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Indians already here, and villainous
Columbus. The poll revealed that over 90% of participants fell into the "heroic traditional Columbus" (6.2%) and "simple traditional Columbus" (84.7%) categories. In other words, the vast majority of respondents saw Columbus as the discoverer of America (simple traditional), and some even viewed Columbus as a hero (heroic traditional). Alternatively, less than 10% of participants collectively believed that either Columbus was not a particularly unique European explorer (other Europeans, 3.3%), other people were present in America before Columbus' arrival (Indians already here, 2.2%), or Columbus was a terrorizer of Native Americans (villainous Columbus, 3.6%).
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federal government and thousands of dollars from private donations and sponsorships. Despite its funding, the commission fell short on its expenses and could not conduct sufficient fundraising—in part due to the controversy surrounding the celebration of
Columbus. In a 1987 report to Congress, the commission recognized that it would be more of a coordinator than a direct leader of the nationwide commemorative activities being planned for the quincentenary. Certain events, however, were directly organized by the commission, such as tour of Columbus replica ships—the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria—around 20 US cities.
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society. Indigenous territories have gotten geographically closer to developmental projects, and intrusion into these lands for economic purposes serves as a modern-day reminder of what colonization looked like a few hundred years ago. Periodicals around the time of the quincentenary identified four major issues surrounding the development of resources in the U.S. that involved conflicting interests with Native
Americans. These conflicts included "salmon fish protection in the
610:, which united the anti-Columbus movement, cultural conservatives pushed harder to celebrate accomplishments of Columbus that greatly contributed to the European Age of Discovery. The Commission for 500 Years of Indigenous and Popular Resistance claims that this ideological campaign is driven by the idea that European colonization of the Americas was an encounter of different cultures, when in reality it was a harsh imposition of European culture.
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seen as a "small jewel" of the fair. The elaborate display of U.S. involvement in the
European Age of Discovery, which Italy sought to nationalize given the fact that Columbus was Italian, highlighted the strong relationship between the U.S. and Italy as well as the fact that both countries were proud of their involvement in the Columbus story.
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resistance to colonization. 78% felt that educational activities were appropriate to celebrate the 500th anniversary, 19% instead favored legal actions against the United States, and 3% wanted public apologies by
Western institutions. No respondents suggested that a commemoration of Columbus was appropriate for the quincentenary.
43:, the annual celebration of Columbus' arrival, the quincentenary was viewed contentiously, as different cultures and peoples had different ways of understanding Columbus' role in history. Certain institutions sought to celebrate this anniversary in commemoration of Columbus' momentous colonial and imperial achievements. Spain's
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from 1893 that uses
Vanderlyn's artwork. In 1992, there was a shift towards commemorative images depicting the cruel European treatment of Native Americans during the colonialist period. In particular, paintings by William Snyder challenged the dominant narrative by showing explicit, gruesome acts of
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that selects each year's winner chose to highlight that
Columbus's arrival in America symbolizes oppression for indigenous peoples. The committee decided to bring an indigenous rights champion to the international stage at the same time the Western world was celebrating the European Age of Discovery.
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A survey of Native
Americans conducted in 1989 revealed that the majority opposed a celebration of the Columbus Quincentenary and instead saw it as a learning opportunity for the general public. More specifically, 70% of respondents felt that the quincentenary represented five hundred years of Native
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and lasted from May 15 to August 15 in 1992. Less than one million attendees came to Genoa for the exposition, which was seen as a disappointment. The United States actively participated in the Genoa exposition along with dozens of other countries, and the U.S. pavilion was given its own location and
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As an overarching theme, the exposition sought to celebrate the encounter of different cultures through human discovery, and Spain's intention was to landmark
Seville as the center of this progress. Spain wanted to remind the world that Columbus launched his journeys from Spain. The exposition itself
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pedagogy challenges and reinterprets dominant narratives pertaining to
Columbus and greater European exploration. This way of teaching often suggests that the celebratory nature of Columbus anniversaries perpetuates supremacist logic that does not consider the experiences of a marginalized community
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and deep-rooted resistance on this anniversary called for a reexamination of the dominant pedagogy that teaches Columbus as a father of discovery and Western development. As the anniversary of Columbus was celebrated through exhibits, festivals, publications, and several other public outlets, it was
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have since been formally commemorated through Columbus Day, the annual U.S. holiday that takes place on October 12 or, since 1971, the second Monday in October. European and Latin American countries have their own holidays to remember Columbus on October 12. More recently, Columbus Day celebrations
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and indigenous rights abuses. Criticism of the celebration of the Columbus Quincentenary stems from the violent and oppressive treatment of European colonialists, including Columbus, towards indigenous peoples across the Americas. And thus, opposing efforts have focused on education surrounding the
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followed suit, renaming its Aniversario del Descubrimiento de AmĂ©rica (Anniversary of the Discovery of America) to DĂa del Descubrimiento de Dos Mundos (Day of the Discovery of Two Worlds). In 2002, Venezuela formally renamed its DĂa de la Raza to DĂa de la Resistencia IndĂgena (Day of Indigenous
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The Jubilee Commission also became a center for Columbus opposition. Leading up to 1992, several Native American groups stressed their opposition by planning protests for quincentenary celebrations being planned by the Jubilee Commission. Additionally, Dave Warren, a Native American serving as an
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island, next to the old city of Seville, a new city was built to represent the entire world. Attendees had the opportunity to navigate different parts of the globe staged within this city. This was intended to be commemorative of the idea that Columbus connected all parts of the world through his
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class-based policies effectively required their indigenous populations to identify as campesinos (peasant farmers). However, this trend has been significantly reversed in the last 30 years. In many instances, this change has come from the top, as "Constitutional reforms recognizing multicultural
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in 1992, cost around $ 100 million in production, and hosted 5.5 million attendees. However, attendance was significantly less than anticipated and AmeriFlora experienced a financial loss. Among other things, the event was hindered by a Native American boycott regarding the celebratory
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have sparked controversy over Columbus' treatment of indigenous peoples in the Americas and the subsequent implications of European colonization for native populations. This has led to the emergence of counter-commemorative holidays to replace or coincide with Columbus Day in several countries.
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The quincentenary has influenced the amount of media coverage and attention given to Native Americans in more recent years. As the world continues to develop economically, the important role of indigenous peoples as stewards of the land has become increasingly relevant, particularly in Western
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spurred a high point in the opposition towards Columbus. This book was considered the first widespread anti-Columbus text and it highlighted the oppression and destruction caused by Columbus and Spanish colonialism. For Native Americans, the quincentenary was a critical time to highlight their
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Six years after the Columbus Quincentenary, 1,511 Americans participated in a public opinion poll on Columbus. The researchers ultimately broke participants into five categories based on their attitude towards Columbus: heroic traditional Columbus, simple traditional Columbus, other Europeans,
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The Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Commission was established in 1984 under the Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Act to execute a national commemoration of Columbus in 1992. The commission was to exist until 1993, and it operated on $ 2 million of seed money from the
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The Columbus Quincentenary as a whole is regarded by many as a failure due to lack of public interest in actually attending celebrations to the extent that was anticipated and the numerous indigenous protests. The quincentenary is also considered a success for its strides in the anti-Columbus
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became the first city to adopt Indigenous Peoples' Day, serving as a direct counter to the celebration of Columbus. This holiday has been widely adopted across cities and communities in the United States since then and continues to serve as opposition to the notion that Christopher Columbus
432:
The transnational movement for indigenous rights has made tremendous strides following the Columbus Quincentenary. Before the 1980s, with the goal of fostering greater cultural assimilation, Latin American policies discouraged indigenous identification. For example, the
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demanding a ban on any celebrations scheduled for the quincentenary, punishment for government officials who do celebrate the quincentenary, and the removal of Columbus from the national currency. On October 12, 1992, approximately 2,000 activists marched through
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On the day of the quincentenary, countless Native American-driven protests against the celebration of Columbus occurred in cities across the U.S. Certain demonstrations, such as at AmeriFlora, directly coincided with U.S.-sponsored quincentennial celebrations. In
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tribes. This opposition was centered around the fact the Columbus represents the oppression and persecution of Native Americans who had been living in America for hundreds of years prior to his arrival in 1492. Further, these activists believed that the
518:
demanding respect for the country's indigenous population and favorable resolutions of native land disputes. In at least four Guatemalan cities, indigenous peoples protested the celebration of Columbus in addition to delivering a formal petition to the
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In 1991, over 200 indigenous representatives from a variety of tribes in the United States and Canada gathered to discuss and plan a formal opposition to the Columbus Quincentenary celebrations. Among these participants were representatives of the
297:. The coin honored the achievements of Columbus, and the proceeds from its surcharges were given to the Christopher Columbus Fellowship Foundation in order to further its research. The Mint sold these coins only for a limited time as designated by
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and their presence in the Americas before 1492, gained traction in the United States leading up to the quincentenary and has since seen widespread adoption. This trend is also seen in Latin America regarding Columbus Day-like October 12 holidays.
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Commemorative practice has a significant visual element as images represent ways of remembering the past, and the images from Columbus' arrival overwhelmingly depict discovery and accomplishment. This is seen through famous artwork, such as
508:
In Latin America, a tremendous amount of oppositional efforts and protests occurred leading up to the quincentenary as well as on the anniversary itself. The National Association of Salvadoran Indigenous (ANIS) gave a petition to the
553:. MenchĂş, recognized for her impactful social justice work for indigenous peoples, was intentionally given this prize in 1992 to coincide with the Columbus Quincentenary. After being lobbied by various indigenous organizations, the
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changed its DĂa de la Raza (Day of Race) holiday to DĂa del Encuentro de las Culturas (Day of the Encounter of Cultures) in order to celebrate cultural diversity rather than Columbus. A few years later,
20:
145:. For the Europeans, Columbus' arrival in the Americas began the Age of Discovery, where thousands of European-sponsored trans-Atlantic trips would be made to colonize the Americas and conduct trade.
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Native Americans do not remember Columbus in a celebratory manner. In the years leading to 1992, the Native American community continuously denounced the celebration of the Columbus Quincentenary.
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discovered an uninhabited Americas. Today, more than 15 states as well as the District of Columbia observe some form of Indigenous People's Day, either in addition to or in lieu of Columbus Day.
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Increased awareness of Columbus' negative colonial consequences resulted in greater polarization of those perpetuating different narratives of American history. Following Sale's release of
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was a display of Spanish-nationalist pride for what the country believed was among the greatest contributions to mankind: sponsoring Columbus to expand the Western world.
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designated the Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Commission to execute a commemoration in honor of Columbus. In total, over 20 countries, including several
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725:
846:
660:
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1410:
Schuman, Howard; Schwartz, Barry; d'Arcy, Hannah (2005-02-28). "Elite Revisionists and Popular Beliefs: Christopher Columbus, Hero or Villain?".
1383:
Schuman, Howard; Schwartz, Barry; d'Arcy, Hannah (2005-02-28). "Elite Revisionists and Popular Beliefs: Christopher Columbus, Hero or Villain?".
1353:
Schuman, Howard; Schwartz, Barry; d'Arcy, Hannah (2005-02-28). "Elite Revisionists and Popular Beliefs: Christopher Columbus, Hero or Villain?".
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to celebrate Columbus' "discovery" of America. The final day of the celebration was intended to coincide with the Columbus Quincentenary. On
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proclaimed a national celebration of American heritage that would be known as Columbus Day. Columbus' achievements in terms of expanding the
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sought to commemorate the European arrival in the Americas through an international exposition. The fair was built on the ancient port of
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36:
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71:
1502:
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movement. More people began to look critically at what exactly Columbus brought to America in terms of his treatment towards natives.
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290:
388:, the Columbus Day Parade was cancelled as a result of Native Americans and their supporters promising to disrupt any celebration.
372:
753:
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92:
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became the first state to rename Columbus Day as Native American Day. In 1992, the year of the Columbus Quincentenary,
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should be making reciprocity by offering displaced indigenous peoples more resources, including education and food.
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around 3,000 indigenous rights activists protested the quincentenary celebrations and demanded the creation of a
110:
566:
2158:
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Cultural movements and collective memory: Christopher Columbus and the rewriting of the national origin myth
1264:
778:
2015:"Review of Sinking Columbus: Contested History, Cultural Politics, and Mythmaking during the Quincentenary"
1686:
1634:
83:
1732:"Indigenous Struggles and Contested Identities in Argentina Histories of Invisibilization and Reemergence"
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1812:
Tyroler, Deborah. "Summary Of Events Surrounding Columbus Quincentennial In Central American Countries".
1797:
Tyroler, Deborah. "Summary Of Events Surrounding Columbus Quincentennial In Central American Countries".
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Tyroler, Deborah. "Summary Of Events Surrounding Columbus Quincentennial In Central American Countries".
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Alternatively, anti-celebration efforts emerged in the United States preceding the quincentenary.
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critical to also consider the perspectives that viewed Columbus in a drastically different way.
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as well as thinking critically about the implications of Columbus' arrival in the Americas.
415:
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32:
1830:
1687:"INDIGENOUS MOVEMENTS IN LATIN AMERICA, 1992–2004: Controversies, Ironies, New Directions"
1635:"INDIGENOUS MOVEMENTS IN LATIN AMERICA, 1992–2004: Controversies, Ironies, New Directions"
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635:'s painting of the landing of Columbus, as well as institutionalized imagery, including a
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8:
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293:, on August 28, 1992, a Christopher Columbus Quincentenary dollar coin was issued by the
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1609:"How Berkeley Became the First City to Ditch Columbus Day for Indigenous Peoples Day"
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that called for better living conditions for indigenous communities in Guatemala. In
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Between April 20 and October 12 of 1992, Spain hosted an international exposition in
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sought to systematically assimilate and forget about its indigenous groups. And the
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prominently emerged that centered on listening to Native American perspectives on
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On October 12, 1892, the 400th anniversary of Columbus' arrival, U.S. President
1731:
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2013:
Bushman, Claudia L.; Summerhill, Stephen J.; Williams, John Alexander (2002).
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was elaborately planned to highlight Columbus' work and the overall European
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In 1989, the Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Commission approved
117:. In his 1492 voyage, which was an attempt to find a direct ship route from
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The Columbus Quincentenary became a focal point for competing narratives on
1265:"SAILING OUT OF HISTORY REPLICAS OF COLUMBUS' FLEET TO START TOUR IN MIAMI"
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1957:"New Worlds, Old Orders: Native Americans and the Columbus Quincentenary"
1904:"New Worlds, Old Orders: Native Americans and the Columbus Quincentenary"
1503:"New Worlds, Old Orders: Native Americans and the Columbus Quincentenary"
1439:"New Worlds, Old Orders: Native Americans and the Columbus Quincentenary"
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2014:
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847:"President Harrison urges Americans to mark Columbus Day, Oct. 12, 1892"
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history and promote goals of identity preservation and self-governance.
228:
1988:
1935:
1855:
1534:
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1295:"GARDEN NOTEBOOK; Ameriflora: An Odd Hybrid Struggles (Published 1992)"
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The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy
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The Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus and the Columbian Legacy
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honorary member on the commission, stepped down from his role in 1990.
981:
925:
726:"Rethinking How We Celebrate American History—Indigenous Peoples' Day"
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and better understand its present-day implications. The clash between
268:, as a commemorative event for Columbus. The exhibition took place in
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was themed "Christopher Columbus, The Ship and the Sea." In 1984, the
591:, water and its use in Navajo and Hopi coal slurry transportation in
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475:
451:
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2159:"The Pedagogy of Commemoration and Formation of Collective Memories"
2122:"The Pedagogy of Commemoration and Formation of Collective Memories"
2085:"The Pedagogy of Commemoration and Formation of Collective Memories"
1972:
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779:"The Pedagogy of Commemoration and Formation of Collective Memories"
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The Columbus Quincentenary provided a unique opportunity to restudy
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Native American Heritage Celebration in Fort Rucker, Alabama (2010)
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982:"Discovering the World in Seville: The 1992 Universal Exposition"
926:"Discovering the World in Seville: The 1992 Universal Exposition"
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Voyages of Christopher Columbus § First voyage (1492–1493)
2062:(1st ed.). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 13.
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Columbus Quincentenary dollar coin issued by U.S. Mint (1992)
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indigenous side of history. Following the quincentenary, new
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16:
500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in America
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1856:"Review of Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration"
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442:
359:
122:
1554:"American Indian groups protest Columbus Day celebrations"
2012:
1854:
Rashford, John; Viola, Herman; Margolis, Carolyn (1992).
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Latin America Data Base – News & Educational Services
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Latin America Data Base – News & Educational Services
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Latin American Data Base – News & Education Services
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Advocacy for better treatment of Native Americans (2009)
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International Exposition of Genoa in Genoa, Italy (1992)
1222:"Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Commission"
1179:"Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Commission"
1136:"Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Commission"
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Europeans against Native Americans, such as lynchings.
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67:, had committees to plan quincentennial celebrations.
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Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee Commission
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Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer who led
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Library and Technology Services, Lehigh University.
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129:and became the first European explorer to find the
446:nations containing plural citizenries occurred in
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2163:The Journal of Educational Foundations; Ann Arbor
2126:The Journal of Educational Foundations; Ann Arbor
2089:The Journal of Educational Foundations; Ann Arbor
783:The Journal of Educational Foundations; Ann Arbor
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549:was awarded to Guatemalan human rights activist
1730:Gordillo, GastĂłn; Hirsch, Silvia (2008-06-28).
599:, and opposition to oil and gas exploration in
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245:AmeriFlora exhibition in Columbus, Ohio (1992)
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2201:Cultural depictions of Christopher Columbus
1330:"Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Dollar"
754:"Decolonizing Columbus Day in the Americas"
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133:. By 1492, there were already millions of
1685:Jackson, Jean E.; Warren, Kay B. (2005).
1633:Jackson, Jean E.; Warren, Kay B. (2005).
285:Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Dollar
2221:October 1992 events in the United States
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291:Christopher Columbus Quincentenary coins
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1703:10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120529
1651:10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120529
1263:Kernicky, Kathleen (12 February 1992).
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699:Getting It Right About Getting It Wrong
406:Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)
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224:North American celebration of Columbus
45:Universal Exposition of Seville (1992)
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871:"Columbus Day | History & Facts"
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31:(1992) was the 500th anniversary of
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724:Zotigh, Dennis W.; Gokey, Renee.
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201:International Exposition of Genoa
113:—1492, 1493, 1498, and 1502—from
2019:The Florida Historical Quarterly
845:Andrew Glass (12 October 2016).
373:United States federal government
161:European celebration of Columbus
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1691:Annual Review of Anthropology
1639:Annual Review of Anthropology
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1831:"The Nobel Peace Prize 1992"
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1501:Warren, Dave (1992-10-01).
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111:four trans-Atlantic voyages
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1293:Raver, Anne (1992-08-06).
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273:nature of the exposition.
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2211:1992 in the United States
555:Norwegian Nobel Committee
435:Constitution of Argentine
423:Latin American resistance
314:North American opposition
264:, a global exhibition of
2157:Simon, Roger I. (1994).
2120:Simon, Roger I. (1994).
2083:Simon, Roger I. (1994).
1412:Public Opinion Quarterly
1385:Public Opinion Quarterly
1355:Public Opinion Quarterly
1220:Stevens, L. Nye (1991).
1177:Stevens, L. Nye (1991).
1134:Stevens, L. Nye (1991).
1091:Stevens, L. Nye (1991).
777:Simon, Roger I. (1994).
661:"Columbus Quincentenary"
2058:Kubal, Timothy (2008).
1748:10.1525/jlca.2003.8.3.4
875:Encyclopedia Britannica
696:Kicza, John E. (2002),
400:Indigenous Peoples' Day
327:'s 1990 publication of
72:Indigenous Peoples' Day
37:1492 arrival in America
1244:Cite journal requires
1201:Cite journal requires
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1115:Cite journal requires
822:"Christopher Columbus"
571:
396:
281:
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29:Columbus Quincentenary
24:
1955:Warren, Dave (1992).
1902:Warren, Dave (1992).
1437:Warren, Dave (1992).
980:Knight, John (1992).
924:Knight, John (1992).
624:counter-commemorative
580:cultural conservatism
576:European colonization
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394:
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244:
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103:Further information:
93:European colonization
74:, a holiday honoring
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1961:The Public Historian
1908:The Public Historian
1507:The Public Historian
1443:The Public Historian
627:to the same degree.
516:San Jose, Costa Rica
416:Berkeley, California
84:European exploration
33:Christopher Columbus
1068:Genoa-Expo-1992.pdf
1040:Genoa-Expo-1992.pdf
898:"Columbus Day 2020"
702:, H-LatAm, H-Review
562:Shifting narratives
525:Panama City, Panama
185:journeys overseas.
2206:1992 controversies
1424:10.1093/poq/nfi001
1397:10.1093/poq/nfi001
1367:10.1093/poq/nfi001
1334:United States Mint
1299:The New York Times
986:Anthropology Today
930:Anthropology Today
663:. Encyclopedia.com
637:U.S. postage stamp
572:
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295:United States Mint
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211:Similar to Spain,
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135:indigenous peoples
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2069:978-1-4039-7577-5
1181:(T-GGD-91-24): 10
547:Nobel Peace Prize
521:National Congress
486:Renaming holidays
150:Benjamin Harrison
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644:References
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492:Costa Rica
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182:La Cartuja
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