:
7207:
7203:
7184:
7171:
7157:
7153:
7139:
7119:
7101:
7087:
7073:
7069:
7055:
7051:
7029:
7014:
6999:
6992:
6974:
6959:
6944:
6929:
6905:. Retrieved
6898:
6842:
6838:
6828:
6806:(6): 763–6.
6803:
6799:
6793:
6768:
6764:
6758:
6731:
6727:
6695:
6689:
6664:
6660:
6654:
6629:
6625:
6607:
6603:
6597:
6570:
6566:
6556:
6545:. Retrieved
6530:
6523:
6515:
6509:. Retrieved
6489:
6467:. Retrieved
6452:
6445:
6413:(1): 52–58.
6410:
6406:
6396:
6371:
6367:
6361:
6336:
6332:
6326:
6315:. Retrieved
6306:(1): 23–42.
6303:
6299:
6289:
6254:
6250:
6240:
6206:
6202:
6189:
6144:
6140:
6130:
6095:
6091:
6081:
6070:. Retrieved
6063:the original
6050:
6046:
6033:
6022:. Retrieved
6012:
5979:
5975:
5969:
5958:. Retrieved
5929:. Retrieved
5921:
5911:
5887:(1): 11–26.
5884:
5880:
5870:
5840:(1): 49–51.
5837:
5833:
5827:
5802:
5801:(abstract).
5798:
5792:
5781:. Retrieved
5774:the original
5753:
5749:
5736:
5691:
5687:
5677:
5632:
5628:
5618:
5607:. Retrieved
5593:
5583:
5572:. Retrieved
5557:
5528:
5522:
5508:cite journal
5497:. Retrieved
5492:
5482:
5439:
5435:
5425:
5400:
5396:
5386:
5375:. Retrieved
5360:
5353:
5342:. Retrieved
5327:
5306:. Retrieved
5291:
5284:
5257:
5231:. Retrieved
5221:
5176:
5172:
5162:
5121:
5115:
5111:
5105:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5062:
5053:
5049:
5043:
5016:
5012:
5002:
4978:
4974:
4961:
4949:. Retrieved
4943:
4891:
4887:
4829:
4825:
4815:
4782:
4778:
4772:
4761:. Retrieved
4754:the original
4749:
4736:
4717:
4707:
4696:. Retrieved
4672:
4647:
4643:
4637:
4604:
4600:
4556:
4552:
4530:
4524:
4491:
4487:
4481:
4418:
4412:
4401:
4390:
4355:
4351:
4341:
4322:
4316:
4292:(1): 14–26.
4289:
4285:
4246:
4157:
4076:
4031:
4027:
4017:
3984:
3980:
3974:
3933:
3927:
3923:
3877:
3873:
3863:
3852:. Retrieved
3848:
3839:
3816:
3805:
3794:. Retrieved
3790:the original
3779:
3752:
3748:
3722:. Retrieved
3711:
3698:Clare Island
3690:salmon farms
3683:
3673:
3659:
3646:
3640:
3638:
3634:heavy metals
3620:guard their
3609:Rhizostomeae
3602:
3582:storm drains
3561:productivity
3557:
3549:
3501:
3485:
3471:
3444:
3429:
3402:
3381:Coelenterata
3359:
3339:biochemistry
3311:evolutionary
3308:
3241:
3237:lagerstätten
3225:Auroralumina
3224:
3220:Auroralumina
3218:
3212:
3208:
3194:
3169:
3149:
3140:, Wisconsin.
3074:
3038:comb jellies
3023:
2994:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2915:
2897:
2875:
2860:Polypodiozoa
2853:
2832:
2811:
2789:
2774:Octocorallia
2763:
2748:Hexacorallia
2744:Scleractinia
2737:
2722:Hexacorallia
2702:Ceriantharia
2695:
2670:Goette, 1887
2657:Polypodiozoa
2650:Grassé, 1970
2630:Werner, 1973
2615:Octocorallia
2605:Hexacorallia
2595:Ceriantharia
2575:
2564:
2554:
2546:
2540:
2526:
2519:
2425:
2413:Sea anemones
2391:
2327:Polypodiozoa
2304:
2291:); swimming
2281:sea anemones
2269:Coelenterata
2262:
2234:
2209:
2200:metamorphose
2181:
2169:vegetal pole
2163:), while in
2157:gastrulation
2150:
2127:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2104:
2098:
2087:
2067:strobilation
2039:
2030:Medusa grows
2027:
2019:
2014:
2009:
1905:Reproduction
1892:
1889:Regeneration
1883:antioxidants
1869:
1853:
1841:
1821:
1798:
1783:
1777:
1749:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1685:sea anemones
1679:
1675:
1667:
1647:fire first.
1640:brine shrimp
1637:
1616:concentrated
1602:
1590:
1533:
1524:Ceriantharia
1448:
1435:gastrozooids
1428:
1405:Polymorphism
1403:
1400:Polymorphism
1391:
1376:
1296:triploblasts
1292:diploblastic
1289:
1272:Milleporidae
1260:Octocorallia
1256:Scleractinia
1249:
1234:
1208:
1197:sea anemones
1190:
1184:
1159:
1152:
1134:
1129:actinodiscus
1127:Oral end of
900:diploblastic
889:
872:
838:
802:
794:
792:
779:sister group
771:phylogenetic
750:analysis of
720:
669:
665:Polypodiozoa
642:
625:); swimming
615:sea anemones
604:Coelenterata
597:
515:
495:envenomation
475:sea anemones
384:
383:
378:
328:Polypodiozoa
279:Ceriantharia
273:Hexacorallia
267:Octocorallia
230:
214:
204:Subkingdom:
159:
151:
143:
142:A gorgonian
135:
134:A jellyfish
128:
29:
10965:iNaturalist
10846:Wikispecies
10761:Brachiopoda
10736:Cycliophora
10681:Onychophora
10656:Kinorhyncha
10578:Ginkgophyta
10573:Cycadophyta
10538:Chlorophyta
10528:Glaucophyta
10222:Myxococcota
10140:Chlorobiota
10135:Chlamydiota
9823:Tusk shells
9808:Cephalopods
9779:Polychaetes
9726:Turbellaria
9707:Crustaceans
9683:Secernentea
9673:Chromadorea
9654:Acorn worms
9624:Echinoderms
9616:Vertebrates
9558:Demosponges
9492:is disputed
8954:Protostomia
8842:is disputed
8769:ParaHoxozoa
8448:Chitinozoan
8374:Parabasalia
8226:Embryophyta
8190:Chlorokybus
8170:Chlorophyta
8118:Glaucophyta
8092:Cryptophyta
7982:Pirsoniales
7949:Bicosoecida
7930:Platysulcus
7903:Perkinsozoa
7885:Apicomplexa
7858:Colponemida
7625:Pluriformea
7494:Archamoebea
7483:Eumycetozoa
6901:Irish Times
6610:(1): 36–51.
6053:: 229–256.
5982:(1): 3–11.
5976:Coral Reefs
4650:(1): 9–25.
3651:box jellies
3647:C. fleckeri
3626:cholesterol
3603:Some large
3516:Coral reefs
3425:Conulariida
3299:Family tree
3183:mineralized
3076:Coral reefs
3058:parrot fish
3042:nematocysts
2567:conulariids
2457:Nematocysts
2408:Box jellies
2331:bilaterians
2265:Ctenophores
2165:bilaterians
2161:animal pole
2024:strobilates
2017:Polyp grows
1850:Respiration
1805:nematocysts
1785:Leptogorgia
1758:chemicals,
1628:atmospheres
1517:Ptychocysts
1501:Nematocysts
1480:/ / / Barbs
1461:are known:
1364:motor nerve
1252:exoskeleton
1247:particles.
1146:, and many
1107:Description
1075:Yes, simple
980:circulatory
960:Colloblasts
932:Ctenophores
857:bilaterians
853:ctenophores
783:bilaterians
756:crown group
728:during the
708:coral reefs
600:ctenophores
585:simple eyes
545:respiration
459:fresh water
308:, sea wasps
261:sea anemone
221:ParaHoxozoa
41:580–0
11091:Cnidarians
11085:Categories
10794:Parakaryon
10756:Entoprocta
10691:Arthropoda
10686:Tardigrada
10666:Priapulida
10661:Loricifera
10646:Echinoderm
10616:Ctenophora
10588:Gnetophyta
10543:Charophyta
10533:Rhodophyta
10505:Ascomycota
10500:Zygomycota
10442:Metamonada
10417:Euglenozoa
10402:Ciliophora
10110:Balneolota
10085:Aquificota
10007:Myxosporea
9971:Staurozoa
9963:Scyphozoa
9803:Gastropods
9784:Clitellata
9691:Arthropods
9630:Sea lilies
9576:Cnidarians
9494:; see also
9424:Brachiozoa
9187:Syndermata
9146:Gnathifera
8844:; see also
8789:Trichoplax
8787:Placozoa (
8774:Planulozoa
8529:Rigifilida
8428:Acritarchs
8353:Barthelona
8344:Metamonada
8329:Euglenozoa
8197:Mesostigma
8153:sensu lato
8134:Rhodophyta
7993:Ochrophyta
7954:Placidozoa
7865:Ciliophora
7835:Radiolaria
7752:Haptophyta
7647:Filasterea
7559:Holomycota
7108:, online)
6907:2022-04-23
6547:2008-11-28
6511:2008-11-28
6469:2008-10-03
6317:2008-11-27
6251:Cladistics
6072:2008-11-27
6024:2008-11-27
5960:2008-11-27
5783:2008-09-03
5609:2008-11-21
5574:2008-11-26
5499:2008-07-03
5377:2008-11-21
5344:2008-11-21
5308:2008-11-21
5233:2008-11-27
5077:Cladistics
5069:Polypodium
4894:: 670695.
4763:2015-12-31
4714:"Hydroids"
4698:2012-06-12
3854:2018-12-17
3833:required.)
3812:"cnidaria"
3796:2007-07-10
3724:2018-03-18
3672:species –
3573:food chain
3451:anthozoans
3394:Planulozoa
3392:labelled "
3373:Ctenophora
3323:Ctenophora
3315:morphology
3252:Ordovician
3191:bilaterian
3118:pollutants
2977:, and low
2948:anthozoans
2926:Hydrozoans
2874:Jellyfish
2772:, part of
2770:Alcyonacea
2746:, part of
2720:, part of
2640:Owen, 1843
2559:bilaterian
2555:Polypodium
2537:protozoans
2275:: sessile
2239:pathways,
2237:DNA repair
2231:DNA repair
2220:Scyphozoan
2075:gastroderm
2040:Cnidarian
1895:regenerate
1828:gastroderm
1801:cnidocytes
1779:Hetroxenia
1720:statocysts
1651:Locomotion
1511:Spirocysts
1459:cnidocytes
1445:Cnidocytes
1425:Hydrozoans
1379:gastroderm
1342:Cnidocytes
1162:cnidocytes
1148:hydrozoans
944:Cnidocytes
928:Cnidarians
883:that fire
881:cnidocytes
827:Ctenophora
581:statocysts
557:trimorphic
507:epithelium
487:cnidocytes
355:Subphylum
330:—parasites
295:hydrozoans
285:Subphylum
251:Subphylum
10711:Dicyemida
10583:Pinophyta
10462:Telonemia
10397:Cryptista
10387:Breviatea
10372:Amoebozoa
10367:Alveolata
10348:Eukaryote
10100:Bacillota
9955:Hydrozoa
9939:Medusozoa
9789:Sipuncula
9736:Monogenea
9731:Trematoda
9702:Myriapods
9667:Nematodes
9611:Tunicates
9606:Lancelets
9600:Chordates
9592:Myxozoans
9499:Nephrozoa
9488:phylogeny
9288:Salinella
9243:Rouphozoa
9084:Tactopoda
9013:Nematoida
8965:Ecdysozoa
8886:Bilateria
8873:Bilateria
8854:Benthozoa
8849:Eumetazoa
8838:phylogeny
8808:Bilateria
8698:Amoebozoa
8676:Alveolata
8664:Cryptista
8639:Eukaryota
8369:Fornicata
8275:Excavates
8077:Cryptista
8000:Oomycetes
7977:Developea
7959:Sagenista
7846:Alveolata
7782:Telonemia
7657:Choanozoa
7534:Breviatea
7477:Tubulinea
7464:Amoebozoa
7405:Amoebozoa
7383:Alveolata
7371:Cryptista
7346:Eukaryota
7316:Eukaryote
7193:0044-3808
7166:0044-3808
7148:0008-4301
7114:0008-4301
7082:0737-4038
7064:0097-3157
6989:Dalby, A.
6859:0019-9567
6632:: 19–26.
6589:1880-8247
5922:bbc.co.uk
5862:130602154
5819:128395097
5097:221583517
4621:0008-4301
4575:0022-0949
4471:ignored (
4461:cite book
4453:202575235
3670:Scyphozoa
3662:Myxozoans
3605:jellyfish
3598:jewellery
3590:aquariums
3578:pollution
3521:pollution
3447:chordates
3417:Staurozoa
3413:Scyphozoa
3377:Bilateria
3331:Bilateria
3305:Phylogeny
3233:skeletons
3201:jellyfish
3158:rocks in
3151:Cladocora
3085:inorganic
3070:clownfish
3066:symbiotic
3034:flatworms
3030:sea slugs
3026:parasites
2904:Staurozoa
2882:Scyphozoa
2718:Actinaria
2677:Staurozoa
2667:Scyphozoa
2613:subclass
2603:subclass
2593:subclass
2533:parasites
2461:exodermis
2403:Jellyfish
2388:Examples
2347:Scyphozoa
2315:Staurozoa
2293:Scyphozoa
2216:Hydrozoan
2212:asexually
2054:Scyphozoa
2005:jellyfish
1899:asexually
1875:symbionts
1837:mesogleas
1833:diffusion
1768:symbiotic
1764:nutrients
1760:filtering
1752:predation
1689:inchworms
1683:and some
1582:operculum
1568:adhesives
1368:nerve net
1332:Scyphozoa
1300:epithelia
1264:hydrozoan
1240:epidermis
1237:chitinous
1210:Tubularia
1195:and most
1181:Skeletons
1153:Both are
976:Digestive
937:Bilateria
831:Bilateria
793:The term
789:Etymology
775:monophyly
730:Ediacaran
692:sea slugs
684:parasites
672:organisms
653:Staurozoa
631:jellyfish
627:Scyphozoa
577:Scyphozoa
561:nerve net
541:digestion
533:tentacles
483:parasites
467:jellyfish
361:parasites
345:Staurozoa
335:Scyphozoa
291:jellyfish
287:Medusozoa
208:Eumetazoa
194:Kingdom:
188:Eukaryota
110:Ediacaran
18:Cnidarian
10879:Cnidaria
10866:Cnidaria
10852:Cnidaria
10831:Wikidata
10822:Cnidaria
10771:Annelida
10766:Mollusca
10746:Phoronid
10741:Nemertea
10716:Rotifera
10696:Flatworm
10671:Nematoda
10636:Chordate
10626:Cnidaria
10621:Placozoa
10452:Rhizaria
10427:Haptista
10407:Cercozoa
10067:Bacteria
9947:Cubozoa
9902:Anthozoa
9893:Cnidaria
9813:Bivalves
9797:Molluscs
9773:Annelids
9132:Spiralia
8739:Animalia
8693:Amorphea
8671:Rhizaria
8659:Hacrobia
8649:Excavata
8634:Bacteria
8551:protists
8547:kingdoms
8435:Grypania
8397:Imasidae
8298:Jakobida
7822:Endomyxa
7817:Cercozoa
7809:Rhizaria
7739:Haptista
7671:Animalia
7614:Bicellum
7489:Variosea
7472:Discosea
7450:Amorphea
7400:Amorphea
7378:Rhizaria
7366:Hacrobia
7356:Excavata
7341:Bacteria
7271:Archived
7226:11437135
7124:Archived
6991:(2003).
6877:28993459
6820:14634600
6785:14172390
6750:16687419
6681:20719121
6437:22117085
6388:16226338
6353:16098631
6281:86185156
6273:34892961
6229:Archived
6181:11504944
6122:25119754
6114:29280585
6004:42938715
5926:BBC News
5903:83486435
5770:12142030
5728:11095754
5669:10781044
5474:19269306
5417:29661512
5213:26627241
5146:17615357
5035:21676805
4991:Archived
4981:: 7–12.
4920:33995496
4866:26690755
4826:PLOS ONE
4807:84325535
4664:17101286
4629:18244609
4583:21430196
4508:16983540
4382:12376172
4374:12382326
4308:15936326
4068:26465609
4028:PLOS ONE
4009:22040765
3958:17615357
3904:25840473
3771:11108911
3680:Hydrozoa
3678:– and a
3666:salmonid
3586:dynamite
3504:delicacy
3459:protists
3455:bacteria
3440:mesoderm
3409:Hydrozoa
3389:mesoderm
3385:mesoglea
3369:spicules
3362:Calcarea
3327:Placozoa
3319:Porifera
3295:corals.
3275:Mesozoic
3248:Cambrian
3229:predator
3156:Pliocene
3134:Cambrian
3102:mangrove
3046:starfish
2981:levels.
2975:salinity
2963:sea fans
2959:sea pens
2950:, a few
2818:Hydrozoa
2762:Sea fan
2637:Hydrozoa
2586:Anthozoa
2551:sturgeon
2436:mesoglea
2421:sea pens
2357:Anthozoa
2342:Hydrozoa
2301:Hydrozoa
2289:sea pens
2277:Anthozoa
2224:Anthozoa
2188:plankton
2173:planulae
2153:blastula
2123:Anthozoa
2101:Hydrozoa
1860:Anthozoa
1691:, or by
1624:Hydrozoa
1604:Chironex
1455:payloads
1451:harpoons
1421:Hydrozoa
1360:synapses
1336:mesoglea
1328:Anthozoa
1316:ectoderm
1312:mesoglea
1245:sediment
1226:proteins
1222:spicules
1215:Sea pens
1187:mesoglea
1170:mesoglea
1099:myocytes
892:mesoglea
835:Placozoa
823:Porifera
795:cnidaria
767:Cambrian
688:starfish
676:plankton
639:Hydrozoa
623:sea pens
611:Anthozoa
569:rhopalia
549:colonies
503:mesoglea
491:flagella
471:hydroids
447:Animalia
385:Cnidaria
317:hydroids
313:Hydrozoa
253:Anthozoa
236:Hatschek
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10751:Bryozoa
10447:Provora
10422:Jakobea
10412:Discoba
10358:Protist
10295:Archaea
10048:Extant
9994:Myxozoa
9895:classes
9891:Extant
9818:Chitons
9741:Cestoda
9678:Enoplea
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9325:Symbion
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3882:Bibcode
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2647:Myxozoa
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