113:, which involves the direct translation of sentence after sentence as a way to learn the language. Those methods assumed that students aimed to master the target language and were willing to study for years before expecting to use the language in real life. However, those assumptions were challenged by adult learners, who were busy with work, and by schoolchildren who were less academically gifted and so could not devote years to learning before they could use the language. Educators realized that to motivate those students an approach with a more immediate reward was necessary, and they began to use CLT, an approach that emphasizes communicative ability and yielded better results.
444:
agreement, students may be seen to be in possession of "communicative competence" without being able to make full or even adequate use of the language. That individuals are proficient in a language does not necessarily entail that they can make full use of that language, which can limit an individual's potential with that language, especially if that language is an endangered language. That criticism largely has to do with the fact that CLT is often highly praised and is popular though it may not necessarily be the best method of language teaching.
209:
new language syllabus. Education was a high priority for the
Council of Europe, which set out to provide a syllabus that would meet the needs of European immigrants. Among the studies that it used in designing the course was one by a British linguist, D. A. Wilkins, that defined language using "notions" and "functions," rather than more traditional categories of grammar and vocabulary. The new syllabus reinforced the idea that language could not be adequately explained by grammar and syntax but instead relied on real interaction.
98:, led to migration in Europe and an increased number of people who needed to learn a foreign language for work or personal reasons. Meanwhile, more children were given the opportunity to learn foreign languages in school, as the number of secondary schools offering languages rose worldwide as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, with foreign-language study no longer confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of
168:, a method that was much more clinical in nature and relied less on direct communication. In Britain, applied linguists began to doubt the efficacy of situational language teaching, partly in response to Chomsky's insights into the nature of language. Chomsky had shown that the structural theories of language then prevalent could not explain the variety that is found in real communication. In addition, applied linguists like Christopher Candlin and
184:, which redefined what it meant to "know" a language. In addition to speakers having mastery over the structural elements of language, they must also be able to use those structural elements appropriately in a variety of speech domains. That can be neatly summed up by Hymes's statement: "There are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless." The idea of communicative competence stemmed from Chomsky's concept of the
436:
makes broad claims regarding the usefulness of CLT while citing little data, it uses a large amount of confusing vocabulary, and it assumes knowledge that is predominately not language-specific (such as the ability to make educated guesses) to be language-specific. Swan suggests that those theoretical issues lead to confusion in the application of CLT techniques.
146:'s syntactic concept of competence. Also, in 1966, American psychologist Jerome Bruner wrote that learners construct their own understanding of the world based on their experiences and prior knowledge, and teachers should provide scaffolding to promote this. Bruner appears to have been influenced by
447:
Ridge also notes that CLT has nonspecific requirements of its teachers, as there is no completely standard definition of what CLT is, which is especially true for the teaching of grammar, the formal rules governing the standardized version of the language in question. Some critics of CLT suggest that
415:
In doing this activity, students have the opportunity to speak with a number of classmates, while still being in a low-pressure situation, and talking to only one person at a time. After learning more about each other, and getting to share about themselves, students will feel more comfortable talking
290:
This is an activity that should be used primarily in the lower levels of language classes, because it will be most beneficial to lower-level speakers. Higher-level speakers should be having unpredictable conversations in the TL, where neither the questions nor the answers are scripted or expected. If
188:
of an ideal native speaker. Hymes did not make a concrete formulation of communicative competence, but subsequent authors, notably
Michael Canale, have tied the concept to language teaching. Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components: grammatical competence,
133:
calling for a holistic approach to learners teaching through meaningful material. American educator
Clifford Prator published a paper in 1965 calling for teachers to turn from an emphasis on manipulation (drills) towards communication where learners were free to choose their own words. In 1966, the
451:
Stephen Bax's critique of CLT has to do with the context of its implementation. Bax asserts that many researchers associate the use of CLT techniques with modernity and so the lack of CLT techniques as a lack of modernism. That way, those researchers consider teachers or school systems that fail to
322:
Students can feel overwhelmed in language classes, but this activity can take away from that feeling. Students are asked to focus on one piece of information only, which increases their comprehension of that information. Better comprehension leads to better communication with the rest of the group,
419:
Since this activity is not as structured as some of the others, it is important for instructors to add structure. If certain vocabulary should be used in students' conversations, or a certain grammar is necessary to complete the activity, then instructors should incorporate that into the scavenger
233:
CLT teachers choose classroom activities based on what they believe will be most effective for students developing communicative abilities in the target language (TL). Oral activities are popular among CLT teachers compared to grammar drills or reading and writing activities, because they include
208:
in creating new language syllabi. When communicative language teaching had effectively replaced situational language teaching as the standard by leading linguists, the
Council of Europe made an effort to once again bolster the growth of the new method, which led to the Council of Europe creating a
60:
Learners in environments using communication to learn and practice the target language by interactions with one another and the instructor, the study of "authentic texts" (those written in the target language for purposes other than language learning), and the use of the language both in class and
435:
addresses both the theoretical and practical problems with CLT. He mentions that CLT is not an altogether cohesive subject but one in which theoretical understandings (by linguists) and practical understandings (by language teachers) differ greatly. Criticism of the theory of CLT includes that it
263:
Instructors need to be aware of the differences between a conversation and an utterance. Students may use the same utterances repeatedly when doing this activity and not actually have a creative conversation. If instructors do not regulate what kinds of conversations students are having, then the
64:
Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics outside of the realm of traditional grammar to promote language skills in all types of situations. That method also claims to encourage learners to incorporate their personal experiences into their language
443:
Further critique of CLT techniques in classroom teaching can be attributed to Elaine Ridge. One of her criticisms of CLT is that it falsely implies that there is a general consensus regarding the definition of "communicative competence," which CLT claims to facilitate. Because there is no such
439:
Where confusion in the application of CLT techniques is readily apparent is in classroom settings. Swan suggests that CLT techniques often suggest prioritizing the "function" of a language (what one can do with the language knowledge one has) over the "structure" of a language (the grammatical
216:
movement. It proposed that published materials stifle the communicative approach. As such, the aim of the Dogme approach to language teaching is to focus on real conversations about practical subjects in which communication is the engine of learning. The idea behind the Dogme approach is that
363:
Instructors should not overlook the fact that their students need to be prepared to communicate effectively for this activity. They need to know certain vocabulary words, certain structures of grammar, etc. If the students have not been well prepared for the task at hand, then they will not
440:
systems of the language). That priority can leave learners with serious gaps in their knowledge of the formal aspects of their target language. Swan also suggests that in CLT techniques, the languages that a student might already know are not valued or employed in instructional techniques.
359:
Completing information gap activities improves students' abilities to communicate about unknown information in the TL. These abilities are directly applicable to many real-world conversations, where the goal is to find out some new piece of information, or simply to exchange information.
234:
active conversation and creative, unpredicted responses from students. Activities vary based on the level of language class they are used in. They promote collaboration, fluency, and comfort in the TL. The six activities listed and explained below are commonly used in CLT classrooms.
452:
use CLT techniques as outdated and suggest that their students learn the target language "in spite of" the absence of CLT techniques, as if CLT were the only way to learn a language, and everyone who fails to implement its techniques is ignorant and cannot teach the target language.
286:
This activity, since it is highly structured, allows for the instructor to more closely monitor students' responses. It can zone in on one specific aspect of grammar or vocabulary, while still being a primarily communicative activity and giving the students communicative benefits.
75:
CLT also positions the teacher as a facilitator, rather than an instructor. Furthermore, the approach is a non-methodical system that does not use a textbook series to teach the target language but works on developing sound oral and verbal skills prior to reading and writing.
220:
A survey of communicative competence by
Bachman (1990) divides competency into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and
351:
All the students that are
Partner B are given a sheet of paper with a time-table on it. The boxes that are empty on Partner A's time-table are filled in on Partner B's. There are also empty boxes on Partner B's time-table, but they are filled in on Partner
389:
Respect is key with this activity. If a student does not feel like their opinion is respected by the instructor or their peers, then they will not feel comfortable sharing, and they will not receive the communicative benefits of this activity.
326:
Instructors should be sure to monitor that each student is contributing equally to the group effort. It takes a good instructor to design the activity well, so that students will contribute equally, and benefit equally from the activity.
89:
The rise of CLT in the 1970s and the early 1980s was partly in response to the lack of success with traditional language teaching methods and partly by the increase in demand for language learning. In Europe, the advent of the
448:
the method does not put enough emphasis on the teaching of grammar and instead allows students to produce utterances, despite being grammatically incorrect, as long as the interlocutor can get some meaning from them.
217:
communication can lead to explanation, which leads to further learning. That approach is the antithesis of situational language teaching, which emphasizes learning by text and prioritizes grammar over communication.
172:
observed that the current model of language learning was ineffective in classrooms. They saw a need for students to develop communicative skill and functional competence in addition to mastering language structures.
259:
This activity gives students the chance to improve their communication skills in the TL in a low-pressure situation. Most students are more comfortable speaking in pairs rather than in front of the entire class.
252:
The instructor defines the goal of the students' conversation. (E.g., the speaker is asking for directions, the speaker is ordering coffee, the speaker is talking about a movie they recently saw, etc.)
386:
Opinion sharing is a great way to get more introverted students to open up and share their opinions. If a student has a strong opinion about a certain topic, then they will speak up and share.
164:
The development of communicative language teaching was bolstered by these academic ideas. Before the growth of communicative language teaching, the primary method of language teaching was
1582:
1572:
348:
All the students that are
Partner A are given a sheet of paper with a time-table on it. The time-table is filled in half-way, but some of the boxes are empty.
428:
Although CLT has been extremely influential in the field of language teaching, it is not universally accepted and has been subject to significant critique.
125:
was writing about learning by doing, and later that learning should be based on the learner's interests and experiences. In 1963, American psychologist
372:
Opinion sharing is a content-based activity, whose purpose is to engage students' conversational skills, while talking about something they care about.
1510:
68:
According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target language. This is in contrast to previous views in which
355:
The partners must work together to ask about and supply each other with the information they are both missing, to complete each other's time-tables.
1577:
605:
379:
The instructor introduces a topic and asks students to contemplate their opinions about it. (E.g., dating, school dress codes, global warming)
338:
is a collaborative activity, whose purpose is for students to effectively obtain information that was previously unknown to them, in the TL.
1211:
242:
Role-play is an oral activity usually done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students' communicative abilities in a certain setting.
165:
717:
Prator, Clifford H. "Development of a
Manipulation-Communication Scale. NAFSA Studies and Papers." English Language Series 10 (1965).
193:
competence, and strategic competence. Canale (1983) refined the model by adding discourse competence, which contains the concepts of
1500:
405:
The instructor gives students a sheet with instructions on it. (e.g. Find someone who has a birthday in the same month as yours.)
1608:
497:
318:
The members of the group discuss the information they have found, with each other and put it all together to complete the task.
17:
1161:
1103:
1052:
924:
888:
846:
765:
671:
581:
1261:
272:
An interview is an oral activity done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students' interpersonal skills in the TL.
1062:
Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical Bases of
Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing".
784:
Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical Bases of
Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing".
315:
Each member of the group takes a designated amount of time to work on the part of the task to which they are assigned.
299:
Group work is a collaborative activity whose purpose is to foster communication in the TL, in a larger group setting.
461:
225:" competence. Strategic competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies.
1459:
1204:
574:
Communicative competence : theory and classroom practice : texts and contexts in second language learning
65:
learning environment and to focus on the learning experience, in addition to the learning of the target language.
1291:
466:
69:
1505:
1228:
502:
1587:
1326:
492:
487:
151:
1423:
1256:
1197:
249:
The instructor sets the scene: where is the conversation taking place? (E.g., in a café, in a park, etc.)
1408:
1403:
1154:
Communicative competence: theory and classroom practice: texts and contexts in second language learning
46:
1082:
Mitchell, Rosamond (1994). "The communicative approach to language teaching". In Swarbick, Ann (ed.).
1271:
1266:
1241:
1127:
536:
335:
181:
139:
102:, which offered foreign-language study to all children, rather than to the select few of the elite
666:. Great Britain: Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research. pp. 23–24, 64–68.
1541:
1362:
1331:
1276:
213:
204:
An influential development in the history of communicative language teaching was the work of the
198:
1341:
1251:
1122:
1078:
Færch, C., & Kasper, G. (1983). Strategies in interlanguage communication. London: Longman.
531:
194:
91:
432:
185:
99:
1398:
1382:
1236:
481:
109:
The increased demand included many learners who struggled with traditional methods such as
345:
The class is paired up. One partner in each pair is Partner A, and the other is Partner B.
8:
1454:
1444:
398:
A scavenger hunt is a mingling activity that promotes open interaction between students.
110:
1171:
Savignon, Sandra J. (2000). "Communicative language teaching". In Byram, Michael (ed.).
309:
Students are assigned a specific role within the group. (E.g., member A, member B, etc.)
1367:
1296:
1220:
1140:
599:
549:
471:
54:
411:
The students wish to find all of the answers they need to complete the scavenger hunt.
1418:
1281:
1157:
1099:
1048:
920:
884:
842:
761:
667:
587:
577:
476:
222:
205:
50:
1531:
1336:
1311:
1301:
1132:
1091:
1067:
1018:
984:
952:
816:
789:
631:
541:
291:
this activity were used with higher-level speakers it wouldn't have many benefits.
212:
In the mid-1990s, the Dogme 95 manifesto influenced language teaching through the
1556:
1551:
1449:
1428:
408:
Students go around the classroom asking and answering questions about each other.
382:
The students talk in pairs or small groups, debating their opinions on the topic.
190:
169:
158:
103:
1346:
95:
820:
760:(3nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–24, 84–85.
522:
Nunan, David (1991-01-01). "Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum".
1602:
1413:
1372:
1321:
1306:
591:
279:
The instructor gives each student the same set of questions to ask a partner.
126:
1286:
1071:
807:
Savignon, Sandra J. (1 September 1987). "Communicative language teaching".
793:
635:
622:
Bax, S. (2003). "The end of CLT: A context approach to language teaching".
147:
143:
988:
956:
1113:
Nunan, David (1991). "Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum".
1536:
1526:
1377:
1316:
1144:
553:
177:
135:
122:
975:
Swan, M. (1985). "A critical look at the Communicative Approach (2)".
943:
Swan, M. (1985). "A critical look at the Communicative Approach (1)".
1546:
1189:
1023:
1006:
881:
Communicative Language Teaching in Action: Putting Principles to Work
1136:
545:
264:
students might not be truly improving their communication skills.
1464:
1098:(3rd ed.). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
282:
Students take turns asking and answering the questions in pairs.
255:
The students converse in pairs for a designated amount of time.
161:
studied how language functions are expressed through grammar.
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
323:
which improves students' communicative abilities in the TL.
312:
The instructor gives each group the same task to complete.
883:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Phil Miller. pp. 284–297.
306:
Students are assigned a group of no more than six people.
1173:
Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning
121:
Already in the late 19th century, the American educator
1573:
List of countries where English is an official language
106:, greatly increased the demand for language learning.
1583:
Most commonly learned foreign languages in the U.S.
1007:"Communicative language teaching: Time for review?"
919:. USA: Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–21.
841:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 84–92.
416:and sharing during other communicative activities.
57:as both the means and the ultimate goal of study.
1600:
1578:List of countries by English-speaking population
1182:Language Teaching: Linguistic Theory in Practice
737:Communicative language teaching: An introduction
1090:
755:
739:. Cambridge University Press, 1981, pp. 541–545
1045:Fundamental considerations in language testing
839:Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing
1205:
604:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
131:The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning
1096:Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching
1061:
783:
758:Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching
664:Communicative Language Teaching in Practice
1212:
1198:
756:Richards, Jack; Rodgers, Theodore (2014).
1126:
1022:
535:
176:In 1966, the linguist and anthropologist
1184:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
1170:
1151:
1081:
914:
806:
690:. SEAMEO Regional Language Centre, 2005.
661:
1501:English as a second or foreign language
1156:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1042:
1011:Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus
836:
228:
14:
1601:
1219:
1175:. London: Routledge. pp. 134–140.
1086:. New York: Routledge. pp. 33–42.
878:
874:
872:
870:
868:
866:
864:
862:
860:
858:
832:
830:
779:
777:
751:
749:
747:
745:
498:Teaching English as a foreign language
116:
84:
1193:
1179:
1112:
1004:
1000:
998:
970:
968:
966:
938:
936:
917:Communicative Language Teaching Today
910:
908:
906:
904:
902:
900:
726:1966. Toward a Theory of Instruction.
688:Communicative language teaching today
521:
974:
942:
657:
655:
653:
651:
649:
647:
645:
617:
615:
567:
565:
563:
157:Later in the 1970s British linguist
1262:Computer-assisted language learning
1047:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
855:
827:
774:
742:
621:
572:J., Savignon, Sandra (1997-01-01).
24:
1035:
995:
963:
933:
897:
729:
571:
367:
330:
25:
1620:
642:
612:
560:
462:English as an additional language
393:
94:, an economic predecessor to the
72:was commonly given top priority.
1247:Communicative language teaching
1094:; Rodgers, Theodore S. (2014).
800:
150:, a Russian psychologist whose
31:Communicative language teaching
720:
711:
702:
693:
680:
515:
27:Approach to language education
13:
1:
1609:Language-teaching methodology
1506:English for specific purposes
508:
503:Target language (translation)
294:
267:
166:situational language teaching
79:
1588:EF English Proficiency Index
1327:Task-based language learning
493:Task-based language learning
488:Notional-functional syllabus
423:
237:
152:zone of proximal development
142:considerably broadening out
7:
1424:Second-language acquisition
1257:Community language learning
662:Mitchell, Rosamond (1988).
455:
10:
1625:
1494:Programs and organizations
1409:English as a lingua franca
1404:Critical period hypothesis
1292:Grammar–translation method
467:Grammar–translation method
1565:
1519:
1493:
1437:
1391:
1355:
1267:Content-based instruction
1242:Automatic Language Growth
1227:
1152:Savignon, Sandra (1997).
1084:Teaching Modern Languages
821:10.1080/00405848709543281
364:communicate effectively.
180:developed the concept of
431:In his critique of CLT,
182:communicative competence
140:communicative competence
1363:Mother tongue mirroring
1332:Total physical response
1277:Dogme language teaching
1180:Whong, Melinda (2011).
915:Richards, Jack (2006).
699:1897 My Pedagogic Creed
214:Dogme language teaching
138:posited the concept of
1342:Vocabulary development
1252:Comprehension approach
1043:Bachman, Lyle (1990).
1005:Ridge, Elaine (2014).
879:Brandl, Klaus (2007).
837:Bachman, Lyle (1990).
154:is a similar concept.
92:European Common Market
70:grammatical competence
39:communicative approach
18:Communicative approach
1460:Competency evaluation
735:Littlewood, William.
186:linguistic competence
100:comprehensive schools
1399:Bilingual dictionary
1307:Michel Thomas Method
1237:Audio-lingual method
1072:10.1093/applin/I.1.1
809:Theory into Practice
794:10.1093/applin/I.1.1
708:1910. How We Think.
636:10.1093/elt/57.3.278
482:Learning by teaching
229:Classroom activities
1455:Corrective feedback
1445:Language assessment
1356:Teaching techniques
1064:Applied Linguistics
989:10.1093/elt/39.2.76
786:Applied Linguistics
117:Academic influences
111:grammar translation
85:Societal influences
1368:Sandwich technique
1297:Language immersion
1221:Language education
957:10.1093/elt/39.1.2
686:Richards, Jack C.
472:Language education
129:released his book
61:outside of class.
1596:
1595:
1419:Language transfer
1282:Extensive reading
1163:978-0-07-083736-2
1105:978-1-107-67596-4
1092:Richards, Jack C.
1054:978-0-19-437003-5
926:978-0-521-92512-9
890:978-0-13-157906-4
848:978-0-19-437003-5
767:978-1-107-67596-4
673:978-0-948003-87-5
583:978-0-07-083736-2
477:Language exchange
206:Council of Europe
51:language teaching
16:(Redirected from
1616:
1532:H. Douglas Brown
1337:TPR Storytelling
1312:Natural approach
1302:Lexical approach
1214:
1207:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1176:
1167:
1148:
1130:
1109:
1087:
1075:
1058:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1024:10.5842/21-0-533
1002:
993:
992:
972:
961:
960:
940:
931:
930:
912:
895:
894:
876:
853:
852:
834:
825:
824:
804:
798:
797:
781:
772:
771:
753:
740:
733:
727:
724:
718:
715:
709:
706:
700:
697:
691:
684:
678:
677:
659:
640:
639:
619:
610:
609:
603:
595:
569:
558:
557:
539:
519:
53:that emphasizes
21:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1561:
1557:Scott Thornbury
1552:Stephen Krashen
1515:
1489:
1450:Washback effect
1433:
1429:World Englishes
1387:
1383:Information gap
1351:
1223:
1218:
1188:
1164:
1137:10.2307/3587464
1128:10.1.1.466.1153
1115:TESOL Quarterly
1106:
1055:
1038:
1036:Further reading
1033:
1032:
1003:
996:
973:
964:
941:
934:
927:
913:
898:
891:
877:
856:
849:
835:
828:
805:
801:
782:
775:
768:
754:
743:
734:
730:
725:
721:
716:
712:
707:
703:
698:
694:
685:
681:
674:
660:
643:
620:
613:
597:
596:
584:
576:. McGraw-Hill.
570:
561:
546:10.2307/3587464
537:10.1.1.466.1153
524:TESOL Quarterly
520:
516:
511:
458:
426:
396:
370:
368:Opinion sharing
336:Information gap
333:
331:Information gap
297:
270:
240:
231:
191:sociolinguistic
170:Henry Widdowson
159:M.A.K. Halliday
119:
104:grammar schools
87:
82:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1622:
1612:
1611:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1523:
1521:
1517:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1347:Whole language
1344:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1233:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1217:
1216:
1209:
1202:
1194:
1187:
1186:
1177:
1168:
1162:
1149:
1121:(2): 279–295.
1110:
1104:
1088:
1079:
1076:
1059:
1053:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1030:
994:
962:
932:
925:
896:
889:
854:
847:
826:
815:(4): 235–242.
799:
773:
766:
741:
728:
719:
710:
701:
692:
679:
672:
641:
630:(3): 278–287.
611:
582:
559:
530:(2): 279–295.
513:
512:
510:
507:
506:
505:
500:
495:
490:
485:
479:
474:
469:
464:
457:
454:
425:
422:
413:
412:
409:
406:
395:
394:Scavenger hunt
392:
384:
383:
380:
369:
366:
357:
356:
353:
349:
346:
332:
329:
320:
319:
316:
313:
310:
307:
296:
293:
284:
283:
280:
269:
266:
257:
256:
253:
250:
239:
236:
230:
227:
134:sociolinguist
118:
115:
96:European Union
86:
83:
81:
78:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1621:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1414:Interlanguage
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1373:Back-chaining
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1322:Suggestopedia
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1272:Direct Method
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1203:
1201:
1196:
1195:
1192:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1040:
1025:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1001:
999:
990:
986:
982:
978:
971:
969:
967:
958:
954:
950:
946:
939:
937:
928:
922:
918:
911:
909:
907:
905:
903:
901:
892:
886:
882:
875:
873:
871:
869:
867:
865:
863:
861:
859:
850:
844:
840:
833:
831:
822:
818:
814:
810:
803:
795:
791:
787:
780:
778:
769:
763:
759:
752:
750:
748:
746:
738:
732:
723:
714:
705:
696:
689:
683:
675:
669:
665:
658:
656:
654:
652:
650:
648:
646:
637:
633:
629:
625:
618:
616:
607:
601:
593:
589:
585:
579:
575:
568:
566:
564:
555:
551:
547:
543:
538:
533:
529:
525:
518:
514:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
459:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
434:
429:
421:
417:
410:
407:
404:
403:
402:
399:
391:
387:
381:
378:
377:
376:
373:
365:
361:
354:
350:
347:
344:
343:
342:
339:
337:
328:
324:
317:
314:
311:
308:
305:
304:
303:
300:
292:
288:
281:
278:
277:
276:
273:
265:
261:
254:
251:
248:
247:
246:
243:
235:
226:
224:
223:illocutionary
218:
215:
210:
207:
202:
200:
196:
192:
187:
183:
179:
174:
171:
167:
162:
160:
155:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
132:
128:
127:David Ausubel
124:
114:
112:
107:
105:
101:
97:
93:
77:
73:
71:
66:
62:
58:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
1392:Key concepts
1287:Focal Skills
1246:
1181:
1172:
1153:
1118:
1114:
1095:
1083:
1063:
1044:
1014:
1010:
983:(2): 76–87.
980:
976:
948:
944:
916:
880:
838:
812:
808:
802:
785:
757:
736:
731:
722:
713:
704:
695:
687:
682:
663:
627:
623:
573:
527:
523:
517:
450:
446:
442:
438:
433:Michael Swan
430:
427:
418:
414:
400:
397:
388:
385:
374:
371:
362:
358:
340:
334:
325:
321:
301:
298:
289:
285:
274:
271:
262:
258:
244:
241:
232:
219:
211:
203:
175:
163:
156:
148:Lev Vygotsky
144:Noam Chomsky
130:
120:
108:
88:
74:
67:
63:
59:
42:
38:
34:
30:
29:
1542:Jim Cummins
1229:Methodology
977:ELT Journal
945:ELT Journal
624:ELT Journal
55:interaction
1566:Statistics
1537:Pit Corder
1527:Betty Azar
1520:Key people
1438:Assessment
1378:Dictogloss
1317:Silent way
509:References
295:Group work
268:Interviews
178:Dell Hymes
136:Dell Hymes
123:John Dewey
80:Background
37:), or the
1547:Rod Ellis
1123:CiteSeerX
600:cite book
592:476481905
532:CiteSeerX
424:Criticism
401:Example:
375:Example:
341:Example:
302:Example:
275:Example:
245:Example:
238:Role-play
199:coherence
45:), is an
1603:Category
1066:: 1–47.
951:: 2–12.
788:: 1–47.
456:See also
195:cohesion
47:approach
1465:DIALANG
1145:3587464
554:3587464
1160:
1143:
1125:
1102:
1051:
923:
887:
845:
764:
670:
590:
580:
552:
534:
420:hunt.
1511:TESOL
1485:UCLES
1480:TOEIC
1475:TOEFL
1470:IELTS
1141:JSTOR
550:JSTOR
484:(LdL)
1158:ISBN
1100:ISBN
1049:ISBN
921:ISBN
885:ISBN
843:ISBN
762:ISBN
668:ISBN
606:link
588:OCLC
578:ISBN
352:A's.
197:and
1133:doi
1068:doi
1019:doi
985:doi
953:doi
817:doi
790:doi
632:doi
542:doi
49:to
35:CLT
1605::
1139:.
1131:.
1119:25
1117:.
1017:.
1015:21
1013:.
1009:.
997:^
981:39
979:.
965:^
949:39
947:.
935:^
899:^
857:^
829:^
813:26
811:.
776:^
744:^
644:^
628:57
626:.
614:^
602:}}
598:{{
586:.
562:^
548:.
540:.
528:25
526:.
201:.
43:CA
1213:e
1206:t
1199:v
1166:.
1147:.
1135::
1108:.
1074:.
1070::
1057:.
1027:.
1021::
991:.
987::
959:.
955::
929:.
893:.
851:.
823:.
819::
796:.
792::
770:.
676:.
638:.
634::
608:)
594:.
556:.
544::
221:"
41:(
33:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.